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CodcBUSlKlyy AffD Fl.

AMi II, I-31 (1973) I

Combustion of Droplets of Liquid Fuels: A Review

CI al 1221, and Williams (21. This work led to the


clazstcalrphcricn-symmetric diffusion controlled
nh&dcl of combustion of a droplet in an oxidising

atmosphere or the type illustrated in Fig. 1. It was


then a natural idea IO regard a burning spray as an
ensemble UCindividual burning particles. This
c\)ncept IS illustrated for an idealised one-dimen-
sonal flame m Fig. 2. However this model is only
pflr;Jlc to ddute sprays and different circum-
stances may prevail in dense sprays where evapora-
non ofrhe ti~cl droplets and subsequent diffusion
burmnp of the vapour may be the dominant mech-
annm These casesare further considered in
SeC’
The most commonly consrdercd case of droplet
.AX&NSI~I+I mnrlves the ccmhustion of a liquid
fuel bumrng rn a surroundmg oxidising atmo-
cphett, usually au. Ibc droplet evaporates and
sots n L source of vrpour. and. since oxidant and
fwl am uutvsll~ npntrd. the fuel vapur and
SrMant bum tn a dift’usion flame surrounding the
dn*pkt
spmycondltionscarlboabnularod.
Allthoorotlcd
howovOrhovoconaldoroddnglodropl0tr
ondIt0 thoontw molysoahave
only In hdrtlal
boondlmctodrlntoroctioaobotwoon~t
\
bumingdropkts.
/ AfurthwBnWtioaonthewurkthnthasbeen
alvemdisth.YtnMr3thlmst&ttolbsbnve.ofnec@-
sity, been made at loffembieat tempemtum
7hemajofobjecwofthetheomttcataaalyser
toLteLttfKpTrdietiOnofthebumingmteofthe
dK@ct togcthef with ahlcids%nl uf the p
stfuctum. Le. flame rtre, tempmtun distrfbution
CR.. of the names m I& droplet.
The map bum@ mte. -t&, of a droplet h rr-
bwd to the mte of decrease tn dropiet size by

(1)

whtrem@.bIhemasofIhcdfQ+t.@risthcden-
3ity 0f the dropkr at the a,ppapMte teinpcmtun.
of single droplet work to actwd spray systems till andrLhthedmpfctmdiu,udcfinedinFlg. I.
be co&deled. Equrtion(l)anbewrMrthrthekwn

a cutnbusti~of w
Mastofthe msearch on droplet combustion has
been devoted to studks of the cQlnbustion of St&
tionary isolated stngk droplets bwusc of the bc
iief that it is fundamental to the whote under-
standing of spray wwbustion. Same experimcrr
tal work has constdemd the i@tton and buwuq
rates of srrayx of suspended droplets w thrt t~‘wl
WbMISTlON OF DROPLETS OF LIQUID FUELS 3

Most theoretical models considered deal Mth


the combustion of a single component spherical
droplet of fuel; few multicomponent analyses have
been undertaken. In addition the following as-
sumptions are generally made in the basic model:
(i) The combustion system has spherical rym.
metry as shown in Fig. I. The spherlcal droplet of
radius r~ is surrounded by a concentric flame ~onc
of radius r,. Concentric with the droplet and out-
side the flame zone lies another outer houndary
which is taken to be at infinite distance from the
droplet, and the composition of which is that of
the ambient atmosphere.
(ii) The flame is assumed to be supported by
the exothermic reaction of fuel and oxygen in the
flame tone, the oxidant diffusing in from the
outer boundary to the flame zone whilst the fuel
vapour diffuses from the droplet surface. Heat is
transferred from the flame zone to the droplet IO
provide the latent heat of vaporisation of the liq
uid fuel; this not being necessary in the special
case of combustion in critical conditions.
Ftg. 3 Typul dot of d’ against time for stationary (iii) Thermal diffusion effects are neglected.
mopkts burn- in time gases Wet Faerh and (iv) The effect of radiant heat transfer from the
LUpr 1231).
gas phase or adjacent particles is negligible; this
has been shown to be the case by a number of
investigators except in the case of heavy fuel oils
Any successful theoretical treatment of droplet [2426].
cwnbustion must first of all be in quantitative
The earlier analyses also made two other major
rgttment with experimental data, and secondly
assumptions, that combustion occurs tender quasi.
musk gtn ins&&t into the dependence of the com-
steady state conditions and, secondly, that the
kstmst raws on the various chemical and physical
v that occur. Such a quantitative twdedel
ts oWc&y of greatvalue in the design, i.e. mod-
dl@ of combs&on systems. since it permits the
0 pnri cakutaticn of the burning lifetime of the
Qopkt.
Dunry the last twenty t%e years a number of
dn0ntk-d ana&ses have been made of the com-
buuIonoftsOhkd liquid fuel droplets burn.
w fn UI ox&Ming atmosphere. The initial basic
~:mokp,asFhericagymmetncmode~
, m dmpkt m which the rate- Dt-QSSUt-Q, cflm
runt- pmm ir molecular diffusion rather
Fig. 4. Regimes of droplet combustion (n-eicosane/air):
tka ckrnml kiwic factars. T&s rno&el has
(I) diffusion limiting, (2) chemical kinetics limiting. (3)
&wk& as a tessdt of mwk by numefous invrsti-
&mica1 reaction rate and evaporation slower than dif-
~*lu~propwdrnunsbefofrpproaches fusion, (4) non-steady state effects important, (5) super-
ktwMc$anseisdh3thesamekindoflestdt (21. criticalefTects dominate (after Bnustowski 1271 i,
&mical reaction rate is infmitely fast. Analyses
based on these assumptions bave given the ciasskal
equations of droplet burning but subsequent work-
ers have questioned the validity of these assump
tions. In addition some models have been devel-
oped for the bumlng of droplets in a velocity field where Y, is the weight fmction, D, the diffusion
in which case amumptions(i) and (ii) may also not coellkient and qr the chemical rate of formation
be valid. Brxustowski[27] has indicated the gen- of species i. Tbk may be rewrttten as
eral regimes(in the case of combustion of n&o-
sane) in which the various models are applicable _
-+~~_pDf;
a(Pyi)
and these are indicated in Fig. 4. at =qi. (6)

of energy
cottsmwtion
Here it was assumed that soon after ignition the For an adiabatic system this takes the form
droplet settled down to steady-state conditions,
and indeed experimental plots of d’ aptit t (CL
Fig. 3) seemed to confirm this since they became
linear after a short time interval. In addition the
quasisteadystate theories also assume that the
temperature in the interior of the liquid is invari-
ent with time and close to the surface tempem-
where Ht is the enthalpy of species i, X the tbennal
ture. This surface temperature is taken to be that
conductivity of the mixture, and T the tempera-
of the boiling point of the liquid, TJ,. This as-
ture. This may be rewrittensothe1thechemicd
sumption has been cons&red in detail and in- rate of heat production is incorporated in the
volvesfittie errof except in extreme cases [ZSJ. enthalpy terms and the radial velocity term nz-
Likewisethe validity of assuminga fixed drop piaced by mF by means of Eq. (4).
radius, which means that the velocity of fuel
vapour flowingaway from the Surfsoeis greater 7% equarion of motion
than the surface regressionvelocity, involvesneg-
ligibleerror [28]. a(po)
-+;I~“ a ~,
I $v+‘
(8)
To make any theoretical prediction of the bum- at
iog-ratecoefficient and temperature and co3po.G
tion field surrounding a burning droplet it h neces- whewp IS thepresun. NormaUyit Is ammed
sary to use the general continuity equations aevel- that combustion OCCILIS under constant pnssurr.
aped by Hirscbfelderet al. 1291. In the qussisteady state analyak the time de-
These equations take the general form: pendent terms ~~~XNIE zero and the boundary
Global = CXWls~~Ution conditions are imposed on the b&s of negligibk
liquid-phase reactions wtthtn the d&et and com-
ap+l*P=f-J pktion of chemical rcactice8at the motel
a, 12 a, (4) boundary. lbatkatr=r~,T-TL,andY~=
YF,~,end at p-r,. T= T,. and Y,... where Y,
which reduces on integration, when ah it 1160 andY~alethemamflactkmsofthefuel~r
and oxygen respectMy.
nrF = 4ur’pv = coostant (4’)

where & is the mass iiow of the fuel vapour


leavingthe surface (i.e. the mass burning rate).
risthemdialco-o~ate,pthegasdensityande
the radial velocity.
COMBOS~~NOF DROPLETSOF L~OU~DFUEL~ I

made, that is, the chemical reaction rate is not where cP is the average specific heat. T, the a+.
controlling the rate of droplet diappearance in ent temperature, TL the temperature at the I&~uM
any way. Usually this assumption is coupled with surface (usually taken as the boiling point of the
the use of a simplified chemical reaction of the liquid) TL, although it may beset {28l asO. Ta.
type Q the heat of combustion, L the latent heat of
wporisationlunit mass evaporating, snd I Iheatn
Fuel + Oxygen -. Products, cbiometric mixture ratio, (Y,/Y,v) rtokb.
The quantity j6 in Eq, (10) Is urually refdusd,
although of course the same result is obtained for assuminga Lewis number (Lejof unt(y, hy A/C,
any chemical mechanism and could be used for a In which case, and using Eq. (3), an expressmn II
two-stage mechanism. e.g. infinite rate combustion obtained for the burning-rate coefficien(, thla
of a hydrocarbon fuel to carbon monoxide fol-
lowed by afterbuming.
K=$In(l +B). (12)
In this model the flame zone, as a consequence P ,
of the infinite rate assumption, is of infinitesimal
thickness and would thus be represented by a sur- Similarly expressions have been &rived for the
face rather than an extended reaction zone. Gen- flame temperature, the maa fraction of fuel
eraliy it is necessary to assure that the fuel and vapour at the droplet surface (YF,L) and the ratio
oxidant diffuse to the reaction zone in stoichio- of flame radius to droplet radius @Jr,,). Thus
metric proportions and again, as a consequence of Wise and Agoston [2] obtained
the infinite reaction rate assumption, their con-
centrations become zero at the reaction interface.
When these approximations are made an analytic
solution may be obtained. The forms of the final
equations depend upon the exact method of solu-
tion and in particular if fuced or variable transport
properties are assumed. Most analyses [ 2,12-22,
27,28.30-35) are in the former category but
analytic solutions involving temperature depen-
dent thermal data have been given by Goldsmith >= ln(l+B) (15)
and Penner (161, Kassoy and Wtiams [34,35], rL In (I + Yap. /ij’
Soui and Roblee [37], and Annamalai et al. [38].
A typical and widely used solution based on The simple spherico-symmetric flame model as-
temperaturGndependent transport properties is sumes that Xand ?,, are constant and that the
that given by Wise and Agoston [2] : Lewis Number is unity. The results obtained thus
markedly depend upon the choice of A and C,
and since they both depend on both temperature
and composition almost any approach is certain to
where i Is theaveragedgasdensity, b the averaged be unsatisfactory. Both hand C, are usually eval-
di@irsivity and 8 is the transfer number given by uated on the basis that the gas composition is ait
or nitrogen and their values calculated at the arith-
ment mean of TLand Tf* altb”**$ r?:ernatively
the logarithmic mean is often used. More sophisti-
cated approaches have been adopted, thus Sioui
which in the evaporative limit (i.e. evaporation in and Roblee [37] used a computer calculation of A
hotcomhustionpmducts)tpcomes whilst Annamalai et al. [38] used a more accurate
analytic type calculation.
Other analyses have incorporated temperature
dependent expretions for X and C,. Thus Goid-
6 ALA?4 WRILRAMS

smith and Penner [ 161 allow for itnear temper& *dud cxku&ed burn&gate coeffkknts in rea.
ture variation of A and C, in the inner re@311,al- sooxbieqceemeot tith thoseobtxinedby the
though not in the outer @on. Kmsoy and WlL shnptediff&on model aandwith the exfxwhnentd
liams [34,3S] have also developed analytic soi, wdue%andthw5hxvegenerauybeentxkenxapmof
tions allowing for general transport proparty varia. ofthev&dkyoflhe&iTwlonmodelxppmrh.
tion w&h temperatureand variable Lewis Number Howver there are sofm conetdenwelMtxuons
and shown their effects on flame temperature. toudsxsmmption.
radii and burning rates. I$nstowslti 1271 hxsindtcated(for a specifk
Other workers have pmduox altemativc forms foel)thegmerdrestricttons+ocedbychemkal
of Eqs. (9)-Q 5). ‘flms Varshavskii and Germ&r rexcttonwtdaisoevxporattonnt6.sxsstlowoio
133) have developed a diffusion theory of corn Fw 4. He showcdthat fhaitereacttonand evxpc+
bustion applicable to the special case of combus- ntkantesbothreq&eamWmumvahteforthe
tion of a liquid hydrogen droplet in still air. pra3oct of dm&t r&e ad ambteotpressure.the
Brzustowski 127.321 has developed a bmen- modelf~~tyhi@atdwHylowprrsswrs
sioniess form of the quasisteady drop4c1 corrhus- for dropkts of the sixeseltcountercdtnflxmes.
tion theory in which wrepnclrr theomtw~tknr0f1herok
of chemW reactionntfa in droplet burn@ 8re
moredinIcuhtoqwntRfy. Andyteakpvebeen
mxdeby Agafxaovaet xl. [ 121,bell et xl. 1391,
Tarifa et d. 1401. wuziraa(411, ml o~hm 142,
where Mf is the molecuhu weight of the fuel, w ts 431,inwuchx&ftpbftedcbemicxll#ctkmmech-
the dimensionkss burning nte given by @Pa + In smismirltecs&yrQped. Typic&vxrIowmil
(1 + &) and P)J is the dimensionie~ diffusiond re8ctionrxteexpreskmts8dopteddthetocm
oxidant tlux as defmd in Ref. 27. Likewise he Rate=A[FoelI IQtvrpnl exp(-E/R~)whereA
found that xMi&MArrhatwtypereactkmmcpxnmetm.
wRgsuchxmalunirratberasulaofthe3ebno
t@ttom show thxt for typical hydrwrboa fuels
bmntn# undernonxbxl mdirnms &rtle error k tn.
tmduwdtothemms~nC~tio~pby
K~S.WYand Nliams (34,351 and Fen&U 1361 aumiq infh&e cbmricd rwctkm~rxte except
have used a stngular pertubation anatysis of drop underr~lrww amdrtiono. i.e. extreme ofprea.
let combustion. Formulae for burr&&rate. Rams sure‘1, ;iropkt tloc,
temperature etc. anaiogous to Eqs. (9)-( I S)tbwe Aaxiya,krdatfhltndeMek&reec~nwe
obtained in terms of asymptotic exprrsiMIs and dohowew*axxereakttcttt&8tleud~
are given for the limit of the lkmkohkr number XtNCtWCof the nrction =. ttM =wfn
approaching inftity. lk zerotkrfkr rsmtlts, tlbechemMrewtoannle4&tOarnvrbkrct
corresponding to the thin flame condition. contatn cakulatedtidti (IYMIUIL rr**polllun.
inkgrands which are dependent upon the fum whtheruarevqwrxlkmt8cc. Irxddtwark
tional variation of the transport properties For reecttcaaonenuaeu?rtotlu?tqxtdrptsn&xn
shnple temperature dependenctes analyrk ti.~mq mdwedbyb&wek&keac4w&3Ee. Botht&eue
are available [3SJ but numerkal method> ii’ Is I/. vmportxntrwxk.fbnUcxtudby&5~et
used for more compkx famrt. iu [12~.ae~IPPOCdutbsqerimmtmBb
iwdbSc.2.2. TLatiskurcllbythe~
cut8tlomcQw ancrrrrtiyIndrnJ 1391
rb*irnrknmtnF&S M@q1uelrm
Several investt@ionsbave an&&cd t&s s&u. uudx=weofbr,tY$etOdmnr*n bnteof
tion of the qusskteady state equations wtitbout fe. forawkmralww mac*btfilonr
~rttothe~um@ondank&itatyra+d~ Rr#rcln*dtkctlaw*e*odta&1I1
tionrate. in~enemlanaiyamofthktypa&n ~~r*kmxedlxtee.
cold~os170~oF DROPLETS 0~ LIQUIDFUELS

dtstonce from surface


Fis_3. Ftame S~NCIUR sunoundmg an ethanol droplet t. SQC
burning in oxygen: ---zeroactivation s wg) ; -, E= Fig. 6. Plot of calculated I: agmnst time during time.
dependent burning of 6omc fuels, T, = 300°C (after
Kotake and Okazaki [4X1).

Experimental work carried out by a number of


These results showed that a plot da against tune
workers indicated that although the ‘2’ law” is
gives approximately a linear relationship through-
fuiriy well obeyed thmughout the combustion of a
but the course of combustion, but the values of
droplet. the heat and mass transfer in the field
the flame temperatures and the ratio rc/rr, are
arotmd (nnd in) the burning dmpiets are in a tran-
much smaller than those of the quasisteady model
stent state during the mator part of the droplet
and only approaching their values towards the end
hfettme. This ts manifest by the change in rclr,,
of combustion. These effects are illustrated in
durtng the dro@et burning.
Figs. 6,7, and 8.
Kumagai and Isoda 144) first tried to solve the
Krier and Wronkiewicz [49] have shown that
time depeudent heat equation whilst further anal-
the variation of dZ may be expressed in terms of
ysls have been m&e by Spaldhtg [45J zStrahle the ratio of r,/rL, thus
1461, Chewinsky (471. Kotake and Okazaki (481,
and Krin and Wonkiewicz [49]. Some studies
have also been performed exdusiwly investigating
the temprature variation within the droplet dur-
mg the ~null+ of c--mbustion. Thus Parks et al.
{SOi hsve mvestyted the temperature distribu- where r&L is represented throughout combustion
t&u nth the droplet. whilst Shyu et al. [Sl] have by (u f br). Here da is the initial droplet diameter
b&d at the liqrrid peas? cracking in a heavy fuel and o and b are constants.
oil durtng combustion. EssenriaUy in these anal-
- the mnsemtion cqcutions for mass. energy.
etc. ate m&d whilst retaining the ume-dependent
?ccm*
YMCM methods of solutton have been used but
the must twnpkte to d&e by Kotake and Okaraki
1481 uv&w numrti tntcgrtion of the qua-
hlL. In t&s as&y& aa unstc&Jtate model was
wed but m s:f#lWed on the mio, assumptions
d tbr sts&y*rrte ast$ae~ p&oualy described.
e+ s#dsU synwWtry. I-tS qustions orcWr-
t..sec
CccrttouQlt.rdnrH)r aud ,emperAtule or the @as
~the~and~tuxerithathe
dlge)p( m* rrtt?ea rdrf%rent~ cprutiom with
srprvt@tisWandsQax~Inre@ed.
ALAN wILLL4bt.5

tiaily applied to the forced convection case. Cal-


culation of the mm burning rate of a droplet in a
convective field from fundamental principles
would require solutions of the conservation equa-
tions and of the Navier-Stokes equations and be
cause of their form an analytic solution is not pos-
sibte and consequently other courses of action
have been taken. None of these methods is appli-
cable at present to the forced convection case.
The first realistic model of combustion in a con-
vective field was that of Brzustowski and Natara-
Fig.8. PlotoFc&ulakd tlame temperature (K) against
time dtutng timedepcndent burning of some fuels, T, = jan [32] and this is of the type illustrated in Fig.
3W°C (after Kotake and Okazaki [48] ). 9. Essentially it is a two-tllm model in which there
is d spherical inner stagnant fti through which
2.1.4. Analyses Allowing for the Influence of a Weok diffusion and conduction occur, whilst convective
Velocity Field
mass transfer of the oxidant occurs through the
The spherico-symmetric droplet model is only
outer fdm. The convective mass transfer of the
strictly applicable to droplets burning under con- oxidant is expressed in terms of a modified oxi-
vection-free (zero-gravity) situations. Since most diser flux. 9:. used in conjunction with Eq. (16)
experimental investigations involving suspended or to give the burning rate coeflkient. This flux is
moving droplets take place in at least a weak veioc given b>
ity field in which the flame is perturbed by a gas
velocity, (I,, as indicated in Fig. 9, a number of 9:= $J {2+0.6OGP Us}, (19)
theoretical analyses have been developed in which
the spherical flame restriction has been relaxed.
Information of the effect of velocity fields on where Gr and Sc are the Crashof and Schmidt
the rate of combustion came in the first instance, numbers respectively and makes use of an emphi-
as discussed in Sec. 2.2.3 from analyses based on Cal correlation for the effect of convection to or
mass transfer coefficients analogies and were ini- from droplets. A more detailed and more funda-
mental analysis of droplet combustion in a slow
viscous flow has been advanced by Fendel et al.
[361. .Assuming Stokes or Oseen flow together
with a thin flame sppmximation and using the
method of inner and outer expansions the mass
burning rate is expreszszd as a function of the I+
let number, (U,rJD). The method shows well
how convective transport augments the purely dif-
fusive controlled rate of combustion.
nte first analysis of the hmuence of convection
on flame shape was by Isoda and Kumagai IS21 in
which the droplet was conshiered to be a point
sXXJrceof vapour. AsWning Navier-stokes flow,
they conch&d that the coordinates of the inter-
face between fkelvapmur and oxygan. i.e.. the Ic-
I U, -I action zone, are given by
Fig. 9. Typical model of convection-perturbed sir&e
droplet combustion (after Brzwowski and Natmaim
1321,.
COMBUSTION OF DROPLETS OF LIQUID FUELS 9

Kr and Ka. if the boiling points of the compo.


nents differ greatly then diirupture boiling occurs
in which bubbles of the volatile component ex.
However this type of analysis is more correctly pand and burst in the droplet. The ‘d’ law” h&s
applicable to det’ming the position of the contact except when the bubbles burst since atomisation
surface, that is the interface between the hot com- of the surface film occurs enhancing, at that in.
bustion gases and the cold convected stream of stant, the rate of combustion. Shyu et al. 1511
ambient air. The typical situation of a contact sur- have carried out analysis using numerical integra.
face is illustrated in Fig. 9 and the general validity tion of the governing equations of the combustton
of this has been confirmed by experiment [54]. of heavy frel oil. In this work average properties
The analysis by inner and outer expansions used of the fuel oil were used but the form of analysis
by Fendell et al. [36] will afso describe the polar lends itself to extension of the case where frac-
variation of the reaction zone position. However tional distillation occurs.
it is a highly idealised approach and restricted in
2.2 Experimental Investigationsor the Combustlun or
application to low gas velocities, but the technique
Stationary Sin&eDroplets
has considerable potential.
The two-film approach of Bnustowski and 2.2.1. Experimental Techniques to Determine Burning

Natarajan [32] may also be used to obtain the Rates

position of the flame zone, but refers to the flame Three techniques have been used to investigate
radius of a spherical reaction zone. This equation the rate of combustion of single droplets, these are
is (i) the captive (or suspended) drop method, (ii)
the supporting sphere technique, and (iii) the free
In (1 + Be) drop technique.
$=l+ cm
sm,* ’ The cuprive drop technique may be used to ob.
tain the rate of change of droplet diameter or size
which in the perturbed reaction zone model (Fig. as a function of time [ 131. Typically a single
9) would apply only to the forward stagnation droplet (or array of droplets) is suspended from a
region. silica fibre, ignited, and the rate of combustion
observed photographically [ 13, 571 or by means
2.1 S. Awl.vsis Involving Multicomponent Mixtures
of a photoelectric shadowgraph technique 1551.
Liquid fuels of commercial interest are usually
From experiments of this type it is possible to oh.
mixtures of different boiling point hydrocarbons
tain the burning-rate coefficient, K, frotn the “d’
which during droplet combustion undergo
law” using Fq. (3). Typical experimental plots are
changes in the composition of the liquid phase,
shown in Fig. 3. After an initial period in which
due to fractional distillation and also as a conse-
the ~10:s are nonlinear and are generally attributed
quence of decomposition. Wood et al. [SS] have
to the establishment of steady-state conditions,
derived an expression for the burning-rate coeffi- the plots are linear giving fairly accurate values for
cient for a binary mixture, which is the burning-rate coefficient. In this manner a con
siderable body of information has now become
ax 1
x mh= FJY,p, + Y,pJn
I I+ Y,LI +Y,L*
available on the burning-rate coefficients for a
fairly wide range of fuels and various ambient con-
ditions and these are discussed in the next section.

[ e;,(T, - TL) + Yo,, QiK; Q2Y2111


( A number of complications are present during
I ) (21) most studies. Firstly, the droplet is not spherical
due to the presence of the supporting tibre and an
where 5, ,K,, etc. refer to the two components 1 “equivalent diameter” must be used 141. SW
an3 2. Equation (21) holds approximately for ondly, unless the experiments are conducted under
most mtxtures because of the usual similarity of zero-gravity conditions the flame shape is dii
IQ ALAN WiLLlAMS

and mass-burning rate is enhanced by the ln general, almost all report data must be consid-
of natural convection. Thirdly, the sup- ered as approximate values only, beca,use they
ptrtiss ftbre hitluences the results to a small ex- have in general been interpreted in terms of
teni, this becomh~g of significance with small steady-state combustion and without regard to the
dbrm&er droplets, thus limiting the range of drop- initial droplet size which can influence the results
iat &es tbat may be studied in this way. Measure- [571.
of &me &us, r,, or ratio of r= to droplet Burning-mte coefficients ea. 20°C. I bar,zero
, r~, may also be obtained by these tech- gmvity conditions. Despite thefact that the
. ?‘IRwreveal the disturbing fact that rc/rL idealised spherico-symmetdcal flame only applies
varias dutig combustion even under zero-gravity to convection-free conditions which can only be
cauikms and is also a function of the initial achieved under zero-gravity conditions, little work
dropiat diamater [57]. This implies that combus- has been carried out in this direction. Kumagai
t&onts occurring under nonsteady-state condi- and coworkers [SS, 591 have found that the values
Itens-as h tndeed indicated by theoretical consid- obtained are much less than those under natural
arations (Section l1.B); nevertheless the experi- convection conditions, that a free droplet (not
mental vabres of the burning-rate coefficients un- suspended) has an intermediate value and that in
dar tfheeeconditions are sufficiently accurate for both ‘cases the initial droplet diameter has a small
axparhnental purposes. effect on the burning constant obtained. Typical
The supporthg sphere technique provides a values are (for a 1 mm initial diameter droplet)
method of studying the steady-state combustion 7.5 X iOe3 cm* set-’ for a suspended droplet and
ofstmulated droplet burning. Here the diameter is 7.9 X 10-j for a free droplet of n-heptane.
kapt constant during combustion by supplying Bwmhg-mte coefficients ccz 20”, under pahtml
ilwl to thesurface of a supporting inert sphere at a convection. Most reported values of burning rate
ra@ equal to the rate of its combustion. The tech- coefficients refer to suspended droplets burning
tdque was first usad by Khudyakov [56] and
@alding [ 191, More recently the technique has
involved the use of a ceramic porous sphere into
whtch the fuel is fed by means of a small diameter
StaInleas steel tube. The method is convenient in
that different diameter support spheres may be
used for a variety of experiments involving the
steady-state combustion of droplets. In this way
it has been used for measurements of flame shape,
tlame structure, various aerodynamic measure-
rnents and for measurements of mass-burning
rates. ln the latter experiments care must be taken
inheat-shielding or cooling the fuel supply lines so
thatno heat transfer to the unburned fuel can
occur.
Thefree drop techniqueinvolves the investiga-
tkmof moving droplets and is discussed in Se‘::.3.
2.2.2. ExperimentalDateonLtwning-Rate Coeffidets 6 8 10 12 14 16
A considerable amount of data has been re-
No. of C atoms
ported for single droplets burning suspended on
quartz fibres and these have been reviewed by Wise
Fig. 10. Burning rate CoefticienCs of walkmes burning in
and Agoston [3] and by Williams [4] and these ais and oxygen 81 room tampamtun 8s a function of
6~ brlafly eummarised here and are compared molecular wei& Q, Ref. 61; a, Refs 62.63; 0, Ref. 64;
With the theoretical predictions. I, Ref. ST;&, Ref. 6S:m. Ref. 66.
COMBIJSTlOM OF DROPLETS OF LIQUID FUELS II

under laboratory conditions of temperature and With residual fuels solid depaits ate formed
pressure and under the effects of natural convec- after the combustion of the vdatde const,t~t~+
tion. Fewer measurements have been reported for [30,73] consequently plot3 of 8 wm I-
droplets burning with oxygen or at reduced change abruptly when the distillate corn-s
pressures. Published data on burning rate coeff- are consumed. Masdin and Tbring 17.31 fcund
cients for the n-alkanes in air and oxygen are sum- that the cenospherer produced burn PI bt~wm
marked in Fig. 10. It appears that the lower al- 0.3 to 0.1 of the rate of the v&uk trrmplmanfr
kanes have higher burning rate coefficients, the A number of investigclons 122. 54.74.71)
values tending to a constant value at high molecu- have been made of mass burning rates uriq ~bg
lar weights. porous sphere technique. ‘RICK can be converted
Published results for other alkanes, alkenes, aro- to equivalent burning iate coeflicicrus by meam
matics, alcohols, and a number of other com- of F+. (3). Values obtained in this way MCmc
pounds are given in Table 1. The alkane isomers, strictly equivalent IO burning-rate ccteffkknc~ ch
alkenes and distillate fuels are similar to the n-al- tained frcm suspended-drop techruqun becrw
kanes, the aromatics and alcohols have somewhat the heat conducted to the surface must aho pc.,
lower values. A few measurements have been heat the fuel to the surface tcmperr~ure m add,
made with varying oxygen concentrations [60,61, tion to the heat of vaporisatron. TIM ptehertly
64,731, the lower limit at room temperature is requirement is not present during the ste&urte
however restricted to about 18% OZ. Generally burning of a suspended droplet since th+r was acs
the burning rate constants increase approximately complished during the droplet heat-up period. In
linearly with oxygen content, the values for air addition there are differences in ~1, alld heal tram-
being increased by a factor of two for 100% fer to the f&feed pipe may be sigmflwnt. New+
oxygen. theless values obtained from the poroc v tphen
method are consistent with those obtamed by thr
TABLE 1 suspended droplet technique 154,75],
Burning-Rate CoefIiciants of Fuels with :\ir, Room Data has also been reported on the burnmg rate
Temperature (lo+ cm’ let -‘)
coefficients of various propellant combinatkms
n-alkanes: Figure 10 and these are given in Table 2.
iso-pentme,11.2 1631; I-pent.%% 11.2 [63]; 2.2 Burning rate coefficients at elevated tempm.
di-methyl butane, 11.4 1631; &-octane 9.5 [ 14). 10 twes. Increase of ambient temperature Increase*
(631; benzene, 9.7 [ 141,Q.Q 1641.9.5 [63] ; toluene, the burning rate coefficient by increasing 7,. ~IC&J
6.6 1141: 7.7 1641 ;o-xylbne, 7.9 [ 141 :p-xylene, 7.7
and radiant heat transfer, the increase is ho-r
[ 141; ethyl benzene, 8.6 [ 141; iso-propyl benzene, 7.8 small because of the logarithmic term in the bum-
(14];n-butyl benzene, 8.6 [ 14];f-butyl benzene, 7.7
1141; Gamy1 benzene, 7.8 [ 141; pseudocumene, 8.7 [ 141; ing rate expression (Eq. 12).
cyclohexane, 9.1 1631; methyl cyclohexane, 9.1 [63] ; Very few investigations have been made of the
tetrdin,7.6 1631. burning rates of droplets in air at elevated lmrpc
methyl alcohol, 8.6 1631 ;ethyl alcohol, 7.0 [SZ], 8.4 atures, principally by Kobayasi 1601 and M&din
[671,8.6 [67], 8.1 [14],9.6 [68];buranol-I, 7.2 1671: and Thring 1731 for hydrocarbons and by B6rrere
propylene oxide, Il.0 1631; dieihyl ether, 10.8 (631;
acetone, 10.6 1631; furfuryl alcohol, 7.2 1661; amyl ace-
tate, 8.0 [66] ; 2:2’-oxy diethanoI, 6.8 and 7.5 1671. TABLE 2
Burning-Rale CoeflIcientr of l.Wl9 WI0l Hy E=vv
hydrazii. 21.2.16.0 (70];UDMH. 11.0 [70];nitro- Oxidants, Room Temperarure (10e3 cm UC ‘)
methane. 10.9 [69], acrilonitrile, 10.2 163).
carbon disulpldde, 9.5 163); butyl silane, 14.1 163); n-alkanes/02 : Figure 10
sulphur, 5 [?I]. Ethyl al~!~ol/O~, 24.2 [3] ; hydrazine/% 35 17d].
peiroleum ether. (loo-12O’CJ 9.9 1141; kerosine, 9.6 UDMH/O*, 30, (701 ;HNO,/WH~, 18.4 1221; by&*
[14],9.0 1671, 10.2 [67];RP-1.7.8 ]7O];dieseloil. zine/N~0+,96 [72l;HNO~/H2.6 (401; RP-11%. II-tJ
7.9 1141; JP-4,8.7 67, 10.4 1671. 1701.
12 ALAN WILLIAMS

tures because of cenosphere formation. Recently


Faeth and Jaxar [23] have introduced a technique
in which suspended droplets are burned in the
combustion products from a flat flame burner.
They investigated the burning rates of droplets of
some ahcanes and alcohols over a temperature
range 1660-2530°K and O-37% 0s. However
combustion takes place with h&Jr relative gas ve-
locities which necessitates considerable corrections
for convection.
Burning-ratecoefficiennnas a fiutction of pres-
sure. The simple quasisteady state theories predict
little variation of burning rates with pressure
within the regimes where the d” law is obeyed. In
actual fact, the burning-rate coefficients vary quite
markedly as shown in Table 3 due to variations in
600 700 .a00
natural convection as indicated.
TC The observed pressure dependencies conse-
quently vary somewhat with fuel and droplet size
Fig. I I. Bumingrate coefficients of compounds burning
b, air as a function of lrmpemture: (a) hydmzine. Ref. (and presumably also during the lifetime of a bum-
40; (b) c&me, Ref. 6U: (c) diesel fuel, Ref. 6% (d) avia- ing droplet).
tion kerosine, Ref. 73; W n-heplane. Ref. 76; and Burning-nztecoefficients of arrays of suspended
WI benzene, Ref. 60. droplets. A number of investigations have been
made [79-831 of arrays of suspended droplets to
and JvJoutet (761 and Tarifa et al. (401 for propel- study the interaction between burning droplets.
Jams. TJte results Iar hydrocarbons arc summar- These experiments show that the dZ law holds for
ised in Fig 11 and ,rUrefer to droplets burning such arrays but that the burning rate coefficients
under the effects cf natural convection. It is clear vary according to the droplet position and type of
that the higher molecular weight fuels have a array. For two and five droplet arrays [ 791 the
higher temperature dependence presumably due to burning rate coefficient first increases as the inter-
enhanced radiant heat transfer to liquid phase droplet distance decreases and then decreases; this
cracking leading to carbon formation. Because of being due to the opposing effects of enhanceri heat
the extensive cracking of high molecular weight transfer and natural convection against the de-
compounds, particularly with commercial fuels, crease in oxygen avatJability. In Jarger arrays [79,
the “d* law” is not obeyed at the higher tempera- 80) containing symmetrical five or nine droplets

TABLE 3
F’re~~re Dependencies of Burning-Rate Coefficients

Fuel Pressure dcrc.. fcnoe R&rmW


--.. _

tetrtdin, decane, PO.= (l-20 051) Hall and Diedoichsen (66)


furfuryl alcohol,
amyl acetate
benzene P”.” (l-5 bar) Goldsmith 164)
p”‘”Oimiting ralue) [
Agoston et al. 741
$J.W
hydrazine/air Roser and Feskh~ (681
hydrazbw/10%O~/90%Nz p;:
hydrazine P Rabin et al. 1781
COMBUSTION OF DROPLETS OF LIQUID FUELS

the burning rate cocffcient is higher for the cen- agreement with experimantal values. If tba WI&
tral droplet. metic mean is used some empirtcal factor most hc
Arrays of droplets have also been used to investi- applied to Eq. (12) to secure apxment
gate the rate of flame propagation through one- If a variable property equation, such as thst da-
dimensional arrays of octane droplets in air under rived by Goldsmith and Penner 1161, is usedthen
natural [81] and forced convection [82] and of similar problems result, that is an over crlimh oi
the effects of oxygen enrichment [83]. the value of Ke , although In some cases grxd
Predictive methods and corrections for convec- agreement can be achteved. Thus It Is raprunt
tion. The theoretical models previously outlined that at the present time these forms of equatrar
are generally only applicable to the zero convec- may be employed with some emprrul devrcc IO
tion case, thus in most cases it is necessary to ap achieve concordance with expenmental data at.
ply a correction factor to the theoretical burning though the situation is somewhat unsatisfactory
rate coeftlcients for the influence of gas flow. As far as the corrections for convection are ctn-
Usually this takes the form cerned, most approaches are semiempnical m ap
preach. Essentially the corrections for eemnd
K=Ke [I+f(Gr,Sc,Le)], correction are based upon the work by \gorton cl
al. [74] from their investigations of relanvely lugs
for natural convection and
diameter porous spheres burning over a range of
pressures. They presented their results in the
K = K. [l + f (Re, Pr, SC)]
form:
for forced convection. Here Gr, SC, Le, Re, Pr are
the Grashof, Schmidt, Lewis, Reynold and Prandtl
numkers respectively. There is apparently no
equivalent expression for combustion in a turbu-
ilF(“a() = rn$
II+-+$ 1 GrO‘O * (24)

lent environment although the mass burning rate where );lp(..rr is the mass burning rate under nat-
increases with turbulence intensity [84]. ural convection and );2; is the mass burning ralc m
IMostcomparisons of calculated and experimen- the absence of natural convection.
tal burning rates have been made of the suspended A number of experimentat investigations have
droplet in air situation although some compari- been made of the intluence offi)rced convecffon
sons have been made at elevated temperatures or on burning and evaporating clropletr. Fmrly studies
at pressures other than atmospheric. Few investi- were carried out by Gohrbanh 1871 who found
gations have been made in which a single predic- that the mass evaporation rare of camphor 9ph~s
tive model has been applied to a variety of situa- was proportional to the radius and Relr, and by
tions [T’S,861. In ah cases the first requisite is Spalding [ 181 who found that
that the calculations of Kc, is accurate and much
uncertainty results here. Essentially all methods 0 53 B’l9 RelD
-L_._
of using futed average transport properties, such as mF(foned) -
pd
in Eq. (12), must be considered to be empirical to
a certain extent because of diffhurlties in defming
where is the viscosity and rnF(hti4) is the msss
and estimating the mean thermal conductivity, X.
burning rate under conditions of forced
Calculation of the thermal conductivity of the gas-
convection.
eous mixture by say the Lindsay and Bromley
Eisenklam et al. [fig] in an expcrimentai investi-
method [SS] tnvolves assumptions of mean com-
gation of moving droplets expressed the resuhs m
poshion and mean temperature. For the former a
the form of a Nussel: number thus
linear relatio.nship may be used or a more accurate
technique, for the latter, an arithmetic, geometric,
or logarithmic mean of Ts and Tf may be used but 4.9 Re”,4
(25)
only the geometric and logarithmic means give N”“(l+s)’
ALAN WILLIAMS

temperature and composition variations around


and in a burning dropiei.

(26) 2.3.1. Burni?&?Under Condiths of Zero Gravity


A number of investigations have been made,
principally by Kumagai and coworkers [44,58],
&z&ow&i and Natarajan [89] in experiments of the variation of r, /rL with time for droplets
lst pressureswith falling;droplets tried to COI- burning under zero gravity conditions in a freely
r&e t&&r results with the expression N, = A . falling chamber. It was found that the flame di-
ibe@ but found the results were best correlated ameter was nearly independent of the droplet di-
by the equation ameter possibly representing a steady-state condi-
tion. However, the validity of such experiments
O.I(c6 Re’fi has been questioned [93] since convective effects
(27)
Nu= (1 t B) initially present in such systems may take a con-
siderable time to disappear.
Agoston et al. 174,901 employed a form of
aqsratknr first used by Frossling [91] and Ranz
Because of the simplicity of the experimental
cad MarshaU 1921, these equations are:
technique a considerable amount of experimental
data has been reported for this situation, although,
because the influence of certain factors such as
(Frossling !91]), (28) time dependence was not recognised, much of the
early data is erroneous.
&t,orudj = i,, (1 + 0 3 R@ Pr) Data on flame position have been presented for
both flames involving suspended droplets and por-
(Ram and Marshall [92]), (29)
ous support sphere. These results show that the
experimentally obtained values of rC/r,_ vary with
hi)nr-J 5 I& (I t 0.26 Re”*)
spatial position which must thus be specified, and
(Agoston et al. [74,90] ). (30) tha: they are much smaller than in&cated by sin-
gle droplet theory. Furthermore, in the case of
More recently Faeth and Lazar [23] have used a suspended droplets, re/r~ undergoes variation
form of equation suggested by Rosner (reported with time as illustrated in Fig. 12. Most measure-
in Xef. 23) expressed m terms of burning rate ments have been made in the region of the forward
co&Icterrts, namely stagnation point and it has been found that r;
varies with rL, being related by an expression of
Ktr(laosdMweewn) KO 41+ 0.278 Re’nP#
(I + 1.237/Re Pr4’3)-‘12 ]. (31) a - %I445 p

/-/1
----+I693 P
‘l%iaexpression is corrsistent with the theoretically
obtained results of F+,ndell et al. [36] for small r, ,/ -‘I
w numbers as WCIIas with experimental dat:i
In the range 10 < I%:< 800. 4 _ ----
.. ___- ---

t3. E%pertmeawInvesrtgsrtonsof PLpmestructure of 2


I 6
0 05 I.0
The slmpiest and thus most numerous measure-
Wts that have been made involve the detennina-
time I droplet hfettma
tion of theflame positions by direct photography Ftg. 12. Typical experimentalvaristtonofr:/rL Prtth
dhough some investigationshave been made of normaked time (after Kfter and Wroakiewkz (491).
COMBUSTION OF DROPLETS OF LIQUID FUELS 15

the form rA/rL = A re where A and a are constants, 2.3.3. Combustion Under Cm&ions of Forced
in addition rs =&. Thus typically Aldred et al. Convection
(541 found that r& = 2.4 rp.32 for n-heptane
In low velocity gas streams the flame envelopes
spheres.
the leading half of the sphere as a “stagnation
The variation of r&L with droplet size probably
point flame.” As the velocity increases the bound.
arises from the effects of natural convection and
ary layer thickness decreases and mass transfer
also possibly from effects of finite or limiting re-
rates increase as previously descr!bed, but above a
actant fluxes, both also probably being responsible
critical stream velocity, termed the extinction ve-
for the divergence of calculated and experimentai
locity, the flame on the leading half of the sphere
values which may be as great as an order of mag-
is extinguished and a small “wake flame,” is
nitude. Thus the two-film model leads to Eq.
stabilised in the wake of the droplet jl8.20. 561.
(17) which can be recast in the form
The wake flame is similar to flames stabilised bv a
flame holder but exhibits no recirculatitin zone-
Ir,,, a (32) behind the sphere 1971. A third regtme of burn
rt. (b +crps) ing has been observed [ 1011 in which the flame
is stabilised in the boundary layer at the sides of
Similarly Miesse [94] assumed that the flow of the liquid sphere.
the oxidant is independent of instantaneous diam- Data has been presented by Cohrbandt [87],
eter and developed the equation Spalding [20], Agoston et al. [90] and Sjogren
[ 1021 on the variation of the extinction velocity
((I,) with droplet diameter (do). Spalding 1201
~=OS[t+(l+~~}, (33)
deduced from game strength considerations that
U, (+dL and presented data over a limited range of
which also correlates reasonably with experimental sphere sizes consistent with that. However, more
data. detailed investigations [84, 1021 have indicated
In the case of small suspended droplets transient experimentally that UC 0: dj”, at least over a
effects are also important, so that the temporal range of sizes ca. 55 mm to ca. 3 mm and for
variation of diameter is a function of droplet heat- steady-state combustion with simulated droplets.
up rates and its effect on surface temperature, as Information is also available [20,89, 1021 on the
well as from the effects of convection. Conse- influence of temperature and oxygen concentra-
quently initial droplet diameter is of importance tion of UC,.
as indicated in Fig. 10. Very few measurements Few theoretical or experimental investigations
have been concerned with the detailed structure have been made of the structure of droplet flames
of a burning droplet of volatile fuels ahho& data burning under any of its modes of combustion in
have been presented for interior and surface drop forced convection conditions [ 1031. Spalding
let temperatures 195) and flame temperatures 151, [20], in the tint experimental investigation of
54,961during the transient combustion of small this type, made composition measurements in the
droplets and on the structure of wake flames [97]. forward stagnation region. More recently a series
Detailed studies of flame structure have necessar- of investigations [ 104, IOS] have been made of
ily been restricted so far to steady-state combus- flame structure in a system analogous to droplet
tion work with support spheres, and here work has burning in which gaseous hydrocarbons have been
been presented on temperature f98,99], compo- burned on porous cylinders under a range of air
sition profiles [54,98,99], and the position of velocities. The structures of the flames in the
the contact surface [53.54]. Such work has indi- wake of burning porous spheres have also been
cated considerable pyrolysts of fuel vapour be- investigated for s range of ah and oxygen-enriched
tween the liquid surface and the flame [SS] and mixtures over a range of velocities (971. Recent
has also provided information on the formation of investigations [102,106] have indicated that in
oxides of nitrogen [ 1001. the case of hydrocarbon fuels the formation of
I6 AtANwtt.LtAM8

sootin the flame wake may be a significant source Whilstmuchvaluable information on burning
ofsootin spray combustion and is dependent rams and con&u&Ion modes has been obtained
upon whether the flame burns as an envelope from stationary dmpkts burning in a convected
tlame of as a wake flame. air flow, data fmm experlmantal studies of w
2.4. LiquidPhaseReaethw in the Fuel oroplsr
jetted drop&s them+selvesare also vital pcutku-
During the combustion of high molecular weight
larly In relation to droplet aer~dynamks. In addl-
multicomponent hydrocarbon fuels, such as resld- tlon much vahmbk data of a complimentary na-
ual fuel oils, the temperature In the droplet may ture is avallabk from studies of evaporating dmp
become sufficiently high for liquid phase cracking letsinhoten VUONWMS [IIZ-1161.
reactions to occur resulting in the formation of a
3.1. Expa&amWTafaaticaes~oasavlaghoplsr
carbonaceousresidue (frequently termed a cen-
comtWatfoa
osphere). A number of studies have been made of
Ideally, studies of the behaviour of burning drop
the consequential irregularburning behaviour [Xl,
lets actually In sprays would bs invaluablebut,
55,?3,1 IO] and of the thermal decomposltlon
with the exception of a few simple cases, the com-
processesand the nature of the final products [SS.
plexity of such systems pmhiblts the precise In-
107,lOSl. In general, pure paraffllc hydrocar-
terpretation of data. Consequently much data has
bons and simpler aromatics burning In air do not
been obt&ed by means of a variety of tecbnlques
produce a carbonaceousresidue, although combus-
using sin@edropleta In theftrc d&#ct tech.
tion may be associated with the formation of
nique. Rsin& droplet or low density cloud of
smoke which may condense on, say a supporting
droplets is pmduced by a suitable gznerator. such
sllica fibre. However,combustion in oxygen en-
San electmstatic (77.117, I I81 or ultraWnic
riched atmospheres, with consequential higher
atomiser [119],avlbratings@eltube [l20.121]
flame temperatures. results in the formation of
(whichmrybe”~ted”ifneccssary[ll7],as~
carbonaceous r&dues, this being particularly so in
nlng disc uomlner [30.6&, 1221, or a simple ori-
the case of aromatic fuels such as benzene [64.
fm [88.107,123]. Thedropktof contmlkd
IO?]. Multicomponent mixtures much more read-
slzesopmducedisthenallowedtofallunder
lly undergo cracking, whilst kerosine behaves as a
&ravltationalforces or is projected into a suitable
pure hydrocarbon, gas oil undergoes slight crack.
hot envlmnment generated by means of a tlame or
lng, and residual fuels all show a tendency to swell
furnace. In the latter case s&f&Won occur or
and at higher temperatures to form mke-llke resi-
is caused by a pilot Ilame. A typical arrangemmt
dues. In all cases the nature of the product is de
11171isEhO;MIinFii. 13lnwhkhas&#edm*t
pendent on the mitial droplet slse and the air or
is projected into Ilame pan. in some instancu I
flame temperatu:e and in the case of residual fuel
geometricallysimple Saf+usWned flame may be
oils is &.o dependent upon the concentration of
uSed,usuallyinvolW#mannu&rlbIne 112%
asphaltenesand resins
125) orastreamofdmplets[12O,l21). Appar-
Little is known about the actual me&&m but
entlynoanah+eofthesWonary*natorl+
it is markedly controlled by the rate at which the
cfimanrdonulflamea\LICdfarpmnlxadll~stlld.
centre of the droplet attdns the surface tempera.
kshasbeensuWsWlydave@edforspray
ture and by the influence of hot spots caused by
studks.
dfsruptiveboll@ [SS]. Someanalyses [Sl, I IO]
have been made of the rate of endo&ermk mat=
tlon partkuiarly to estimate the effect no the rate
of droplet heat up.
3. Combustion of Mo* Dmpkts
In order to obtain any umierstandlngof the char-
acteristics of a burning spray, information Is net. ka\ summa&d trt R. :.
essaryonbothtberateofevapoatlocrndcom-
bustlon ofdropletsand on the dm@et balltstkr
COMBUSTlON OF DROPLETS OF LIQUID FUELS
I7

Fig. 13. Exampleof an experimentalsystemto produce droplets in flames[ 117 J

solediagnostic instrument for the investigation of A number of investigations hate been concerrled
movingdroplets is photographic, usually hirect, with the shock-wave ignition !126, 1271, comb +
but may involve schlieren studies of some kind. tion of liquid fuel droplets, and also the influence
of a shock wave on burning droplets 1I2R, 1271,
3.z. bSaSBumi~RateS Under certain conditions the burning late of liquid
Few measurements have been made of mass bum- Zrop!ets may be increased many orders of magni-
iw rates of droplets moving at velocities relative tude by interaction with a shock-wave. In the
to a moving gas stream. Much of the basic work case of burning droplets the shock wav: sha:terr
has been concerned with stationary droplets (or the droplet into microdroplets which, if the flame
spheres) in gas streams as discussed in Sec. 2.2.3. remains attached, results in a substantial increase
and this has kd to equations of the type (28) to in burning rate. However with low oxidiser con-
(31) to correct for the enhanced mass transfer. centrations the flame could in fact be blown-off
Studies of mass transfer of droplets falling by the shock-wave.
thmu& a stagnant atmosphere have been made
with Ray&& numbers up to about IO4 as dis- 3.3. Aerodynamic Effects
cus& In !iec 2.2.3. leading to F+ (25) and (27). A knowledge of the drag coefficients of the indi-
l?te dniav of equation to use must be dependent vidual droplets that make up a spray is essential
upa\ the type of flame. envelope or wake, and the for any calculation of the penetration of a spray
Reynolds number and type of flow. At low Rey- into a combustion chamber and the subsequent
nolda numbers. E+s. (27) or (31) are at this time movement of the burning droplets. Generally,
@ably ID satisfactory as any. At higher Rey- however, information is necessary on evaporating
no& nur&rs (ca. 10’) flattening of the droplet rather than burning droplets because usually
(XMIB j’Y8,129] and at crtn hi&z Reynolds droplet velocities are greatest in the injection re
numbea. u&a shd coadltknts, droplet shatter- gion where evaporation rather than combustion is
brmY0-t. the dominant factor.
18 ALAN waLlAMs

It is conventional to compare the drag coeffi- the resultsby


&ems of evaporatingor burning droplets with
those of smooth inert spheres moving ln steady-
c, - f$/(l + 8). (35)
state conditions in which case the drsgmfficlent. where CD is the drag coefflcient of the evaporating
c,, is a functionof the approachReynoldsmmt- or burnhrg droplet and Ch the %andard” vahie.
ber, i.e. the,standard curve [130]. Wunhrg and Rquation (35) covers tbe mnga 0.1 < Re > 3 for
evaporatingdroplets differ from that ideal model burning droplets and 0. I < Re < 40 for evaporat-
m that when vapour effuses from the dmplet sur- ing droplets. It givesvahmsof CD rwsiderably
facethe skin drag decreasesdue to the thiclmned lower then the standerdcurve
boundary layer and the form drag decreases as a Natarajanand Rmstowski 1891 havemeasured
consequence of the weakened Rarmar vortices. the drsgcoefikients of n-pentanedropletsburning
The relativeeffects are influenced by the type of eswakefEamesat~urrsupto44barandinthe
flame-wakeor envelope or whether the droplet Is rangelO<Re<ZX 10’. Analyssbasedonap
just vaporlshrg. As a consequence of these effects prollcbpropertiesand meen pq!erties were used
the drag coefiicient of au evaporatingor bumhrg and it WISwncluded that drq coefficientsevel-
droplet is less than the standard curve for an Meal uated 84the approachwditlons best fitted the
sphere. Howeverin the case of evaporating drop data.
lets the decrease in CD is dependent upon the ratio Rabinetel. 1129) andJaersmaandlkkson
of the velocity of vapour from the droplet to the [128] baveinve8t@teddraga3efRcientsunder
free stream velocity and the overall drag ooefll- shatteringc+3n&tionshr shockwaves. The latter
clent is not altered if the mass transfer is low [ 131, wodceSsbowedtbattbedmgcoefflaentbasedon
1321. the initial drop&atdiameteris ox&ant during fr&g-
Because of the complexity of the problem few mentationand tbat it h independentof the Row
theoretical analyses have been made and these
conditions(sub. trans,or supersonic)relativeto
have been lhntted to low Reynolds numbers. Mug-
the movingdqkt.
gia [ 1331has obtained an expression for droplets i&ause of tbe diversityof experimental condi-
evaporatingwith Re G 1 and Fendell and coworh- tionsusedinstudiesofevaporatingmdbuming
ers [36,121] have investigated theoretically the drople& no pro&z cmdatiom are applicable
influence variation of mass transfer rates and other
over the whole range of interest. Richerson and
parameterson tbe drag of burnhrg and evaporating
Scbuman[I361 havesummmisd the avsilabk re-
droplets.
sultr to 1955 thus
A number of experimental studies have been
made ushtga variety of technllues. lngebo [ 129,
1341foundthatforsingledropletstherange6<
Re<4OOtheresultscouldbecorrelatedby

CD = 27 Re+a’, W)

again, the results lying below the standard curve.


in the case of spray combustion [ 1291,I further
dimensionlempup was necessary to correct for
theinfluenceofpremure. RoltandSasd 1135’
ushrgfall@ droplets. found that the drag wvw
cifmts for droplets burnhrg with l>w Reynolds
numbers also lie below the standrrd curm.
Riser&lamet al. [88,123] in-ted the in-
ihienee of bosh evaporarkn and #rivelops Rame
comhstbn on the dragcoahitr end amdated
COMBUSTION OF DROPLETS OF LiQUiD FUELS
I9

CD = 0.271 Re“.l” (80 < Re < 104), fusion-cont!oiled burning in an oxidising a:m:t
CD = 2 (IO4 < Re). sphere I.e. m,~ a rL. For low activation C(K~P
(and thus high reaction rates) and large drrr+i
These relationships are plotted as a broken line in diameters the geometry becomes effectively ok.
Fig. 14 together with some more recent sources of dimensional (i.e. less affected by spherical pnm
data. However. it is clear that the predictive meth- etry) io which case the burning rate 1s prupu~rwmrl
ods used so far are not sufficiently sophisticated to the surface area, namely rich = rj,
to take into account transient burning effects or Tarifa et al. [40) also considered mnupropel.
&an&es in combustion mode which is necessary lant combustion and found that the dependcm.c
for any complete understanding of a spray com- of &a on r~ was not constant but varied wth I,,
bustion system. In agreement with other investigations this ap
preach indicates that as r~ tends to Peru thr Emil.
4. Combustion of Droplets of Monopropellants ing mass burning rate tends to form charrclcr&r
Monopropellants, such as hydrazine and ethyl of droplet evaporation. Thus in general. the hum-
nitrate, can maintain a self-sustained flame with- ingrate coefficient is given by
out any additional oxidant. Thus monopropellant
droplet combustion resembles a premixed spheri-
cal flame since the source of both fuel and oxidant
is the droplet itself. As a consequence theoretical
analyses are more complicated because of the where n varies from the square law dependence to
dominance of chemical control rather than diffu- unity as reaction rates increase over a hmited range
sional control. ofdropletdiameters and for wide variati’ms of
droplet size can vary throughout the couw of
4.i.lIleWeticalA&yX=s combustion. However, in contrast, Fendcll 1140)
The development of theories of m&opropellant has suggested that for the low activation energy
combustion par&d those of bipropellants in limit the conventional relationship, & a r,, ,
that the first analyses were primarily concerned holds.
with steady-state combustion [l, 40, 137-1421. Faeth [143] has theoretically investigated the
However. attention has later been paid to non- influence of forced convection on monopropllant
steady-state combustion particularly since it has droplet burning. It was shown that the burning
been shown experimentally that much of the drop rate is not affected until a cntical Reynold? nun+
kt lifetime occurs under nonsteadystate combus- ber is reached, at which poini the chemical reac-
tion conditions [ 143.144). Attention has al:.0 tion rate no longer controls the process and the
been paid to the influence of convected ll~ws burning rate is equivalent to the evaporation rate
[144, ISS], and to hybrid combustion [146- at the same ambient temperature. In addition
[ 148) for oxidising and decompositioti fl une Faeth [144] has extended the treatments of Tarifa
siUatiot&s. et ai. [40] and used it for the prediction of drop
The monopropelknt droplet model proposed by let lifetimes of pure monopiopellants.
!jpald@and JPin [I371 and Wfiiams [I, 1391 When monopropellants ate used as a fuel in a
invokes an ,analysisbased on a one-step chemical bipropellant system the decomposition re@on
naction A -LB. For lan3e activation energies the near the 1iqGd surface can be surrounded by an
reaction rate was assumed to be so temperature oxidation zone [ 1, 146-148) . The presence of
dependent that reaction occurs in an infinitely both modes of combustion, as illustrated in Fig.
&&I shell dtuated at some distance ftom the drop IS, is termed hybrid combustion.
kt surface similar to that in the diffusion model The approach generally employed is essentially
(c.f. Fig. I). In this case of low reaction rates and an extension of the monopropellant droplet wm-
fw small dmtq or in the evaporative limit. the bustion theory. In this, the monopropellenl flame
&pa&noeof&onrListhesameuthedif- is assumed to be infinitely thin and located at P
20 ALAN Wll.UAMS

tnqofsmaRd@etsinafumace(toftetherwitha
smallquantity of oxyssn) yieldkgeomewhat
lower vahrasthen thoseof Rumn and hloutet but
having a sMar tenQeratum dapettdence.km
recnntfy.Faethrtd. [l44, ISll obtainedvehres
forsmaRsuspmuMdroTdetsburrdnqtnbotcom
mdicattnbthaIthesnfweviousmsuRs
ahreb&encedbytheoxygencontentandfur-
nacewell mdietion:Faeth [I441 found that be
tweet 1740and2640eC,Konlymriedfrom 1.2
to 1.6 ma od~-~,beiq mch m&w than the ex-
trdpnlated vtdues of the earkr works.
:n other imestigetiom Rosser[ IS21 hasused
the porousspheretedmique to studyethyl nitrate
Fig. IS. Diagrammaticrepresentation oftbe hybrid co(~)- mmbustionand Feet6 11531 hastnmigrted the
bustion model (ati (Attica and FPcth (WI). combustionofbkndsofrnmopn@lantswitha
h3s volatiled&rent.
A n&r of bvJWttgattons hew been&ltcerlKd
positionwhere the unreactedmonopropellant wtth the decomposttton Ramsor hybrtd combus
flowsin at its laminarburnerveiodty. The btpro- tbn of hydra&e and its derivatives. Tarifa et al.
pelknt flame is treatedin the conventionalWayas [4Q] hWeedgeted the Wpended rhopier combus.
describedpreviously.in whit the oxidant andfuel Zionof hydrastne(with tmcesof oxygen) in a fup
decomposition productsreact in an infhritely thin oaceandobt&edvalueeofXoWrtheneqe4oo
shell. In this way Allisonand Faeth [ 1481 have to IaWC; theor resultshavednce veencriticised
developeda hybrid model which fits well with by A&son and Faeth ~l48l as betry influencedby
experimentaldata for the combustionof furnacewall mdtation.Rosserand kshm [ 1411
hydrasineand somederivatives.‘II& model has hmusedtkplxous*lttcchniguetostudy
alsobeenusedto showthe influenceof conm- thedccompasitton
bun&$ of liquid hydmainea
tion on hybrid md nonhybridcombustion. For the komposttmn qrm it wm found that the
mssshumin9ntewaspru~tothesquen
43. Rpedmeaterstuciiar <.f the kopkt diemeterfor larva diameterdroplets
A numberof investib&xts havebeen madeof the and to the drameterfor rmdl dtanmterdrop& at
combustionof monopro@lantsus@ both tingle lor rr.‘clnm rates. lbe m m rate wasalso
dropletand porousspheretechniques.In I num- t&rid to be pmpMaA to Uw v. whereas
ber of cases“pure” decom~tton nemeswere tberateofhydrsztnebuncrytnatrnrkduiththe
impossible to stabiliseand combustionwm cnc power0.37.
tied out in sn atmospherecontainin quantitiesd
oxygen. Becauseof this the resultsam more difik
cult to interpretsincethe bumiry rate kssensitfrr
to the oxygenconccntntmn.
Ranereand Moutet (149J upadthe suspm&d
droplettechniqueto mensumthe lwmmp rile. >f
ethyl nitrate, pmpyl n&rate,hydro931peroxkk
andsomeester/nitricacid axnbinationsover the
temperatureran:,eWJ-86SV. it wm found that
thed’lawwnsf3lowcdfor&comp&tton~
hr& DelNoUoandTarife (ISO] &omade
measurementsmtherateoftkomp&ttnn~
COMBlJS’IlON OF DROPLETS OF LIQUID FUELS
Ii

S. Drop& Combustion Under Rlgh Pressures


The dependence of the burning rate of single drop.
lets with pressure is due mainiy to the pressure
dependence of the latent heat of vaporisation as is
clear from Pq. (9). This effect is small at low
pressures but at higher pressures, about one-tenth
of the critical point of the fuel, the accuracy of
the steady-state model is lower [ 1,28,32]. As
the liquid approaches its critical point the prob-
lem becomes more complicated, which has been
the subject of a number of investigations of near-
critical point evaporation [l54, 1551 and combus-
tion I32.89. 114,157-1611.
Theseeffects may occur in combustion in high
speed diesel engines, in liquid propellant rocket
motors and in gas turbine combustion as indicated (T, = 2OOO”K,Y,,, = 0.232).
by the data in Table 4.

TABLE 4 ods are in substantial agreement except for rich


clitical Condition for Some Common Fuels (After mixtures, although the burning time based on a
Ref. 157) point source is always longer. The general effects
of burning time as indicated by Rosner are
.%bn;rncc PC. atm TcK sketched in Fig. 16. These theories do not con
nr*w= 12.8 33.3
sider the time for the droplet to heatup nor the
Kerooiac 26 662 influence of dissolved gases which may be of Im.
Ethed 63.1 516.3 portance. Faeth [159-1611 has recently extended
AmmO& 111.5 005 6
these models to take these into account. Bwn-
tiahy it involves a gas phase model of the combus-
5.1.-Mo&ts tion process and a phase equilibrium model for
At supercritical pressures the droplet, as soon as conditions st the liquid surface. In the gas phase
rhe temperature everywhere exceeds the critical model the infinitely thin game approximation
temperature. the droplet becomes a puff of gas, coupled wiih a connection for convection wss
Uris then burning as e diffusion flame. Speiding used.
1IS71 has theoretically considered this type of Chervinsky [ 1621 has ah.0 considered the corn
combustion by approximatirg the droplet vapour bustion of liquid droplets under supercritical con-
as an iustantaneous point source of fuel and then ditions using an analysis in the Von Mise~Prandtl
coosi&ring the time taken fcr the vapour ball to plane. Essentially the same conclusions were
burn. This type of analysts has been further de- reached as in previous analyses [ 137, 139, 14 I ]
veloped by Roster [ 1581 who considered the puff but in addition Chervinsky shows that the burnlng
of pas both as a pint and n distributed source. time depends upon a temperature term, so that In
For the point sour model t?e burning tune is the case of hydrogen combustion (or other highly
#*mby exothermic reactions) the burning times are less
than those predicted by other theories.

rR - & (314a (u/(1 t u,] j-s”. (37)


5.2 Experimental Stmk
Measurements of the rate of combustion of n-dcc-
wtmerahtheradtusoftheballofgasmdv= ane in air have been made by Hall and Diedcricb
Ye/r. tt was sbowu that the results for both meth- sen [66] at subcritical pressures, the droplet bum-
22 ALAN WlLtJAMS

ing times decreasingwith increase in ptessum in


accordance wlth the trend indicated in Fig. 16.
Wustowskl and Natiirttjan (32.891 have studied
the combustion and aniline and n-pentane at sub
and sup~~ritical pressures. In the latter experi-
ments [89] droplet combustion was followed by
tine photography and it was established that drop-
lets were present even above the critical pressure.
In all the experiments the d* law held for a con-
siderable part of the droplet lifetime and transient
burning effects could not be observed. However,
the combustion at these pressureswas compli-
cated by the considerable evolution of carbon.
Faeth et al. [159-1611 have investigated the com-
bustion of a number of fuels using the suspended
droplet zero-gravity [159,1601 and porous sphere
techniques 11611 and compared the results with
theory. Experimentally supercritical combustion
was observed and no unusual change in the corn--
bustion zone was detected as the droplet passed
through its critical temperature. Droplel tern
perature measurementsshowed that in the critical
regime the liquid temperature rose continuoudy
from ignition to bum-out; this is in contrast to the
behaviour in normal combustion when the liquid
temperature reaches end remains at (or near) the
boiling point for en appreciable period of the
droplet lifetime. It was also shown that dissolved 6.1. -dKbelnuaultganioadKbep&asfaa
gas and other real gas effects must be taken into lWOSi&hgA~
account and that for combustion in air it Any complete tbeo~ of droplet ignition must Le
can be assumed thai the gas at the droplet surbcr able to wzurately pndkl the duration of the time
is a binary fuel/nitrogen mixture. belwcn he inW4uctioa of the droplet in the hot
oxidiringatmosphere and the om*t of flame, that
6. &d&n of Droptee is. the @nition delay time (or Muction period).
The ignition, as well as the extinction, of droplets. In eddition theory mtlsl be n&o to rcclmmodete
is a transient phenomenon involving the tapid the fecf thet or&y dtvpletr greater thar~ a Fansin
transition from evaporetion end chemically con- crttkEl r&e are capbte of tgnittns. thoee rmailet
trolled proceses to diffusionel controlled mar ordyevaporate. llteiq\ltionofadropietmeybe
steady-state combustion. Two modes of droplet uomcdsd al coWt.4ttgof esMtMly Iwo Wgw
ignition may be identitkd as indhcrted in Fig. I?. (1631.rp&eatlilneirtwtdchthedropletu
These are “thermal” ignition and proppt~m~ (\: heated ViclWut sigt&fkMt evepoWon and e W@
network ignition,;the former involves the prt~~%~, ondsqjeinwbkhi#dtbn-iatkegrr
that occur when a cold droplet is exposed to a hot pbpcbetW!enthebARracarlJc Wpourandeir.
oxidising environment and the latter occurs when TbeCntprehset~tekrmrsMw to conrpai-
a droplet is exposed to a combiued influcme of tiott Wtd tem&Watuw ad & e%eer#rUy a tram&nt
heat and radicals from xn xdjoant burning dnrp hnrtm&etpr&emmeduy-toRut~
let. Attention here will be directed pl&y to tnetWs&yBee.#hntfWpmhql&dsadarpk
the first of these two cses. (ALItutee. I?iescgdrq*.WdWtjppkae
~~MWSTION OF DROPLETS OF LIQUID FUELS

@nit& of d hydrocarbon with oxygen in a con-


centration tield, is very dependent on molecular
composition of the fuel and on temperature, and is
not capable of detailed analysis at the present time
and can only be treated in terms of global chem-
ical kinetics. Essentially then ignition involves the
transition from a kinetic controlled situation to
the diffusional control in the burning droplet; the
reverse situated has been identified with droplet
extinction (164-1663.
El-Wakil and Abdou (1631 have carried out an
extensive analysis of the factors controlling the
magnitude of the ignition delay period. The analy-
sis was semiempirical but led to expressions for
the estimation of the physical and chemical delay
times as well as for the total ignition delay time. Tt
More detailed mathematical models have been
Fig. 18. Comparison of theoretical and expetirmnt, al
developed to include the two limiting cases, igni- dropletignition results for No. 2 fuel 2. Tlwarcttcd
tion and extinction. Fendell [ 164) numerically curve from Ref. 165; expwimental atw from Ref. I68
computed the ignition and extinction limits for an
ethanol/air mixture. M&I and Wise [165] de- An alternative approach to ignition and extine_
velo& a linearized f!ame surface model which tion problems has been made by Rosser and
permits the inch&on of finite kinetics. In this Rajapskse [169] in which they considered the
way the study of the combustion process as it thermal stability of a reacting spherical shell. In
changes with kinetic rate can be studied and it pre- this they showed that the overall temperature de.
dicts the correct mass burning rates for both the pendence of the critical droplet diameter is ap
evaporative limit (zero reaction rate) and the in- proximately given by (0.5 E - RT,).
finite reaction rate limit (the classical droplet
burning case). It was shown that transition from 6.2 Experimental Data on Thermal Qttitlrm
kinetic to diffusions1 control is rapid and corre- Most ignition measurementshave t-en concerned
sponds to an ignition temperature. E, which is with ignition delay times based on the onset of the
@HII by emission of light from a flame although some
studies have been duected at the time-temperature

r, NR +11. history of the droplet.


I {Y,., (38)
In (b/Q 1 A number of investigators, primarily Kobayasi
[60], Nishiwaki 131)) Masden and Thring 173)
where E is the overall activation energy. b = an2 El-Wakil and coworkers [ 163,17 I] have made
r2 M’JF where b is the rate conrtant, and br is measurements of the ignition delay (f,) of sue
evaluated [1W] from the fuel concentration at pended droplets of a number of fuels, both pure
the ooint oiigtuttorr. In further analyses Peskin et and commercial, in air or similar atmosphere un-
d. [ ‘66. I671 have developed the theory and ob- der a variety of conditions. A number of investi-
nincd @titian and extinction conditions for vari- gations have also been made of fuels iaithtg in an
ous m&ion rates. reaction orders, and mixture oxygen atmosphere [171-1731, of special propel-
streqths A typical [I651 plot of droplet radius lant combinations (174,17>] and of the influence
qainst rmbkn~ tempemture is #wn in Fig. 18. of additives [172, 1761.
lbta on @rioa t8mpmtutesas a function of Masdin and Thring [73] presented their data in
orulpl conmtrrIdarb$, ILFtests of the predictive the form
twhods.havcakrobeen@en[l66,:67]. ti = A exp BIT, (39)
24 ALAN WI-

and obtained the following vahres for 8: kerosirte


8.3 x 103. gas oil 8.8 x 10’. heavy fuel ot17.9 X
103,pitchcreosote11.3X I03,andbenaene Then haa been costsMen* tnterest In 5ppIytrtg
22.8 x IO’,. For octane Cdtchley et at. II761 dropk?tcombusthuItheomrstorwtdevartetyof
found that E E 12 X 10’. El-Waktl and Abdou spray comb@ton systems In ordar to &mass the
[ 1631 correlated their results for a number of unders3andil& of svchsystemsso as to, for exam.
hydrocarbons by the expression ple,mtnimtsep&tton,ortomodeltheminde
tatt. itisnotproposedheretocomtdertheee
q = 10.3 &ss exp(e + b + c.). WI a&i&ions in any Iength but rather outhne the
where a and b are functions of the temperature range of coverage at the preasnt Me. A number
[ 1631 and c, is the number of carbon atoms in ofotherrevtews[l.4.1%0-1821 haveconsidered
the questton of spray combustton in detail.
the hydrocarbon.
A number of investigations have been concerned
7.2 -m
with ignition of fuel droplets in shock heated
A mixtura of a combustiblesprayand II suitabk
gases[127,177]. Inthiscaseithasbeensbown
oxidantcansupprtaflamcIntlwsamewaysaa
that ignition can be adequately represented by an
premixedfkma. ~th.Ifmaybssuppottedasa
Arrhenius type taw and which is governed by the
stationaryflame on a burner port or it may bum
formation of a combustible mixture in the wake of
freely asa piopagattngLme. tn addition it wiIl
the shattered droplet. In the case of moving drop
exhibit in&unmab&ty timits, etc. The nature of
lets recent studies show that ignition occurs in the
the burnt products depends much upon the prop
wake of the droplet.
erties of the spray in Its unburnt state [180-1841.
4.3 Network @nition of tuc@ws If the drop&s are large. then comtuatton may not
A number of experimental hwestigations have becompletrhtthematnr&cttonsooeandun-
been made of the rate of flame propagation burnt fuel penetrates wd) into the burnt ges re-
through one-dhnensional arrays of droplets under gton. If the drop&s are smatt, then a state of
natural and forced convection. The following re. affairs extsts thatapproxtmstes very closely to the
lationships have been obtained: combustion of a premtxed gaseousflame. Here
thedropleoarevaporMtnthepreheataoneand
For natural convection [81] : z = const Ii? (41) reaction after that ts bet- the two reactants in
then gaseousstate. lhe other facton whtch detrr-
where r is the flame propagation time and/o is
~URCthe time to reach complete combustton. thal
the immersion depth, i.e. the miniurn depth to
IS. the length of the combrstia\ mrw. are the rota-
which an unburned drop&etis immersed in the hot
tihty of the hqutd fuet. the ntb of fuel to oxrda:rt
gas region of the adjacent burning droplet.
in the unburnt mtxrure. and the untformtty of
For forced convection [8? ] : z = cons~
(lo,, mixture dtstrtbutton.
+ const V - S)*sn (42) Thaor& for lamtnar @em, supported by sprays
havebeendevelopdbyWUhanw(1).Rtemon
where V is the ah velocity and S the dropkl aodFatrbanks~17g~.andbyMtawtamandogr,
separation. wara 11221. lbearar&seahavebseurestrictnd
Theoretical stud& of the network propag:“ion lo dilute sprays in wiwch the dlclptet veioctty
of droplet burning have been concerl~cd pry, qualsthegasvdo&y. ESentMythhctheNies
patty wjth hwestigattons of flame propagauon m arethermatlhecuieahwhict4lmathSYnvdSted
onedimensional sprays basicagy to obtain sotu- fromtheremcttonsorletnwtdchwNdLttonal
tions of the bumtngvelocity[122,178] and in- l&optetcombuathlnb~totluhr~
tlammabilitylbntts [ 1221. Oneanalysis
hsscon- &of&is inrheRm?wot&steapttlonofttw
sidered flame propagation in gn army of drop&s dm#etadowwstre4nick~rswiK!nthe~
WA. m#haean@tttMtempsrarun. lItrn*rDa*
COMBI’STION OF DROPLETS OF LIQUID FUELS
25

~89e in the last theory but only after an ignition sion processes must be taken into account. k,e,.
delay time has elapsed, in that way the flame prop theless, despite the complexity of spray combus_
agati~n velocity is linked with the ignition delay tion, much valuable information has been obtained
~&RX and thus should be sensitive to variations in by the use ofsimplifiedanalyses in which an in,.
molecular structure of the fuel. tially uniformly distributed spray (in space) 1s a+
Then is little experimental evidence available to sumed to burn in a plug-flow reactor and In w&h
test these theories [4,122]. Most studies have the “d’ law” holds.
been concerned with tetralin/air mixtures and The first theoretical model was developed by
there is now extensive evidence for both flame Probert [24] who calculated the mean drup djam.
propagation velocities and inflammability limits; eter from known size distributions and calculated
little information is available for other fuels but the combustion rate by assuming that the initial
that which is available suggests that most hydro- spray consisted of a constant number of drops of
carbon fuels behave in a similar way. this mean diameter. The analysis was directed 10
turbo-jet studies and this type of analysis gave a
1.2 Sttnut ReaetM calculated performance lower than experimental
The second type of idealised combustor amenable values.
to analysis based on single droplet combustion Tanasawa and Tesima [ I871 applied a more gen.
theory is the heterogeneous well-stirred reactor, era1 procedure applicable to sprays with a variety
although in fact, few studies have been under- of droplet size distribution functions. They con.
taken. Courtney [ l8Sl has considered combus- eluded that the rate of combustion was only
don of heterosized and monosized monopropel- slightly affected by the size distribution of the
lants which are assumed to bum according to the drops but is strongly affected by the mean
‘da law? It was shown that for monosized spray diameter.
the combustion intensity, I, is given by Dickinson and Marshall [I SS] have shown that
the evaporation characteristics of a poly.disperse
MO spray cannot be described by those of the mean
(43)
I * I+ 2&U,lSK ’ drop size. Nuruzzaman et al. [ 1891 used a model
based on a Rosin-Rammler distribution function
where Me is therate of flow of gas from the cham- to calculate the relative change in combustion ef&
her, ra is the initial droplet size, 4 the gas density, ciency in a turbo-jet with oxygen content and con-
rd K the burning-rate c&Gent appropriate to eluded that models based on mean drop siz.:s are
tba turbulent conditions [ 1841. This analysis is not adequate.
do0 ap@icabkz to a reactor in which conventional Spalding [190],Adler (1911, Williams [192],
droplet combustion with a gaseous oxidiser occurs. Williams et al. [193], Mayer [194], and Il’Yash-
enko [ 1951 have considered spray combustion in a
7.3 lWswbmduldk*nly-tedSpnysBwnlrgl liquid rocket engine, and by using various approxi-
tna-- mations have developed analytical expressions to
in most practical systems wch as a furnace or a obtain either combustion efticiency or the mini-
m&et m$ne thecombI&M pmxs is much mum chamber length required for complete
mote cxtxykatedduet) twoimportant factors. combustion.
Firstly. to a large extent *be mixii of the fuel Using such a general theoretical treatment,
and uxidmt t&es pke in the combustion cham Spalding [190] investigated the effects of droplet
bet and thus the me&~& of tbc mixing process size. droplet injection velocity, final gas velocity,
ptay atl itQpoftmtde. semdly, theflow pat- and the properties of the fuels and products. It
terns am comp&catej bv turbulence or recircula- was possible to obtain an analytic expression for
tku\. Furtharac#e the drop&&s that make up the the length of the combustion chamber necessary
rFrrycmrtka&quat~~badwithregardto to obtain complete vaporisation of a mono-sized
brr & spathl distrikrtlon and any droplet colli- spray. It WOEconcluded that the combustion
26 ALAN WILLlAStS

&amber necesary for eompiete vaporisation is 1991 whtch &chutes the process of droplet
proportional to the square of the inttinl droplet breakup. It was conch&d fmm computer studies
radius that increasing the htjectton velocity will that this breakup h probably the most important
increase the length requtred for compkne evapora- effect in htgh veloctty spray combustton. As a 16
tion and that fuel preheat is advantageous. srdt of dmplet breakup the combustton mne
!Similarconclusions have been reached by Wth tends to be narrow and relattveiy krsensitive to
gams [ 1,192J who found that to obtain 8 short mess drodet size, stze distribution. velocity or
chamberlength with a gtven mass flow the dmp temperature of the liquid.
let radius must be smag, the vaportsatton rate httbi$etnL[MO~haveaisodwelopedacozn-
should be large, and the injection velocity should phensiw model plo@mmA for solution by
be small. it was ah0 shown that monodttrse computer. In thts model both fuel and oxidtser
sprays gave a higher combustion efftciency than a consumption are considered so that dtffemnt de-
spray of a nonuniform droplet size dtstributicn grees of atomtsatton and vaporisation rates are pas-
with the same average droplet radius [ 11. Wi sible. Also a targe number of droplet size groups
liamset at. (1931 cons&e-d spray combustion in are used to represent each pmpehant spray. The
a diverging reactor for two types of Spray& a injection region. where onedtmeru~ahty does
mono-sized spray and one with a Rosin-Rammler not a&. is treated aeparatety and also dropkt
distribution of sizes. In both casesexpressions bmahup h considered In a dmplifkd way. In thts
were obtained for the reaction rate whtch could be way It wu possibb to &Ste the ircei velocttie~
related to experimentally measured pressure pro gas tempemtures, pressure m pr-centsge fuel
fdes in an appropriate reactor. vaporised and burned, etc. as a functio.> of dts-
R’Yashenko [I951 also considered a steady tance from the injection point.
state, one-dimensional model invoiving dmpiet
combustion and obtained essentiatty the same r-e- 1.4. sbs4teadB I--B-M
suits as the other investigations. -spq-r
Detailed models of spray combustion have been fn certain Circe ths tnjection of the spray
developed which abow for the role played by in- and the formatton of a combustibh mixture may
jection and atomtsation, and which perndt the use dominate the combustion charaetertstics of the
of complex drop size distributions and realistic system Thus in the combusrron of dense fuel
droplet ballistics. The solution of the equations spram the assunljrtton that a burnmg dropkt is
derived for such models is only posstbie by means .nmersed rn an inttnite quantity of gaseousoxi.
of numerical methods using a higb speed dtgttal &ser 11U\ ‘.\I longer be v-ttd and h that case may
computer. Riem and Heidmann [I 14.1%. I971 bc contt&d by a dt& at ma&an&m. In par-
considered a vqortsation contmtked me&a&m tkutar.suchcaaesarefoundrbenprorurajet
and calculated the qmis&on rate and the drop atom&s are em$oyd, for exampk in internat
let histories to show the effect of different pro combustton eqhres nd ttubo+sts. b addttton,
pellants, droplet size distributions, and dmpkt the trtjsctton vehldtke of dmpkts may be of Im-
ballistics The results were correlated dth an pwtamx. Fat erampk. ttt a lpcmt &ttatyshof
equation for the generalbed &amber iength, dr@etwrkwtKwrini3jetcombwhdumbtr
The effect of this more reahstic treatment wz3 Hrymodctrl.@o1) rha#dthrtaa~
to reduce the htfhrenee of the msan dmpkr rsdul\ qutncw of the decdcmthm psocc~ocauccd by
on effective chamber length from the squi :z 1SA rn,iecttonund by tucboteAcr tts~t the drop& must
proposed by Spalding to the power of 1.45. The bcJse‘~tetympor&edbefrwTIdtchidm
resultsshowedthatastlveraogeofdmpletsimtn tIuncsMbeestabtisbed.nvtscawmaveryfud-
the spray increases the Amber length also tn. liCbre@nmbtrWmsdMuthe~orfecn.
crmse~ and that the combustion emcimcy for a vtm?drq&Irr_rlnruIonstaktugptprcbut
gtvenlengthofchambertsdetemdnedbvthepm- wbefetberetshttleWmbWtkndurto~of
portion of large drop&s present. Jt.
Asprayeombusttonmodelhmbeeuueed[tW). Reodsttly-ateotmnkrbeendi.
COMBUSTION OF DROPLETS 0~ LIQUID FUELS 21

rected to modelling the combustion processesin a pollution control and the necessity IO increase the
diesel combustion chamber so as to predict the efficiency of industrial combustion units.
influence of operating variables on heat release A considerable number cf problems remain un-
rates and on the formation of soot and NO,. In solved. In particular a more accurate analysisin.
compression iguition engines, it has been well es. volving finite reaction rate chemistry and using a
tablkhed (2021 that combustion occurs in the realistic chemical model is apparently necessaryIf
periphery of the dense injected sprays, and this predictions of rc/rL and other structural features
situation has been difftcult to analyse.’ However, of a burning droplet are to be improved, The
recently, Khan and coworkers (203-2051, have whole area of the combustion of moving droplets
had considerable successin modelling spray com- also needs considerable attention.
bustion in direct injection chambers in which the Amongst the problems of a practical nature m
injected spray is considered to behave as a gaseous which information is lacking are the following:
jet for estimation of air entrainment and local
stoichtometries. More recently a orore detailed (i) ‘The combustion of multicomponent mix-
analysts involving consideration of the behavior of tures and especially the liquid phase reactions that
the discrete droplets has been developed [206] occur in the droplet.
based on a jet theory analysis of Adler 12071. (ii) The factors that control the mode of droplet
Asfar as industrial combustion chambers and combustion (envelope, wake, or evaporatjon) un-
furnaces are concerned no comparable analyses der a wide range of practical combustion condi.
have been undertaken although here in many in- tions. This would simplify analysesof processes
stances an analogous situation to that in compres- in dense sprays.
sion-ignition engines can occur. Thus Chigier and (iii) The processesthat lead !o smoke
hi&reath [?08j have recently shown experimen- formation.
tally that peripheral combustion occurs with con- (iv) The processesthat occur under critical con-
ventional industrial pressurejets and have shown ditions in which moving droplets undergo corn
that the droplets in the inner zone move more combustion.
slowly than those in the outer zone.
Before a more detailed model of such combus- I an! indebted to Dr. D. Bradley, Professor F. V.
tion systems can be established more information Braceo. and Dr. G. Dixon-Lewis for extremely
is reqoire~ particularly in respect to entrainment heipful discussions and comments.
of air and recirculated gasesby sprays and of drop
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28 ALAN WlLLlAMS

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30 ALAN WlLLIA?dS

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