GUIDELINES FOR ECOTECHNIQUES IN ISLAMIC COMMUNITIES

Salah Aldin A . Salto

College of Engineering
Department of Architecture
King Saud University
P .O . Box 800, Riyadh 11421
Kingdom of 8alidi Arabia
ABSTRACT

Islam, which is not only a religion but also a way of life, directs mankind
to follow sound ecological and energy relationships at all levels of human
needs.

An attempt is made to prove that there are strong and distinctive features
in Islamic city planning . Principal distinctions are seen as visual and
morphological elements within the cityscape ., ; Some researchers state that
these elements are found both in Islamic and non-Islamic communities.
Nontheless, it will be demonstrated here that city planning in Islam is iden-
tified with a spirit that .eminates from the city's functions to harmonize
man and community with the surrounding environment . Regional and urban
components that contribute to the functioning and character of built environ-
ment are explored through the wisdom and prespective of Shariaah . Discussion
of some Shariaah guidelines include several scales of development, urban
morphology, landscape and implementation . Shariaah guidelines are clarified
by theoretical examples, and some traditional and contemporary ap p lications.
Illustrations allow easy understanding of these planning and design indica-
tors .

KEYWORDS

Islam, Islamic cities, Shariaah, Planning, Legislation, Energy conservation,

Economics, Morphology, Muslim.

Glossary of Terms.

Aqtaa :- The land given away as a grant or a fief.

Fina :- An open space - semi private - around or in front of a building.
Hadieth :- A precedent set by the Prophet (Peace be upon him).
Hijrah :- Migration - the migration of the Prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon
him) from Makkah to Madina in 622 A .D.
Kittah :- A ground occupied for the first time.
Maiden :- A square, open space .
 756

Mashrabia :- Projecting window with a wooden enclosure.

Shariaah :- Teachings of Qura'an and Sunna regulating all aspects of human life.
Souk :- Market . Quisariah :- A covered market.
Sunna :-The teachings and practice of the Prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon him).
Qura'an :- The holy book of the Islamic religion.
Dar-al-Imarah :- An office of the town governor.

INTRODUCTION

The law is the most important moderator of human behavior in western society.
This is also true in Islamic societies, where "Shariaah" regulates life by
providing rules of conduct . The Shariaah arose during the second and third
centuries of the Al-Hijra calendar as the result of the expansion of Muslim
territories and needs of the society to implement the original objectives
and spirit of Islam . Local practices were researched and analysed by lear-
ned Islamic jurists for their consistency with the requirements of Qura'an
and Sunna . These were then rejected or approved and so Shariaah was born,
enriched and expanded through time, where now it is part of accepted Muslim
tradition and the reference point of the society's conduct . It is the legal
base of Muslim societies .

Key:
MOMore
than
80%
pefHFrom
50% to
80%

FIG . 1 . Location of Muslim Population .

Over the past 1400 years, Islam has expanded to cover large areas of the
earth (Fig . 1), and wherever it is accepted, Shariaah dominates the legal
system even in communities where secular law exists . Today, 900,000,000
people embraces Islam (ie . 20% of world population) . Many varied communi-
ties have been embraced by Islam and regional practices guided by Shariaah.
Historical experiences in traditional communities must now be incorporated
in the newly developing communities, that are under the strong influence of
western technology . A summary of an Islamic city model is followed by a
sample examination of some interesting principles established in Shariaah
that are relevant to the topic . In this regard, it is important to respect
the totality of Shariaah in regard to all aspects of the physical environ-
ment . Taken individually, each principle possesses sufficient flexibility
to allow a regional interpretation, while still forming a part of the comp-
rehensive whole . Inevitably, Shariaah sets the guidelines for a clean envi-
ronment,optimizing all resources including energy, in an acceptable and
sustainable quality of life.
 757
THE ISLAMIC SETTLEMENT

The model for the cities emphasized the main Mosque, the Dar-al-Imarah, and
the Souk as the focal points of the town . Surrounding this center were the
Kittahs, which when the towns were later fully built, formed their different
quarters . The origin of the Kittah system can be found in the territorial
concept of Arab tribes, where each tribe knew its own territories . These
territories were usually collectively owned by the tribe and were used
according to the needs of the members . In this model routes were evidently
designated from the beginning, however, streets as such were not precisely
defined and marked . Therefore, later pressure for land development coupled
with rights in regard to, and land ownership in general, and public versus
private ownership in particular, resulted in the tortuous street pattern which
characterizes this model . The model seems to have been applied to pre-Islamic
Madina which was formed from several settlements, each of which belonged to
a certain tribe . After the Hijrah, the model was confirmed and continued
by the Prophet (Peace be upon him), but with the clear intention of unifying
these individual settlements into one city . This can be seen in the desig-
nation of the Mosque as the only congregational area and in the defining of
the main souk, thus bringing a focus to the 'originally scattered settlements.
The model for Madina, as it developed during the Prophet's time, was replica-
ted in the towns of Basrah, Kufah, and Fustat, and impacted the future deve-
lopment of communities subject to Islamic Legal Jurisdiction.

Key :
2♦
1. The town wall
2. Gates
3. The main mosque (religious and social
institutions)
4. Dar ál-Imara (Governmental and
administrational institutions)
► 5 . Maidan (recreational and people
gathering space)
6. Souk
7. Residential neighborhood

FIG . 2 . A Model for the Historical Islamic City

POTENTIALS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SHARIAAH IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT

While many examples can be quoted, . a few of the more relevant are discussed
here . In each case both theoretical examples and actual implementations
are given following the Shariaah translation :-

1) "A Right may be Exercised onlyif it Achieves the Purpose for Which it
was Originally Created . "

Theoretical example . The need for a neighboring community to obtain electri-

city obliges the land owner to allow the right of way for a power line.
The incentive offered by the community is to provide a small substation for


758
the use of the land owners future residential development . In other socie-
ties if the community fails to provide the substation originally agreed,
then a compensation is paid . In Shariaah nothing short of the original
agreement is acceptable.

Historical application . As part of the ritual of Hajj and 0mra, pilgrims are
required to walk and run seven times between Al-Safa and Al-Marwa to perform
Saii . Between these two hills were located many retail shops in the area
known as Al-Masas which is nearly half a mile . In 1954 due to the increase
in the number of pilgrims, the authorities decided to accommodate the large
volume by compulsory purchase of all the buildings and land in Al-Masaa, and
extending the Holy Mosque by constructing a new arm to facilitate the ritual.

_ FIG . 3 . The Holy Mosque in Makkah

Contemporary application . The Corniche of Jeddah, which is now extending

to 70 kilometers along the Red Sea, is a vast linear reclamation for seaside
buildings and recreation facilities . Many building and site owners were dis-
possessed of their water front rights, but not their land holding, for the
good of the community as a whole .

MACLA

N 0'4 ic
 759

In both cases cited above the original goals were accomplished, so the re-
quirementsof Shariaah are satisfied . The implications are that the entire
burden for accomplishment is thrown on the performing authority, forcing
a serious operation as non-performance of the whole is a breach of the law.
Urban energy systems, both new and retrofits, may be implemented in the
same manner.

2) "The Exercise of a Right is Illegal When the Result Injures More than
it Benefits ."

Theoretical example . The use of heat and light reflecting glass on the sun
facing facade of a building to reduce solar gain for the building owners.
If the reflected radiation increases undesirable solar radiation levels on
a neighboring building . or open space, then the use of H .L .R . glass is prohi-
bited under Shariaah . The importance here is prevention rather than protrac-
ted court actions as is currently experienced in the West.

Historical application . Prior to the construction of the High Dam at Aswan -

Egypt in 1964, the annual flooding of the river Nile brought fertile silt
to nourish food providing crops . The High Dam has stabilized the water level
and there is no more flooding or deposit of silt, consequently severely harm-
ing food production in the Nile Valley . Other harmful consequences are the
ruination of the Sardine industry in the Nile delta and increased subterranean
water pressure, resulting in serious damage to Pharonic frescoes in under-
ground tombs and mastabas.

FIG . 5 . A Schematic Section of the Nile Valley.

Contemporary application . In almost all Muslims cities, old communities are

located in the city center . Many have strong architectural and historical
interests . To wilfully destroy a price-less heritage for immediate economic
gain is not permitted in Shariaah . It would be better to start a new center
with new construction and infrastructure system with accompany savings in
energy.

3) " The Right May Not be Deliberately Used to Injure Others ."

Theoretical example . Two adjoining owners where owner A has an advantageous

site on which he may erect a tall building,resulting in owner B's site being
cast with a perpetual shadow, thus depriving owner B of solar access crucial
to his interest . Economic loss for owner A is not viable in Shariaah because
of the permanent injury to owner B . In this way land values are controlled
and rights are protected without the need for future legislation or court
actions .
 760

Historical application . In the land bordering the Tigres and Eupharates

rivers in Iraq, canals are dug deep into the inner land to irrigate crops.
As much of the land ownership is overlaping, rights of irrigation over neigh-
boring lands are crucial . The land-owner cannot deliberately stop or reduce
water flow to his neighbors .

Key:
1. Primary canal
2. Secondary "
3 : Tertiary
4 . Agricultural
land

FIG . 6 . A Schematic Illustration of the Agriculture

Irrigation System in Iraq.
Contemporary application . A large cement factory was constructed almost 30km
North of Jeddah to provide cement for the rapid expansion of the metropolitan
area . The prevailing winds cool Jeddah from the North and consequently the
entire metropolitan area lies leeward within the path of the factory's
pollution . This does not comply with Shariaah, and the plant is to be removed
to a new site south of Jeddah .


761

4) "Indispensible Resources Such as Water, Plants, & Wildlife Cannot be

Privately. Owned in Their Natural State or Monopolized . They are for
the Common Good and for All People to Enjoy Equal Access for Their
Benefits ."

Theoretical example . Islam, identifies man as God's steward to organize and

manage natural resources in an intelligent and symbiotic manner for the public
good . This means ecological balance, no pollution of land, water and air,
and the use of planting for produce and aesthetic enjoyment . Thus all urban
spaces, including streets, are required to provide delight for human use and
provide food.

Historical application . In Al-Madina Al-Munawara, the Prophet Mohammed

(Peace be upon him) declared that the available farming, forestry and natural
surroundingsof the town should be preserved for all time as they provided
the life blood of the community . To this day this example is followed,
resulting in an harmonious relationship between the town and country at the
city's edge .
Key :
1. The Abbasid era 877-1163 AD.
2. The Abbasid, Mamlukey and
Othmaned era 1163-1542 AD.
3. The Othmaned era 1542-1908AD.
4. The early Saudi era 1908-
1926 AD.
5. Reserved agricultural lands.

FIG . 8 . Al-Madina Al-Munawara

Development

Contemporary application . In all Muslim countries, the natural resources

belong to all people through the Government . For example, the oil in Saudi
Arabia whose profits filter down to its citizens . A physical application
is At-Taif City in Saudi Arabia, considered one of the best recreational
areas . The intention is to develop the natural green areas into city parks.
One of the proposals is Al-Roddaf comprehensive recreational facility,
approximately 5 km to the south of the city . The park will cover 650,000m2,
and the implementation is already commenced.

The relevance of this part of Shariaah is in the acknowledgement of all

Muslims, on equal access and sharing of all of nature 's bounties, whether
they are from the ground (oil, coal, natural gas, water etc .) or from the
sky. (sun, wind, rainfall etc .) . Individuals and communities may claim their
rights to a clean environment that provides for all needs of life including
food, comfort and energy for daily activities .
 762
Key : 1 . Restaurant, 2 . Playgrounds, 3 . Picnic, 4 . Belvedere, 5 . Monorail
6 . Exit, 7 . Dam, 8 . Animal Reserve, 9 . Parking, 10 . Natural reserve,
11 . Luna park, 12 . Workshops, 13 . Cafeteria, 14 . Shops, 15 . Museum,
16 . Fairs, 17 . Facilities, 18 . Supply road, 19 . Entrance, 20 . Administration,
21 . Swmmíng pool, 22 . Expansion area, 23 . Islamic garden, 24 . Monorail

Source : (3)

5) "Wanton Destruction is Forbidden and Recycling Encouraged to Prevent

Wasteful Extravagance ."

Theoretical example . As Islam requires all persons to respect nature and

property, the organisation and management to prevent pollution and achieve
recycling of materials for their energy product is expected and respected
Supply lines for essential services are short and storage essentially
planned for each community . Historically, buildings and communities have
been designed for optimizing heat and light for living in harmony with
nature.

Historical application . The Church of Santa-Sophia in Constantinople was

converted into a Mosque by recycling the building through an internal reno-
vation, and additions of Islamic features such as the Minarettes . The
conversion occured after the year 1452 A .D . when the Othmans Turks captured
and renamed the city Istanbul . This action conforms with Shariaah.

FIG . 10 . A view of Santa-Sophia



763

Contemporary application . All buildings and sites should be planned in a

manner that forecasts future needs . This means that extension in either a
vertical or,preferably horizontal manner should be incorporated in initial
building design and site planning . Some contemporary activities destroy
buildings for economic reasons, although they may possess many years of life
to come . This is Wanton destruction which could have been avoided through
enlightened planning . It is not permitted in Shariaah.

B 2.0
4o

FtooRH-9
-6--R
F1136R AP,EA 40 46 2AS66 = 16o0
/X/600 = ló66

?WO' P-2eno6?
DKE FGOO~2

FIG . 11 (a) FIG . (b)

100% area coverage of 50% area coverage of

site = 1600 site = 1600
It is interesting to note that recycling, renovation and conservation is now
very popular in western societies, generated by economic and cultural heri-
tage needs . -

6) "All Scales of Urbanisation Have Re-structured Zones Within Which No

Development is Permitted'. These " Harim" areas are Determined According
to Specific Needs of a Settlement . A uniform Fixed Limit Could Work
Against the Interests of a Settlement . "

Theoretical example . Flexibility in Harim areas is found in Al-Madina Al-

Munawara (Fig . 8), where types of Himá established 1400 years ago and still
found there today include :-
a) Reserves in which grazing is prohibited.
b) Reserves in which grazing is restricted to certain seasons.
c) Reserves restricted to certain species and numbers of livestock.
d) Reserves for bee-keeping in which grazing is prohibited during flowering.
e) Reserves for forest trees,in which wood-cutting is prohibited or restric-
ted.
f) Reserves managed for the welfare of a particular tribe, which have now
emerged as an identifiable sector of the town.

This zoning has resulted in a very desirable urban-rural interface at the

city ' s edge, providing easy access to recreation and fresh food, with short
transportation links . Resulting in energy savings and a desirable ecology.
This theory, established by the Prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon him) is
proven by implementation.

Historical application . Almost all mosques have a restricted space in front

of the main entrance . "Harim" varies in scale, with the magnitude of the
mosque and the town . For example, compare the Baadshahi Maidan in Lahore,
Pakistan, with the Maidan in front of one of the Yanbu city residential
 . 4'

7'64

areas . These Maideen are to serve the purpose of social and retail/commercial
activities before and after prayer . Also, a characteristic of Muslim towns
is the Fina, which is the area in front of the house door, and does not ex-
ceed half the width of the street . In a cul-de-sac the Fina covers the whole
area abutting the house.

FIG .12(a) The Maidan in front of Badshahi Mosque in

Lahore, Pakisan

FIG .12(b) The Maidan for a Prgposed Local Mosque in

Yanbu, Saudi Arabia

Contemporary application . In 1983, all cities in Saudi Arabia, that have

new airports and do not continue to use the old airports for the purpose of
flying, must develop part of . the old airport as a major city park .
 FIG . 13 . A Schematic Plan for Jeddah
Source (4)

7) "The Use of Materials, Building Forms, Siting and Planting Corresponding

to the Use of the Sun and Wind, will assist in Microclimate Amelioration,
so as to Minimize the Employment of Non-renewable Fuels ."

Historical application . The Souk in Aleppo takes on a linear form of long

narrow streets serving retail shops, covered and vented for protection from
the hot sun . Another good example in a hot dry Islamic city in Algeria is in
Al-Souef which exhibits narrow streets with walled courtyard houses to opti-.
mize cooling through self shading and venturi effects of .-the streets, and
diurnal thermal benefits in the courtyards . -

FIG .14(a) A Town in A1-Souef, Algeria



766

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FIG . 14(b) A Plan of the Central Quisariah in Aleppo

with its specialized sub—souks
Captions : Materials, covered corridors and construction
forms exposed to sun light minimizing heat
gain.
Source : (1)
 767

Contemporary application . Yanbu industrial new city - Saudi Arabia, scheduled

for 150,000 people by the year 2007, commenced construction in 1977 . The
principle economic base is petrochemicals . The city Master Plan sets forth
guidelines for covering-188 km 2 of undeveloped land including 11,050 hectares
for intensive industrial use . Its location on the Red Sea allows direct
access to the important ports of the World . The new town plan and building
designs attempt to use appropriate materials, building form, site planning
and landscape to minimize the affect of a hot and humid climate and to reduce
cooling loads, by improved microclimate, shading, planting and community
design.

The Shariaah quotation emphasises the need for comprehensive planning of

settlements and its linkage with urban and building design . The appropriate
use of ambient energy is clearly indicated.

FIG . 15(a) &(b) The community of Yanbu expresses many social and
cultural Islamic characteristics through urban
planning and design, while creating a pleasant
microclimate .
 768

8) Street width, circulation rights, the allowance of projecting buildings

and the concerns of privacy, are all elements discussed in Shariaah . They
are reflected in town morphology . The street widths and height were deter-
mined by the passage needed for two heavily loaded camels . The right of way
was insured by not allowing any activity to take place that may hinder cir-
culation or narrow the way, and private interests were then satisfied by
allowing building projections, at a higher level,into the streets . Finally,
the family privacy concept determined building heights, by not allowing any
building to grow taller than adjoining buildings - which influenced the gene-
ral density . The openings were also determined by the privacy concept, by
not making any. opening that may overlook its neighbor's house . However,
if an opening is needed for purpose of light and ventilation, then it may
be placed high in the wall . The sum of these regulations, narrow streets
contained by tall walls and building overhangs, resulted in some protection
by means of shadow casting for much needed cooling of streets . Additionally,
these long, narrow and tall corridors encouraged the faster movement of air
to cool off hot surfaces . Examples are shown in Meknes, and Casablanca,
Morrocco.

FIG . 16(a) An even and adequate right
of way in Meknes-Morroc .co allows pri-
vate ownership to project into the
street or entirely bridge the street
at a higher level so not to :' .nterfere
with movement in the passage way,
FIG . 16(b) . Long narrow
streets provides shade and
easy air flow to promote
cooling .


769

FIG . 16(c) . Streets in Casablanca

that allow free passage while providing
private ownership with light and air FIG . 16(d) . A Fina showing a semi-pri-
at high levels vate access of a passage way .

FIG . 16(f) . Arcades provide linear p e -FIG . 16(e) . Structural arch-ways provide
destrian access in shade and cool building support and shade for this
breezes street.
 770

CONCLUSION

A plan for development, will only be viable when the policies and design
techniques are derived from the society's framework of values and thought.
Planning implementation today must give serious consideration to ecology,
the environment and energy conversion and use . These considerations are
embodied in Shariaah in specific principles and as a comprehensive whole.
Thus making Shariaah a firm basis for development planning and building de-
sign for Muslim communities . Furthermore, it has been implemented for 1400
years and benefitted by repeated evaluation . Continuing population explosions,
urbanization, industrialization and dependency on a monetary rather than an
agrarian system, resulting in ecological and environmental degradation with
a growing apetite for energy, necessitates the up-dating of Shariaah guide-
lines to counter contemporary problems . Some of these guidelines were examined
in historical and contemporary contexts, in regard to resources treatment,
construction and destruction, town morphology, building heights and projec-
tions, rights of light and air, zoning, infrastructure rights, from morphology,
environment, ecology and energy use . An endeavour was made to establish a
continuing link between the past and present, with a concern for desirable
directions for the future planning of Islamic settlements . While the design
and construction of buildings are comparatively specific, the planning of
settlements must consider many more variables, each with its own level of
importance . This makes the realm of the urban planner and designer, more
subtle in the contributions concerning energy optimisation for clean environ-
ments based on ecological symbiosis . Nontheless, the need for positive
action is needed at all levels of planning and design, from the smallest
urban space to the regional or nation plan, which necessarily interfaces
with international inter-dependence in todays shrinking world.

REFERENCES

1)Saleh Aly Al-Hathloul, " Tradition, Continuity and Change in the Physical
Environment : The Arab Muslim City ." A P .hd . dissertation - M .I .T.

2)Othmán Liewellyn, " Shariaah Values Pertaining to Landscape Planning and

Design ." Department of Landscape Architecture & Regional Planning
at the University of Pennsylvania, U .S .A.

3)Abdal-majeed I . Daghistani, "Al-Taif" , 1981,

4)Jeddah Municipality, "The City and the Future," 1980