26/07/2013

Electron Orbitals Multiple Covalent Bonds

• Each electron shell
Name Electron- Structural Space-
(molecular shell formula filling
formula) diagram model
– Consists of a specific number of orbitals
(a) Hydrogen (H2).

TEORI SEL Electron orbitals.

Two hydrogen
atoms can form a
single bond.
H H

Each orbital holds

up to two electrons. x Y

Z
(b) Oxygen (O2).
26 Juli 2013 Electron-shell diagrams.
1s orbital 2s orbital Three 2p orbitals 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals
Two oxygen atoms
share two pairs of O O
Each shell is shown with electrons to form
its maximum number of a double bond.
electrons, grouped in pairs.

(a) First shell (b) Second shell (c) Neon, with two filled shells
(maximum (maximum (10 electrons) Figure 2.11 A, B
Figure 2.9 2 electrons) 8 electrons)

4 7

Chemical Bonding
Compounds & Covalent Bonds
Why do some elements react? Covalent Bonds Hydrogen atoms (2 H)
Name
(molecular
Electron-
shell
Structural Space-
filling
formula
1 In each hydrogen formula) diagram model
atom, the single electron
• Valence electrons • Sharing of a pair
is held in its orbital by
its attraction to the
+ +
(c) Water (H2O).
proton in the nucleus.
– Are those in the outermost, or valence shell of valence
Two hydrogen
atoms and one O H
oxygen atom are
– Determine the chemical behavior of an atom electrons 2 When two hydrogen
atoms approach each
joined by covalent
bonds to produce a
H
other, the electron of molecule of water.
+ +
• Examples: H2 each atom is also
attracted to the proton
in the other nucleus.
(d) Methane (CH4).
Four hydrogen
3 The two electrons atoms can satisfy H
become shared in a the valence of
covalent bond, one carbon
forming an H2 + + atom, forming H C H
molecule. methane.
Hydrogen H
Figure 2.10 molecule (H2)
Figure 2.11 C, D

2 5 8

Electron Orbitals Covalent Bonding Covalent Bonding

• An orbital
• A molecule
– Is the three-dimensional space where an electron
is found 90% of the time – Consists of two or more atoms held together by • Electronegativity
covalent bonds
– Is the attraction of a particular kind of atom for the
• A single bond electrons in a covalent bond
– Is the sharing of one pair of valence electrons • The more electronegative an atom
• A double bond – The more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward
– Is the sharing of two pairs of valence electrons itself

3 6 9

1
 26/07/2013

Covalent Bonding Ions Hydrogen Bonds

• A hydrogen bond
• In a nonpolar • An anion
– Forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded
covalent bond – Is negatively charged
to one electronegative atom is also attracted to
– The atoms have ions
another electronegative atom
similar • A cation – +

H
electronegativities
Water
– Is positively charged (H2O) O A hydrogen
bond results

– Share the electron H

from the
attraction
between the
equally + partial positive
charge on the
– hydrogen atom
of water and
Ammonia the partial
(NH3) N negative charge
on the nitrogen
H H atom of
+ H δ+ ammonia.

Figure 2.15
+
10 13 16

Covalent Bonding Ionic Bonding Van der Waals Interactions

• In a polar covalent bond • An ionic bond
– The atoms have differing electronegativities – Is an attraction between anions and cations
– Share the electrons unequally 1 The lone valence electron of a sodium
atom is transferred to join the 7 valence
electrons of a chlorine atom.
• Van der Waals interactions
– Occur when transiently positive and negative
2 Each resulting ion has a completed regions of molecules attract each other
valence shell. An ionic bond can form
between the oppositely charged ions.

Because oxygen (O) is more electronegative than hydrogen (H), + –

shared electrons are pulled more toward oxygen.
δ–
Na Cl Na Cl

This results in a
partial negative
charge on the
oxygen and a Na+ Cl–
partial positive Sodium on Chloride ion
O charge on Na Cl
(a cation) (an anion)
Sodium atom Chlorine atom
the hydrogens. Figure 2.13 (an uncharged (an uncharged
atom) atom)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Figure 2.12 H H
δ+ δ+
H2O
11 14 17

Ionic Bonds Weak Chemical Bonds Weak Bonds

• In some cases, atoms strip electrons away • Several types of weak chemical bonds are • Weak chemical bonds
from their bonding partners important in living systems – Reinforce the shapes of large molecules
• Electron transfer between two atoms – Help molecules adhere to each other
creates ions
• Ions
– Are atoms with more or fewer electrons
than usual
– Are charged atoms

12 15 18

2
 26/07/2013

LE 6-7
Surface area increases while

Proteins Lipids
Total volume remains constant

• Hydrophobic molecules
• Most diverse and complex macromolecules in – Energy storage, membrane components, signal 5
the cell molecules 1
1

• Used for structure, function and information – Triglycerides (fat), phospholipids, waxes, sterols Total surface area

• Made of linearly arranged amino acid residues

(height x width x 6 150 750
number of sides x
number of boxes)
– “folded” up with “active” regions Carbohydrates Total volume
(height x width x length
• Sugars, storage (glycogen, starch), Structural X number of boxes)
1 125 125

polymers (cellulose and chitin)

Surface-to-volume
• Major substrates of energy metabolism ratio
6 1.2 6
(surface area  volume)

LE 6-2
10 m

Types of Proteins Nucleic Acids

Human height
1m
Length of some
nerve and
muscle cells

Unaided eye
0.1 m

• DNA Chicken egg

1) Enzymes – catalyzes covalent bond breakage or formation

(deoxyribonucleic
1 cm

2) Structural – collagen, elastin, keratin, etc.

acid) and RNA
Frog egg
1 mm

3) Motility – actin, myosin, tubulin, etc.

encode genetic Measurements

4) Regulatory – bind to DNA to switch genes on or off 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 –2 meter (m) = 0.4 inch 100 µm

Light microscope
information for
1 millimeter (mm) = 10 –3 m
1 micrometer (µm) = 10 –3 mm = 10–6 m Most plant and

5) Storage – ovalbumin, casein, etc.

1 nanometer (nm) = 10 –3 µm = 10–9 m animal cells

synthesis of all
10 µm
Nucleus

6) Hormonal – insulin, nerve growth factor (NGF), etc.

Most bacteria

proteins 1 µm
Mitochondrion

7) Receptors – hormone and neurotransmitter receptors

Electron microscope
• Blue print 100 nm
Smallest bacteria

8) Transport – carries small molecules or irons Viruses

Ribosomes

9) Special purpose proteins – green fluorescent protein, etc. 10 nm

Proteins

Lipids
1 nm
Small molecules

Atoms
0.1 nm

What is ATP? Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

• Nucleotides
– “Carry” chemical energy
from easily hydrolyzed
phosphoanhydride
bonds

• Combine to form coenzymes (coenzyme A (CoA)

• Used as signaling molecules (cyclic AMP)

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 26/07/2013

Pili: attachment structures on

the surface of some prokaryotes
Modes of Transport
Nucleoid: region where the
cell’s DNA is located (not
• The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows
enclosed by a membrane)
Ribosomes: organelles that
sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients,
synthesize proteins and waste to service the volume of the cell
Plasma membrane: membrane
enclosing the cytoplasm • The general structure of a biological membrane is a
Cell wall: rigid structure outside
the plasma membrane double layer of phospholipids
Capsule: jelly-like outer coating
Bacterial of many prokaryotes
chromosome 0.5 µm

(a) A typical Flagella: locomotion (b) A thin section through the

rod-shaped bacterium organelles of bacterium Bacillus coagulans
some bacteria (TEM)

Figure 6.6 A, B

LE 6-9a LE 6-8
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER
Nuclear envelope

Carrier-Mediated Transport
Flagellum Rough ER Smooth ER
Nucleolus NUCLEUS

Chromatin

Centrosome
Plasma membrane
• Integral protein binds to the solute and undergo a
Outside of cell
Carbohydrate side chain conformational change to transport the solute
across the membrane
CYTOSKELETON

Microfilaments Hydrophilic
Intermediate filaments region
Microtubules

Ribosomes: Inside of cell 0.1 µm

Hydrophobic
Microvilli
region
Hydrophilic Phospholipid Proteins
Golgi apparatus
region
Peroxisome TEM of a plasma membrane Structure of the plasma membrane
Mitochondrion
Lysosome

In animal cells but not plant cells:

Lysosomes
Centrioles
Flagella (in some plant sperm)

LE 6-9b
Nuclear
envelope Rough

Crossing the Membrane Channel Mediated Transport

NUCLEUS Nucleolus endoplasmic
reticulum
Chromatin
Smooth
Centrosome endoplasmic
reticulum

• Proteins form aqueous pores allowing specific solutes to

• Simple or passive diffusion
Ribosomes

pass across the membrane

(small brown dots)

Central vacuole
• Passive transport • Allow much faster transport than carrier proteins
Golgi
apparatus
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments
CYTOSKELETON
– Channels or pores
• Facilitated transport
Microtubules

Mitochondrion – Assisted by membrane-floating proteins

Peroxisome
Plasma
membrane
Chloroplast
• Active transport pumps and carriers
– ATP is required
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
In plant cells but not animal cells:
Chloroplasts – Enzymes and reactions may be required
Central vacuole and tonoplast
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata

4
 26/07/2013

Coupled Transport Endocytosis and Exocytosis The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell
• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is
• Some solutes “go along for the ride” with a • Exocytosis usually the most conspicuous organelle
carrier protien or an ionophore - membrane vesicle fuses with cell membrane, • The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating
Can also be a Channel releases enclosed material to extracellular it from the cytoplasm
coupled transport
space.
• Endocytosis
- cell membrane invaginates, pinches in,
creates vesicle enclosing contents

LE 6-10
Nucleus

Active Transport Receptor Mediated Endocytosis 1 µm Nucleolus

Nucleus

Chromatin
• Three main mechanisms: Nuclear envelope:

– coupled carriers: a solute is Inner membrane

Outer membrane
driven uphill compensated by a
different solute being Nuclear pore

transported downhill
(secondary) Pore
complex
– ATP-driven pump: uphill
transport is powered by ATP Rough ER

hydrolysis (primary)
Surface of nuclear envelope
Ribosome 1 µm
– Light-driven pump: uphill 0.25 µm

transport is powered by energy Close-up of nuclear

from photons envelope

(bacteriorhodopsin)
Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are

housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes
Active Transport Phases of the Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle consists of
• Energy is required • The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic – The mitotic phase
cell
– Interphase
• Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make INTERPHASE
proteins
S
G1 (DNA synthesis)

G2

Figure 12.5

5
 26/07/2013

Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system regulates protein

• A comparison of mitosis and meiosis

traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell
Functions of Smooth ER
• Components of the endomembrane system:
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Parent cell Chiasma (site of
MEIOSIS I
• The smooth ER
Nuclear envelope
(before chromosome replication) crossing over)

–
Prophase
Chromosome Chromosome
Prophase I
– Endoplasmic reticulum – Synthesizes lipids
Golgi apparatus
replication replication

– Metabolizes carbohydrates
Tetrad formed by
Duplicated chromosome
(two sister chromatids)
2n = 6 synapsis of homologous
chromosomes
–
– Lysosomes
Chromosomes
positioned at the
Tetrads
positioned at the Metaphase I – Vacuoles – Stores calcium
Metaphase

Plasma membrane – Detoxifies poison

metaphase plate metaphase plate
–
Sister chromatids
• These components are either continuous or connected
via transfer by vesicles
Anaphase Homologues
Telophase separate during Anaphase I
separate
anaphase Telophase I
during
anaphase I;
sister Haploid
chromatids n=3
Daughter
remain together
cells of
meiosis I
2n 2n
Daughter cells MEIOSIS II
of mitosis

n n n n

Daughter cells of meiosis II

Sister chromatids separate during anaphase II

Figure 13.9

The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic

Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell
Factory
Functions of Rough ER
• Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and • The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more • The rough ER
protein than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic – Has bound ribosomes
• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations: cells
– Produces proteins and membranes, which are
– In the cytosol (free ribosomes) • The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear distributed by transport vesicles
envelope
– On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or – Is a membrane factory for the cell
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes) • There are two distinct regions of ER:
– Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
– Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface

LE 6-11 LE 6-12
Smooth ER

Rough ER Nuclear

Ribosomes ER
envelope
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and
Receiving Center
Cytosol
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) • The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous
Free ribosomes
ER lumen sacs called cisternae
Cisternae
Bound ribosomes
Ribosomes
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus:
Transitional ER
Transport vesicle
200 nm – Modifies products of the ER
Large Smooth ER Rough ER
subunit – Manufactures certain macromolecules
0.5 µm Small – Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
subunit
TEM showing ER Diagram of
and ribosomes a ribosome

6
 26/07/2013

LE 6-13 LE 6-14b
Lysosome containing
two damaged organelles 1 µm

The Endomembrane System: A Review

• The endomembrane system is a complex and
Golgi
apparatus Mitochondrion
cis face
dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental
(“receiving” side of
fragment
Golgi apparatus)
Peroxisome

Vesicles coalesce to
fragment
organization
Vesicles move 0.1 µm
Vesicles also from ER to Golgi form new cis Golgi cisternae
transport certain
proteins back to ER Cisternae Lysosome fuses with Hydrolytic enzymes
Cisternal vesicle containing digest organelle
maturation: damaged organelle components
Golgi cisternae
move in a cis-
to-trans
direction

Vesicles form and Lysosome

leave Golgi, carrying
specific proteins to
other locations or to
the plasma mem-
brane for secretion Digestion
Vesicles transport specific trans face Vesicle containing
proteins backward to newer (“shipping” side of
Golgi cisternae TEM of Golgi apparatus
damaged mitochondrion
Golgi apparatus)
Autophagy: lysosome breaking down
damaged organelle

LE 6-16-1

Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance

Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments Compartments
Nucleus

• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes • Vesicles and vacuoles (larger versions of vacuoles) are Rough ER
membrane-bound sacs with varied functions
• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats,
polysaccharides, and nucleic acids • A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several
• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle organelles and vacuoles Smooth ER
Nuclear envelope

macromolecules, a process called autophagy

• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells,
hold organic compounds and water

LE 6-14a LE 6-15 LE 6-16-2

Nucleus 1 µm

Nucleus

Central vacuole
Rough ER

Cytosol
Lysosome
Smooth ER
Nuclear envelope cis Golgi
Lysosome contains Food vacuole Hydrolytic
active hydrolytic fuses with enzymes digest Tonoplast
enzymes lysosome food particles
Transport vesicle
Digestive
Plasma Nucleus Central
enzymes
membrane vacuole
Lysosome

Digestion Cell wall

Food vacuole
Chloroplast
trans Golgi
Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food 5 µm

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 26/07/2013

LE 6-16-3 LE 6-17

Nucleus CH2OH
Mitochondrion HH H Glycolysis
Citric
acid Oxidative
HO H cycle phosphorylation
HO OH
H OH
Intermembrane space Glucose

ATP 1

Rough ER Outer ADP

Hexokinase

membrane CH2OH P
HH OH
OH H
HO
H OH
Glucose-6-phosphate
2
Smooth ER Phosphoglucoisomerase
Nuclear envelope cis Golgi Free CH2O P
O CH2OH
H HO
HO
ribosomes H
HO H
Fructose-6-phosphate
in the 3
ATP
Transport vesicle mitochondrial Phosphofructokinase
Inner ADP
matrix membrane P O CH2 O CH2 O P
HO
H OH
HO H
Cristae Fructose-
1, 6-bisphosphate
4
Aldolase
Matrix
5 H
Plasma P O CH2 Isomerase
C O
membrane C O
Mitochondrial CH2OH
CHOH
trans Golgi CH2 O P
DNA 100 nm Dihydroxyacetone Glyceraldehyde-
phosphate 3-phosphate
Figure 9.9 A

Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts

change energy from one form to another • An overview of cellular respiration 2 NAD+
6
Triose phosphate
dehydrogenase
2 NADH 2 Pi
+ 2 H+

• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration Electron

2
P O C O
CHOH
CH2 O P
s Electrons carried
• Chloroplasts, found only in plants and algae, are the
1, 3-Bisphosphoglycerate
2 ADP
7

carried via NADH and Phosphoglycerokinase

sites of photosynthesis via FADH2

2 ATP

2 O–

NADH C
Oxidative
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not part of the phosphorylatio
CHOH
CH2 O P

Citric
3-Phosphoglycerate

endomembrane system
8

Glycolsis acid n: Phosphoglyceromutase

Glucos
Pyruvate 2 O–

e cycle electron C O

• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles transport and

H C O
CH2 OH
2-Phosphoglycerate
P

chemiosmosis 2 H2 O
9
Enolase

Cytosol Mitochondrion
2 O–
C O
C O P
CH2
Phosphoenolpyruvate
2 ADP
10
Pyruvate kinase

ATP ATP ATP 2 ATP

2 O–

Substrate-level Substrate-level Oxidative

C O
C O

phosphorylation phosphorylation phosphorylation Figure 9.8 B

CH3

Figure 9.6
Pyruvate

Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion • Glycolysis consists of two major phases • Before the citric acid cycle can begin
• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells – Energy investment phase – Pyruvate must first be converted to acetyl CoA,
• They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner which links the cycle to glycolysis
– Energy payoff phase
Glycolysis Citric
acid
Oxidative
phosphorylation

membrane folded into cristae

cycle

• The inner membrane creates two compartments:

ATP ATP ATP CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION

Energy investment phase

intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix Glucose

• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are 2 ATP + 2 P 2 ATP used

O–
NAD+ NADH + H+

catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix

S CoA
Energy payoff phase 2
C O

• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that 4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP formed
C O
C O

synthesize ATP 2 NAD+ + 4 e- + 4 H + 2 NADH + 2 H+ 1 3

CH3

CH3
Acetyle CoA
2 Pyruvate + 2 H 2O
Pyruvate CO2 Coenzyme A

Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 H 2O
4 ATP formed – 2 ATP used 2 ATP + 2 H+ Transport protein

Figure 9.8 2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H + 2 NADH

Figure 9.10

8
 26/07/2013

• An overview of the citric acid cycle The Pathway of Electron Transport Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
• The chloroplast is a member of a family of organelles
Pyruvate
Glycolysis Citric Oxidative
• In the electron transport chain called plastids
(from glycolysis, acid
cycle phosphorylation

2 molecules per glucose) – Electrons from NADH and FADH2 lose energy in • Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as
several steps
ATP ATP ATP

CO2

CoA
well as enzymes and other molecules that function in
NADH
+ 3 H+ Acetyle CoA
photosynthesis
CoA

CoA
• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green
organs of plants and in algae
Citric • Chloroplast structure includes:
acid
FADH2
cycle
2 CO2

3 NAD+
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs
FAD 3 NADH
– Stroma, the internal fluid
+ 3 H+
ADP + P i
ATP
Figure 9.11

LE 6-18

Glycolysis
Citric
acid
cycle
Oxidative
phosphorylation • Chemiosmosis and the electron transport chain
Inner
S CoA
C O
Mitochondrial
CH3 Glycolysis
Oxidative
phosphorylation.
membrane
electron transport
Acetyl CoA and chemiosmosis

CoA SH Chloroplast
O C COO – ATP ATP ATP
NADH
+ H+ CH2 1 COO – H2O H+
COO – CH2 COO – H+
NAD+
8 Oxaloacetate HO C COO – CH2

COO –
CH2
2
HC COO – H+
COO – H+
HO CH
Malate
HO CH
Cyt c
CH2 Figure 9.12
Citrate
Isocitrate
COO –
Intermembrane
Protein complex
COO – of electron
Citric CO2 space carners Ribosomes
7 acid 3
NAD+
Q IV Stroma
H2O cycle Chloroplast
COO – I III
NADH Inner and outer
CH
COO –
+ H+ ATP DNA
Fumarate
HC
CoA SH CH2
Inner II synthase membranes
a-Ketoglutarate
H2O
CH2
COO –
C O mitochondrial FADH2
6 CoA SH COO –
4
COO – membrane FAD+ 2 H+ + 1/2 O2
COO –
CH2 5 CH2
NADH+
NAD+ ADP + Pi ATP Granum
FADH2
CH2 CH2 CO2
FAD NAD+ (Carrying electrons
COO – C O
Succinate Pi S CoA NADH from, food) H+ 1 µm
Succinyl + H+ Mitochondrial Chemiosmosis Thylakoid
GTP GDP Electron transport chain
CoA matrix Electron transport and pumping of protons (H+), ATP synthesis powered by the flow
ADP which create an H+ gradient across the membrane Of H+ back across the membrane
ATP
Figure 9.12 Figure 9.15 Oxidative phosphorylation

• Concept 9.4: During oxidative phosphorylation, • There are three main processes in this • An overview of photosynthesis
chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP metabolic enterprise
synthesis CYTOSOL Electron shuttles
span membrane 2 NADH
or
MITOCHONDRION

2 FADH2

• NADH and FADH2 2 NADH 2 NADH 6 NADH 2 FADH2

H2O CO2

– Donate electrons to the electron transport chain, Glycolysis

Citric Oxidative
Light

2
which powers ATP synthesis via oxidative Glucose
2
Pyruvate
Acetyl
CoA
acid
cycle
phosphorylation:
electron transport
and
NADP 

phosphorylation
ADP
chemiosmosis
+ P
LIGHT CALVIN
REACTIONS CYCLE

+ 2 ATP + 2 ATP + about 32 or 34 ATP

ATP
by substrate-level by substrate-level by oxidative phosphorylation, depending
phosphorylation phosphorylation on which shuttle transports electrons
from NADH in cytosol NADPH

About
Maximum per glucose: 36 or 38 ATP Chloroplast
[CH2O]
O2
Figure 10.5 (sugar)
Figure 9.16

9
 26/07/2013

LE 6-20

• The light reactions and chemiosmosis: the Peroxisomes: Oxidation

organization of the thylakoid membrane • Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments Microtubule

LIGHT
H2O CO 2
bounded by a single membrane
NADP+

• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it

ADP
CALVIN
LIGHT
CYCLE
REACTOR
ATP
NADPH

to water
STROMA O2 [CH2O] (sugar)
(Low H+ concentration) Cytochrome
Photosystem II complex Photosystem I
Light NADP+
2 H+
reductase
3
Fd NADP+ + 2H+

NADPH + H+
Pq
Pc
2
H2 O 1⁄
2 O2
THYLAKOID SPACE 1 2 H+
+2 H+
(High H+ concentration)
To
Calvin Microfilaments
cycle 0.25 µm
ATP
Thylakoid synthase
STROMA membrane ADP
(Low H+ concentration) ATP
P
H+
Figure 10.17

LE 6-19

• The Calvin cycle Chloroplast Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation
Peroxisome
Light
H2O CO 2
Input • The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain
Mitochondrion
its shape
NADP+ 3 (Entering one
ADP
CALVIN
CO2 at a time)
LIGHT
REACTION CYCLE

• It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility

ATP
NADPH Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Rubisco
O2

• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails”

[CH2O] (sugar)
3 P P

Short-lived
intermediate

provided by the cytoskeleton

3 P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP) 6 ATP

• Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may

6 ADP

3 ADP CALVIN
CYCLE
help regulate biochemical activities
6 P P
3 ATP
1,3-Bisphoglycerate
6 NADPH
Phase 3:
Regeneration of 6 NADPH+

the CO2 acceptor 6 P

(RuBP) 5 P
(G3P) 6 P
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Phase 2:
(G3P) Reduction

1 P
G3P Glucose and
Figure 10.18 (a sugar) other organic 1 µm
Output compounds

LE 6-21a
Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that
organizes structures and activities in the cell
• C4 leaf anatomy and the C4 pathway
Photosynthetic
Mesophyll cell Mesophyll
cell CO
CO
• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending Vesicle
throughout the cytoplasm
PEP carboxylase 2 2
cells of C4 plant
leaf
Bundle-
sheath ATP
cell

Oxaloacetate (4 C) PEP (3 C) • It organizes the cell’s structures and activities, Receptor for
anchoring many organelles motor protein
Vein ADP
(vascular tissue)
Malate (4 C) ATP

C4 leaf anatomy
Pyruate (3 C)
• It is composed of three types of molecular structures:
– Microtubules
Bundle-
Sheath
cell CO2

Stoma

CALVIN
– Microfilaments
CYCLE
– Intermediate filaments Motor protein Microtubule
Sugar
(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
Vascular
tissue

Figure 10.19

10
 26/07/2013

LE 6-21b LE 6-22

Centrosome

Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm

Microtubule

Centrioles

0.25 µm

Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

of one centriole of the other centriole

Components of the Cytoskeleton • In negative feedback

• Microtubules are the thickest of the three components – An accumulation of an end product slows the
of the cytoskeleton process that produces that product
• Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the
A
thinnest components
A Negative
feedback
Enzyme 1 Enzyme 1
• Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a B B
middle range
Enzyme 2

C C

Enzyme 3
D
D D D D
D
D
D
D D
D
Figure 1.11

Centrosomes and Centrioles • In positive feedback

• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a – The end product speeds up production
centrosome near the nucleus
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center” W W

• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, Enzyme 4 Enzyme 4

each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a X Positive

feedback
X

ring Enzyme 5 Enzyme 5

Y Y

Enzyme 6 Enzyme 6
Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z
Z Z Z Z Z
Figure 1.12

11