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15
CHAPTER
15.0 INTRODUCTION
From sophisticated satellites, rockets and aircrafts to simple appliances for everyday use like
TV, home computer and cellphone depend on electronic devices for proper functioning. The
reliability of operation of such equipments depends very much on the reliability of electronic
equipment which control them. All electronic devices generate heat due to the current flow
through them. Unless the heat is removed constantly the temperature of the devices will
continuously increase leading to failure. Compared to the previous components like vacuum
tubes, the heat generated by individual device is very small. But the developments from
transistors, integrated circuits and microprocessor have resulted in millions devices being
packed into a chip of millimeter size.
Starting in 1960 with 50-1000 components per chip, it increased step by step to more
than 109 components in a chip of 3 cm × 3 cm size. The trend is shown in Fig. 15.1. The result
is the increase of heat output from 0.1 W/cm2 to 100 W/cm2, which is comparable in magnitude
with those encountered in nuclear reactors and the surface of the sun. Unless the cooling system
is properly designed and operated high rate of heat generation will result in high operating
temperatures of the equipments resulting in failure of components.
9
10
8
10 VLSI
7
10
6
10
5
10
4 VLSI
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
10
Failure at T°C
9 F=
Failure at 75°C
F 5
Wafer
Chip carrier
Chip
Substrate
for connection Chasis
Printed Back panel Cabinet
circuit board
The basic or starting point for cooling thus is the chip carrier, the details of which are
Chapter 15
shown in Fig. 15.4. Chips are housed in a chip carrier or substrate made of ceramic, plastic or
glass in order to protect the delicate circuitry from the detrimental effect of the environment.
Lid
Case
Bond wire
Chip Leads
Pins Pins
Thermal
∆T T j − Tc
Q= = resistance Case
R R Junction
4 = (Tj – 60)/10 Q
∴ Tj = 100°C.
Determination of thermal resistance from the
Pin
detailed dimensions and material properties will be
Fig. Ex. 15.1
discussed in a later section.
Example 15.2: In a lobaratory experiment to determine the junction to case thermal resistance,
the case temperature was measured as 60°C under steady conditions. The junction temperature
was measured as 92°C. The voltage across unit was 15 V and the current flow was 0.15 amps.
Calculate the junction to case resistance.
Solution: Refer Fig. Ex. 15.1 for details. Given
The junction temperature = Tj = 92°C,
The case temperature = 60°C.
Power = VI = 15 × 0.15 = 2.25 W
∆T 92 − 60
Q= , 2.25 =
R R
∴ R = 14.22°C/W
15.1.1. Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)
The chip carriers as well several components like ICs, diodes, transistors are mounted on
boards where the circuit connecting the components are already etched on copper film. PCB is
a properly wired plane board made of polymers and glass epoxy materials on which the
components are mounted. Commonly called cards each PCB carries out a specified function
like controlling hard disc drive and the cards can be replaced easily during repair. The various
connecting wires are taken to a plug and pin type of joint and so the cards are called plug in
cards. Commonly the size is 10 cm width and 15 cm length and are few millimeters thick.
Copper cladding is added to one or both sides in which the connections are etched. The
components can be mounted on one side or both. The power dissipated by a PCB usually
ranges from 5 W to 15 W. Electronic systems typically involve several layers of PCBs. The
PCBs are usually cooled by direct contact with a fluid such as air flowing between the boards.
When the boards are placed in hermetically sealed enclosures they must be cooled by a cold
plate (heat exchanger) in contact with the edge of the boards. A diagrammatic view of a PCB
is shown in Fig. 15.5.
Hot air
Electrical Plug in
contacts connection
Cold plate
(Hermetically sealed units)
Circuit board
Components
Chapter 15
because of the small thickness of the board, and the low thermal conductivity of the board
material. A copper cladding on the cold plateside will decrease the resistance for flow of heat.
The components that should be operated at low temperatures and those with higher
heat output should be placed near the cooling fluid entry, so that cooler fluid flows around
them and chances for failure is reduced.
Generally three types of PCBs are available. These are single sided, double sided and
multilayer boards. Single sided PCBs have circuitry lines on one side only. These are suitable
for low density electronic devices of 10 to 20 components. Double sided PCBs have circuits on
both sides and are suitable for intermediate density devices. Multilayer PCBs contain several
layers of circuitry and are suitable for high density devices. Special cooling arrangement may
be necessary for this type of boards, as the component temperature will be high in this type.
Hermetically sealed boards which are
cooled by cold plate are called Temperature
“conduction cooled”. The temperature of level
the component in this case will depend Tcenter
on the location in the board. The T
Tedge Components
High power
temperature will be higher at the mid component
Circuit board
section and lower along the sides. High Cold plate
power components should be placed along
the sides to reduce failure rate. This is Fig. 15.6. Temperature distribution along
cold plate cooled boards
shown in Fig. 15.6.
Materials used in the fabrication of PCBs should have the following properties:
1. To prevent electrical breakdown should have effective insulation property.
2. Good heat conductors to conduct away the heat generated.
3. High material strength to withstand forces and maintain dimensional stability.
4. The thermal expansion coefficient should be close to that of copper cladding to prevent
cracking during thermal cycling.
5. Should be resistant to moisture absorption.
6. Stability in properties at temperatures encountered.
7. Easy availability and manufacturing should not create problems.
8. Low cost.
No existing material has all the above properties.
The choice will depend on the basic requirement for functioning of the unit.
Glass-Epoxy laminates made of an epoxy or polymide matrix reinforced by several layers
of woven glass cloth are commonly used in the production of PCBs. Polymide matrices are
more expensive than epoxy but can withstand higher temperatures. Polymer or polymide films
are also used without reinforcement for flexible circuits.
The assembled circuit boards are housed in rugged enclosures. In addition the enclosures
houses peripheral equipment and connectors. The enclosure should protect the assembly from
detrimental effects of the environment and provide cooling mechanism. In small electronic
systems like personal computers the enclosure can be simple and inexpensive box made of
sheet metal with proper connectors and a small fan. For large system which may have several
hundred circuit boards the design and construction of the enclosure will be complex. Particularly
thermal design will be challenging.
762 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
The enclosure should provide easy access into the system for servicing so that identifying
and rectifying faults will be easy and not time consuming.
Long down time is generally unacceptable especially for large systems. So the
arrangement of the boards should be such that access is easy. Plug in type boards make it easy
to replace defective boards and are commonly used in low power electronic equipments. High
power electronic circuits require that the boards be tightly attached to the racks of the cabinet
with specially designed brackets. Enclosure should also have provision for switches, indicator
lights, message display screen and provision for user interface. The circuit boards are assembled
in back panels through edge connectors. The back panel has provision for inter connection and
power supply.
The back panels with PCBs assembled in an orderly manner are housed in a cabinet. A
wide variety of electronic enclosures are available with varying sizes and made of different
materials.
Electronic enclosures have to be sealed if necessary to prevent leakages to inside/outside
and to prevent moisture ingression. As it is costly to seal the enclosure, it is done only when it
is essential.
under each of these topics. The environment and the rigourousness of the duty also dictates
Chapter 15
the method to be adopted.
Some of the special situations are indicated in the following discussions.
Constant load operating conditions lead to better reliability with well designed systems.
Frequent changes in operating conditions can lead to thermal cycling leading to creep and
failure of electrical connections. Special care has to be taken in providing the cooling. The
cooling load has to be reduced taking into account of the heat storage in the components. In an
investigation, when temperature is cycled with 20°C amplitude, the failure rate was found to
increase by eight-times the normal rate. Low density electronic systems as in TV or VCR
require only natural ventilation which is provided by properly placed slits in the enclosure.
Systems for Aircraft have to be completely enclosed. Separate cooling system not affected by
environment should be provided. Vibration isolation is a must as aircrafts meet with varying
wind and weather conditions. Missiles operating only for short periods need no such
arrangement for the electronic system. Long range missiles however need such care in their
electronics. Electronic systems for space shuttle is a challenge for designers. Absence of gravity
and heat sink only by radiation are the problems involved.
Electronic equipment in ships and submarines is usually housed in rugged cabinets to
protect it from vibration and shock.
Communication systems located in remote locations are exposed to extreme environmental
conditions. These have to work for long periods, under these conditions with infrequent
maintenance. Large communication systems have to be housed in specially built shelters with suitable
air conditioning.
In electronic components used in high power microwave equipment, the heat fluxes
may be as high as 2000 W/cm2. Such components can be cooled only by immersion method.
The possible surface heat flux that can be met at different temperature difference by
various methods is shown in Fig. 15.7.
3
10
8
n
6 io
i at
4 R ad
+
2 n
Temperature difference,°C
c tio
2 ve
10 on io
n
8 a lc e ct on
s
ur nv ar
b
tio
n
6 at co c c
r ,N d o ro ve
4 ai ce flu
n
t or Co
ec ,F n
2 Di
r r tio
ai c
ct ve oiling
ire
n sion-B
10 D co Immer carbons
al fluoro
8 t ur
6 Na d
n, ce
io r
4
e rs
, Fo
m er
2 Im at
W
1
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.2 0.4 1 234 6 8 10 20
2
Surface heat flux, W/cm
Fig. 15.7. Choice of suitable cooling method for various heat flux and ∆T
764 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
The choice of the cooling method can be decided by using the chart if we know the heat
flux. The component manufacturers provide the data about the heat dissipation rate and
maximum allowable temperature for each of the component. The heat dissipation rate divided
by the component area gives the heat flux. For a heat flux of 0.1 W/cm2 and allowable
temperature difference of 60°C natural convection with radiation can be chosen. If direct forced
convection is adopted for this flux the temperature rise will be limited to about 15°C. For a
heat flux of 1 W/cm2 forced convection will lead to more than 100°C temperature rise and so
the next suitable method, immersion with fluorocarbons may be the choice.
For larger heat fluxes either forced water cooling or immersion with boiling are the
choices.
Chapter 15
W/mK mm surface
mm2
Junction – – 0.3 mm dia
Silicon chip 140 0.4 8
Eutectic bond 260 0.025 8
Copper lead frame 380 0.25 8
Plastic case 1 0.2 3
Copper leads (14 leads) 380 5 3
Assuming steady one dimensional heat flow and neglecting radiation and conduction at
the top, the resistances are calculated.
The geometry of the set up is shown in Fig. 15.8. The thermal resistance network is
shown in Fig. Ex. 15.3.
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Junction, 1–2 constriction resistance, 2–3 chip resistance, 3–4 bond resistance,
4–5 lead frame resistance, 5–6 plastic, from 6–14 leads.
Fig. Ex. 15.3. Thermal resistance network for heat flow from junction to leads
The various resistances are calculated as follows:
1. Constriction resistance
1 1
= = = 13.433°C/W.
π ×d×k π × 0.0003 × 140
FG L IJ 0.0004
2. Chip resistance =
H kA K chip
=
140 × 8 × 10 −6
= 0.357°C/W.
0.000025
3. Bond resistance = (L/kA)bond = = 0.012°C/W.
260 × 8 × 10 −6
4. Lead frame resistance = (L/kA)lead frame
0.00025
= = 0.082°C/W.
380 × 8 × 10 − 6
5. Plastic case = (L/kA)plastic
0.0002
= = 66.667°C/W.
1 × 3 × 10 −6
766 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
0.005
6. Leads = = 4.386°C/W.
380 × 3 × 10 −6
The flow from junction to outside is by 14 leads. The equivalent resistance can be taken
as that of the total area of cross-section or as 14 parallel circuits. Both methods are found to
give the same result. Here the sectional area of 14 leads is taken as 3 mm2.
Total resistance (in series)
= 13.433 + 0.357 + 0.012 + 0.082 + 66.667 + 4.386
= 84.937°C/W
∆T
Q= or ∆T = QR = 0.5 × 84.937 = 42.47
R
Tj – 35 = 42.47 ∴ Junction Temperature = 77.47°C
The highest resistance is at the plastic case (78.5%). Any attempt to reduce the junction
temperature should aim at the plastic and find alternate etc.
Analytical determination of the junction to case resistance of various devices is rather
complicated and can involve considerable uncertainty. The manufacturers usually determine
the value experimentally and list it with their product specifications. The junction to case
temperature difference can be accurately calculated from these values and then heat dissipation
values. But the actual value of junction temperature depends on the atmospheric temperature
also. The actual resistance will be the sum of junction to case resistance and case to atmospheric
resistance.
Ractual = Rjunction-ambient + Rcase to ambient
The actual junction temperature can be calculated by Tj = Tambient + Q × Ractual.
A typical chart showing the variation of average thermal resistance with air flow velocity
is shown in Fig. 15.9.
200
Average thermal resistance, °C/W
180
160
140
120
100 8-lead
80 14-lead
60 16-lead
40 24-lead
20
Solution: Reading the chart at a velocity of 150 m/s for the value of resistance for 14 lead, the
Chapter 15
value obtained is 65°C/W.
∴ Tj = 25 + 1.4 × 65 = 116°C
When the fan fails, the reading at velocity zero and the meeting of the 14 pin line gives
R = 85°C/W.
∴ Tj = 25 + 1.4 × 85 = 144°C.
The effect of ambient condition has a pronounced effect on junction temperature.
15.4.1. Conduction in Printed Circuit Boards
The next component in the path of heat flow is the printed circuit board on which the chip
carriers are mounted. In low heat flow situations air is directly blown over the devices for
cooling. The PCB does not play any role in the situation. The other method adopted when
PCBs are in sealed enclosures to protect the devices from outside conditions, the PCB is extended
at the ends to connect with cooling system. In such situation the PCB conducts the heat towards
the end and so the flow resistance of boards have to be calculated. As the PSBs are of electrically
insulating materials like glass epoxy, these are poor heat conductors. To get over the problem
the boards use aluminium or copper Q
W
cladding. The copper layer thickness is in L
the order of 0.036 mm. The heat from the
Epoxy
devices is passed on to the cooling medium Copper
te
by both the board and the cladding. As the Q
conductivity of copper is considerably te
higher than glass epoxy most of the heat
flow is along the copper layer. A schematic Fig. 15.10. PCB with cladding
is shown in Fig. 15.10.
Total heat flow = heat flow along epoxy + heat flow along cladding
FG ∆T IJ + FG kA ∆T IJ
Qp = Qe + Qg = kA
H L K H LK
e c
∆T
= [(kA)e + (kA)c]
L
As flow area is equal to width W and thickness t,
W∆ T
Qp = [(kt)e + (kte)c]
L
The relative magnitude of the heat flow along the two layers depends on the relative
magnitude of the product of conductivity and thickness. Numerically if (kt)c > 100 (kt)c then
the heat flow along epoxy will be only 1% of the total heat flow and serious error will not occur
if the flow along epoxy layer is neglected.
The effective thermal conductivity of the two layers can be calculated as
[( kt) e + ( kt) c ]
keff =
te + tc
W∆ T
Heat flow Q= . keff (te + tc)
L
∆T
= keff × APCB ×
L
where APCB = W (te + tg), the area normal to heat flow.
768 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Due to mountings of devices, holes and discontinuities may be there in both epoxy and
cladding. The above equations may have to be modified by changing lengths, sections etc.
Example 15.5: Heat is to be conducted along a copper cladded PCB. The PCB is 15 cm × 15 cm
size. Thickness of copper cladding and epoxy are 0.035 and 0.15 mm respectively. Thermal
conductivities of epoxy and copper are 0.26 and 380° W/m°C. Neglecting heat conducted along
sides and assuming one dimensional flow determine the percentage of heat conducted along
cladding. Also calculate the effective conductivity of the PCB.
Solution: Refer Fig. 15.10. Given
L = 0.15 m, tc = 0.035 mm, te = 0.15 mm
kc = 380 W/mK, ke = 0.26 W/mK W = 0.15 m
Percentage heat flow through copper layer
W∆T
(kt) c
Qc L
= × 100 =
Qc + Qe ∆T
[(kt) c + (kt) e ] W
L
13.3
= = 0.997 or 99.7%
13.3 + 0.039
Heat flow along epoxy layer is 0.3%
( kt) e + ( kt) c (0.26 × 0.15) + (380 × 0.035)
keff = =
t e + tc 0.15 + 0.035
= 72.1 W/m °C.
The heat conducted will also be equal to the heat conducted by the thickness of PCB
with 72.1 W/m °C conductivity.
Copper cladding on PCB is generally adopted in conduction cooled electronic devices.
15.4.2. The Next Method is Heat Frames
In this case a thicker copper plate is used to pass the heat to the cooling device, termed cold
plate which has coolant passing through it or cooled by direct convection. This is suitable for
higher heat dissipation as in multilayer
PCBs. The schematic is shown in Fig. 15.11. Temperature distribution
distributed and heat is collected at both ends, the temperature variation along flow direction
Chapter 15
will be symmetric as in Fig. 15.11. The devices at the centre of the PCB will operate at a
higher temperature compared to those at the edges. The heat collection can be at one edge
only or along two edges as in Fig. 15.11. Heat can also be collected at all four edges. In that
case heat flow will be two dimensional.
Example 15.6: Determine the resistances along the length and across the thickness of a
glass epoxy laminate of 0.7 mm thickness and 14 × 14 cm area. Conductivity of the material
is 0.2 W/mK.
L
Solution: R= ,
kA
Along length, L = 0.14 m, A = (0.14 × 0.0007) m2; k = 0.2 W/mK
0.15
∴ Rl = = 7653°C/W
0.2 × 0.14 × 0.0007
Across thickness : L = 0.0007 m
A = 0.14 × 0.14 m2
0.0007
∴ Rt =
0.2 × 0.14 × 0.14
= 0.1785°C/W.
The ratio of temperature drop will be in the ratio
Copper
of resistances. So flow across the thickness leads to lower filling
temperature drop.
The resistance through the epoxy layer of the PCB Epoxy
can be reduced still by using copper fillings in it, as
indicated in Fig. 15.12. Small diameter holes are drilled
Copper
in the epoxy laminate and filled with copper material.
The copper fillings are generally of 1 mm diameter and Fig. 15.12. Copper filling in
spacing is few mms. The result is a large reduction in epoxy laminate
thermal resistance of the board.
Example 15.7: Refer example 15.6. In the board holes of 1 mm dia are drilled at a spacing of
2 mm and these filled with copper cylinders. Determine the percentage reduction in thermal
resistance across the thickness.
Solution: The board dimensions are:
Area 0.14 × 0.14 m2, Thickness = 0.7 mm.
R = 0.1785°C/W, ke = 0.2 W/mK, kc = 380 W/mK
As spacing is 2 mm, in an area of (2 × 2) mm2 there is one filling.
Total area in mm 2
∴ Number of fillings =
(2 × 2) mm 2
140 × 140
= = 4900.
2×2
Area of copper for heat flow = (4900 × π × 0.0012/4) = 3.84845 × 10–3 m2
770 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
1 cm
3W 3W 3W 3W 3W 3W
PCB
Re Adhesive
RA Clamping
length
RH
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Heat frame Rcopper 20°C
As the heat input constant over the PCB area, the heat flowing in the heat frame varies
Chapter 15
continuously. In order to simplify the calculations, the PCB is divided into 6 strips of 1 cm
width each dissipating 3 W each. The heat frame extends by one more cm for the clamping
purpose. The resistance for heat flow at each strip is made up of three resistances in series.
For the heat flow along heat frame there are six resistances in series, upto the cooling connection.
Considering epoxy laminate, the area = 0.1 × 0.01 m2.
L = 0.7 mm, k = 0.2 W/mK
0.0007
∴ Re = = 3.5°C/W.
0.2 × 0.1 × 0.01
0.00012
For the adhesive Ra = = 0.075°C/W.
1.6 × 0.1 × 0.01
For the heat frame Rhp, resistance upto half thickness is taken
0.0006
Rhp = = 0.00158°C/W.
380 × 0.1 × 0.01
For flow along the Heat frame,
Flow area = 0.1 × 0.0012 m2, L = 0.01 m
0.01
∴ Rcopper = = 0.2193°C/W
380 × 0.1 × 0.0012
The temperature at location 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 are calculated using ∆T = QR T7 = 20°C
The heat flow along nodes 6 and 7 is 18 W, T7 = 20°C.
T6 – 20 = 18 × 0.2193 = 3.95 ∴ T6 = 23.95°C
T5 – 23.95 = 15 × 0.2193 = 3.29 ∴ T5 = 27.24°C
T4 – 27.24 = 12 × 0.2193 = 2.63 ∴ T4 = 29.9°C
T3 – 29.9 = 9 × 0.2193 = 2.0 ∴ T3 = 31.9°C
T2 – 31.9 = 6 × 0.2193 = 1.3 ∴ T2 = 33.2°C
T1 – 33.2 = 3 × 0.2193 = 0.66 ∴ T1 = 33.86°C
The PCB temperatures can be found using the same method.
Total resistance from PCB to heat frame
= 3.5 + 0.075 + 0.00158 = 3.5766°C/W
The temperature of PCB against node 1
TPCB1 – 33.86 = 3 × 3.5766 = 10.73°
This is constant at all nodes.
∴ TPCB1 = 44.59°C, TPCB2 = 43.93°C, TPCB3 = 42.63°C
TPCB4 = 40.63°C, TPCB5 = 37.97°C, TPCB6 = 34.68°C
As expected the temperature at the central position of the PCB is highest.
A smooth curve through these points will give the actual temperature distribution. In
the heat frame arrangement, it is seen that the temperature difference between the frame and
the devices at all locations is found to be constant at 10.73°C. A thicker frame will reduce this
value still further.
772 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
15.4.3. For Conduction Cooling of Two Sided Circuit Boards a Metal Core
in the middle of the PCB can be used. The arrange- Metal core
ment is shown in Fig. 15.13.
The metal core receives the heat from the Epoxy laminate
devices through the epoxy laminates. An adhesive
layer may also be included to prevent warping as Electronic
devices
the linear expansion coefficient of laminate is only
about half that of metal.
The heat flow is similar to that in the heat
frame, only that in this case heat is received from
Heat sink
both sides. This may require a larger thickness
compared to heat frame. Fig. 15.13. Two sided circuit board with
metal core for conduction cooling
(sectional view)
15.4.4. The Thermal Conduction Module (TCM)
Due to the circuit density in the chips the heat flux has been steadily increasing from 2 W/cm2
to more than 20 W/cm2. Forced air cooling was found inadequate under these circumstances.
This led to the development of water cooled thermal conduction module. This differs radically
from the previous chip packaging methods.
The TCM houses 100 to 118 logic chips, bonded to a multilayer ceramic substrate of size
9 cm by 9 cm in size with solder balls which provide the electrical connection between the
chips and the substrate. Each chip
dissipates about 4 W of power. The heat
Cooling water
flow path from the chip to the metal casing
is through a piston (spring loaded) which
is pressed against the back surface of the Housing
chip. The tip of the piston is slightly curved
to ensure good thermal contact even when Piston
there is misalignment. As the contact area
is limited, heat is also conducted from the Helium gas
chip to the piston through helium gas Solder Chip
filling the space. The heat from the piston balls Substrate
is transferred through the helium gas to Connecting pins
the module housing and finally to the
cooling water. Fig. 15.14. Sectional view of one chip
A section view of the chip and piston connection to cooling system
arrangement is shown in Fig. 15.14.
The figure shows only a single chip and the heat flow direction. The following are the
thermal resistances.
(1) Chip resistance (2) junction resistance and (3) resistance from the piston upto the
cooling water.
The total thermal resistance is around 8°C/W. This will give about 24°C temperature
rise above the temperature of the cooling medium.
The chips are packed into a boxlike arrangement with bottom providing the electrical
connections and the top providing the cooling water flow path. Air is evacuated and space is
filled with helium to provide better thermal conductivity. The compact arrangement reduces
COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS 773
the distance between the chips. The signal transmission time is reduced and reliability is
Chapter 15
increased.
Example15.9: In a thermal conduction module 108 chips each dissipating 3.6 W of power are
packed. Cooling water at 20°C flows through the cooling passage. The thermal resistances are
(1) chip resistance = 1.5°C/W, (2) junction to surface of chip = 6.8°C/W, (3) The chip upto the
cooling system = 7°C/W. Determine the junction temperature.
Solution: Refer Fig. 15.14
Under steady conditions,
The total resistance from junction to cooling water
= 1.5 + 6.8 + 7 = 15.3°C/W
Heat dissipated = 3.6 W
∴ Tj – 20 = 3.6 × 15.3 = 55.08°C
∴ Junction Temperature = 75.08°C.
FG ∆T IJ 0.25
h= K.
H LK
where K depends on the geometric shape and positioning of the body, L is the flow length on
the body and ∆T = TS – T∞
When radiation is involved, the heat flow is obtained by
Q = εA σ (TS4 – T∞4)
ε – emissivity, A – surface area, TS – surface temperature in kelvin, T∞ – surrounding
surface temperature in kelvin (Refer Chapter 13)
For easy reference the equations for different shapes and orientations are given in
Table 15.1.
Table 15.1. Natural Convection Correlation
GEOMETRY
FG ∆T IJ 0.25
FG ∆T IJ 0.25
FG ∆T IJ 0.25
FG ∆T IJ 0.25
FG ∆T IJ 0.25
FG ∆T IJ 0.25
FG ∆T IJ 0.25
×
H LK ×
H LK ×
H LK ×
H LK ×
H LK ×
H LK ×
H LK
For surrounding pressures other than 1 atm,
h = hat P. Where P is in atm.
The heat transfer can be increased by providing fins to the surfaces. (Refer Chapter 4).
Example15.10: A sealed electronic box of 40 cm × 40 cm × 20 cm is placed in room temperature
of 30°C on a stand such that natural convection is possible on sides and top only. The heat to be
dissipated from the box is 280 W and the surface temperature should not exceed 70°C. The
emissivity of the surface is 0.8. Determine whether the condition can be maintained by natural
convection.
Solution: The vertical height is 0.2 m.
Considering the four sides,
Area, A = 4 × 0.4 × 0.2 = 0.32 m2
L = 0.2 m, ∆T = 70 – 30 = 40°C.
∴ h = 1.42 (40/0.2)0.25 = 5.34 W/m2 K
No correction for pressure is needed.
Qcon = 5.34 × 0.32 × 40 = 68.352 W
Horizontal surface: A = 0.4 × 0.4 = 0.16 m2
L = 4 × 0.16/1.6 = 0.4 m ∆T = 40°C.
FG 40 IJ 0.25
∴ h = 1.32 ×
H 0.4 K = 4.174 W/m2 K
COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS 775
Chapter 15
Radiation Total area = 0.32 + 0.16 = 0.48 m2.
Q = 0.8 × 5.67 × 10–8 [(273 + 70)4 – (273 + 30)4] = 245.5 W
Qtotal = 245.5 + 26.71 + 68.352 = 340.6 W > 280 W
∴ Natural convection can be used.
Example15.11: A small resistor dissipating 0.25 W is 2 cm long and 0.5 cm in diameter. It is
placed horizontally on a PCB undergoing natural convection. Enough gap allows for air flow
around the resistor. Neglecting heat flow along connecting wires, determine the surface
temperature if surrounding air is at 55°C.
Solution: Considering the unit as horizontal cylinder, (neglecting end areas)
D = 0.005 m, A = π × 0.005 × 0.02 = 314.16 × 10–4 m2
From Table 15.1
h = 1.32 × (TS – 55)0.25/0.0050.25 = 4.964 (TS – 55)0.25
Q = hA (TS – 55) = 4.964 × 314.16 × 10–6 × (TS – 55)1.25 = 0.25
∴ (TS – 55)1.25 = 160.3, ∴ TS – 55 = 58.07,
∴ TS = 55 + 58.07 = 113.07°C h = 13.7 W/m2 K.
If considered as vertical cylinder, h = (1.42/1.32) × 13.7
= 14.73 W/m2 K.
TS will be 79.3°C.
Example15.12: A PCB is dissipating 6 W. The size of the PCB is 15 cm × 15 cm. The temperature
of the components should not exceed 95°C. The unit operates at a hill station where the
atmospheric pressure is 0.65 atm. If natural convection is to be adopted determine the maximum
temperature of air. If it is to operate at sea level, will the temperature be lower or higher.
Solution: In this case, the outside temperature is to be determined. Vertical plate model is to
be adopted. L = 0.15 m, A = 0.15 × 0.15 = 0.0225 m2, TS = 95°C. At atmospheric pressure level,
h = 1.42 × (95 – T∞)0.25/0.150.25 = 2.282 × (95 – T∞)0.25
Q = hA (95 – T∞) = 2.282 × 0.0225 (95 – T∞)1.25
6 = 2.282 × 0.0225 (95 – T∞)1.25
∴ (95 – T∞)1.25 = 116.86 ∴ 95 – T∞ = 45.09
∴ T∞ = 95 – 45.09 = 49.91°C
In case of pressure is 0.65 atm,
At atmospheric pressure,
h = 2.282 × (95 – 49.91)0.25 = 5.913 W/m2 K
At 0.65 atm, h = 5.915 × 0.65 = 4.77 W/m2 K
6 = 4.77 × 0.0225 (95 – T∞) ∴ T∞ = 39.1°C.
At the altitude, the maximum outside temperature can be 39.1°C.
convection is used. The simplest system is arranging the PCBs in an airtight enclosure and
using a fan to force air through the PCBs. A simple arrangement is shown in Fig. 15.16.
Enclosure
Devices
PCB
Fan
Cold air in
Q
Ts = Tair +
Chapter 15
hAs
The flow capacity of the fan can be estimated from the total heat dissipation in the unit
and the temperature increase in air, which is limited to about 10°C.
m = Q/cp . ∆T
From the inlet conditions the volume flow can be estimated. The fan characteristics,
namely static pressure developed with air flow rate and the system requirement in terms of
flow rate and pressure drop should be known to select the fan to suit these conditions. The fan
should develop the required static pressure at the flow rate necessary for cooling.
In the case of aircraft systems, as the surrounding pressure is low, the fan should be a
variable speed fan to meet the higher pressure ratio requirements.
Another question that arises is whether the fan should force the air into the system by
installation at inlet or draw the hot air out by installation at outlet. The volume handled if the
fan is at inlet will be lower compared to the fan fixed at the outlet.
Drawing air into the system will also draw dust in keeping the unit above atmospheric
pressure is desirable compared to keeping it below atmospheric pressure to avoid dust being
drawn in at any small clearance in the enclosure joints, even if filters are installed at inlet.
A set of guidelines for selecting forced convection cooling system for electronic systems
is listed below.
1. The inadequacy of natural convection cooling should be first established.
2. Select a fan neither too small or too large. Undersized one will lead to failure of
electronic system. Oversizing will lead to higher cost both initial and maintenance.
3. If additional heat from motor is acceptable fan should be installed at inlet with proper
filters.
4. Design inlet and outlet passaged to distribute the air evenly.
5. The critical components should be placed near the inlet.
6. Arrange the system such that natural convection will add to forced convection.
In cooling of personal computers, in the old systems, a fan and ventilation slots were
used to cool the electronic components. In recent units the CPU is provided with a separate
fan and the other units are cooled with a larger fan and ventilation slots.
Hollow core cooling: In cases where
air is not allowed to pass over the electronic Cooling air
Components
components, hollow core method is adopted. PCB
The schematic is shown in Fig. 15.17.
Cooling air flows through the hollow space Air
between the PCBs, collecting heat from the Hollow core
devices mounted on the circuit boards. The Rectangular
flow area is a rectangle of sides equal to
Packing to prevent leakage
width of PCB and the depth of the hollow
core.
Fig. 15.17. Hollow core method of
Heat generated by the components is cooling (sectional view)
conducted through the PCB and a thin layer
of epoxy board to reach the cooling air. Heat picked up by air is given by
778 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
50
= 61.2 + = 97.75°C.
22.8 × 0.06
COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS 779
Example 15.14: A transistor with a height of 6 mm and diameter of 5 mm, mounted on a circuit
Chapter 15
board is shown in Fig. Ex. 15.14. The component is cooled by air flow at a velocity of 1.6 m/s.
The temperature of air is 40°C.
If the surface temperature should not exceed 80°C determine the power the transistor can
dissipate.
Solution: The convection coefficient for the cylindrical surface PCB
and the flat end surfaces should be determined. Properties of air Transistor
at (80 + 40)/2 = 60°C.
ρ = 1.06 kg/m3, ν = 18.97 × 10–6 m2/s
5 mm
Pr = 0.696, Cp = 1005 J/kgK
k = 0.02896 W/mK
(a) Cylindrical surface: 6 mm
Air at 40°C
VD 1.6 × 0.005
Re = = = 421.7 V = 1.6 m/s
ν 18.97 × 10 −6
Fig. Ex. 15.14
using Data Book, the generalised form of equation with constants
for Re < 1000
FG Pr IJ
a
0.25
FG 0.694 IJ 0.25
Nu = 0.51 × 421.70.5 × 0.6960.37.
H 0.692 K = 9.18
Nu × k 9.18 × 0.02896
h= = = 53.17 W/m2 K
D 0.005
A = πDL = π × 0.005 × 0.006 = 94.25 × 10–6
Qc = 53.17 × 94.25 × 10–6 (80 – 40) = 0.2 W.
(b) Considering the vertical faces:
VL 1.6 × 0.005
Re = = = 421.7
ν 18.97 × 10 −6
Nu = 0.664 Re0.5 Pr0.333
= 0.664 × 421.70.5 × 0.6960.333 = 12.08
12.08 × 0.02896
h= = 69.97 W/m2 K
0.005
A = 2 × π × 0.0052/4 = 39.27 × 10–6
Qv = 69.97 × 39.27 × 10–6 (80 – 40) = 0.11 W
The maximum heat that can be dissipated under these conditions by the transistor is
Qmax = 0.2 + 0.11 = 0.31 W
If the power is to be increased, air velocity increase is one possibility. The other is
lowering the air inlet temperature, generally not easy. The other alternate is using a heat
sink.
780 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Example 15.15: Fan cooling is proposed for a desk top computer, the heat load of which is
80 W. The maximum air outlet temperature for reliable operation is 60°C. The surrounding air
is at 30°C and 0.8 bar. The velocity is to be limited 1 m/s in order to reduce noise. Determine
the volume handled by the fan. Also calculate the diameter of the fan casing. The fan is to be
fitted at the air outlet.
Solution: Q = mcp(Tout – Tin)
Specific heat of air = 1005 J/kg K,
Considering the maximum outlet temperature so that flow will be minimum,
& × 1005 × (60 – 30)
80 = m
∴ m = 0.00265 kg/s or 0.1592 kg/min.
Volume flow = V = mRT/P = 0.00265 × 287 × 333/0.8 × 105
= 0.003166 m3/s.
Assuming D as fan case diameter,
(πD2/4) V = 0.003166, V = 1 m/s
FG π × V IJ = 0.003166
∴ D2 × H4 K
Solving, D = 0.0635 m or 6.35 cm.
If the fan is to be fitted at inlet, the volume handled will be less, but heat load will
increase by the fan power.
Example 15.16: In a system 6 PCBs of 12 cm height and 15 cm length each dissipating 12 W
are to be fan cooled. The distance between the PCBs is 5 mm. The available fan power is 12 W.
The temperature rise for the air should not exceed 12°C. Determine the flow rate of air. The fan
is fixed at the inlet. Also determine the maximum air inlet temperature, if any of the component
temperature is not to exceed 60°C.
Solution: Total amount of heat to be dissipated
Q = 12 × 6 + 12 = 84 W, ∆T = 12°C, cp = 1005 J/kgK.
∴ m = 84/1005 × 12 = 0.006965 kg/s.
Assuming air inlet at 30°C
Volume flow = (0.006965 × 287 × 303)/1.013 × 105 = 0.006 m3/s.
The contribution of fan motor in the load and temperature rise,
1
= 12/12 × 6 =
or 16.67% or 1.67°C out of 12°C.
6
To determine the maximum inlet temperature of air, convective heat transfer coefficient
has to be determined.
Hydraulic mean diameter = 4A/P.
A = 0.15 × 0.005 m2, P = 2 (0.15 + 0.005) = 0.31
De = 4 (0.15 × 0.005)/0.31 = 0.01 m
Velocity = 0.006/(0.15 × 0.005) × 6 = 1.333 m/s.
at 30°C ν = 16.08 × 10–6m2/s, k = 0.02588 W/mK, Pr = 0.7282
1.333 × 0.01
Re = = 829 < 2000.
16.08 × 10 −6
COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS 781
Chapter 15
∴ h = 6.49 × 0.02588/0.01 = 16.8 W/m2 K
As the flux is uniform along the flow length, the temperature difference between the
fluid and surface will be constant air is given by
Q
∆T =
= 84/16.8 = 5°C.
h
As maximum temperature of component is 60°C,
Air outlet maximum = 60 – 5 = 55°C
As air undergoes 12°C rise along the flow,
Air inlet maximum = 55 – 12 = 43°C.
Fig. 15.18(a). Thermal resistance network for a liquid cooled electronic device
Tcase − Tliquid
Rcase-liquid =
Q
Tliquid − Tair
Rliquid-air =
Q
The required mass flow can be determined from the temperatures and total heat to be
dissipated. The contact resistance between the plate and devices can be reduced by applying
silicon grease and fastening component tightly on the plate.
Example 15.17: Thirty two power transistors are supported by a cold plate with 16 on each side.
The power of each device is 30 W. The cold plate is cooled by water pipes fixed at the edges. Water
enters at 30°C and maximum temperature rise is to be limited 4°C. If 10% of heat generated is
dissipated by radiation and convection on the top and bottom sides. Determine the amount of
water to be circulated per minute. Also calculate the ID of pipe if flow velocity is limited 0.8 m/s.
If the thermal resistance from case to water is 0.025°C/W, determine the case temperature.
Solution: Under steady conditions, the amount of heat to be collected by water
Q = 32 × 30 × 0.9 = 864 W
The specific heat of water
= 4180 J/kgK, density = 1000 kg/m3
m = Q/cp ∆T = 864/(4180 × 4) = 0.05167 kg/s
or 3.1 kg/min
Volume of water per second = 0.05167 × 10–3 m3/s
πD 2
× Velocity = Volume flow.
4
∴ D2 = (0.05167 × 10–3 × 4)/(π × 0.8)
COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS 783
Chapter 15
Case temperature = 30 + 0.025 × 864 = 51.6°C.
Safety valve
Fins
Air cooled Safety valve
condenser
Vapour
Fins
Fan
Coolant
Vapour
Devices Devices
Liquid Liquid
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.20. Immersion cooling system of Boiling type (a) External condenser (b) Internal condenser
Chapter 15
by heat pipes are shown in Fig. 15.22. Heat pipes
The heat pipes are attached to the lower
Fins
side while devices are mounted on the
top side of the cold plate. This section of Heat pipes
the heat pipes works as evaporator. The
air cooled portion acts as condenser. The
liquid moves back to the evaporator
section through the wicks. There are Air
many other types of heat pipes and
Fig. 15.22. A cold plate cooled by heat pipes
different ways of attaching them to the
devices. Some of the types and method of attachment are described in the later section.
Miniaturisation together with increasing processing speeds decreases the heat transfer
surface area at the same time increasing the power. This leads to very high heat fluxes resulting
in large temperature rise. To maintain the devices within operating conditions more heat
must be removed. The traditional system of forced convection cooling have become inadequate.
Use of heat pipes for heat transportation fills the need to a great extent.
15.9.1. Features of the Heat Pipe
The following are some of the functions which can be effectively done by heat pipe for cooling
of electronic components:
1. Separation of heat source and sink: In forced circulation cooling or in liquid
immersion cooling the components come in contact with fluid. If heat pipe is used there will be
no contact between the cooling fluid and components.
2. Temperature flattening: In other cooling system the cooling medium as well as the
cold plate temperatures vary with location. In heat pipes the temperature throughout is
constant.
3. Transfer of heat to a remote location: Heat pipes are available which are as long
as 1 m and are also flexible. So the condenser section can be located away from the heat
source.
4. Production of compact heat sink: As the heat conduction per cm2 is high, the
system will be comparatavely small.
5. Air cooling or water cooling of condenser system is possible.
Heat pipes are available in different shapes: These are
(i) Tubular (ii) Flat plate
(iii) Micro heat pipe arrays (iv) Loop heat pipes
(v) Direct contact system
1. The tubular heat pipe is the first type developed and is used extensively for various
applications including cooling of electronic devices, Fig. 15.22 illustrates the use.
2. Flat plate heat pipes: This type is well adopted for cooling of electronic components.
It is often used for “heat spreading” or temperature flattening. Its use in electronic cooling
are: (i) multicomponent array temperature flattening (ii) multicomponent array cooling
(iii) can be used as a wall of module or mounting plate. An arrangement is shown in Fig. 15.23.
786 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Devices
Evaporator
section
3-5 mm
Condenser
section
Natural circulation Fins
Liquid
Condenser Condenser
Chip electronic
Evaporator Evaporator Enclosure
Pipes conveying
vapour/liquid
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.25. (a) Loop heat pipe (b) Cooling a chip using LHP
COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS 787
6. Flexible heat pipe: Flexible heat pipes to some extent are similar to loop type heat
Chapter 15
pipes. In this case the connecting tubes are made flexible and also the distance between the
condenser and evaporator can be much longer. The evaporator is fixed at the chip carrier or
cold plate and the condenser can be at a distance.
15.10 CONCLUSION
Various methods of cooling of electronic components were discussed. The conduction cooling of
chip carriers, use of heat frame natural convection cooling, forced convection cooling with air/
water, immersion cooling with boiling and finally use of heat pipes were explained.
Each of the method has its own sphere of application from heat fluxes of 0.01 W/cm2 to
100 W/cm2.
Heat pipe appears to be applicable for all ranges and also non intrusive. Already heat
pipes are found to be popularly used in laptop computers. Heat pipe manufacturing companies
report that they have orders in the range of million pieces per year. There may come some
more newer ways of cooling very high power density and low volume and area type devices.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
15.1 Describe with a sketch the growth over the years in the number of components packed on a
chip.
15.2 Describe the failure rate of bipolar digital devices with temperature.
15.3 Sketch a chip carrier.
15.4 What is the purpose of a flange attached to the chip carrier?
15.5 What is heat frame? Sketch the temperature variation along the width of a heat frame.
15.6 Describe the various stages involved in the production of an electronic system.
15.7 How is the cooling load of a component or a system determined?
15.8 List the various methods of cooling electronic systems. Indicate the range of heat fluxes for
each.
15.9 What is conduction cooling? Describe the heat flow paths from a junction to the leads.
15.10 Sketch the thermal resistance network for a chip carrier with 8 pins leads.
15.11 Discuss the limitation of conduction cooling.
15.12 Sketch the schematic of a heat frame cooling method.
15.13 What is the method adopted to reduce the thermal resistance of epoxy board?
15.14 Describe the arrangement of devices in metal core conduction cooling of boards.
15.15 What is thermal conduction module (TCM)?
15.16 Sketch the schematic cooling of a chip in thermal conduction module.
15.17 What are the advantages and limitations of natural convection cooling of electronic components.
15.18 Sketch the schematic of forced circulation air cooling of an assembly of boards.
15.19 What are the limitations of forced convection air cooling?
15.20 Compare indicating the advantages and limitations of installing cooling air fan at (1) inlet
and (2) outlet.
15.21 Explain what is hollow core method of cooling of electronic boards.
15.22 Discuss the advantages of forced convection liquid cooling.
15.23 What is direct cooling method?
15.24 Sketch boiling type of immersion cooling system.
788 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
15.25 What are the advantages of heat pipe cooling of electronic devices?
15.26 What is temperature cycling? How does it affect the components and the PCB?
15.27 What is constriction resistance of a chip to heat flow from junction?
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
15.1 The temperature of the case of a power transistor that is dissipating 12 W is measured as
60°C. If the junction temperature should not exceed 120°C, determine the maximum junction
to case resistance. [Ans. 5°C/W]
15.2 A logic chip in a computer dissipates 6 W of power to an environment at 55°C. The surface
area of the chip is 0.32 cm2. Determine the heat flux on the surface. Also determine the heat
dissipated in 8 hours. [Ans. 18.8 W/cm2, 0.048 kWh]
15.3 The material properties and dimensions of components of a DIP with 18 leads are listed.
If the chip dissipates 0.8 W and if the temperature of the leads is 50°C, estimate the temperature
of the junction of the chip.
[Ans. 110.1°C]
15.4 Heat is to be conducted along a PCB with copper cladding. The thickness of epoxy layer is
0.5 mm and its conductivity is 0.26 W/mK. The thickness of copper cladding is 0.06 mm and
its thermal conductivity is 386 W/mK. Determine the percentage of heat conducted by each
layer. Also calculate the effective thermal conductivity of the PCB.
[Ans. Epoxy: 0.6%, Copper 99.4%, 41.6 W/m°C]
15.5 A glass epoxy laminate of 15 cm × 18 cm × 1.4 mm of thermal conductivity 0.26 W/m°C is used
to transfer heat from chip to the lead frame. In order to reduce the resistance across the
thickness copper cylinders of 1 mm diameter with thermal conductivity of 386 W/m°C are
used at a center distance of 3 mm. Calculate the thermal resistance of the epoxy board before
and after modification. [Ans. R = 0.199°C/W, 0.00153°C/W]
15.6 In a thermal conduction module 80 chips of each 4 W of power are packed. Module is cooled by
water at 15°C. The thermal resistance between the junction and the chip is 12°C/W. The
thermal resistance between the surface of the chip to outer surface of thermal conduction
module is 9°C/W. The thermal resistance between the outer surface and water is 7°C/W.
Determine the junction temperature of the chip. [Ans. 86.8°C]
15.7 A copper plate of 0.5 mm thickness is sandwiched between two epoxy boards of 12 m × 18 cm
size and 3 mm thickness. Determine the effective conductivity along the 18 cm length. k = 386
W/m°C for copper, 0.26 W/m°C for epoxy board. Also calculate the % heat flow through copper.
[Ans. 29.9 W/m°C, 99.2%]
COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS 789
15.8 A sealed electronic box of 0.5 m × 0.35 m × 0.2 m size is placed on a stand in a room at 30°C.
Chapter 15
The surface of the box has an emissivity of 0.85. The heat emission is 100 W. The 20 cm side
stands vertically. Neglect heat flow at bottom. If the surface temperature should not exceed
65°C can natural convection and radiation meet the need?
[Ans. By natural convection and radiation Q = 200.8 W, So satisfactory]
15.9 A PC board 20 cm wide and 14 cm high is mounted vertically with components on one side.
The heat dissipation rate is 7 W. The equipment is working at a location where the surround-
ing pressure is 70.12 kPa. If the surface temperature should not exceed 90°C, determine the
maximum temperature of the environment. [Ans. 52.6°C]
15.10 A circuit board of size 20 cm × 20 cm with 81 square chips mounted on one side is mounted
vertically. The surface emissivity on the chip side is 0.65. Surrounding temperature is 25°C.
The total heat dissipation rate is 6.48 W. Heat flow on the back side is negligible. Determine
the surface temperature of the chips. [Ans. 39.3°C]
15.11 A hollow core PCB is 15 cm high and 20 cm wide. Cooling air flows through the air gap of 2.5
mm, at the rate of 1 L/S. The temperature of cooling air at entry is 30°C. The total heat
dissipation is 30 W. Assuming heat generated is uniformly distributed over the two sides
determine the (a) temperature of the air at exit and (b) the highest temperature on the surface
of the core. [Ans. 56.4°C, 67.6°C]
15.12 A computer cooled by a fan contains 8 PCBs each dissipating 12 W of power. The height of
PCBs is 12 cm and the length is 18 cm. The clearance between the PCBs is 0.3 cm. Cooling air
is supplied by a fan of 15 W power is mounted at the inlet. If the rise in air temperature is to
be limited to 15°C, determine (a) flow rate of air that the fan should deliver (b) the fraction of
temperature rise due to the heat input of fan and (c) the highest allowable air inlet tempera-
ture if the temperature of component surface is not to exceed 90°C anywhere in the system.
[Ans. 0.00735 kg/s or 0.00631 m3 /s, 13.5%, 59.8°C]
15.13 An array of power transistors are to be cooled by mounting them on a surface of size 20 cm ×
20 cm, by blowing air over the surface at a velocity of 3 m/s. The average temperature of the
surface is not to exceed 60°C. The temperature of the air is 30°C. Heat dissipation by transis-
tors is 2 W each. Neglecting heat transfer on the back side, determine the number of transis-
tors that may be mounted. [Ans. 9]
15.14 A cold plate that supports 10 power transistors each dissipating 40 W is to be cooled with
water. The water temperature should not increase by more than 4°C and the velocity in the
pipe should not exceed 0.5 m/s. Assuming the water cooling is for 75% of the heat dissipated
determine the rate of water flow. Also calculate the pipe ID. If the case to liquid thermal
resistance is 0.04°C/W and water entry is at 25°C determine the temperature of the device.
[Ans. 1.08 kg/mm, 0.68 cm, 37°C]
15.15 A sealed electronics box has water flowing through channels on two of its sides. The power
dissipation is 2000 W. If the water temperature rise should be limited to 3°C, determine the
water flow rate. Also calculate the cooling water used up per year of 365 days of 24 hours.
[Ans. 0.1595 kg/s, 5.03 × 106 kg/year]
15.16 A logic chip used in a computer dissipates 4 W of power. The heat transfer surface area is
0.3 cm2. If the surface is to be maintained at 70°C while being cooled by immersion in a dielectric
fluid at 20°C, determine the necessary heat transfer coefficient. What type of cooling will be
necessary to obtain such value of convection coefficient. [Ans. 2667 W/m2 °C, Boiling process]