Lariosa, Julius Roy S.

BMLS 3J - Cytogenetics
The Structure of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotes Vs. Eukaryotes

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES

Size Unicellular Multicellular

No true nucleus
DNA is suspended Presence of
Nucleus
in the cytoplasm Nucleus
(nucleoid region)
Linear DNA
DNA One circular DNA (coiled to form
chromosomes)
Absence of Presence of
Organelles
Organelles organelles)
Humans, Plants
Examples Bacteria
Fungi

Major Parts of the Cell

1. Cell Membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
(Nucleus contain the chromosomes which contains the DNA (genes)

Components of the Nucleus

1. Nuclear envelope
2. Chromatin-DNA and associated proteins
3. Nucleolus

Gene
 A small piece of DNA that codes for a specific trait.
 There are about 30,000 genes in entire DNA molecule.
Facts:
 The DNA of Human being can reach the moon and back six times.
 The DNA is wound around positively charged proteins called HISTONES

CHROMATIN
 Coiled DNA strand to basic proteins called Histone
 Present in metabolically active cells

CHROMOSOME
 Chromatin that has undergone further condensation
 Present in actively dividing cells,
2 Types of Chromatin
1. Heterochromatin
 Dense clumps under light microscope
 Tightly coiled around histones
 Not used by the cell
2. Euchromatin
 Less coiled portion of the chromosomes, finely granular material electron microscope
and lightly stained basophilic areas.

If all cells in our body has the same DNA, then why arent they all the same cells?
 Your DNA contains all of the information needed for making you.
 This information is stored in over 20,000 genes found in almost all your cells.

Gene Expression
 Turning on (enhanced)
 Turning off (repressed)

 For each gene- different levels of expression according to:

 The conditions around the cell
 Signals received at the cell surface membranes
 And the specific cell types ( determined during the development of the embryo.

 It is through this process that the function and morphology of each cell is unique.
 In other words – eye, genes are turned on for seeing and the “breathing” genes are turned off.
 In the lung cells, the situation is reversed
 Some expressions are:
1. Mature RBC and contain no DNA
2. The sperm and the egg that have the same amount of DNA
3. B cells in which some of the DNA has been rearranged to make antibodies
Types of Heterochromatin
1. Marginal Chromatin
2. Karyosome
3. Nucleolar-associated chromatin
Sex Chromatin
 In females (XX), one X chromosomes remains tightly coiled and visible and the other one is
uncoiled.
 In males the X chromosome is uncoiled.
Number of Chromosomes in Cells
 In SOMATIC CELLS of human the number is 46 ( Karyotype/number), which is referred to as the
diploid number.
o 2 chromosome number 1
 GERM CELLS have 23, and haploid number.
o 1 chromosome number 1
  Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes
 23 of which came from the father and the 23 came from the mother.
Normal Chromosome Number
 MALE : 44 (autosomes), XY (sex chromosomes)
 FEMALE : 44 (autosomes), XX (sex chromosomes)

 Pair of similar chromosomes is called homologous chromosomes

 Similar because they encode the same traits

 The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are made of identical partners (Homomorphic chromosome
pairs)

 23rd pair (heteromorphic chromosome pairs)

Chromosome Nomenclature
 How many chromosomes are there in a human cell? - 46
 They occur in pair one from the father and one from the mother.
 A sperm and egg forms 1 human being, how many chromosomes must they have each? -23
 What will happen to these chromosomes if this cell decides to divide? – 92

 Chromosomes consists of two parallel strands called chromatids

o Joined together by a centromere

o Kinetochore – portion of the centromere where the mitotic spindle will attach to.
Morphologic types of chromosomes
1. Metacentric –if the centromere is in the middle and the arms are about of the equal length
2. Submetacentric- if the centromere is at midpoint and one end
3. Acrocentric – if it is near one end
4. Telocentric – if it is at the end

Classifications
 Metacentric chromosomes; 1,3,16,19 and 20
 Submetacentric: chr 2 then 4 to 12,17,18 and x
 Acrocentric : 13,14,15,21,22 and y

Telomeres
 Structures found at the end of the chromosomes
 Protects the chromosome during cell division from deterioration
 Shortens every cell division
2 MECHANISMS

MITOSIS
 Cell division in somatic cells
 Muscle, white blood cells
 Nonreductional

MEIOSIS
 Cell division in developing germ cell in the ovary and testes
 Reductional

Cell cycle

Interphase
 Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients.
 All of the preparations are done during interphase.
 Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus, before
it becomes capable of division again.
90% of the life of cell
 Interphase proceeds with three stages G1, S, and G2
 o G1- biosynthetic activities of the cell
 Metabolic roles
 25%
o S – starts with DNA replication
 40%
o G2- accumulation of energy for mitosis
 25%

Prophase
 Chromosomes continues to condense becoming shorter and thicker
 Centrioles replicate and migrates to the opposite poles of the cell
 Mitotic spindles are formed
 Followed by the breakdown of nuclear membrane which marks the end of prophase.
Metaphase
 Alignment of chromosomes in the same plane in the middle of the cell to form the equatorial
plate (metaphase plate)
 Single file arrangement
Anaphase
 There is separation of the single kinetochore of each pair of chromatids into 2
 The sister chromatids are free to move to opposite poles of the spindle.
Telophase

 Chromosomes are clustered at the spindle poles and segments of nuclear envelope are formed
around them
 Chromosomes uncoil; nucleoli are reformed
 Constriction of the cytoplasm midway, cleavage furrow deepens until it encounters the spindle,
the microtubule of the spindle depolymerizes
 Retract until separation into 2 daughter cells
Cells Based on their Proliferative Activity

Static cell population/Permanent

  Cells that no longer divide (nerve and skeletal muscle cells) or rarely divide (smooth and
cardiac muscle cells) = stays in Go
Stable cell population/Quiescent
 Little mitotic activity but are able to divide during repair (fibroblasts, osteoblasts, liver cells)

Continuously dividing cells/Labile

 Regular mitotic activity (blood cells, epithelial cells of skin and mucous membranes)