HOW

AND
WHY
Ctfow&/iBw6o(-

3 I II S4
 THE HOW AND WHY WONDER BOOK OF

Written by
MARTIN L KEEN
Illustrated by
GEORGE J. ZAFFO
Editorial

Edited under the supervision of

Or. Paul E. Blackwood, Washington,

Text and illustrations approved by

Oakes A. White, Brooklyn Children’s Museum, Brooklyn, New York

TRANSWORLD PUBLISHERS • LONDON

 Introduction

About fifty years ago, a famous British scientist observed that die
work of physicists was practically completed. There was nothing more to
be discovered! Then almost overnight, so it seemed, came the discovery of
radioactivity, a new idea about the nature of matter and energy. The atom,
which had so nicely been “tucked into bed,” was roused for intensive study
of suspected new particles and properties. The world of physics was once
more alive with discovery.
How foolish it would seem now for a scientist to state that everything
about any phase of science was completely understood, and nothing further
could be learned. As a matter of fact, almost everyone accepts the astound-
ing evidence that the amount of new knowledge is doubling at least every
ten years. Can you believe that by the time you grow up there will be at
much scientific knowledge as there is
least twice as presently?
The How and Why Wonder Book of Electronics a sample of the new
is

knowledge that scientists have accumulated in just one small part of the
giant field of physics. X-rays, vacuum tubes, radio, TV, radar, transistors,
communications satellites are all examples of modem electronic devices.
What improvements will be discovered within the next twenty years? If you
are in step with the times, you know that the future holds possibilities that
have not even been dreamed of today. For that is the way of man’s
ingenuity. That is the way of science.
So, as you read this book about electronics, you are preparing yourself
not only to understand the “magic” of electrons, but you are laying the
groundwork for speculation about new, as-yet-undiscovered, developments
of the future,

j Paul E. Blackwood

Dp. Blackwood ix a professional employe* in ffi* US. Office of EdLi&atbOh.

Thit boot wa* cdMed by him In tils private capacity and ik> afftew! Nippon oj
epdatSoatenE by Tie Office of Ed-jcaSioo s Intended Of should bfi ibfitfttd.
j

This b*0 k iids been ipfcClally te-edited for p uhl icirinn

in C?re*t Britain.

cO S'M^. by Woiidtf Backs-, [no. Spcedas material j£j ]?M„ by Wonder Books, Inc.
reprinted I97S
A:1 rififlus TCSCf^Cd UfHhr liitt^n&Llonal and P^n -American CnmyrijEh L -L convention/;..
Published purjuoziL tn aanBement with owner of Hk ttadcmflTk r Wojifiw Books, luc..
New York. US. A.
Kiibtlahed by Tfajiswurld Publishers. Ltd., ST/S? Uibrid^e Et-au-d, Ealing 1

,,
Lcxndnr. W S.
Printed hy Purnell A. Son*, Ltd.,, fault cm (Avoiri and I^ndcrn.
 Contents
page page

ELECTRONICS EVERYWHERE 4 What is doping? 23

What is a semiconductor diode? 24
LECTRONJCS: THE STORY OF What is a transistor? 24
THE ELECTRON 7 How isa transistor made? 25
What is an atom? 7 How does a transistor work? 25
What is an electron? 8 Why have transistors largely
How can you collect electrons? 8 replaced valves? 26
How do electric charges react How does a radio station
to one another? 9 broadcast? 26
What is electric current? 10 How does a radio receiver work? 27
What are conductors and What is FM
broadcasting? 28
insulators? 11 How does your colour television
What is an electron pump? ii work? 29
What is an electric circuit? li The television camera 29
Who made the first electronic The television receiver 30
invention? 12 The colour television tube 31

How does an electron tube work? 13

THE WONDERFUL WORLD OF
What are cathodes and anodes? 14
ELECTRONIC DEVICES 33
How does radar work? 33
RADIO AND TELEVISION What is sonar? 36
BROADCASTING AND How does electronics help
RECEIVING 14
doctors? 38
What are electromagnetic waves? 14
40
What is a photocell?
What do wavelength and
How do self-opening doors work? 40
frequency mean? 15
How can “black light” catch
Who was the first to detect
burglars? 40
electromagnetic waves? 17
How are sound films made? 43
What is wireless broadcasting? 18
Why do electrons give us the
What was the world’s first 44
best microscopes?
radio programme? 19
What are communications
What was De Forest’s magic lamp? 21
45
satellites?
How does a triode work? 22
48
 ELECTRONICS
m ENTERTAINMENT:
AN AMERICAN
BASEBALL PROGRAMME
ON TELEVISION

Electronics Everywhere

A giant airliner* today carrying system (1LS) it enables the pilot to land
hundreds of passengers, comes in for a his aircraft without his seeing the run-
Sanding at an airport shrouded in fog. way. Many aircraft today may even
As the pilot brings the huge aircraft land automatically with the pilot
down to the runway, he cannot see simply watching. Radar and radio
more than a few feet in front of the are two very important electronic
plane. Yet, unseen hands are guiding devices.
the great airliner to a safe landing. A television camera closely follows
Known as an instrument landing a football as it leaves the goalkeeper’s

4
 -

El ectf Oi^ics, still a young branch of

science and engineering, has grown
fo giant si ^e. in f^rdio, television,

and fang- dl stone/ telephone op pa-

ra ivs, el&ci ran j£f; plays a dominant
role in cort^muhictiJja^K Electronics
’'ihlnks
1
'
for sdiende, industry, and
nation a] defense in computers and
computer-controlled devices such as
rocket and missile guiding and
tracking apparatus* Electronics
helps the doctor in diagnoses and
treatment.
Almost anywhere you turn electron-
ics is at work.

During his approach to the fog-

bound runway, a pitot can see pos-
sible landing obstacles which show
up on a radar screen on the instru-
ment panel of his aeroplane.

When an airport Is hidden by fog,

technicians in the control tower
watch aeroplanes on radar
screens and then radio the pilots
careful landing instructions.

foot to soar half-way down the pitch. into your home by the electronic equip-
The camera follows the players as ment that makes television and radio
they race after the ball ;
then the possible.
camera points at the cheering crowd. On a long belt in a factory, a line of
Sitting in your home, you see on the tin cans moves toward the packing

screen of your television set all that department. Now and then, a steel bar
takes place in front of the camera at the moves across the belt, pushing a dented
football stadium. You even hear the can off the belt and into a discard chute.
thud as the ball is and the
kicked The line of cans is inspected by an elec-
cheers of the crowd. The sight and tronic —called by engineers a
“eve”
sound of the football game are brought photoelectric cell — that notes the
 dented cans and causes the steel bar to learn whether they have tiny cracks that
push them off the belt. Another photo- cannot be seen on their surfaces. Exam-
electric cell counts the cans as they ining these machine parts by X-rays
enter the packing department. prevents accidents that might happen
A doctor wants to know whether his were these parts to break when in use.
patient, who was in an accident, has Electronic instruments play a large
broken ribs. The doctor places the part in scientific research. Atomic
patient in front of an X-ray camera that physicists work with giant electronic
lakes pictures of the ribs right through machines such as the cyclotron, which
the patient’s skin and chest muscles. is a huge atom smasher. Scientists, who

X-ray cameras were among the first have large numbers of calculations to
electronic instruments to be invented. perform, turn to electronic computers
Besides enabling doctors to see bones to save the great amount of time it
and other organs inside the bodies of would take to do the calculations with
their patients, X-rays are used in indus- pencil and paper. Microscopes that use
try. Huge X-ray cameras “see” through light to illuminate what is being looked
as much as 127mm (Sin.) of solid metal at cannot magnify objects more than
to detect weaknesses in machine parts. 2,500 times their natural size. However,
For example, aeroplane wings and a microscope that uses electrons instead
wheels of train carriages are X-rayed to of light can magnify objects more than
200, 0(X) times.
All these electronic devices play an
important part in our lives. Many, such
as radio and television, play a direct
part. Others, such as those used in avi-
ation, medicine, and industry, are less
familiar to you, but also play a part in
your life. From this book wc will learn
what electronics is and how some elec-
tronic devices work.

Electronic* in industry; Cons

of food move on a conveyor
belt from the sealing mo-
chfntry to The shipping room.
An “electro eye" counts The
tans, detects foully ones.

Electronics in medicine ^ A
powerful X-roy unit is used
lo Treat The sick.

6
 ,

Electronics: The Story of the Electron

Electronics is the science of control-
.,rc the movement of electrons. To
understand what this definition means
u will first have to learn some things
electricity, because electricity and

electronics are very closely bound to-

gether Let us begin by learning what
an electron is.

All materials are made up of very small

particles called
What is an atom? ...
atoms >
which in

turn are made up of even smaller

r articles. These particles may con-
veniently be thought of as solid

objects. But k is more correct to

think of them as little pockets of If o human being were no larger than an atom, The
entire population of khe United Skaies could sit on
energy.
rhe head of a pin, and there would still be spate
Some substances are made up of only for severol million mare people,
one kind of atom. These substances V
ELECTRON \

are called elements. Iron is an element.

Ifyou w ere to cut a piece of iron in half,
r

then in half again, and continue to

divide it in half, you would finally
come to a particle of iron that

could not be divided and still be

iron. T his particle would be an atom
of iron ,
The hydrogen atom (above) consist of one electron
revolving around a nucleus of one neulrcm and one
A single atom is too small to be seen, proton. The sodium atom {below] consists of eleven
even with the most powerful optical electrons revolving around o nucleus of eleven pro-
microscope. But electron microscopes tons and twelve neutrons,

may provide a picture of the presence

of an atom. However, despite the
smallness of atoms, scientists have
learned much about them. One descrip-
tion of an atom that scientists have
given us is that of a central part, called
the nucleus , around which other parts,

called electrons revolve. The electrons

revolve in orbits around the nucleus

7
 , —

somewhat like the planets revolve in if it were neither positively nor nega-
orbits around the sun. However, only tively charged.
one planet revolves in each orbit. But Electrons can be easily removed from
more than one electron may revolve in the outer orbits of atoms of some mate-
the same orbit around the nucleus. The rials —wool, for example. Electrons are
nucleus not a single entity but con-
is not so easily removed from the atoms
sists of a number of other particles of ol other materials, such as hard rubber.
which the neutron and proton are but When a material gives up electrons,
two. it has fewer electrons than protons

Each kind of atom has a number of fewer negative than positive electric
electrons, protons, and neutrons differ- charges. As a result, the material be-
ent from all other atoms. The smallest comes positively charged. When a
atom has a single electron revolving material takes on additional electrons,
around a nucleus made up of one pro- it has more electrons than protons —
ton. As we go to larger and larger more negative than positive electric
atoms, the number of electrons, pro- charges. As a result, the material be-
tons, and neutrons increases to more comes negatively charged.
than a hundred of each in the largest
atom. We learned that wool is a material
that loses elec-
An electron is a unit, or single charge
How can you . , ti-
collect electrons ? trons easily. If

What is an «l«ctron ?
°f *#*9; you rub a hard-
is a charge ol ne- rubber or plastic comb vigorously sev-
gative electricity. (A negative electric eral times on a piece of wool, the wool
charge is also called a minus charge
and gives up electrons to the comb. As a
may be shown in writing by the minus result, the comb has a large number of
sign — A proton is a charge of extra electrons. Because the electrons
positive electricity. (A positive electric are negative electric charges, the comb
charge is also called a plus charge is negatively charged. So, simply by
and may be shown in writing by the rubbing a comb on wool, you have been
plus sign + .) A neutron has no electric able to collect electrons on a comb.
charge ;
it is electrically neutral.
Ordinarily, each atom has as many
electrons as protons; it has equal
COMB BEFORE SUBBING
amounts of positive and negative elec-
tricity. When a positive and a negative
electric charge are very close together, WOOl CLOTH BEFORE
SUBBING
they act as if they were not electrically
charged at all. When this happens, we
say that the positive and negative
charges neutralize each other. Thus,
an atom that has as many electrons as WOOL CLOTH AfTER
RUBBING
protons is electrically neutral ; it acts as

8
 The simple experiment
described on this page
showi how electric
charges react to each
other.

What about wool? Since the wool

the
gave up electrons to the comb, the wool
has more protons than electrons. This
means
than
that the
negative
wool, then, is
wool has more positive
electric charges.
charged positively.
The Bga miii
v
Here is an experiment you can do to
learn how electric
How do aifictric charges act when
charges react to . t elec Irtc charges repel each other.
OU6 fUlOthcr, Uke
one another ?
You will need
two hard-rubber or plastic combs. Bend
Unlike electric charges aftrat* each other.
a paper clip into the shape shown in the
illustration on this page. Suspend the
I

bent clip by a string.

Vigorously rub one end of one of the
combs with a piece of silk or nylon
doth. This will remove electrons from
the comb and charge it positively.

Quickly place the charged comb in the

wire holder made from the paper clip.

9
 —

Immediately rub one end of the other

comb with the doth. Now bring the ?

rubbed end of the second comb near

the rubbed end of the suspended comb.
The suspended comb will swing away
from the approaching comb. The ap-
proaching comb repels the suspended
comb, although the combs do not To moke a certain omounl of waler flow out of a
touch. (To repel means to “push tiose, on equal amount mu 5 be pushed into it.
1

away ”) Both combs have positive elec-

tric charges on their surfaces. This illu- on their surfaces are attracting each
strates that like charges repel each other. other.
Rub one end of a comb with a piece Ifyou think over what happened in
of wool doth. This will charge the comb the experiment you just did, you will
negatively. Hang the comb in the wire see that it is easy to make a rule, or law,
holder. Quickly rub one end of the sec- about how electric charges act. We can
ond comb with wool. Bring the rubbed say, “Like electric charges repel. Unlike
end of the second comb near the rubbed electric charges attract/
5
This is the
end of the suspended comb. The sus- Law oi Electric Charges. It means that
pended comb swing away from the
will two positive charges or two negative
approaching comb. This happens be- charges repel each other. It also means
cause the rubbed ends of both combs that a positive and a negative charge
have negative electric charges on their attract each other.
surfaces, and like charges repel.
Once again, rub one end of one of the The amount of electricity you generate
combs with silk or nylon cloth and by rubbing cer-
quickly suspend the wire holder.
What is el metric
it in
current ?
tain materials
Now, rub one end of a second comb together is very
with the wool doth. Bring one end of small. You could not use this small
the second comb near one end of the amount of electricity to heat a toaster,
suspended comb. This time, the sus- light an electric lamp, or ring a door-
pended comb sw'ings toward the ap- bell.
proaching comb. The suspended comb To use electricity, we must have a
has positive electric charges and the supply large enough to always have
other comb has negative charges. This some available when we need it. We
shows that unlike electric charges must be able to use as much or as little
positive —
and negative attract each electricity as we need. We must be able
other. If you repeat this experiment by to turn the electricity on and off. We
suspending the negatively charged like to be sure that when we turn the
comb and approaching it with a posi- electricity off there will be more left
tively charged comb, you will find that for the next time we want to use it. We
the two combs again swing toward each must be able to make the electricity go
other because the unlike electric charges where we want to use it.

10
No current flows In the circuit {above left], because there h no "electron pump
11
— no source of power.

Current flows in the circuit (above right) ,,

because the dry eeFf acts as electron pump.

it is important that electricity flows flow into your hands when you take

at a constant rate. The name given to hold of the wires. The current flowing
such a flow of electrons is electric into your hands might give you a harm-
current and there are two basic types. ful electric shock.
The first, known as direct current (d.c.),
consists of a uniform flow of electrons To keep water flowing through a pipe,
from one end of a piece of wire to we must have a
What is an electron
way of CQn _
another. The second, known as alter-

nating current (a.c.), consists of a tinuously push-

vibrating flow of electrons. It is this ing water into one end of the pipe as
alternating current that is usually water flows out the other end. We
found your home and is used
in achieve this by using a pump to push
to provide you with heat, light and water into the pipe. In much the same

the power to drive your TV and way, we need a pump to keep electrons

radio. flowing through a wire. An electron

pump is either an electric generator

Electric current can flow well through (sometimes called a dynamo) or an

only certain electric cell. Electric cells are usually
What are materials called called electric batteries, but this is not
conductors and
insulators? conductors. All entirely correct; a battery is a group
metals at room of cells that are used together. Because
temperature are conductors, but gold, both the generator and the cell push
copper, silver, and aluminium are electrons through a wire, we say they

among the best. That is why wires for generate electric current.
electric devices are usually made of
these metals. Electric current cannot flow off the end
Electric current cannot flow through of a wire as water
an BlOCtriC
certain materials called insulators. Plas- floWS OUt of the
circuit?
tics, rubber, silk, glass, and dry air are end of an open
insulators. Electric wires are usually pipe. Air, which is a good insulator,
surrounded with sheaths of rubber or stops the flow of current at the end of
silk etc. so that no electric current will the wire. A path for electric current

11
 must provide a round from an trip
electron pump
through wires and other
conductors and hack to the electron
pump. This round-trip path is called an
electric circuit. Unless conductors form
a circuit, electric current will not flow.

We learned that electric current is the

flow of electrons
along a conduc -
StSSSt
invention ? tor. We learned
that electrons
cannot flow off the end of a conductor
as water can flow out of the end of a
pipe. However, there is a situation in
which electrons can be made to leave a
wire through which they are flowing.
Let us read about a very famous oc- the air out of the glass bulb, leaving a
casion when this took place. vacuum. This worked, but soon the in-
You probably know that Thomas side of the bulb became blackened by
Edison made the first practical incan- tiny particles of carbon from the white-
descent lamp, or electric light bulb, such hot carbon loop.
as those we use to light our homes. In One day, in 1883, while searching
the light bulbs we use today, the light is for a way to prevent the inside of the
produced by a small coil of wire, or bulbs from becoming black, Edison
filament glowing white-hot. In Edison’s
, placed a small metal plate inside the
lamp, the filament was a looped thread bulb. He
connected the plate by means
of carbon, the same material of which of a wire to the electric circuit that
a burnt match or a pencil point con- heated the filament. He hoped the car-
sists. Whej/ electric current flowed bon would collect on the plate instead
through tljjg carbon loop, it glowed of on the glass bulb. He also connected
bums when it is to the wire attached to the plate an
heated To prevent the carbon ammeter, an instrument for measuring
loop Edison pumped the flow of current.
TOUCH

LIGHT SOURCES THROUGH THE AGES ELECTRIC Lame

oil. LAMP

TALLOW CANDLE KEROSENE LAMP

12
 A d ramaHc moment for Thom os Edison was th& light-
ing of Jiis first successful electric lamp in 1879 by
current from several elecffk cells. The filament of the
!amp, a Jaap of carbon thread, was -set into a glass
bulb from which the had been removed. Whan
air

electric current heat ad the thread to 1900° Celsius,

\t gave off light. Lack of air in the bulb kept the
thread from burning. Filaments of modern light bulbs
are hgngsten wire.

Emission

HATE CURRENT

To Edison’s surprise, the ammeter +-

registered a small flow of current. This ALL CURRENT OUT

was puzzling because only one end of

the wire leading from the metal plate
Scbernatk illustration of the Edison Effect.
was connected to a source of electricity.
The plate was not really part of a cir- pumped out. From Edison’s electron
cuit. Experimenting further, Edison tube came many of the
eventually
found that it was only when the plate wonderful devices of modern electron-
was connected to the positive pole of ics. Because of this invention, Edison
the battery that current flowed th rough can be considered one of the great-
the ammeter. When the plate was con- grandfathers of radio.
nected to the negative pole of the bat-
tery, no current flowed. Although Edison did not understand
Edison saw no immediate use for his the strange
light bulb with a metal plate inside it
How does an rpsnlM
results nf
Of h\<t
IT is
electron tubs work?
Yet, he patented his bulb and plate experiment, sci-
because he was wise enough to think entists can explain them today.
leday his bulb might have sonic When we try to “pump” a large
electricity. He was right about amount of electric current through a
this, but what is really important about thin wire, the electrons moving past
Edison’s experiment is that his bulb was the atoms of which the wire is composed

the first valve. Valves are also called give up much energy in the form of heat.
electron tubes . This is a better name for The wire glows red- or white-hot. The
them because some kinds of valves are heat causes many electrons to fly off the
rilled with gas after the air has been wire, like steam boiling off heated

13
 . .

water. The loss of electrons leaves the “giving off” or “throwing off” of some-
wire with a net positive charge. The lost thing. Whatever causes emission is
electrons,which are negatively charged, called an emitter In an electron tube,
soon are pulled back to the wire by the the filament is an emitter.
attraction of the positive charges. How- Electron emission is the process upon
ever, if there is a much stronger positi ve which many electronic devices depend.
charge near the wire, it will pull the

electrons away from the wire com- The part of an electric or electronic de-
pletely. This is exactly what happened vice from which
What are cathodes .1
when Edison connected his metal plate and anodes ? the current or
to the positive pole of his battery. The the electron
positively charged plate pulled elec- emission flows is called the cathode
trons away from the white-hot filament, The part to which the current or emis-
These electrons streamed across the sion flows is the anode. For example,
space between the filament and the the filament of an electron tube is the
plate. Then they flowed through the cathode and the plate is the anode.
plate and the wire attached to it and The cathode is negative and the
registered on the ammeter as an electric anode is The following table
positive.

current. will help you remember these names.

The streaming of electrons from a
hot filament in an electron tube is called negative minus — “from” cathode
electron emission. Emission means the positive plus ~h “to” anode

Radio and Television Broadcasting and Receiving

One of the earliest uses of electron move outward from the spot where the
tubes was in stone strikes the water. The rings, waves

SENSES’; ^io broadcast- of water, are up-and-down movements

ing and receiving. of the water. They are not made up of
If we learn how electron tubes work in water flowing outward from the centre
radio, we shall understand much about of the rings, even though they look as
how they work in many other kinds of if they were. You can prove this by
electronic devices. First, we shall learn throwing a stone into the water near a
about electromagnetic waves, the scien- floating object, say, a small piece of
tific name for radio waves. wood. When the water rings reach the
you have ever thrown a stone into
If piece of wood, bobs up and down,
it

the water, you have seen the rings that then the rings pass it by. If the waves

14
 ;

were water moving outward from where waves are broadcast. The layers of the
the stone struck the water, they would onion correspond to the spheres of
carry the piece of wood with them. waves moving outward.
Whenever an electric charge moves
suddenly —whether changing direction Two words that are very important in

in a wire or as a spark jumping across radio engineering

a space— the moving charge broad-

What do wavelength ^ rewavelength
and frequency .

casts electromagnetic waves. Electro- mean? and frequency.

magnetic waves, of the kind broadcast We
must learn
by a moving electrical charge, cannot what these words mean. To do so, let
be detected by any of our senses. We us perform an experiment.
cannot see, hear, smell, taste, or touch Tie a piece of clothesline, or some
them, but we do have ways of detecting other kind of rope, to a doorknob. Hold
them. (Not all kinds of electromagnetic the other end of the rope in your hand
waves go undetected by our senses. and let the rope hang a little slack.

Light and heat consist of electromag- Now, move your hand up and down
netic waves that our senses can detect rapidly. You will see the rope shape
we see light and feel heat.) itself into a series of hills and valleys.

When electromagnetic waves are

broadcast from a moving electric
charge, they travel outward from the
charge in somewhat the same manner
as water waves move outward from the
spot where a stone strikes the water.
The electromagnetic waves move in a
series of spheres. The series of spheres
is much like the layers of an onion. The

centre of the onion corresponds to the

point from which the electromagnetic

-
.'s'tP
J ^ ,t J

-* • . 'Si/- '
‘J&U Electro magnetic waves, like water waves, spread out
in rbe form ofexpanding concentric hemispheres,
unloss o transmitting antenna is designed to shape
the waves into a beam.

Electromagnetic waves and waves created by a stone

striking the surface of water have many things in com-
mon.
15
 It will look as though the rope were
moving into the doorknob, but you
know that it is not. The hills and valleys
of the rope look much the same as the
hi! is arid valleys of rings on the surface

of water would look if you were to slice

down through the water and look at the
slice from one side.

Think of a line drawn from your

hand to the doorknob, halfway between
the highest and lowest parts of the
waves, Distance measured along the line
between the beginning of one hill and
The waves formed by the rope seem to be moving the beginning of the next hill is one
Ihe doorknob.
into
wavelength. We could also measure a
wavelength between the peaks of two
consecutive hills, or between any two
si mijar points on two consecutive waves.
The number of complete wavelengths
that pass any point in one second is the
frequency of the waves. However, fre-
quency is not stated as a certain number
Above: The frequency is 1 wcvelenglh per second.
Be Tow i The frequency h 2 wavelengths per second.
of wavelengths, but as so many cycles
per second, one cycle being one com-
plete wavelength. (Another measure of
frequency is the Hertz— named in
honour of Heinrich Hertz one Hertz —
being one cycle per second.) The fre-
quency of radio waves varies from
thousands to tens of billions of cycles per

t wavelength

f\ /t\ r\
W
way between the high-

A/
estand lowesl parts of
the waves will enable
you to measure waves.

\
\ / I
V
1 WAVEI4N QTH

16
 In1819 Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current flowing through a wire produces magnetism
and moves the needle of a compass fleft|. In 1887 Heinrich Hert* showed that waves sent out by on electric
spark produced another sporfe in a nearby metql ring (above right).

second. All electromagnetic waves travel Thirty-six years later, in a

1856,
at a speed of approximately 2-9 x 1 0* me- young English physicist named James
tres/second (1 86,000 miles per second). Clerk Maxwell studied electromagnet-
ism. He advanced the theory that,
In 1820, a Danish schoolteacher named whenever there is movement in the elec-
Hans Christian tric charges that cause an electromag-
Who was the first Oersted found netic field, electromagnetic waves are
electromagnetic that, when he broadcast by the field. Maxwell gave Ms
waves ? placed a magnetic theory to Ms fellow scientists in the
compass near a form of mathematical equations.
wire carrying an electric current, the It was not until 1888 that anyone
compass needle swung around to point was able to prove the existence of Max-
crosswise to the wire. Oersted knew well’s electromagnetic waves. The scien-
that a compass needle is a thin magnet tist who experimentally proved the
some kind of magnetism
and, therefore, existence of electromagnetic waves was
would be needed to move the needle. a young German named Heinrich
He then reasoned that the electric Hertz. He reasoned a moving
that, if
current moving through the wire caused charge could broadcast electro-
electric
some kind of magnetism to surround magnetic waves, a device similar to
the wire. Because this kind of magnet- thatwhich produced the waves should
ism was produced by electricity, Oer- be able to receive them and change
sted called it electromagnetism. The them back to electric charges.
electromagnetism surrounding any Hertz constructed an apparatus that
electrically charged object is called an could make a strong electric spark jump
electromagnetic field. between the knobs on the ends of two

17
metal rods. The knobs were less than them was Guglielmo Marconi, a young
half an inch apart. The space between electrical engineer of Italian -Irish de-
tiiem was a sparK gap Hertz also made
. scent. After many experiments, Mar-
a metal ring with a spark gap in it. He coni attached one end of a long wire to
placed the ring several feet away from one of the metal rods on one side of a
the spark -making apparatus. The two spark gap. He raised the other end of
spark gaps faced each other. the wire on a pole 12 2 metres (40 feet)
Hertz made a spark jump across the tall. He also connected one end of
spark gap between the rods. Immedi- another wire to the spark gap's other
ately, a spark jumped across the ring's rod. He attached the free end of this
spark gap. No wires or anything else wire to a metal plate buried in the
connected the two spark gaps. So, elec- ground. With this apparatus, Marconi
tromagnetic waves produced by the could broadcast electromagnetic waves
spark jumping across the spark gap hundreds of miles. In 1901, Marconi, in
between the two metal rods must have Newfoundland, was able to receive the
travelled to the ring. Here, the waves letter “s” Morse code
broadcast in

produced electric charges that caused across the Atlantic Ocean from Eng-
a spark to jump across the ring’s spark land.
gap. Marconi's broadcasting and receiving
Because of his discovery of electro- apparatus was named “the wireless” to
magnetic waves, Hertz, too, is con- distinguish from the telegraph and
it

sidered a great-grandfather of radio the telephone, which were used for

broadcasting. sending messages long distances
through wires. Soon, ships were
After Hertz’s experiment, many scien- equipped with apparatus to broadcast
tists tried to build and receive wireless waves.
devices which A short time later, wireless experi-
would enable menters were broadcasting with a de-
them to broadcast electromagnetic vice that made 1,000 sparks in the
waves farther than Hertz had. One of spark gap each second. The sparks made

Marconi operating hrs early

wirdess broadcasting set.
 —

a high-pitched whine. Messages were signals could be received by ships hun-

sent by interrupting the series of sparks, dreds of miles away. The first time the
making their whine last for a longer or wireless was used in sea rescue was
shorter time. The was a
result series of when the 5.S. Republic collided with
“beeps," A long “beep" was called a the S.S. Florida in 1909, When the huge
dash ,
a short “beep,” a dot. Letters ocean liner Titanic collided with an ice-
were made of combinations of dots and berg in 1912, it sent its SOS by
dashes. The combinations were made Marconi wireless.
according to a code called the Inter- Some ships still use the Marconi
national Morse Code, which was much wireless. If you tune your radio to a
like the Morse Code that telegraph spot on the dial between stations
operators had been using to send dots usually in the lower numbers —you may
and dashes over their telegraph wires. be able to pick up the “beeps" that are
With the Marconi wireless aboard, the dots and dashes of wireless broad-
ships were able for the first time to cal! casts from ships.
Jong distances for help when they were
in trouble. Before wireless, ships in dis- In 1904, 21 years after Edison made
tress could only raise flags and fire rock- the first valve, an
ets as signals that they needed help. The What was the English electrical
world's first radio
flags and rockets could be seen only by programme? engineer, Pro-
ships that were not over the horizon fessor John Am-
from the distressed ship; but wireless brose Fleming, got the idea that

Marconi's receiver wets a great improvement over Hertz's spiff m&lol

The improvements were many, but especially one which the French-
ring.

man Edouard Branly had mode. For the Hertz's spark gap, he substituted o
coherer. This device consisted of powdered metal filings contained in a
small glass lube. The coherer caused received efectromagn elk waves Go
turn an and ofif o all eleeiric current which could operate a signaling
device, such as o telegraph sounder,
making doN and dashes. A\
fhus
left, a diagram of Marconi's early receiver, showing one part of the
is

raised antenna.
December 1901, the day that can be considered the birthday of radio,
1

Marconi, In Newfoundland, was able lo receive a signal, which had been

broadcast across the ocean from England,

Edison’s invention might be used in a Then, Fessenden reasoned that an
Fleming im-
receiver for wireless waves. electric current changing its direction in
proved on Edison’s electron tube by a wire would produce electromagnetic
making the anode a hollow metal cylin- waves that could be used for broadcast-

der that encircled the filament. With an ing. Electric current that continuously
changes its direction in a wire is, as we
have seen, called alternating current.
This current changes direction 100
times a second. It flows 50 times a
second from the positive pole of the
generator and 50 times a second from
the negative pole.
Professor Fessenden used a genera-
tor whose current changed direction
200,000 times a second. Thus, he
broadcast 100,000 waves a second. He
attached the microphone from a tele-

phone to the generator circuit. The

microphone is the part of a telephone
that you speak into. Sound w aves of a r

voice cause the microphone to gener-

ate a weak electric current, essenden
thought that the voice current would
Diagram of Fleming's electron hjbo + produce changes in the broadcast
waves. When the changed waves were
anode of this shape, electrons could received by a wireless receiver, the
be attracted to the anode, no matter sound of the voice would be heard. He
in what direction they flew off hoped that music and other sounds,
the filament. This increased the too, might be broadcast this way. On

stream of electrons that flowed Christmas Eve, 1906, wireless opera-

through the wire leading away from tors on ships in the Atlantic Ocean
the anode. were startled to hear strange sounds
Meanwhile, an American electrical coming from their wireless receivers.

engineer, Professor Reginald Aubrey First, they heard Professor Fessenden

Fessenden, was trying to broadcast the tell that he was beginning a broadcast.
human voice and music, He first tried Then they heard a gramophone re-

to do this Marconi wireless

by using a cording of Handel’s “Largo.” This was
broadcasting apparatus that produced followed by Fessenden playing a violin
20,000 sparks a second. This did not solo of part of Gounod’s “O, Holy
work, because even 20,000 sparks a Night” and singing one verse. Then
second did not produce a frequency he read a passage from the Bible. Fi-
high enough. nally, he wished his hearers “Merry
 :

Christmas.’’ The wireless operators,

who had never heard anything but dots
and dashes coming from their receivers,
were flabbergasted. To make sure they
were not dreaming, they asked other
members of the crew to listen. They
were hearing the world’s first radio
programme, which was coming from
Professor Fessenden’s radio station at
Brant Rock on the Massachusetts coast,
near Boston. The broadcast was heard
as far south as the Virginia coast. A
year later, Fessenden was able to broad*
cast voice and music all the way across
the Atlantic Ocean to Ireland,

An American electrical engineer named

Lee De Forest AAodern radio tube itriodo) showrng the components.
What was added a new
Do Forests magic ,
ramp? part to rieming s anode a zigzag of thin wire called a grid.
type of valve. De Electrical engineers call De Forest’s
Forest, in 1907, made a valve in which tube a means “three,” and
triode. Tri
he placed between the cathode and the refers to the tube’s three
working parts
cathode, anode, and grid. Ode comes
from the Greek word meaning “path”
or “way.” So, a triode is a three-way
electron tube,
A modern triode has a fourth work-
ing part, a narrow tube that surrounds
the cathode wire. This tube, not much
wider than a pencil lead, is made of a
material that gives off large numbers of
electrons when heated. The hot cathode
wire heats the surrounding metal tube,
and the tube emits electrons. Like the
cathode of a wet or dry cell, the electron
tube’s cathode produces negative elec-
tric charges, electrons. The time it takes
for the cathode to heat up is the time
it takes for a radio set to “warm
up.”
Forest's hand -mode triad e. The grid in De Forest’s valve enabled

21
 ; ;

engineers to control the amount of Asthe slats of a Venetian blind are

electron emission easily. Also, the grid gradually closed, less and less light
provided a way to increase, or amplify, passes through the blind as more and
the current entering a circuit that had a more light is stopped by the slats. As
triode. Still more, a triode, connected the charge on the grid gradually
one way, could with the additions of a changes from
positive to negative,
few other circuit components, change fewer and fewer electrons pass through
alternating current to direct current. more and more are repelled by the
Connected a different way, a triode increasing negative charge.
could change direct current to alternat- When a Venetian blind is completely
ing current* Thus, the grid changed the closed, no light passes through ; when
electron tube into a powerful and the grid charged completely negative,
is

sensitive electronic device that made no electrons pass through.

possible early radio, television, and We how valves may be
have seen
radar. De Forest’s valve was seemingly constructed to vary the flow of electric
a magic lamp. current. These however have been
largely replaced by much smaller de-
The triode’s grid can be charged elec- vices (e.g. transistors) that are made
trically either from materials called semiconductors.
Hqw does a triode
negative or posi-
work ? Here the flow of electrons is varied
tive. When it is inside a solid material and not within a
charged negative, it repels electrons vacuum as with valves.
from the cathode and prevents them
from streaming to the anode. When it All transistors are made of materials
is charged positive, it has the same called semi-
charge as the anode and pulls great
conductors ? conductors . We
numbers of electrons from the cathode learned that con-
to the anode. The charge on the grid ductors are materials through which
can be varied by any amount from fully electric current can flow. We also
positive to fully negative. As a result,
the amount of electron emission can be
varied by any amount wanted, from
none at all to very much.
To better understand the working of
the grid, compare it to a Venetian
blind. When the slats of the blind are
wide open, practically no light is stop- Gio

ped by the blind: almost all passes

through. This situation is like the grid

when iL has its greatest positive charge Al

almost all emitted electrons pass

Lattice of germanium (Ge] crystal doped with alu-
through the grid to the anode. minum (All,

22
 learned that insulators are materials Adding an impurity to a pure element
through which electric current cannot is called doping.
What is "doping" ?
flow. Between these two kinds of mate- Doping may do
rial are those through which electric one of two things. It may give the ele-

current moves only fairly well. These ment a number of electrons that
large

materials are semiconductors. Semi are not bound to atoms and, therefore,
means “partly ” so a semiconductor is are free to move. Doping with arsenic

partly a conductor. docs this. Or, doping may cause the ele-
We learned that an electric current ment to have too few electrons, leaving
is the movement of electrons through a empty spaces where electrons should
conductor such as a copper wire. So, be. These places, empty of electrons, are
,

when we say that a semiconductor con- called holes. Doping with aluminum

ducts electric current fairly well, we produces holes. We can think of a hole
mean that electrons move through the as being a positive charge of electricity.

semiconductor fairly well. An electron, of course, is a negative

Two substances from which semicon- charge. Both electrons and holes move
ductors can be made are the chemical through a semiconductor. Their move-
elements germanium and silicon. When ment makes up an electric current,

either of these two elements is pure, In order to understand how both

electric current moves through it very electrons and holes move through a
poorly. However, when a small amount semiconductor, picture a theatre in

of arsenic is added to the pure german- which about one-third of the seats are
ium, the mixture becomes a semicon- empty. No two empty seats are next to
ductor* A small amount of aluminium each other. The seats in which people

added to the pure silicon gives the same are sitting represent electrons. The
result. Ihe added small amounts of ele- empty seats represent holes. Now, sup-

ments are called impurities. pose that all the people sitting in the

EMITTER N PM COLLECTOR

Circuit tfiqgrqm of on n-p-n transistor.

23
 row leave the theatre. Then, every-
first n-type semiconductor. The n stands for
one moves forward one row, and new “negative” and refers to the kind of
people take seats in the last row. If electrical charge carried by electrons.
A
people continuously leave the first row semiconductor having more holes than
and everyone else continues to move electrons is called a p-type semiconduc-
forward, it will look as if both the peo- tor. The p stands for “positive” and
ple and the empty seats are moving refers to the kind of electric charge car-
forward. In the same manner, when ried by the holes.
electrons move through a semiconduc-
tor, they fill holes but leave new holes I he simplest of semiconductor devices
in the places from which they have is the diode.
moved, What is a
Here two dif-
semiconductor
A semiconductor having more mov- diode 7 ferently doped
ing electrons than holes is called an slices of material
{i.e. and n-type) are placed
p-type
together to form an intimate contact.
Now because of the different concen-
tration of electrons on each side of this
junction electric current finds it easier
to moveone direction across the
in
junction than in the other. This device
therefore performs the same function
as the diode valve described earlier.

However, the semiconductor device

that revolutionised the electronics in-
dustry and particularly made possible
such things as small radios and satellites
was the transistor.

In 1948, three American scientists who

.
worked for the
transistor? fi ell Telephone

Laboratories in-
vented an electronic device that chal-
lenged the electron tube as a means of
controlling the flow of electric current.
The scientists were William Shockley,
John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain.
The device was the transistor.
A transistor is a small electronic
device that does the same tasks as
valves. A transistor can amplify and

24
control electric current. For most uses, is made out of a one type
thin slice of
a transistor performs these tasks as of semiconductor material sandwiched
well as valves. For some uses, the between two thicker slices of the other
transistor is better ; for others a valve type of semiconductor material For
still is. example, in the n-p-n type of transistor,
Transistors are very small when com- two slices of n-type semiconductor hav-
pared to val ves. Most valves are about ing extra electrons sandwich between
the size of two marshmallows slacked them a thinner slice of p-type semicon-
one on top of the other. Large valves ductor that has extra holes. One of the
may be 0 6m tall. Even the smallest “n” —the one on the side where
slices

valves are the size of peanuts. A large electric current enters a transistor—
transistor is the size of a pencil rubber. is called the emitter. The other *V*
Some, such as those used in earth satel- slice —on the side where electric current
lites where small size and lack of weight leaves a transistor—is called the col-
are important, are no bigger than the lector. Wires are soldered to the end
stop at the end of this sentence. Still surfaces of both the emitter and collec-
other very small transistors are no tor. The middle slice —the “p” is —
thicker than a piece of sewing thread called the base,, and a wire is soldered
and are only about as long as this letter to it, too. Where slices of semiconduc-
*****
I ¥ tor meet is called a junction.
The small size of transistors has
made possible electronic devices that Electric current from a dry cell is sent
could not have been made with valves. into the emitter.
For example, a pocket-size transistor
How does a T hlS begins to
. ,

transistor work 7 1

radio can contain nine transistors; a move electrons

radio with nine of even the smallest and holes through the emitter, but they
valves would be the size of a book. The are blocked by the n-p junction from
smallest hearing aid using valves has a flowing across the base to the collector.
small box that the user keeps in his However, when a small amount of elec-
pocket and a wire that runs from the tric current is sent into the base, the
box to the user’s ear. Hearing aids junctions no longer block the flow of
made with transistors are so small that electrons and holes between the emitter
the whole device can he placed within and collector. Then current flows all

the earpiece of a pair of eyeglasses. The the way through the transistor.
whole electronic circuit of the hearing Moreimportant, a small increase in
aid is one-tenth as big as a matchhead. the current flowing into the base results
in a large increase in the current flowing
There are several kinds of transistors. through the transistor. This is how a
The kind that will transistor amplifies electric current.
° tranSiSt ° r
best show how a
1

mid* ? Also, by increasing and decreasing the

transistor works amount of current that flows into the
is the junction transistor. This transistor base, the amount of current that flows

25
 through the emitter to the collector can Transistors are very rugged. A tran-
be delicately controlled. sistor can be sealed in plastic or metal
and knocked around without being
You can easily see the likeness between broken. A valve, with its delicate fila-
a transistor and a ment and grid wires and its glass
EBES53“"
vnives ?
triode
The transistor’s
casing, is easily broken.

emitter slice of Let us begin wi th a performer in a radio

semiconductor material acts like the broadcasting stu-
valve’s hot-wire filament (or cathode) How does a radio j- T
station broadcast? Let tiS say
emitter. The transistor’s base acts like that the performer
the valve’s grid. And the transistor’s is The sound of the singer’s
singing.
collector acts like the valve’s anode. voice moves to the microphone in a
Also, the movement of electrons in a series of waves, sound waves, that are
transistor is much like electron emission differentfrom electromagnetic waves.
in a valve. So. you can see why transis- All wc have to know about sound waves
tors can take the place of valves in that they are
is movements of the air.
many kinds of electronic devices. When the sound waves reach the micro-
Transistors have certain advantages phone, they cause certain parts within
when compared to valves. the microphone to move and change the
Transistors use much less current. sound into electric current. This current
They can operate on current from dry flows through a wire leading away from
cells the size of a small button. the microphone. When the sound made
A valve cannot work until its cathode by the singer is loud, more current flows
heats up. For this reason, devices such through the wire; when the sound is
as radios using valves must have a soft, less current flows. High-pitched
warm-up period of several seconds. A sounds and low-pitched sounds also
transistor, lacking a hot emitter, begins cause different amounts of current to
to work as soon as the current is flow in the wire.
switched on. Meanwhile, in the radio station there
The filaments of valves eventually is of transistors that are con-
a series
burn out. Transistors have no fila- tinuously sending through a wire an
ments and so this means of failure is electric current that varies very regu-
removed. larly from positive to negative. This
Large numbers of valves grouped current called a currier current . If
is we
together, as in big computers, give off were to draw a picture to represent car-
much heat made by their red-hot fila- rier current, it would look like the first
ments. Therefore, the computers need lustration on page
ii
27. You can see
elaborate cooling equipment. Transis- that each wave reaches
above and as far
tors work cooler, Large numbers of below the horizontal line as every' other
them may be built into a computer wave. Et is important for understanding
with less cooling. what follows to know that the distance

26
 :

the amplitude of the modulated carrier

current is high. When the amplitude
of the audio signal is low, the amplitude
of the modulated carrier current is

low.
The modulated carrier current goes
from the peak of a wave is
line to the to another group of transistors that
the wave’s amplitude. Thus, the carrier amplify once more. Then it goes to
it

current has very regular amplitude. the arrangement of wires, usually on a

The from the micro-
electric current tall tower, called a broadcasting aerial.
phone flows to a group of transistors. The aerial broadcasts the modulated
This current is very weak, and the form of electro-
carrier current in the
transistors amplify it if we were to magnetic waves which we call radio
draw a picture to represent the current The broadcast waves are called
in the microphone wire, it would look amplitude modulated waves or ,
AM
like this illustration waves.

!+ To trap broadcast radio waves and

AUDIO bring them into a
SIGNAL
“ ceJvt ° we
radio receiver,
need some way to
You can see that it has an irregular change the electromagnetic waves back
amplitude. The microphone current is to electric current. This is done very
called the audio signal. Audio refers to easily, because when electromagnetic
the sound, sound waves
because waves strike a wire or some other elec-
generate the microphone current. trical conductor, they cause an electric
The carrier current and the audio current to flow in the conductor A
signal go to the same circuit. Here, the single wire, or an arrangement of wires,
irregular amplitude of the audio signal called a receiving aerial is used to trap
changes the very regular amplitude of passing radio waves. Sometimes an
the carrier current. Radio engineers say aerial consists of several wires on one
that the audio signal modulates the car- or more poles outside a house, usually
rier current. If we were to draw a pic- on the roof'. The most common aerial
ture to represent the modulated carrier is a network of wires inside a radio set.
current, would look like the illustra-
it Some car radios use as an aerial a
tion below. As you can see, when the flexible metal rod sticking up from the
amplitude of the audio signal is high, side of the car.
When radio waves are broadcast,
they rapidly become weaker as they
AM WAVE move away from the broadcasting sta-
tion. If you live close to a broadcasting
station, you know how much louder its

27
 broadcasts are than those of stations carrier current has its frequency modu-
farther away. Usually, by the time radio lated by an audio signal. You remember
waves reach a radio receiver, they are that the electric current going to a
very weak. broadcasting antenna varies from posi-
The weak radio waves cause a weak tive to negative. Whenever the current
current to how in the wires of an aerial. is positive, the carrier frequency is
Tlie current may have a strength of jammed together; whenever the current
only a few millionths of a volt. (A is negative, the carrier frequency is
volt is the unit used to measure the spread apart. The action is something
strength of a moving electric charge.) like that of pushing and pulling on an
This is far too little to make a loud- accordion.
speaker work. When this current enters The frequencies of FM broadcasting
the radio receiver it goes to transistors are much higher than those of AM. FM
that amplify it a million or more times. frequencies are measured in Megacycles
The strengthened current then goes to per second (or MegaHertzes
), Mega
another part of the circuit that filters meaning “mi 11 ion.” The frequencies of
out the carrier current, leaving only AM broadcasting are measured in
the audio signal. The audio signal Kilocycles per second, or thousands
goes to the speaker. Here, the speaker of cycles per second (or Kilo-
reverses the work of the microphone : it Hertzes).
changes electric current into sound fs there anything particularly good
waves that leave the loudspeaker as the about FM? Yes, it is almost free of
sound of the singer’s voice in the broad- static. You know, of course, that static
casting studio. is the crackling and scraping sounds
that occasionally come from your radio
You have heard of FM broadcasting. while you arc listening to a programme.
The letters “FM” Static is caused by lightning and smaller
for frt- sparks, such as those made by car
quency modu- spark plugs and electric motors. These
lation . You remember that “AM” sparks are moving electric charges;
stands for amplitude modulation. In therefore, they broadcast electro-
AM, the amplitude of the carrier wave magnetic Your
waves. radio AM
is modulated by the audio signal. In receives these waves and changes
FM t
the frequency of the carrier current them into the unwanted sounds of
ismodulated by the audio signal. The static.

diagram shows what happens when a Static interferes with AM radio

waves because modulates the ampli-
it

tude of these waves. Static does not in-

terfere with FM
radio waves because it
does nothing to modulate the frequency
of radio waves, and FM
waves are only
frequency-modulated.

28
 KA&I Q
MICROPHONE

RECEIVING AERIAL
AMPLTER AND TRANSMITTER
J'.'Egj^D AMPLIFIER

f
EAR OP
LISTENER

TRANSdITTWG AERIAL

The tjiagrammnlc illustration shows thn steps in radks broad-

casting from "so^nd to Sound"'.

Television pictures are transmitted by into its constituent colours of red,

using the same green and blue. Each of these three
How does your techniques as beams is then focused separately onto
work? those described three photocond active surfaces. The
for radio. Your light image focused onto any of the
TV picture and sound result from a tube surfaces will produce a pattern of
continuous stream of electromagnetic electrons that will exactly correspond
waves that are sent from the transmit- to the intensity of light falling on this
ting station. These waves are modulated photoconductive layer. What happens
in a particular way and contain all the is that the energy contained in the light
information that your receiver requires produces photo-
free electrons in the
to reconstruct the colours and bright- conductive material at places where
ness that will make up the picture, as light strikes thesurface and these re-
well as providing the necessary sound. duce the resistance of the layer in that
local area. Thus if an electron beam is
Let us start by looking at the cameras made to scan the rear of this layer it

used in a tele- will have an easier passage through the

,i * ” n
i

Lm“i’ vision studio that area with more electrons. The ability of
convert a picture this beam to pass through the surface
into suitable electrical signals for even- is determined by the number of elec-
tual transmission as electromagnetic trons found in any particular place (i.e.

waves. the electron pattern). This electron

A typical colour TV camera will pattern, in turn, is created by the
consist of three filters that split the light picture on the front surface.
coming from the scene, to be recorded, The ease with which this scanning

29
 electron beam travels through the layer In effect the green signal omitted and is
will provide a varying current in the ex- only the red and hlue together with the
ternal circuitry, We have, therefore, con- Y signals transmitted. We have not
verted, by this means, a wholly visual lost the green signal, for you will re-
scene into a varying electrical signal. member that the Y signal is the sum of
This process occurs at each of the all three (i.e. red, green and blue}, so by
three photoconductjve surfaces and the subtracting the red and blue signals
result is three electrical signals repre- from Y at the receiver the green signal
senting the pattern produced by red, will re-appear. So the three signals, i.e.
green and blue light. In addition a red, blue and Y, are used to modulate
fourth surface is included upon which a carrier frequency In the transmitter
the total picture is focused, without any and are then broadcast as electro-
filtering, and the electrical signal from magnetic waves.
this layer is called the luminance or Y
signal, and is used to produce black and Your television receiver consists of the
white pictures in a monochrome set. An aerial that is used
alternative solution to incorporation of The television
receiver for picking-up
a fourth layer would be to simply the broadcast
combine electrically the three filtered signal, the electronic circuitry that de-
signals. Both methods are used in codes the signal, a loudspeaker and
modern cameras. TV tube. The signal received by the
In the PAL colour TV system aerial is amplified and demodulated and
adopted by the United Kingdom, the the result is the production of red,
Y signal is also used to eliminate the green, blue and Y signals in your set.
need to transmit three colour signals. In addition the sound signal, also con-

FLUORtSCENISCREEh

LIGHT

FROM ACCaWATING ANODE

CONTROL GRID
LENS

CATHODE

ELECTRON STREAM
DEFLECTING COILS

Cutaway viflw ^ satfwde roy lufer

30
 .

electrons. These three dot types arc

arranged in groups of three (i.e. R, G
and R) all the way across the screen.
In the thin end of the tube are three
electron guns and they each fire a beam
of electrons at the back of the screen
They are made to scan the screen from
top to bottom at exactly the speed that
the beam on each photoconductive
layer in the TV camera scanned this
layer. Each beam therefore moves
across the screen 625 times and passes
tained on the main carrier, will be over the dots of phosphor associated
produced. The three colour signals are with its colour.
then amplified and fed, with the Y Now onto each of these three guns is
luminance signal, to the TV tube. It is fed the red, green and blue signals that
the function of this tube to convert have been derived from the received
these four signals back into a light signal. In this way as the red beam, say,
picture that you may see. moves across the screen it will only fire
electrons at the red dots when red light
The most popular colour tube used has struck the TV camera’s red photo-
today is the conductive layer. The same is true for
The colour
television tube shadow
„ r
mask
r .
the green and blue electron guns and
type. Here the their associated dots. Because the dots
inside front face is covered with dots of are so small and dose together all that
phosphor material, A phosphor is the human eye can detect is the colour
simply a chemical that will produce mixture that results from the three dots
light when struck by electrons. The in a group being illuminated. It is in
phosphor coating is a mixture of dots, this way that the colour picture origin-
some of which will glow red, some ally viewed by the TV camera arrives
green and some blue when hit by on your TV screen.

SchemaHc drawing of interlaced scanning. Television is much m are complicated than radio. In
t lie studio the scene h focused on the photosensitive
surface of the [mage lube within the camera. This
changes !he light and shadow* of the scene into vary-
ing electrical current. The current varies, or modu-
lates,an electron beam hat scans the target surface
l

of the image section 525 Mimes a second. The modu-

lated beam becomes the broadcast video wave.
Television an fen no 5 transmit sound and video waves
separately. The sound is broadcast by FM radio. The
video wave is picked up by the receiving antenna,
rectified' by the television receiver, orid f etj j n f C the
picture tube, or kinescope. There it varies the strength
of a stream of electrons. As the electron stream plays
across Mie fluorescent screen at the wide end of the
tube, Ft produce* the same picture "seen” by the
camera
STUDIO CAMERA MODULATED
TV WAVES.

VARYING RECEIVING ANTENNA

CURRENT

CAMERA
TUBE

RECEIVING SET

ELECTRON
BEAM

PICTURE TUBE

Diagram to iliow the steps In black and white television broadcasting.

The Wonderful World of Devices

Now that we know how valves and Radar is the name given to radio
transistors work in and tele-
radio equipment used
vision, let us see some of the other How does radar for detecting
wonderful applications of these elec- objects such as
tronic devices. aircraft at distances or in places where
 SOUND

ENCODED VISION SIGNAL

ENCODE R
“ *

3 ELECTRICAL SIGNALS
j

» if AERIAL HORIZONTALLY POLARISED CARRIER

receiving aerial

3 GUNS
RED
GREEN
BLUE
RADIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFICATION

COMPOSITE SIGNAL DECODED

LUMINANCE DETECTOR AND AMPLIFIER

SOUND
CATHODE RAY
DOMESTIC COLOUR TELEVISION RECEIVER

Diagramatie re p r ejenwtro n of the seep* involved in colour television broad casting,

they would not normally be seen, e.g. radio wave, the better it is reflected.

aircraft in clouds. Radar waves are among the shortest

A radar transmitter broadcasts very that can be broadcast. They are called
short radio waves. These waves are microwaves.
reflected from solid objects in much the A radar aerial may be shaped like a
same way that light is reflected Irom huge cereal bowl Microwaves are
the objects it strikes. The shorter the broadcast from a rod sticking out from

H Sl W - etK!ionic& - C 33
 BROADCAST
WAVE Radar, an eFeccrortic device* was de-
veloped secret Fy in England during the
Second World War to spot the read-
i

ing German aeroplane bombers.

Schematic ifFus (ration of a radarscope shows the pjp r

(he received signal fha( the broadcast radar wave

has bounced from a solid obfect,

Night scene over London

during Nazi bombing in

1 940. Radar waves bounce

from invading Nazi bomb-
ers and pinpoint their po-
sition.

34
the centre of the inner side of the bowl. reflect radar waves. This enables
If the waves strike an object, they are commercial airline pilots to detect

reflected back to the antenna. All the storms in their paths and to fly their

returning waves arc reflected from the airliners around them,

inside of the bowl to the tip of the rod. Pilots in aeroplanes without radar
Radar waves, like all electromagnetic are able to tell how high above the earth
waves, travel at a speed of approxi- they are by means of a device called an
mately 2 9 x IO metres/second (186,000 altimeter. This device depends on the
miles a second). If they strike an aero- fact that air pressure decreases as

plane 10 miles from the aerial the we go higher above the surface of the
reflected radar waves arc back at the earth. By measuring air pressure, the

antenna in less than a nine-thousandth altimeter shows at what height the aero-
of a second. In order that the reflected plane is flying. But, sometimes, espe-

waves do not interfere with the broad- cially in mountainous country, the al-

cast waves, radar is broadcast in very timeter does not register accurately.

short bursts. Each burst is called a Here, air pressure is influenced by up-

pulse. The time between pulses is the and-down currents of air. A pilot, look-
time in which the reflected waves are ing at his altimeter when his plane is
picked up by the aerial. flying in a strong down-current of air,
The reflected waves generate an elec- may think that he is flying higher than

tric current in the aerial. The current he actually is. As a result, he may fly

goes through a circuit to a special

screen — much like a television screen
— on which the object reflecting the
waves shows up as a small spot of light,

which is called a blip.

Radar has many uses. Clouds

The radarscops in an aero-

plane es used to detect storms
and other disturbances Sn the
air more than 100 miles away,

The air-pressure altimeter

gives the pilot an indication
at what heigh! above &ea
plane is flying. The
level the

radar altimeter Indicates

how close to the earth’s sur-
face the plane is flying.

35
 too low and, at night or in fog, he may
crash into a mountain. But radar can
provide him with a foolproof altimeter.
A radar signal is broadcast downward
from one wing of the plane. The
tip
signal bounces off the ground and is V “ L '
. .
'

received at the other wing tip. The time

it takes for the radar signal to make a
round trip —from wing tip to ground .

to wing dp — is automatically calcu-

lated to give the height of the plane
above the ground. Since radar is not
influenced by air currents,, the pilot can
tell how high above the ground he
really is, no matter where he is flying.
A similar effect to that obtained with
What is sonar?
radio waves
results using
sound waves. The device is known as
sonar.
Radar cannot be used to detect sub-
marines under water. Radar waves are
reflected from any material as dense as
water. Also, radar waves cannot be
broadcast through anything that will
conduct electricity, and sea water is a
very good conductor.
Sound waves travel very well through
water. So, sonar uses electronic devices
that cause an instrument in the bottom
of a ship to send pulses of very strong
sound waves through the water. If a
submarine, or any other solid object, is
within the range of these sound waves,

I
NTEJKtFTI ON

.
1 •*.. -••*4 ifenJ l 1

Radar and computer?

ore the heart of the
North American Air De-
COMPUTER
NIKE.IEUS
SADAtt
£
O-
£?
fense Command,

DETECTION STATION
BATTERY CONTROL COMPUTER
 :

MlCiOFHdiNI
IMPULSE

EOtfBS PEAKE If

UNDER W ATE ff

OBJECT

A bat has natural sonar.

‘
sends out sound
** aves
(curved lings]
end receives an echo
^dashed fines), ena-
bling the bat to fell the
distance and location
obstacles and also
n sects it seeks for food.

By measuring the time that

a sound wove takes to travel
to an obstacle and bock,
one can figure out the dis-
tance and location of the
object. A ship, equipped
with sonar, can locate a
submarine by this method.

they are reflected back to the ship. Here, and measure the time it takes the waves
a microphone picks them up and trans- to bounce back, just as airplanes learn
forms them into electric current. The how high they are by bouncing radar
current goes to an electronic device that waves off the surface of the earth.
shows in what direction and how far We have learned that X-ray cameras
the reflecting object is. If the reflecting were among the
object is an enemy submarine, and the How does electronic* c *. r
help doctor®? nrst electronic
ship using the sonar is a warship, the devices, and
submarine may be found and destroyed. also that X-rays are used to photo-
Sonar has peacetime uses, too. It is graph things inside the human body,
used by fishing fleets to locate schools of The main part of an X-ray camera is
fish. Also, ships can use sonar to learn the X-ray tube. This is a glass tube
how deep the water below them is. They which contains an electron gun that
send sonar waves to the bottom of the sea shoots a beam of electrons at a very
 .

batted for heating, anode

roo.Doo voirs

+ r!
1 “

Doctors use X-roys to photo-

graph the inside of the human
body, the bones and infernal
PHOTO GRAPHIC Ft ATE
organs. X-rays are also used for
treatment of same Illnesses.

hard metal target. Upon being struck the body’s thinner, softer parts darken
by electrons, the target shoots out a the film the most. Those X-rays that
beam of electromagnetic waves called were blocked in varying amounts by the
X-ravs. These waves have a wavelength body’s more solid parts darken the film
even shorter than the microwaves of less or not at all. When the film
is de-
radar. X-rays can pass through solid veloped, the result is a picture of the
materials, passing through some mater- inside of the body.
ials easily and through others less Sometimes, instead of using photo-
easily or not at all. graphic film, a doctor may place a
Doctors use X-rays to photograph the patient in front of a screen somewhat
inside of the human body. X-rays easily like a television screen, although much
pass through the body’s thinner organs larger. When X-rays strike any part of
such as the skin and through softer tills screen, it lights up. X-rays, after
tissues such as fat. X-rays do not easily passing through the
body, patient’s
pass through thick, more solid body strike the screen and make a picture of
parts such as big muscles or the liver. what is inside the patient’s body, X-ray
Hard body parts such as bones and cameras that use these large screens are
teeth almost entirely block the passage called fiuoroscopes The fluoroscope
of X-rays. To obtain an X-ray photo- enables the doctor to see immediately
graph, a sheet of photographic film is —without waiting to develop photo-
placed on the side of the body opposite graphic him -what the pa- is inside
the entering X-rays, When the X-rays body. Also, lluoroscopes show
tient s
leave the body, they strike the him. moving parts of a body such as a beat-
Those X-rays that easily passed through ing heart.

38
 Regufar periodic chest
X-ray exominaHortS are
very usefuf for early
detection of many chest

diseases.

X-rays can be dangerous. If living lion can be made so tiny —the si2e of

body exposed to X-rays lor too

cells are a grain of rice — that it can be placed
long a time, the cells will be killed. This inside the heart. By listening to the

is why patients are exposed to X-rays

broadcasts of heartbeats, doctors can
for no more than a second— and learn how a patient’s heart is working.

usually less— for each X-ray picture Another tiny broadcasting station is put

the doctor takes. The danger of expo- into a capsule that a patient swallows.

sure to X-rays is the reason that doc- As the capsule moves through the
torsand others who work with X-rays patient’s stomach and intestine, differ-

wear aprons and gloves that have lead ent digestive juices cause the capsule

worked into the fabric. Also, the X-ray to broadcast different wave patterns.

workers stand behind lead screens when These wave patterns give doctors use-
the X-ray tube is turned on. Lead stops. ful information about the patient’s
X-rays very well. stomach and intestine.
There is, however, a good side to the One day when the German physicist
fact that X-rays can kill body cells. Heinrich Hertz,
What is a photocell ?
Cancer cells are more easily killed by was experiment-
X-rays than are healthy body cells. So, ing with his spark gap apparatus, he

doctors treat some kinds of cancer by found that the spark was larger when
exposure to X-rays strong enough to he shined an intense beam of light on
kilt the cancer cells, but not strong the spark gap. Other scientists learned

enough to kill the healthy body cells that they could increase the flow of elec-

surrounding the cancer. tricity in certain metals by shining light

on them. Still later, scientists learned

Using transistors, a broadcasting sta-
 that these same metals emitted elec- photocell. The light entering the photo-
trons under light. Metals that do this cellcaused an electric current to flow.
are said to be photoelectric. Photo is the This current went to a magnet that held
LL
ancient Greek word for light.” So, a a switch open. When you approached
photoelectric metal one that makes
is the door and walked through the light
electricity by means of light. Among beam, the light was cut off from the
such metals are the chemical elements photocell lor a moment. During this
sodium, potassium, lithium, and cesium. moment, no current flowed out of the
Wc learned that a TV camera contains photocell, As a result, the magnet no
a screen of photoelectric metal. longer held the switch open. The closed
The cathode of an electron tube can switch sent electric current (from a
be made of one of the photoelectric source other than the photocell) to a
metals. When light shines on this kind motor opened the door for you.
that
of cathode, electron emission takes The photocell “saw” you when you
place, just asit docs when the cathode approached the door. Because a photo-
of an electron tube is heated. cell works as if it can see, it is some-
Today however photocells are gen- times called an “electronic eye,”
erally made from semiconductor Photocells are used on cameras to
material. We saw that in the TV measure the amount of light that enters
camera light was used to produce a camera s lens. The electric current
electronson the surface of the photo- produced by the photocell is used to
conductive layer. In a similar manner regulate the size of the lens opening,
if light shines on the junction of a diode thereby giving correct exposure to the
or the base region of a transistor, film.
electrons will be produced. By con-
necting the right components and Light is made up of electromagnetic
voltages to either of these devices these waves of verv
electrons may be moved into the
How can "black light" 1 . , .

catch burglars? short wavelength

circuit and used to drive other external and very high
equipment. frequency when compared to radio,
television, or even radar waves. Each
Perhaps, when in a public building, colour of light has a frequency and
you
^ s
d S "
wo r J
'",e "'"9
have
Proached a door
that opened just
ap- a wavelength different from those of
other colours. Red has the lowest
frequency and the longest wavelength.
as you were about to open it, although Then the frequencies of orange, yellow
neither you nor anyone else touched the green, blue, and indigo
become higher
door, A photocell was part of the ma- and the wavelengths shorter until we
chinery that opened the door. Here is reach violet. Violet has the highest fre-
how it worked. A beam of light,
pass- quency and shortest wavelength. The
ing across your path a couple of feet in electromagnetic waves that have a fre-
front of the doorway, was directed at a quency a little lower than red and the

40
 photoelectric ceu Mi*? n Mineor* nc^nri rl * door,
tic t-ghl betvn ii inlerrupied
lHa don>- wrings cpen-

lTGHT

CWgromcJ foe working nF photometric sell.

ihnwimgJhe light beam arid e1fC?nO]il rnnrtsdions

rteteE-sary fiwlhe cell's oprancriiGn.

cell
device con^oLLEOEYPt-oioELEcrsic
1
batteey

Many a burglar alarm has

trapped an intruder or at least
scared hrm away, This is a
schematic illustration of how ft

works Light shines on the cath-

l

ode of the photocell which emits

electrons that jump to the anad-e
arid flow into the grid of an am-
plifier tube. This keeps the grid
negative and prevents the elec-
trons from moving to the plate

The moment the light beam Is

interrupted, the electrons can

flow to the plale,, forming an
electric current that operates the
alarm.

This is a diagram showing the

working of a door operated by
an electric eye. By replacing the
electric motor with q bell, you
can change ft to a burglar alarm
system.

41
 waves with a frequency a little higher to walk. At intervals along the patrol
than violet are also said to be kinds of route are photocells. As
dog breaks
the
light. Waves with frequency a little the light beam, a small bulb lights up
lower than red are infrared light. In- on a board in a room where a man is
frared means “below red.” Waves watching. When the dog arrives at the
with frequency a little higher than end of his patrol route, the last photo-
violet are ultraviolet light. Ultra- cell turns off all the bulbs on the board.
violet means “above violet.” Although Then, as the dog begins his route again,
we call infrared and ultraviolet the bulbs go on again, one by one. If a
kinds of light, we cannot see bulb does not light, the man watching
them. So, they are sometimes the board knows that the dog did not
called “black light.” patrol his route correctly. This might
Suppose we wish to guard something have happened because a burglar has
—let us say, the door of a storeroom. harmed the dog or because the dog has
We can shine a beam of “black light” attacked the burglar. Guards are then
—perhaps ultraviolet—across the door- sent to the floor on which the dog was
way so that the
'll
light enters a photo- patrolling to learn what has gone
™ cell. As long as the beam enters the wrong.
photocell, electric current Hows from
the photocell. This current goes to an In their early days, moving pictures
electric switch that remains open as were silent. In
-
long as the current Hows through it.
SESar <*der to tell the
When the current is cut off. the switch audience what an
closes and causes a burglar alarm bell actor was saying, printed words were
to ring.
Now, suppose that a burglar opens
the door to the storeroom. As he enters
the door, he blocks the beam of ultra-
violet light from shining into the photo-
cell. The switch closes, and the alarm
bell rings. The switch is constructed so
that it will when the
not open again
burglar has passed through the beam
and the light again enters the photo-
cell, So, the bell continues to ring.
Since “black light” is invisible, the
burglar is not aware of the alarm until
he sets it off.

In America one department store has

trained dogs to walk up and down the
aisles of the store at night. Each dog

patrols a route that he has been trained

42
projected onto the screen. Years later, the slit is narrowed. A beam of
films used gramophone records to bring light is directed through the slits and
to the audience the sounds of what was falls on the film alongside the
being shown on the screen. The records light that is entering from the lens.
were recorded while the film was being When the film is developed, the
filmed. When the film was shown in the varying amounts of light from the
cinema, the records were played. Some- widening and narrowing slits show up
times, the film and a record got out as a row of light and dark areas
of step, and what the actors were saying alongside the pictures. This row is

did not have much connection with called the sound track.
what they were doing. Finally, as is When the film is projected in a the-
done nowadays, sound was recorded atre, a special light bulb shines a beam
right on the film alongside the pictures. through the sound track. This beam of
While a film is being made, a mi- light continues on to a photocell. The
crophone in thecamera picks up the darker parts of the sound track block
actors’ voices and other sounds from off some light so that less reaches the
whatever the camera is filming. The mi- photocell. The lighter portions of the
crophone changes the sound into elec- sound track more light reach
let

tric current of varying strength. The the photocell. The variations in

current goes to two magnets that open light are changed by the photocell
and close a slit between two flat pieces into electric current of
1

varying
of metal. When the current coming strength. The electric current goes to
from the microphone is strong, the slit loudspeakers that change the current
is widened. When the current is weak, into sound, just as do the speakers

Trained dogs walk up

and down the aisles of a
department store at
night (left), A guard
watches the board in

a separate room (right}

where light bulbs light

up as the dogs break
the invisible fight beams
crossing the aisles.
 MICUDPHQNE

LIGHT VALVE

MAGNET SOUNDTRACK

The diagram above if lust races the recording of

sound on fifm to make the soundtrack.
The diagram at right shows how the sound is taken
off the film when It is projected.

of a radio or a tape recorder.

We learned from the first part of this

book that micro- flected from the object nor can the
Wh V do electrons scopes using
tive us the beat r & elec- object cast its own shadow, irwe sub-
microscopes ? Irons can magnify stitute a beam of electrons for he t light,
much better than we find that the electron beam can be
those using light. Let us now see why reflected from objects too small to re-
this is true. flect light. These same objects can
cast
If light strikes an object and is re- a shadow when in an electron beam. A
fleeted to our eyes, we see the object. beam of electrons is used in an electron
If an object blocks light from reaching microscope.
our eyes, we see the object only as a The beam starts as electron
electron
dark area. We say that the object casts emission from a heated filament. The
a shadow to our eyes. However, if the electrons pass between magnets that
object is smaller than the smallest wave- locus the beam just as glass lenses focus
length of light, the light cannot be re- a beam of light. The beam then strikes
 Shooting a film today
is quite an enterprise h

not only from the

artistic angle, but from
the technical point of
view as well Lighting,
camera position* and
placement of the
micro phones for back-
ground sounds and
yokes, all hove to be
calculated and tried
out before the direc-
tor can cry, "Lights,
camera, action!”

the object we wish to magnify. The among which are measles, mumps,
electrons either pass through the object chicken pox, smallpox, rabies, and
or glance off it. If the electrons pass polio. The electron microscope may
through the object, more pass through help us to conquer these diseases by en-
its thinner parts and less through its abling us to work on viruses.

thicker parts. If the electrons glance off

the object, they cast its shadow. After Radio AM waves can be broadcast to
passing through the object or glancing any place on
What are communi-
off it, the electrons arc focused twice cations satellites? earth, no matter

more by magnetic lenses. When the how distant.

electrons strike the object, they cause They can even be broadcast completely
it to give off light in varying amounts. around the earth. The reason that these
Thus, the object can be seen through waves can be sent such long distances is

a series of glass lenses by the operator that they can be reflected, or bounced,

of the electron microscope. This enables from a region of air called the iono-

him to focus the microscope. sphere. This region, which is between

The beam of electrons enables us to 32 and 321 kilometres (20 and 200
magnify objects more than 30,000 times miles) above the earth’s surface, is occu-
their natural size. Then, by enlarging pied by electrically charged particles.
the picture made by the electrons on The particles are atoms of the gases
we can further magnify objects
the film, that make up the air. These atoms have

to as much as 250,000 times. lost one or more of their electrons and,

One of the great triumphs of the elec- therefore, are electrically charged. Such

tron microscope has been to reveal atoms are called ions and from them the
viruses , the smallest known living ionosphere gets its name.
things. Viruses cause many diseases, Radio AM waves that travel diag-
 onally upward from a broadcasting a height of 1,601 kilometres (1,000
aerial strike the ionosphere and bounce miles). Radio and television waves
down to earth, striking the ground at a broadcast to the balloon bounced back
point many miles from the broadcasting to earth. This bounce made it
possible
aerial. Then, the waves may bounce to broadcast television and waves FM
from the earth back to the ionosphere. about 4.828 kilometres (3,000 miles).
These bounces, from earth to iono- In the summer of 1962, a second
sphere and back to earth, may con- kind of communications satellite was
tinue until the broadcast waves have placed into orbit around the earth, This
travelled completely around the earth. named Tehtar /, was a small
satellite,

Television and radio FM waves are radio and television broadcasting sta-
not reflected from the ionosphere but tion. Instead of simply reflecting
broad-
pass through it. Because these waves cast waves, Tehtar I recei ved radio and
cannot bounce from ionosphere to television broadcasts, recorded them,
earth, they cannot be broadcast long and then re broadcast them.
distances. They can be broadcast to Suppose a communications satellite
receivers only as far from the broad- like Tehtar 1 is to broadcast a
TV pro-
casting aerial as the horizon although gramme from the United States to Eu-
under certain conditions greater dis- rope. The broadcasting station that is
tances may be achieved. Upon reaching to send a programme to the satellite is
the horizon, the broadcast waves travel on the East Coast of the Uni ted States,
off the surface of the earth and into The satellite is so far above the earth
space. When your TV receives broad- that the East Coast station can begin
casts from places beyond the horizon, to broadcast as soon as the satellite
the television and radio FM waves starts to cross the United States from
have been brought to your local broad-
White AM radio waves and all other medium-fre-
casting station through wires running quency waves are reflected by the ionosphere, tele-
across country. Or, the broadcasts were vision and FM waves and ail other
high-frequency
waves pass through and out in la space.
ir
carried long distances by being re broad-
cast from mountain top to mountaintop
across the country.
There is, however, a way to send tele-
vision and FM waves to any part of the
earth — by the use of communications
satellites.

The first communications satellite

was a huge aluminium-foil balloon with
a diameter equal to the height of a 10
was named
story building. This satellite
Echo L In the summer of I960, Echo l
w as launched into orbit around the
r

earth. The balloon circled the earth at

46
the west. The TV programme, in- Besides rebroadcasting television and
cluding the sound on FM, is finished radio programmes, communications
when the satellite is well over the Atlan- satellites receive and rebroadcast trans-
tic Ocean. In the satellite, recorders Atlantic telephone calls. Also, they
have been storing the TV programme receiveand rebroadcast photographs,
on magnetic tape. When the satel- maps, and other illustrations for news-
lite approaches the coast of Europe, a papers and magazines. In addition,
broadcasting station in England or these satellites gather scientific informa-
France sends the satellite a command tion about conditions in space and
to begin broadcasting. The satellite send this information to earth.
then broadcasts the programme it has Teistar / was followed by another
stored on tape. The European station very similar communications satellite
receives the broadcast and rc broad- named Relay /. Then, Teistar U was put
casts on frequencies that can be re-
it into orbit and was followed by Relay II.
ceived by TV sets in European homes. In 1963, a new type of communica-
The communications satellite can re- tions satellitewas launched. This was
ceive a programme at the same time it is Syrtcom I. It was placed in an orbit
broadcasting another. If the European 35,888 kilometres (22,300 miles) above
station wanting to broadcast to the the earth, and given a speed that caused
United States begins to broadcast to it always to remain above one location

the satellite at just about the time the on the earth’s surface; as the earth
satellite begins to broadcast to the Eu-
ropean station, the satellite records the
European programme. It then travels
all the way around the earth until it

reaches the western coast of the United

States. Here, it begins to broadcast the
stored European programme to a sta-
tion on the United States East Coast,

FM waves, television waves and microwaves have (O

be transmitted from reiay steal ion to relay static n or
have to he sent by special wires.

The wire that carries TV waves is called a "coaxial

1
cabie "
and has la be spedafiy built to serve its

purpose. The wire carrying the current is heavily

insulaied and is wilhin a hollow wire r also heavily
insulated for protection. The aulskfe wire shields the
currenl and prevents the rapidly vibrating current
from broadcasting electromagnetic waves as if it

were an antenna.
47
Com munitc Hons safe] Fites
T&htuf fi, whrdi transmits
are a triumph of deefron-
overseas TVX telephone,
Our drawing sh&wi a
ics.

modeF of Fhe BefF System's and data communications

at microwave frequencies.

turned on its axis, Syncom / turned in cations satellites, in orbit 35,888 kilo-
its orbit at a speed that kept it above metres (22,300 miles) out in space and
one spot on the earth’s surface. From a at equal distances from each other, can
height of 35,888 kilometres {22,300 cover all of the earth’s surface with
miles), this satellite could broadcast their broadcasts. Working together,
to any place on one- third of the earth’s the three satellites are able to send a
surface. Three ’’stationary” communi- broadcast to any place on earth.

Electronics and You

Radio, television, radar, and the For example, using an electronic tele-
many other electronic devices that you scope, called a starlight scope soldiers ,

have just read about may make it seem in combat can see as well by starlight
as though the field of electronics very as by
is moonlight. Very sensitive
well explored. This is not so. The pro- electronic devices within a starlight
cess of electron movement, whether in scope can change reflected starlight
valves or transistors, offers a con- into electric current, then amplify the
tinuing challenge to those who are extremely weak current and change it
cleverenough to use it. As long as some back to light, making a bright image of
process can be made to produce even whatever the scope is pointed at.
the smallest amount of electric current, Electronics engineers face and meet
then electronics can amplify that cur- these challenges in the field of electron-
rent and control it in some new and ics.Perhaps you would like to be one
useful manner, of them.
 NEW! A collector's binder to hold

your HOW AND WHY Books

This new How and Why collector's binder holds twelve titles:
a wonderful way to build your own reference library!
It is available from the publishers of How and Why books for £2 .00
Supplies are limited so send for yours now.

Transworld Publishers Limited, Cash Sales Dept., P.0. Box 11,

Falmouth, Cornwall. Plus 50p Postage and Packing.

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These books answer the questions most often

asked about science, nature and history, They
are presented in a clear, readable style, and
contain many colourful and instructive Illustra-
tions, Readers will want to explore each of these
fascinating subjects and collect these volumes
s on authentic, ready-reference, basic library,

TRAM5WQRLD PUBLISHERS LTD CAVENDISH HOUSE.

,

57/59 UXBRIDGE ROAD, EALING, LONDON W5.