17U Seotion M: METHODS FOR ^IMPROVING THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES,

INCLUDING RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN CONSTRUCTING AND COMPACTING EARTH 'FILLS

No. tt-5
COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT METHODS
FOR COMPACTING COHESIONLESS SOILS
Reg.-Baurat Dr.-Ing. Wilhelm Loos, Deutsche Forsohungsgesellsohaft fflr Boderameohanik,
Berlin-Charlottenburg, Germany

I. The oonstruotion of the new German highways and other large projeots necessitated an investi­
gation of the effectiveness of the various compacting methods for earth materials. Formerly oonorete
pavements, for instanoe, were in general laid on old bases and fills the settlement of whioh was nearly
oompleted. The new program oalled for the oonstruotion of high type pavement on new fills. Therefore,
emphasis had to be plaoed on uniform oompaotion. Earth materials in nature are seldom of uniform
oharaoter. Therefore, similar problems as in road building are found on other large engineering works.
II. On account of those facts our engineers on the job wanted:
1. Data about density of soils;
2. Simple speoifioation for compaction;
3 . Plain methods for determination of amount and depth of oompaotion.
For this purpose three methods of testing were used.
a» Determining the pore space (see Fig. l). With steel cylinders rather undisturbed samples
of soil were taken. The pore 3 paoe, the grain size distribution and the ooeffioient of uniformity were
determined. For our purpose an arbitrary soale was established ranging from the pore spaoe of the
loosest state as 0 to the densest obtained in laboratory as 100$ (Fig. 1 3 )
b. Another method oonsisted in measuring the elevation of the surfaoe before and after ooin-
paotion.
c. Recording the velooity of propagation of elastio waves. For instanoe, we found sand and
ooarse sand fills between 100 and 520 m./seo.
d. Other small testing tools were used on some projeots, but they soratohed only the surfaoe
and therefore their value was limited. I wish to point out that the objeot of my discussion will only
be the desoription of oompaoting cohesionless soilB. Of course, in nature there are no entirely 00-
hesionless soils, but for the sake of brevity, this expression is used today also for ooarse soil
material with small oohesion.
In Fig. 3 oan easily be seen that there exists a fundamental difference in the oompaotion of soils
with uniform and non-uniform grain size. In the first material the density may be inoreased only by
the oollapse of the existing loose struoture, while for the second this collapse is aooompanied by
moving of smaller grains into the spaoes between the next larger ones.

Methods of Cqmpaotion.
1. Ponding. Water was punped into ponds on the fill (see Fig. I;), but due to the formation of an
impervious olay film the further penetration of the water was hindered. For this reason the effective­
ness of the method 7ms relatively small.
2 . Washing. (Fig. 5“ 9) 1 to 1 l/2 oubio metres of water per oubio metre of sand aro used flowing
out of pipe-lines (Fig. 5 and 6 ) and tank-oars (Fig. 7 ). The olay particles were carried to the oentre
line (Fig. 3) and an unequal distribution of the soil resulted. This is objectionable in the case of
a fill for roads (frost heaving), but accumulation of olay by this method is better for a dam or in
the oonstruotion of a oanal dyke (Fig. 10). As shown in Fig. 9 the results (p ) are unequal and
rather poor for sand. For a non-uniform mixed soil of coarse and fine material the hydraulio method
would be fairly good.
3» Consolidation by the impact of heavy 3teel plates. (Fig. 1 1 and 12). In 1933 when oompaotion
was oalled for on many jobs only the so-oalled universal units were available. A oast iron plate of
about 2 tons weight was fastened on the rope of a steam shovel and the impaot of its fall from 0 .
1-g- metres utilized it for oompaotion. Graph (Fig. 1 3 ) gives the penetration of oompaotion down to 1
metre. The oompaotion of the sand in its initial state was only 2L$ of our scale. The effioienoy of
ponding (see ourve III) was rather poor and curves II and IV gives the results of impaot method re­
spectively without and with ponding. The grain size distribution of the sand is shown in Fig. 1 )4.,
Los I.
With sands of uniform grain size (Los II, Fig. lij.) the dry impaot method proved more efficient
than ponding or even the oombined effeot of ponding and impaot. (Fig. 1 5 )
In the course of the investigation the effeot of different weights of the iron plate was tested.
Contrary to our expectation on inorease of the weight over I45 tons did not give any inoreased oompao­
tion (Fig. 16). Apparently the great foroe of the impact blow disturbed and loosened the soil slightly.
The curves in Fig. 16 left show only the inorease of oompaotion oompared with the fill as we found it
when starting the test. Fig. 17 shows the results obtained by measuring the elevation of the surfaoe
before and after tamping.
1+. Delmag Bull Frog. It is an explosion rammer of 500 kilograms and 1,000 kilograms (Fig. 18).
A oross-seotion is given in Fig. 19 . It tamps strips of about 2 to 2^ feet wide. The results of tests
are given in Fig. 20. The ourves show the results of 2 to 1+ runs. The working is very good, the
penetration of aotion is not so deep as of the heavy plates. This outfit is preferred by oontraotors
beoause it fits better to variations of work and ooBts only about l/8th of a universal unit. About
175
 M-5
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 M-5 179
65O "Delmag frogs" are now in use*
5 . Also oompreased air maohlnes have been used (Fig. 21). They ware rather expensive to use and
their small hammers had less effectiveness (Fig. 22), if oompared with a ramming plate (soo curve III).
6 . Tamping Machine "Hof". (Fig. 2 3 ) The maohine is of the oaterpillar type with four lrf ton
hammers. It oovers 560 square metres an hour. As just one outfit is working we have not yet had the
opportunity of testing it on a job. It is said to work satisfactorily.
7 . Vibration maohine. Originally this maohine was used as a soil testing device. Then when the
settlements on sand during our soil tests (Fig. 2l±) were observed the maohine was also built for 00m-
paoting of soils only (Fig. 25). The weight is 25 tons, it is of the oaterpillar type, has a motor of
about 70 horse-power whioh by oentrifugal power of steel masses produoes vibrations. When working in
resonanoe the friotion of the grains deoreases and they flow into the voidB of the larger ones and a
very dense packing is obtained. The testing was done as above mentioned. The results are to be seen
in Fig. 26• Curve I shows the average oompaotion of the natural soil from the borrow pit. Curve II
shows the density of the fill before compacting. Curves Ilia and Illb the fill after having been ram­
med with iron plates. The differenoe between Ilia and Illb is the result of more blows on the side
strips as shown in Fig. 2J. Curve IV in Fig. 26 shows the oompaotion obtained by the vibration maohine
moving ahead. Curve V whan working at a stand still. Generally that means a rather uniform oompaoting
of the whole layer, even observed in the lower layer.
8 . Rolling. Steam or motor rollers were not suocessful for sand, in spite of spikes on the wheels.
The rollers sometimes oould not even move on sand (Fig. 28). Hie success was better on oohesive soils
by orushing the lumps of sandy olay. Against sliding of the wheels edges were fitted (Fig. 29).
9 . "Soil compaot^p; pile". These piles were made similar to the Franki pile (Vol I, H-J, Pro-
oeedingsT* In a steel tube, whioh is slowly being pulled out, gravel is tamped in by a three-ton ham­
mer blook* These gravel piles were already proposed a year and a half ago for the highways to the
south of Frankfurt a. M. There was a good opportunity for a large soale test by oompaoting sand de­
posits of about 15 metres in thickness. A lowering of the surfaoe of about one metre was observed
after the piles were driven. The result was checked also by determining the pore spaoe which de­
creased from U2 to 35 #. Fig. 30 shows the testing by plotting the velocity of propagation of elastic
waves. Fig. 31 shows the settling of the testing machine after the various stages of the test. After
exoavating the sand around suoh a pile it looked like oonorete. (Fig. 32)
10. Ruetteldruok
(shaking pressure). Water
is injeoted by pipes through
nozzles into the ground and
on the surfaoe vibrations
of 3*000 per minute are ap­
plied. Large soale tests
are running for fills as
shown in Fig. 33 f°r
huge deposits in bore holes
(Fig. 31+). The oompaotion
is very high, but this
method requires permeable
soils.
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some idea about the required

density for road subgrades,
we examined old railroad or
road embankments. Of course,
we oannot say that our new
highways with their higher
loads and the greater ve­
locity of riding will need
Fig. 3U Fig. 35 only the same oompaotion.
First we tested two fills
made in 1923. One of them had never been used up to 1935* the other one used for railroad traffio all
the time, the oompaotion in the first oase was 10 to 20?? and in the seoond about 60$. Another test
oonoerns a road fill more than 100 years old made of olay-sand. We, therefore, observed a rather high
oompaotion (825?). Fig. 35 shows under old pavements of I.30 meters, the oompaoting down to 7*5 metres.
The natural soil is never found in its highest density. We found it between 20 and i+0# of our
soale. I should say, therefore, about 50/° in an embankment is suffioient. Standards should not yet
be mde and good uniformity is much more important than a high density in various places. The effeot
of the desoribed methods depends on the grain size distribution. For Instance, the non-uniform sand
readies in general a higher reoord of compaction than a uniform one.
We are entirely oonaoious of the faot that there is much more"to be investigated concerning rela­
tions between soil properties, effioienoy of oompaoting methods, eto. Not only the researoh labora­
tories, but also every engineer on the job may help to increase these reoords. That should be a good
way for the combination of theory and praotioe.
 180 14-6

No. M-6 OPENING DISCUSSION

Dr. Karl v. Terzaghi, Professor at the Teohnisohe Hoohsohule, Vienna

In order to establish a link between the topic of my own dis-

oussion and that of Mr. Mohr, I wish to begin by answering his ques­
tion, "Wherein may reside the souroe of the disturbance?"
One of several possible souroes of disturbanoe in the soil con­
sists in the deformation whioh the soil undergoes before it is pene­
trated by the sampling tool. The sketch at the left shows observa­
tions which I made by means of a model test on a remoulded olay in a
plastic state, which oontained thin equidistant layers of oolouring
matter. While foroing the sampling tool into the olay, the indi­
vidual layers beoame subject to lateral displacement before they
were penetrated by the cutting edge of the sampler, as shown in the
figure. The foroe which produoes this squeezing effect is exaotly
equal to the foroe required to press the sampler into the olay. If
the olay is very stiff, as for instance the clay on whioh many of
the buildings in Vienna are looated, samples oan only be obtained by
driving the sampler into the material by successive blows exerted
by a heavy weight* It would be strange if this brutal treatment had
no influenoe whatsoever on the struoture of the olay.
Another source of disturbance is due to the fact that the removal of the sample out of the drill­
hole involves replacement of the initial state of stress by capillary pressure. Since a oertain amount
of swelling is inevitable, the oapillary pressure is always somewhat lower than the pressure whioh
aoted on the olay while it was still in the ground. Furthermore, in the undisturbed ground the ver­
tical and the horizontal pressure are seldom equal. In intensely pre-compressed olays, the horizontal
pressure may be several times greater than the vertioal one. In oontrast to this original state of
stress the capillary pressure aots in every direotion with the same intensity. Hence the state in
whioh the olay arrives in the laboratory may be very different from what it was in the ground, re­
gardless of the care with whioh the samples were taken.
After this side trip into Mr. Mohr’s domain, I oan prooeed to the general discussions whioh were
assigned to me. The first topio oonsists of the soil3 laboratories. Judging from the contents of
the reports on the equipment and organization of soils laboratories, A-l to 25, one gets the impres­
sion that no vital difference exists between the methods whioh are used for testing the soils in dif­
ferent oountries. The so-oalled simplified soil tests, including the Atterberg tests are already
standardized. An exception to this satisfactory status of our soil testing methods exists only in
oonneotion with investigations of the shearing resistance of cohesive soils. This is due to an appall­
ingly great variety of faotora on whioh the shearing resistance of a given soil at a given normal
pressure depends. Some of these factors are desoribed in Paper No. D-7, Vol I. -An extremely valuable
contribution to the knowledge of this subject is oontained in Paper No. D-ll, Vol II, which deaoribes
a rather small fraotion of the results of recent investigations performed by the author of this paper,
Mr. J. Hvorslev. To illustrate the difficulties one has to overoome in oonneotion with similar in­
vestigations, I with to mention that Mr. Hvorslev worked for a period of three years on his analysis
of the different factors which determine the shearing resistanoe of two typioal olays in a remoulded
state. Yet the results of his investigations are still far from being oomplete. Muoh more pains­
taking work of this kind needs to be performed before we shall be in a position to standardize per­
tinent testing prooedure in a final and satisfactory manner.
The second topio whioh was assigned to me for this afternoon deals with the methods for the ar­
tificial consolidation of porous or fissured materials.
The best knovm and most comnon method for filling the fissureB in rocks or the voids in coarse­
grained aggregates oonsists in grouting the voids with a mixture of water and Portland oement. In
exceptional oases, fine sand is added to the aggregate. In the U.S.A. this method has been practised
for many deoades. It is usually done under low pressures not in exoess of about 10 atm or 1J|0 lbs
per sq in. The mixing plant is transported from one hole to the next one and the holes are grouted
over their full length.
After the method was introduced into Europe, its importance was rapidly recognized and appre­
ciated. On small jobs the traditional Amerioan Technique is used. However, as the size and the im­
portance of the grouting jobs inoreased, involving the grouting of holes with a depth of several
hundred feet, a rather radioal departure from the traditional procedures beoame inevitable. The most
essential features of European methods for large-soale grouting are the following. The mixing is done
in a stationary mixing plant and the grout is delivered to the drill holes through a pipe line with a
length up to 1000 feet. Prior to grouting a hole the permeability i6 tested in sections with a length
of 3 or h feet. The water pressure is raised in steps from 0 to 5» 10, 15 and 20 atm. The grouting
is done over seotions with a length of about 17 feet. While a section is being grouted, its upper
end i6 plugged by means of an obturator. The tight fit lpetvreen the obturator and the 7/a11 of the hole
is accomplished by means of a set of leather or rubber beIIs whose outside diameter is slightly
grop.ter than the inside diameter of the hole. The upward prossure whioh acts onto the plug i6 trans­
ferred by the grout pipe onto a set of weights located above the ground. If the sides of the drill­
hole are fairly smooth and stable, the grouting operations are always started at the lower boundary
 u-6 181
of the zone subjeot to grouting.
In exceptional oases pressures up to 100 atm or of 12+00 lbs/sq in are used for the purpose of in­
creasing the width of existing fissures or of producing a continuous system of grout veins* If the
depth of the hole exceeds 300 feet, horizontal galleries are exoave.ted at vertical distances not in
exoess of about 160 feet* The oros6-seotion of the galleries must be large enough to permit the as­
sembly and operation of a drilling outfit within the gallery. One of the most important of recent
grouting operations was carried out a short tome ago in oonnection with the construction of a rookfill
dam in Bou Hanifia, Algiers. A description of this interesting job will be presented by Mr. Drouhin
at the International World Power Conferenoe, to be held this fall in Washington, D. C.
The field of application for grouting fissured rocks ie limited by the fact that no fissure oan
be oemented with a width of less than about 0,1 mm or 1/25 in. For the same reason no fine sand or--
gravel with an admixture of fine sand oan be grouted. If the effective size of a compact sand is
smaller than about 1.2+ mm or that of a loose sand smaller than 0*5 mm, the grout merely displaces the
material by lateral compression and the result of the grouting operations oonsists in compact, tree­
shaped bodies of solidified cement separated from eaoh other by layers of sand with unimpaired per-
meability. A knowledge of this simple faot would have prevented a great number of expensive and dis­
couraging failures.
In order to introduce the grout into the voids of a bed of coarse-grained sand or gravel, a hole
is drilled with a diameter of about 3 inches. Then a 1-inch groutpipe is introduced into the hole,
the spaoe between the groutpipe and the oasing is filled out with ooarsegrained sand and then the oas-
ing is withdrawn. A short time after the grouting operations are started, the grout pipe "freezes in".
To establish free oomnunioation between the pipe and the voids of the adjoining ground, small quan­
tities of very quiok-aoting explosives are introduced into the grout pipe. By firing these ohargee,
both the grout pipe and the adjoining shell of oemented sand are split open. The void6 are usually
spaced 3 or 2+ feet apart vertically.
One of the most interesting and suooessful grouting operations of this kind was performed by
Mr. Rodio at the site of the San Domenioo dam across the Sagittario river in northern Italy. The bot­
tom of the valley was found to consist to a depth of about 180 feet below river level of coarse gravel
and sand with ocoasional lenses of clay and very fine sand. On account of the exoessive average per­
meability of the valley fill, the attempt to lower the water-level by pumping failed after excavation
had reached a depth of about 50 feet. Henoe it was decided to intercept the flow of water towerds the
pit by means of two cutoff walls to be obtained by grouting the valley fill to its full depth over a
width of about ll+ feet. At the site of each wall the drillholes were arranged in three rows, 3 .3 feet
apart. The grout was foroed into the ground at pressures up to 100 atm. After the grouting operations
were finished, the grouted zones proved to be impermeable and stable enough to permit excavation to
bed-rock with a very small amount of timbering. The water oame almost exclusively from fissures in
the rook and the discharge did not exceed about 16 l/seo or 2+,2 gal/sec.
The limitations of the suooessful application of the method of grouting are two fold. If the
underground oontains well-defined zones with an excessive permeability or else very wide, continuous
clefts the absorbing capacity of the drillhole is almost unlimited, because there is a continuous flow
of grout towards the outlet of the open zone. If this outlet is looated beneath the level of the
river it is very difficult to stop the flow. On the San Domenioo job described above, 2+000 tons of
oement out of a total of about 7000 were lost in this fashion. At the site of the Hales Bar dam in
Tennessee, the grouting method had to be abandoned on aooount of exoessive losses of grout through
holes and cleft6 . It was suooessfully replaoed by a method invented by P. W. Christians, involving
the injeotion of asphalt in a visoous liquid state. While the asphalt travels through the grout hole
towards the fissures, its high temperature is maintained by means of a simple heating device.
On the other hand, if the voids or fissures are narrower than about 0.1 mm, the cement does not
enter the voids, because the oement grains beoome clogged at the entranoe of the voids. Yet, in some
oases, the flow of water through a fissured rook or through a sand may be important enough to require
interoeption. To handle suoh eases the methods involving the injeotion of chemicals were invented.
One oannot help being surprised if on'e learns for the first time about the number and variety of
pertinent patents which were issued since about 1880 and it is rather difficult to conceive of any
suitable mixture without a predecessor. Most of the methods are based on the prinoiple of successive
or simultaneous injeotion of two liquid substances whose mutual reaotion produoes an inorganic gel
intended to olose the voids of the injeoted material. Most of the patents proved to be commercial
failures, some of them due to unanticipated difficulties in practical application and others on ao­
oount of the inventor’ 6 failure to realize the natural limits of the range for successful practical ap­
plication.
One of the best known and best advertised methods of this kind bears the name "Joosten System".
Since the reaotion between the two chemicals used in this method oocurs very rapidly, the second
ohemical is injeoted after the porous material has been saturated with the first one. JSie injeotion
tubes resemble well-points with a diameter of 1 inoh spaced about 2*5 feet apart. The lower end of
eaoh tube, up to a distanoe of about 2,5 feet from the drive point, is perforated. The liquids are
forced into the ground at a pressure of about 15 atm. In dean, fine sands, with an effective size
of the order of 0*1 mn, the suocess of the chemical treatment aocording to the Joosten system ie per­
fect. The resulting artificial sandstone has a compressive strength of more than 20 tons/sq ft and
the strength inoreases with age. However the costs per unit of volume of injeoted material are hardly
short of the price of oonorete placed by the compressed air method. Furthermore the ohanoes for sue-
182 U-6

oe6Bful treatment rapidly decreases with decreasing grain-size and sand-silt or sand-clay mixtures
oannot be treated at all. The reason seems to be oonnected with the type of flow whioh is produoed
by foroing the seoond chemical through the voids* In very fine-grained soils the second liquid per­
colates through the porous material at a suboritioal velooity whereupon the intimate mixture with the
first one fails to take plaoe.
In suoh oases one is obliged to use one of the several methods involving the injeotion of a mix­
ture of ohemloals whose reaction does not begin until several hours after the mixture has been in­
jected* One method of this type was mentioned by Mr* Rodio in his leoture* Another very promising
one is dealt with in Paper No* M-l, Vol I* It consists in injecting a mixture of an emulsion of as­
phalt and a ooagulent which produces flooculation at a specified time after the mixture was prepared#
None of the methods oited oan be used for the purpose of solidifying soft days* An electro-
ohemical prooedure which serves this purpose was Invented by L. Casagrande* It is described in
Paper No. M-3, Vol I*
The preceding review leaves no doubt that there is no method for dosing fissures or voids, which
is successfully applicable irrespective of the nature of the porous material. Most of the deplorable
oontneroial failures of other methods were due to ignoring this fundamental fact and much money was
wasted for the same reason. Hence the most important task of research in this field oonsists in in­
vestigating the oonditions which must be satisfied for suooessful application of the individual methods
of treatment. Published reports on grouting operations or on chemical treatment are practically worth­
less unless they oontain an adequate description of the treated materials, inoluding data on the width
and spaoing of the fissures for rooks and the results of mechanical analysis for sand and silt.