,I
CCRDAN!, U.G , I MllANI, E.J./THOMAZ FllHO, A.lCAMPOS, DA
'no.
;I
r.
.21 ,
'J
ANDES OF ECUADOR, PERU, BOLIVIA
E, Jaillard, G, Hérail, T Monfret, E, Díaz-Martínez, P. Baby, A, Lavenu, and
:I
¡cs.
>O,
T bis chapler was prepa red und er Ihe co-ordi nat ion
¡ Ihe Introduc ti on. Enrique Díaz-Martínez prepa red Ihe
~ ofE.Jaillard. Togetherwith G. Hérail and T. Monfret,he wrote
section on Ihe Pre-Andean evolut ion of Ihe Central Andes.
: Again Jaill ard, 011 Ihe Pre-orogenic evolution of Ihe No rth-
Central Andes, E. ¡aillard, P. Baby, G. Hérail,A. Lavenu, and
1 J.E Dumollt wrole Ihe lexl DO Ihe orogcn ic cvolution of Ihe
Norlh-Central Andes, And, finally, Jaill ard closcd Ihe
manuscrip t with Ihe conclusiol1s.
INTRODUCTION:
THE PRESENT-DAV NORTH-CENTRAL
ANDES ( r N - 23°5)
The Andean Chain is Ihe majar morphological (calure of
theSoulh American Continent. This 8000 km long mountain
belt eXlends along Iheweslern borderofthe Sout h American
Platel and can be divided into three segmcnls of dislinct
orientations, separated by two major bends. The NNE·SSW
Irending Colombian-Ec uadorian segment (12°N - 50 S) is
2000 km long and includes part of northernmost Pcru and
easterumosl Venezuela. It is scparated from the Peruv ian
segmenl by Ihe Huancabamba Bend (Mégard, 1987), Its
norlhern end (eastern Venezuela) cxhibils a change lo an E-
Worien talion, due lo its CO lll1Cction to the Sou th Caribbean
dext ral transform syslem. The Peruvian segment (50 S - 180 S)
is 2000 km long and its oriental ion is c10se lo NW·SE. It
includes northern Bolivia, and is separated from Ihe Chilean
segmcnts by Ihe Arica Bend. The Chilean scgmenl (18°S -
56'S) is 4000 km long and Ire nds N-S. lIs sou thern lip
exhibils a cha nge lo an E-W direction along the Scotia
sinistral Iransfo rm sys lem.
The width of Ihe Andean Chain varies from 250 km in
northern Peru (SOS) or southernmost Chile (52°S ·55°S),
to as much as 750 km in Bolivia (18°S).
'fhe area described in thi s chapter includes ECllador,
Per u, Bolivia and, Iherefore, northernmost Chile (N of 23°S) .
It includcs parts of the Ihree segments described above, Ihe
orienlali oll of which played a significan! role in Ihe pre-
orogenic period,
The lowes t pass of Ihe stud ied area is si tu ated in
norlhero Peru (Abra de Porculla, 2300 m), a zone where Ihe
,'
TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SOUIHAMERICA, P. 481 -559 fRIO DE JANEIRO, 2000
TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE
jJ, Dumont
cha in is very na rrow. The highesl average altiludc is reached
between lSoS and 23°S, where ¡he Altiplano of Bolivia and
southern Peru reaches a nearly 4000 ll1 of average elevalioll l
and corresponds lo Ihe widesl parl oflhe chain. The Andean
Chain is usually highly asymmet ric, with a steep western
slopc, and a large and complex easlern side. In Peru, Ihe
dis tan ce between Ihe Ircnch and Ihe hydrographic divide
varies from 240 to 300 km, whereas th e distance between
!he hydrographic divide and Ihe 200 m co ntour line ranges
between 280 km (SON) and about 1000 km (Li ma Transecl,
8'5 - 12~S), In norlhern Chile and Argentina (23'S), these
dislances become 300 km and 500 km, respectively. In
southern Peru, as IiUle as 240 km separales Ihe Coropuna
Voleano (6425 m) from the Chile-Peru Trench (- 6865 m),
This, togel her wilh Ihe wesle ro local ion of Ihe Andes
rc\ative lo Ihe Soulh American Continen l, cxplains why Ihe
rivers flowi ng toward the Pacific Ocean do no! exceed 300
km long, whereas Ihose flowing lo !he Atlanlic Ocean reach
4000 km long. We have lo note Iwo exceplions lo this ru le.
In Ecuadorthis asymmelry disappears, due lo peculiar
lectonic hi story and deform ational processcs. The Ircncn-
hydrographic divide distance roughly equals the distance
belwee n Ihe water divide and the 200 J11 conlour \ine, and
ranges between 280 and 350 km. Between 13°S and 24°S
(soul hern Peru -Bolivia), th ere are Iwo hydrographic
divides, delimiling a wide, fIat, endorheic basin know ll as
the Alt ipla no, which coincides wilh the zone of highest
average elevalion and largesl width of lhe chain (fig, 1).
The highest summils are usually recent or act ive
volca noes si luated on Ihe deformed chaill or on
melamorphic or gra nitic slices uplifted by reverse fau lts.
Among the former are Ih e Cotopaxi (5897 m) and
Ch imborazo volca noes (6310 m) in Ecuador, Ihe Co ropuna
(6425 m) and Ampato volcanoes (6310 m) in Peru,and Ihe
Sajama Volcano (6520 m) in Bolivia, near Ihe Bolivia-Chile
border. Among the lalter, we may note Ihe mainly gran il ic
Cordillera Blanca in Peru , which cu lmi nates al 6768 m
(Nevado Huascará n) , and the metam orphi c Eas tern
Cordillera of soulhern Peru and norlhero Bolivia (Nevado
Illimani, 6682 m; Nevado Illampu, 6485 m). Howeve r,
deformed and uplifted sediments may also form hi gh
sum mits in Peru, such as Ihe Nevado Yerupajá (6632 m) in
Ihe Cordillera Huayhuash and the Nevado Ausangale (6384
m) in sou!hern Peru or Ihe Cord illera de Apolobamba
(Nevado Cololo, 5975 m) in Boliv ia, 481
TECTONIC EVOLUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

70'W
- - - - - - - - 0'-1--

D Coastal areas

~ Western Cordilera
EJllnterandean depressions

1»1 Eastern Cordillera

E3 Subandean Zone
(,:,,/,:,,;,·:1 Eastern lowlands

gShields

0_-== 2::::
50 km

+ +

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --_ .. ----- ---

FIGURE l· Stntctllml sketrh ofllle Al/des ofEcllador, Peru,

Bolivia alld I/orlll ertl Chile, S/IOW;lIg lile lIIa;l/lII orpllOstntClllml
IIIlils. A, B, C;s Ih e ¡oraliol/ ofproJiles ofFig. 2.

FIGURE 2 . StruftllmJ secliolls of lI,e Al/des of A - Ecuatlor

((jfter Alégard, 1987), 8 - Cel/lml Peru (after MOllfi1l, 1989),
al/d e - Bolivia (after Roe/ult el al., 1999). Lo((/(ioll 011 Fig. J.
 TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF SOUT" AMERICA

I~®OJ
E ffi] CellOzoic sediments
Coaslal Atea Wes!em
Coro,'" Ilnter. lEas! """. Oriente
[:=J PaIeozoic·Mesozoic sedimen\s
(Forearc) Andean Card.
Valley """'" Basin
(Foreland)
1:<-:-1Middlecrust
~ 50 km
1m lower crusl
!2221 Cruslal malerial
_ Oceanic &rust

Coaslalhea Weslem Eastem Sub·Andean Oriente Basin

O lilhosphere manlle
(Fareare) Ca,""" 11 Cordilera 1 (Forelalld) [ill] Magmalic inlrusions

J Jurassic·Ear1y Crelacoous
K Mid Crelaceous·Paleoccno
T Eoceoo·Miocene
Q PHoceoo.Quatemary

South American Plate

50 km

Weslem
CordiUera NE
Pre.coolillern
1 """"
Eastem Cordillera Subandean
Z""
,,"
Foreland

Sooth American Plate

--- _.- t

.... ............ ""

-
....

50 km

Morphostructural units and units (North Andean Block), made ofoceanie terranes, from
so uthern fo re-are zones mad e of con tinental blocks. In
crustal structure northern Peru (3°S - 5 S), the latter constitutes an isolated
0

NE-SW trending coastal Cordillera (A motape Massif). This

The Eeuadorian segment ( ION - 3°S) cxhibits four main
longitudi nalmorpho-struetural units (Fig. 1). In the 50 to
180 km wide coastal area relief is low « 300 m) , and
sediments are aeellmulatcd in rather wide alluvial plai lls
by rivcrs desccndillg from the Andes. The Andean Chain is
made of a Weslern Cordillera cOllstil uted by deforrned
oceanic rocks. and an Eastern Co rdillera (Cordillera Real)
mad e of Paleozoic lo Mcsozoic metamorphi e rocks
(Litherland et al.• 1994; Fig. 2). The eastern arcas are made
of aSO - 80 km \Vide uplifled zone (500 to 1000 m) made of
Mesozoic deformed sedimentary rocks (Subandean Zone).
bordered to the E by gently di pping lowlands covered by
rainforest, where Quaternary sediment s derived fmm Ihe
Andes are presently being deposi ted.
North of 3°S, the Illlerandea n Valley filled by 'lertiary-
Quaternary vo\canie and vokanic1astic deposits separates
the cordilleras. High. act ive or Recent volcanoes are built
on the Cordilleras, the Interandean Valley and the eastern
Subandea n Zone. South of 3°5, Ihe lnterandea n Valley. Ihe
western oeeanic terranes and theactive vo\canoes disappear.
and Ihe Andean Chain is made of metamo rphic rocks
uneo nform ably overlain by pre-Plioeene vo\ca ni c and
subordinate sedimenla ry rocks. Thc Guayaqui l Gulf
illdentation (3°S) roughly separates the 110rlhcrn fore-are
lOne corresponds to an importan! change in the chain
orientation (Huancabamba l3end).
farther S (5°S - 18°S), Ihe NW-SE trending Pcruvian
margin is basica lly made of Ihe same units, whieh exhibil,
however,dist inct features. Excepl in northern Peru (Scch ura
Plain ), the coaslal zone is narrow and disappears locally in
southern Peru. lt is made of the deformed edge of the South
American Continental Plate, locally covered by fore- are
marine deposits, mainly of 'Iertiary age. The sout hcrn tir
of this segment is defined by a sharp dircction change from
NW to N-S (Arica Bend, Fig. 1).
The Weslern Cordillera eonsliwles Ihecontinenlal water
divide. lt is mai nly made of defonn ed metamorphic rocks
and Mesozoie sediment s, inlruded lo the west by Mesozoie
pllltons (Mesozoic are) and un eonformably covered to Ihe
Eby abu ndan! voka nic rocks (Tertiary arc) ,associaled with
localised Tcrtia ry plu tons (Co rdillera Bla nca ). Acti ve
vo\canoes are only known S of 16°S, thus defin ing a zonc
without present -day are volcanism between 20 30'S and 16°S.
The Eastern Cordillera is chiefiy made of pre-Mesozoic
meta morphie rocks alld subordinate Paleozoic lO Tcrtia ry
intrusions and volca nic rock (j nner arc of sOllthern Peru;
Kontak el al., 1985). lt is bordered to the W or SW by a nearly
continuous E-verging thrust and fold belts (Ma rañón, Tidio. 483
 Mañazo FTB) involvingmainly Mcsozoicsedimentary rocks.
1n southern Peru, Ihe Eastern Cordillera is thrust over Ih e
Altiplano by means ofSW-verging revcrsc raults. Longitudinal
C>
z
« valleys, Ihe trcnd of which is controlled by Ihe main Andean
=i structurcs, separate N of 13°S Ihe Eastern and Western
~ Cordilleras.Sof 13°S, Ihe Easlern and Westcrn Cordilleras are
:3 more distan! and are separated by large valleys (!3° - 14°S)
<i
>- evolving southeastwards ¡nlo an endorheic basin (Altiplano),
~
«
~
which considerably enlarges in Bolivia.
o: 'fhe deformed subandean zone is much ¡arger Ihan in
N-
'!;' Ecuador (120 lo 250 km) and enlarges southeastwards (Pig.
I :;!~
2). Dcformation involvc lhe Mesozoic and Tertiary
sedimentary rocks, togethe r with their Paleozoic,
C>
sedimcnta ry or metamorphic basement. The eastward
migration ofdcCormatiol1 influenced Ihecourse oCthe rivers,
which trend mainly parallel lo Ihe Andean slruclures. The
easterll Jowlands are made of eilher wide alluvial plaills
receiving Qualernary sedimenls (norlhern Peru)'or slightly
uplifted, faull-controlled zones underlain by Ihe Brazilian
Shield (southern Peru,BoJivia).
In norlhern Peru (7°S), where Ihe chain is rclatively
narrow, eruslal thickness is 40 - 45 km below Ihe Weslern
Cordille ra alld decreases rapidly eas lwards, whereas in
sOllthern Peru ( 13°S), where Ihechain is much wider,crustal
Ihickness reaches 65 km below Ihe Western and Easlern
Cord illeras and draslically decreases below the Sllbandean
Zone (Fukao el ni., 1989).
The Ilorthern part oC the Chilean-Bolivian segment is
more complex. To Ihe W, Ihe SO km wide eoastal Cord illera
is made oC chiefly Jurassie-Early Cretaceous magmalic arc
roCkS,Clll by the major N-S trend ingAtacama wrench fault
system. rhe Longitudinal Valley, undcrlain by Middlc
CretaceOlls arc rocks separates it Cromlhe Precordillera. The
3000 m high Prccordillera is made oflatesl Crelaceous-early
Palcogene volcanic and sedimentary rocks overlying
Jura ssic-Early Crelaceolls back-arc sedimentary rocks, and
overlain by Neoge ne-Qua ternary tuCf and piedmont
deposils. To the N of 21 oS, it merges with the Wes lcrn
Cordillera, whereas to theS of21°S, it is separated from Ihe
lalter by the Preandean Depression occupied by Ihe Salar
de Atacama. As a whole, these four desert units are 70 to
250 km \Vide.
rhe Weslern Cord illera is made oCNeogene-Quaternary
arc roeks, and comprises active vo!canoes cu lmi na ling al
more Ihan 6000 m.lsolaled ou lcrops sho\V that Tertia ry are
rocks direclly overlie Precambrian basement, at leasl locally.
The Weslern Cord illera forms Ihe Chilean-Bolivian border
and limits lo the W the 200 km wide,flat Bolivian Altipl ano,
in -filled by Ihollsands of melres ofTerliary lo Quaternary
rocks. The lalter exhibits an average altilude of more than
3900 m ílnd conlains cndorheic lakes evolving locally into
wide safllrs. The Eastern Cordillera is made of Paleozoie
folded melasediments which are thrust lo lhe SW or W onto
the Altiplano border, and to Ihe NE or E onlo the Subandean
Zone.At 19°5.crustal thickness exeeeds 60 km and reaches
70 lo 75 km below the Western íllld Eastcrn Cord illeras (Beck
el af., 1996; Fig. 2) . The Subandean Zone is made of falllted
alld foldcd sedimenlary rocks ofPaleozoic to Mioce lle age.
which are Ihrust lo Ihe NE or E onto Ihe easlern lowlands.
The latter is a large alluvial plain where products of Ihe
erosion of Ihe Andes are presently being deposiled.
Plate tectonic setting
As firsl proposcd by Wegener early in this ccnlury, Ihe
Andean Orogeny is related lo the convergenee belween Ihe
Pacific Dcean Plate and Ihe SOllth American COll linent, Ihe
lalter being pushed westwards by the opening oflhe South
Atlantic Deean. We know nowadays ¡hat nol only South
Ameriea, bul also Ihe Pacific oceanic Plate !lloves in an
absolute referenee frame, South America migrates rollghly
westwards at arate of 3 cm/y. Between 2 S and 23°S, Ihe
D
Nazca Oceanic Plale migrates to Ihe E lo ENE, and the
convergenee mle bctween the Nazca and South American
pi ates is around 8 cm/y, althollgh il seems lO be lower at 0°
(Fig. 3). The whole Andean margin is, therefore, submitted
to a rollghly E-W convergence between lhe subdllcling
Nazca PI ate and Ihe Soulh American continental margino
This phenomenon is 10l1g regarded as Ih e major cause of
the Andean Orogeny (Rutland, 1971; James, 1971).
'fhe NE trending Grijalva Fracture Zone (GfZ) loealed
belween 3°S and 5 S (Fig. 3) separales Ihe Nazca Oceanic
D
Plale into Iwo portions. To the N of Ihe GFZ, Ihe cllrrently
subducting oceanic piate is 23 to 10 Ma old (Miocene) and
Ihe deplh of Ihe oceanic bollom is 2800 lo 3500 m below
sea leve!. Most of the Eeuadorian -Colombian trench is less
than 4000 m deep. The Nazca Plate is overlain by the E-W
Irending Carnegie aseism ic ridge, whieh is present ly
subducting offshore Ecuador between 0° and 2°S. The
Ca rnegie Ridge is regarded as Cormed by Ihe Galápagos
hOlspol,situated about 1000 km W ofthe Ecuadorian coas!.
South of the GFZ, Ihe subducting oceanic plate is 50 to
30 Ma old (Eocene - enrly Oligocene) and 1000 to 5600 m
deep. 'fhe Peruvian-Chilean Irench reaches depth of 6600
m (11 ·S, 1rS), 7500 m (19·S) and ,ven 8055 m (23·S). The
Nazca Oceanic PI ate comprises two sub marine highs. 'fhe
NE-trending Nazca aseism ic ridge, entered into Ihe trench
3 to lO Ma ago and is presently subducled aliSoS· 16°5. It
presenls summils cu lminaling al -330 m, -84 1 m and -2059
lIl, from SW to NE, Ihlls showillg a NE plullge ofits crestal
line. 1o the S of 18°S, a N-S trending subma rine ridge rllns
alongside the trench of Ilorthern Chile. and culmina tes
locnlly al -1800 Ill.
Recent improvement in hypocenler relocation al the
sca le oC Soulh America has been done, giving a good
dcfinilion of the Benioff-Wadati Zone geometry (Engdahl
el nf., 1998). It shows along-strike segmentation of Ihe
Andes bu t wilhout lears cven around Ihe lalilude 15°S
where Ihe slab has asevere co lltortion due lo changcs in its
dip. And only a very small portion oftheobserved seismicity
originates within Ihe Andean crust.
From N lo S, the Nazca Plate subduc ls al an anglc of 19°
- 30° to a deplh which varies from 250 km lo 650 km. N and
S of Ihe Bolivian Orocline, at latiludes 2°S - 1SoS alld 26°S -
33°S,seism ic aclivily indicates that Ihe Nazca Plale is being
subducted nearly horizonlal at a depth of about lOO km Cor
a dislance of over 300 km before dcscending sleeply inlO
Ihe mantle. There are no vo!canic arcs beeause oC the laek oC
aS lhcnosphere wedge bClween the subduc ling flat slab and
the upper conlinenlal plate (Barazangi and Isacks, 1976).
These horizontal seg ment s parlially co rreJate with the
oceanic ridges (Nazca Ridge,Juan Fernandez Ridge) or totally
 'tI
TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SO UYH AMERICA

~'®Q]
70'W
.- - -- - --- - - 00 + -
'\
o 250 km
'.
--". _ =-J
_. '-" " " " ' -',

Zone above 2000 m

Deplh of Ihe Wadalli·

Benioff Plane

• Distribution of active
volcanoes

+
••

Oligoeene
Oeeanie Crusl

(-34 - 24 Ma)
+ +

FIGURE 3 - Plme feetol/ic setlillg of lhe Alldes of Ecuatlor, Pcm, Bolivia aud I¡ortlle", Chile.

FlGURE4 - Locarío" o!theCelltraf Andes witltjlJ lile GOlldwatla. l'hickgrey line - boutldaryzollebetween tI/eArequ ipll.
Atltofalla era lon amI tl¡eAlIlaZOlliall Cratoll. Daslled lillc- eastcm bOlllldaryoftltei"ferred maximwII exte"t ofPaleozoic
sedimentat iou i" ,IIe "Peru-Bo/iv;a"bflckarclretroarcbus;". A-E - 10callOll afIlie schemat;cgeodytlflmic erass-sectio" s of Fig. 5.
(uf! areapproximate). 485
I TECTONIC EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA

j~®O I
" ~-----------------------------------------------------------------,
"
OC>

"
Late Mesoproterozoie (e.l.2 Ga - 900 Ma):
Sunsas Are
Grenville Sea
Laurentia Amazonian Craton a
Grenville
Thrust belt and Collissional orogen

Laurentia Amazonian Cralon b

Late Neoproterozoie - Early Cambrian (e.700-550 Ma):

Arequipa-Anlofalla
lapelus Oeen Cralon

Laurenlia) @: 9 Amazonian Cralon eI

4~

Lale Cambrian - Early Ordovieian (e.515-470 Ma):

Puna Aulaeogen

~_) ~
lapelus Oeean
_____
GO_n_dW
_a_na______ d

Middle Ordovieian - Early Carboniferous (e.460-320 Ma):

Relroare Foreland

Gondwana e

Lale Carboniferous - Jurassie (e.320-240 Ma):

Bal~kare Iranslension
Prolo - Paeifie Oeean
Gondwana I Pangea

<Il (O) 1

FIGURE 5 - Simplified conceptual mOllel for lhe pTe-AIU/el'"

geocly"amic evo/urion o/ the Cerltml Atufes (5 27"5) as
Q
-

proposed in lhe texto Approximate loeario" 01 cross sectioflS

in Fig. 4. Overall regiorzal stress field: 1, tramcurrent; 2,
486 extensill1UlJ; 3, compressional.

(Inca Plaleau?) subd ucted (Gutsher et al., 1999). 111 addi lio ll,
il is acco mpanied by importanl shallow earthquakes « 20
deplh) related lo crustal sho rtening.
The co nla ct zo nc be tween lhe Nazca and So ulh
American plates conce n!rates only a par! of lhe convergence
motiod as show n by GPS measurements (Kendrick e( al.,
1999). In the case oflhe Antofagasta 1995 earlhquake , Ihe
last greal Chilean event (Mw = 8.1), a locked portion of Ihe
plale interface wa s ruplllred . The observed slip release
(between 2 and 7 111) was less than Ihe expected plale mol ion
accumulation (oyer 8 m) and suggests that the resu ltan!
motion causes pel'lllanent deformation lh rough uplift of Ih e
Altiplan o and cruslal shor tening in castern Andes
(Nor.buena el al., 1998).
Low magnitude earthquakes recorded by local seismic
arrays are reyealing small-scale differences in seis micity of
Ihe Benioff-Wadati Zone and the co ntinenlal cru st (Com te
el al., 1999), and should be related with so me speci fic
tecton ic processes.l3ody-wave velocity models al the scale
oflhe So ulh American Plale (B ijwaard el a/., 1998) and at
,mallersc.le (Com !e el al., 1994; Dorba!h el al., 1996; Myers
el a/., 1998) show a medium lateral hete rogeneity whe re
the descending oceanic Nazca Plale can be observed over
600 km dep lh as zones of faster seismic velociti es dlle lo
Ih e colder, de n se r material than the underlying
aslhcnosph ere. The cruslal th ickne ss undernea lh th e
Altiplano PI alea u is of 60 - 75 km, twice as thi ck as norma l,
bU I ils exacl origin remains enigmatic.
Volcanic and seismic activity
Like all active margins, Ihe Andes are sll bmitled lO
illlense yo1canic activity, which presenls, however, several
peculiarities. Distr ibulion of Ihe active yo1canocs indicates
tha! Ihe vo1ca nic arc actiyily is nol continllous along th e
And ea n margin, defining a Northern, a Central and a
Sou!hern Vole.nic Zone (NVZ, CVZ aud SVZ; Fig. 3), Ih.1
have been interpreted as related lo Ihe dip oflhe subduction
plane.As a matter of fact, the Northern and Central Volcan ic
Zo nes overlie segme nts with relalively steep Wadatti-
l3enioff Zones, wh ereas Ihe volcanic gap of southern
Ecuador an d northern-cent ral Peru corresponds to a 7.One
of flat subd ucti on. In Ihi s latter case, Ihe lack of an
asthenosphere wedge belween the subducting slab and Ih e
upper co ntine ntal plate would prevent are mag ma
genera tion (Barazangi and Isacks , 1976). Moreover, Ih e
NVZ is characte rized by basa h ic andes ile, whc reas
andesile, dacite lava and ignimbrite dominate lhe CVZ. The
latt er featurc is in tcrpreled as due to fracliona l
crys tallization during Ihe asce nt of Ihe andesile magma
through a thi ckened continenlal crus!.
In additioll, this part of the world has already generated
great ea rthquakes of magnitude over 8.2 followed in general
by destructive tsunamis. They occurred repealedly with a
certain periodicily of more than 100 years as the greatesl
instrumen tally ever- re co rd ed earthquake localed in
sou th ern Chile (37°$ - 46.5°S). This earlhquake occurred
on May, 22 1960 (M. = 9.4, depth = 25 km) and was
generated by a 20m slip upon a11 area of about 1000 x 200
TECTON IC EVOL UTI ON OF SO UTH AMER ICA
I'L~ I
km along Ihe conlacl 1.one bclwec n Ihe Iwo plales. Ove r
magnilude 8.7, the sou thern Peru un AugusI 14 . 1868 (M =
9.0), lhe norlhern Chile on May 9, 1877 (M. = 9.0) and Ihe
Ecuador-Colombia 0 11 1anllary 31, 1906 (M w= 8.8) grea l
eart hquakes and their associated Isunamis caused a 101 of
damage. On the other hand, on June 9,1994 the largesl deep
earthquake (Mw = 8.2,deplh = 630 km) in recorded hislory
occurred benealh the Andes providing more constraint s on
the dynam ics and geomelry ofthe Nazca Plale al that depth.
PRE- A NDEAN E V OLUTlON OF THE
NORTH -CENIR A L ANDES D OMAlN
Th is sectioll attempts lo provide a coherent overvicw
of the paleogeograph ic and geodynam ic evol utioll of Ihe
Ce ntral Andes Oomain during Ihe Pa leozoic, along wi lh
some COIll ments 011 ils Prolerozoic basemenl. 'fhe sy nthesis
has been compiled from differen t sources, and also incllldes
some new concepts and interprelal ions. The arca here
considered as Cent ral Andes is roughly 5°-2]oS, covering
parl of Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile and nor thweslern
Argentina (Fig. 4), and therefore excl udes th e Amolapes of
llorthwes tern Per u and southern Ecuador, and the
Preco rdillera of western Argentina .
In co ntrast wilh Ihe ralher complex Phanerozoi c
accrel iona ry history of the Soulh American margin in the
Nort hem and Soulhern Andes (Colombia-Ecuador and
Chil e-A rgentina, respecl ively), the eyohuion of Ihe Central
Andes appears lo be somewhat simplcr, as Ihere is 110
evidence for Ihe accrelion of allochthonous lerranes during
Ihe Phancrozoic. Recent stll dies suggesl tha t the crustal
basement in mos! of !he Central Andean area form ed part
of the Grenville Orogen, as a resull of lhe collision between
Lallrentia and Amazon ia in Ihe Mesoprolerozoic (Was teneys
el al., 1995;Sadow,ky and Bettencourt, 1996; To, dal , 1996) .
Paleozoic rocks of the Central Andes record the break-up of
the Neop rolerozoic Prolo-Pangca (Rodinia) in the lales t
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian to form a passive margin along
wes tern Gondwana (Bond el al., 1981; Powell et (/{. , 1993),
and its later evolution as an active margin during most of
Ihe Paleozoic and until present times (Sempere. 1995). The
cont inuou s superposi tion of magmatic, tec tonic and
sedimenlary evenls has led to complex lateral va riati ons,
both in cross section alld along st rike, and has originaled a
\Vide ra nge of settings for Ihe development of minera l
depos its (Fonlboté et (1/.,1990; Schneide r, 1990; Fomari alld
Héra il, 1991 ) and hydrocarbon gene rat ion and
acc umu lation (Gohrbandl, 1992; Morett i el al. , 1995;
'lankard el al., 1995) related wit h Paleozoic rocks.
Proterozoic basement
Due lo lhe protracted superposi tion of orogenic even ts
in the Cen tral Andes, the in terpretalion of Ihe Prolerozoic
evolulion of Ihe region is ineYitably very fragmentary, and
should be considered as a mere working hypothesis. lhe
Illodern basement of Ihe Central Andes consisls of n'lo mlsta l
blocks with different origins: the Arequipa-Anlofalla Cralon 487
TECTONIC EVOlUTIQN OF SOUTH AMERICA
(Ramos et al., 1986) and Ihe Amazonian eraton (Teixeira et
al., 1989)orCenlral Brazil Shie1d (figs. 1and 2). The Arequipa-
Antafalla e ra ton is a Proterozoic terrane inlerpreted lo havc
originated as the tipof a pre·Grenvillc Laurcntian promontory
(comprising Labrador, Greenland alld Scotland) tha! was
incorporated into Ihe Grenville Orogcn (Dalziel. 1994;
Wasteneys et al., 1995). Pb ¡sotope composition seems lo
contradict Ihis model, indicating ¡nslead closer ties with Ihe
Amazonian Craton (Tosdal, 1996). The reconstruction of Ihe
remnan ts of ¡he Grenville Orogen in South Amcric a
(Sadowski and Bettencourt, 1996) ¡ndieates tha! the Cent ral
Andes corrcs ponds lo an area intermediate bctwcen the
magmatic are (rep resented by the Sunsas igneous province,
in eastern Bolivia and western Orazil ) and the thrust belt
(southcastern Canada) ofthe Grenvil le Oragen (Fig. Sb), and
explains the similar trend s identified be tw een the
Proterozoic olltcrops along the Andes, and those of the
Brazilian Shield (Litherland el ni., 1985, 1989).
Paleoproterazoic ages indicated by Rb/Sr whole-rack
isochrons and bulk U/Pb zircon geochranology represent
the prc-Grenville Laurentian-Amazonian prololith, and
Mesoproterozoic ages of granuli te-facies metamorphism
ind icated by U/Pb s ingle-gra in zircon geochronology
represe nI the main col1isional events ofthe GrenvilleOrogen
(Wastencys et ar. , 1995; Sadowski and Bettcncollrt, 1996;
Tosdal, 1996). Rifting during break-up of Rodinia in th e
Neop roterozoic-Ca mbrian led lO separation of Laurentia
from Amazonia (Fig. S-e), leaving behind Ihe
parautochthollous Arcquipa -An tofalla Craton attached to
Amazonia (Centra l Brazil Shield). rhe boundary ZOIle
between Ihe two crustal blocks, which is located beneath
the Eastern Altiplano and Eastern Cord ill era, thus
co nsti tutes a paleosuture and crusta l weakness zone
inherited from Ihe Mesoproterozoic evolution of the
Grenville Oragen (Figs. 1 and 2). This zone remaincd active
during the Paleozoic, and evcr since, with variable behaviour
depending 011 the regional state of stresses (Ramos, 1988;
Dorbath el al., 1993; Forsylhe el al., 1993).
Tectonomagmatic episodes
Tectanic and magmatic events took place inlhe Ce ntral
Andes in a rat her continuolls manner during the whole
Paleozoic, sh ifting thcir foc i and areal cxtent with time as a
result of platc interactions, variable geometry of the plates
involved, and the resu lting stress regimes. These variable
conditions led to apparently diffcrcnt styles of evolution
depending on the local area under study. Howevcr, an overall
tendency far the whole region may be discerned and
simpl ified as follows. Apart fram the aforementioned
Mesoproterozoic (1.2 Ga - 900 Ma) ages resulting from the
Grenville granulite- fa cies metamorphism, and th e
Pa le oproterozaic (2.0 -1.9 Ga) ages obtained from its
metagraniloid protolilh, the crystall ine basement underlying
the Central Andes alsa presents Neopraterozoic to Middle
Cambrian (600 - S20 l\'Ia) ages of igneous and metamorphic
events.Theseevents arecornmonly assigned to lhe last phases
of the Brasiliano Orogeny, which are referred to as Pampean
488 Orogeny in the southern Central Andes (Rapela ee(/1.,1998).
Break-up of Rodinia and rifting of easlern Laurentia fram
Gondwana in the Neoprotero1.Oic and Early Cambrian led lo
the developrnent of passive margins on bolh sid es of Ihe
Southern Iapelus Ocean (Fig. S-c).
Along the pre-Andean margin of Gondwana S of 27°S,
a westward shifl of the spreading centre is intcrpreted to
have Icft oceanic crusl between a dClached continental block
(Pampean '1hranc) and the Gondwana margin (Rapela el
al., 1998). Later eastward subduclion and dosure of Ihis
remnant sea during the EarJy Cambrian led lo lh ecollision
of the Pampean Tcrrane in the Middle Cambrian. To the N
of27°S,a similar history is also probable, with the Arequipa-
Antofalla Cratan also pa rtially ri ftingand then latercolliding
along its southeastern boundary with the Amazonian
Craton. Meanwhilc, the western margin ofboth the Pampean
Terrane and the Arequipa-Antofalla Craton remained
passive unti l the Late Cambrian (Fig. S-e).
Begin ni ng in the Late Cambrian or rarl iest Ordovicia n,
this western passivc margin beca me an active continental
margin (Fig. S-d). The San Nicolás Batholith in southwestcrn
Peru is interpreted as the root of Ihe magmatic arc reslIlting
from eastward subduction of oceanic crust along the ac tive
margin of Gondwana during th e Paleozoic (Mukasa and
Henry, 1990). Ordovicia n- Devonian ages obtained for lower
intercepts in U/Pb geochronology ofbasement rocks along
the western Arequipa-Antofalla Cra lon reflect thermal
overprinting and Pb ~ loss coi nciding with peaks of Ibis
Paleozoic magmatic activity (Shackleto n el aJ.• 1979; Damm
el al., 1990; 1994; Mukasa and Hcnry, 1990; Tosdal,1996).
Different rates of plate aclivity and sense of migratíon of
Ihe magmatic arc developed depending on regional stresses
and inhomogeneities, and basin development also changed
in accordance with these plale inleractions.
The Paleozoic developmen t of this active marg in is
charac terized by back arc extensional conditions during the
early phase (Ialcst Cambrian -Early Ordovician) and late
phase (Late Carboniferous-Permian), resulting in a strongly
subsiding thinn ed crust, with partial rifting and syn-
sedimentary basic vo!canism (Fig. Sd). In con trast , a
compressional regime (retro-arc forcland) characterized the
inter mediat e phase (Middle Ordovician-Early
Ca rboniferous; Fig. Se). An apparenl lack of evidence for
Silurian and Devonian tectollomagmat ic activity in the
sout hwestern Central Andes ha s been interpreted as
cvidence for a passive margin resulting from rifting off of
part ofthe Arcquipa -Antofalla Craton (Bahlburg alld Hervé,
1997). However, Ihis interpretatíon is difficult lo rcconcile
with Ihe evidence for a coeval aclive plate margin in
sout hcrn Peru (down lo 17°S) and norlhern Ch il e and
Argentina (up lo 27°S), as well as with the Silurian age of
igneous and metamo rphic evellts in Ihe samc region (Damm
el al., 1990,1991.1994).
With regard lo Late Paleozoic tectonomagmatic events
in the Central Andes, these have been trad itionally assigned
to a "Eohercynian"Orogeny (Mégard el al., 1971; Bard el al.,
1974; Dalmayrac el al" 1980), inc1uding Late DevoIlian~
Carboniferous KI Ar and Rb/Sr ages, and regional
stratigraphic and petrogra phic evidence. However, an ly OIle
U/Pb zircon age is reported (330 ± 10 Ma; Carlier el aJ. ,
1982). O,hcr U/Pb zireon dales on graniloid a10ng Ihe NW '
trending segment of Ihe Easlern Cordillera of Peru and
 establish their time of emplacemenl as Pcrmian or
yOunger(McBride el ni., 1983; Heinrich el al., 1988; faerar
ti al., 1990; Kontak et ni., 1990).
trI This more recenl evidencc queslions lhe rclatioll of Ihe
raniloid plutons ""ilh widespread Late Devonian-Early
,b
I
~rbOTliferous "Eohercyn ian" magmatism and orogenesis,
lock as previously interprcted. Neverthclcss, there is evidcllce for
local transprcssional uplin and deformation of Ihe Eastcrn
Cordillera in the latest Devonian and Early Carboniferous,
which scparated an Altiplano basin from a Subandcan-
Chaco basin (Mégard et ni., 1971; Dalmayrac el 111.,1980;
Kley and Reinhardt, 1994¡ Sempere. 1995; Diaz-Martínez,
1996). Maximum burial dcpths (locally cxceeding 10 km)
were attained in differcnl areas of Ihe Central Andean
Paleozoic basin al diffcrcnt times during the Late Paleozoic
(Late Devonian-Permian inlerval). As a result of Ihis deep
burial, and probably in conjunction wilh transcurrent
an stresses along Ihe aEoremenlioned sutu re zone (Sempere,
1995), Ihe stratigraphically lower uni ts (Ordovician-
Silurian) reached ve ry lo w-grade lo low-grade
IIlg rnelam orphism, as in dicated by vitrinile refleclancc and
iIIite cryslallinity (Klcy and Reinhardl, 1994). This Ihermal
overprinl resulted in Ihe reset of K/Ar syslelll, Ihus
ver explaini ng lhe Ca rboniferous-Early Permian ages obtained
by sorne authors (Dalmayrac el al., 1980; Paton, 1990).
] Al the same time, erosion related wilh Ihe mid-
Carboniferous global rcgression resulted in a disconEormily
IIn or low-angle unconformiLy throughoullhe Central Andes,
.es
I wilh Upper CarboniEerous and Pcrmian unils direclly
overlying Devonian, Silurian or Ordovician units (Kley and
Reinhardl, 1994; Isaacson and Díaz-Martínez, 1995; Díaz-
Martínez, 1996, 1998b ).A similar unconformity is observed
I
is
in the southern Cenlral And es (northern Ch il e and
northwestern Argentina), where Ihe developmeJlt of an
active margin with related fore-arc, inlra-arc and back-arc
basins look place during the Late CarboniEerous and
Permian (Brcitkreuz el ni., 1988, 1989; Bahlburg and
Breilkreuz, 1991; Breitkrcuz and Zei l, 1994). Thus, Ihe
fé nterpretation oE the evidence indi cales that th e alleged
"Eohercynian" Orogeny may be no more than the
Iy conjun ction of diEEercnt processes and evenls taking pl ace
during Ihe Late Paleozoic throughoul the Central Andean
reg ion, bul not a si ngle tectonomagmatic evenl or belt
localized in space and time.
Ihe sedimentary record in Peru and western Bolivia
'prescntsevidenceof marginal arc volcanism beginning in Ihe
late EarlyCarboniEerous (Ambo Group, 60 S -17°S; Dalmayrac
n etal., 1980; Draz-Marlíncz, 1995, 1998b). This subduction-
related magma tic activity propagated lo the S (16°5 - 24°5)
along lhe active margin during lhe Late Ca rboniferous and
n into the Permian (CarHer el al., 1982; Bell, 1987; Breitkrcuz
et al., 1988, 1989; Bahlburg and Breitkrellz, 1991; BreilkrclIz
and Zeil, 1994; Semperc, 1995; Isaacson and Díaz-Martfncz,
1995; Bahlburg and Hcrvé, 1997). farthcr to the S (20'S-
4 ~05), th ick volcano-sed imentary successions devcloped in
Ihe Permian and Triassic (Choiyoi Group), with associatcd
I high-Icvel intrusions (Kay el al., 1989).
Furlher evidence Eor Late Paleozoic magmatic aClivity
is also Eound in the Eastern Cordillera oE Peru and Bolivia.
This aclivity began earlicr in Ihe Peruvian sector, with Late
Permian-Triassic ages (Konlak el al., 1990), and migraled
towards the S, devcloping in Bolivia during Ihe Middle
Triassic to Early Jurassic (McBride el al., 1983; Heinrich el
ni., 1988), The activily was not rclaled lo subduction
processes, bul instead, consists DE alkaline volcanisll1 and
plulonism which are inlerpreted as a result DE partial riEting
and translension along Ihe suture ZOlle between the
Arequipa-Alltofalla Craton and the Amazonian Craton (fig.
5f), due to regional stresses during Pangea break-up
(Konta k el ni., 1990; Atherton and Pctford, 1991).
Tectono-sedimentary cycles
Mosl of Ihe Late Ca mbrian to Devonian sed imenlalion
inlhe Ce nlral Andes too k place alollg a wide and clongated
epicontincntal marine basin broadly parallello the m.:lfgin
oE Gondwana (Fig. 4). The main source arca for this basin
was siluated lo the W and 5W,allhough this SOllrce area was
nol a rifted-off former"Pacific con tinent"(as considercd by
Bahlburg and Hervé, 1997). 1nstead, it is considered that Ihe
sou rce area was Ihe active margin of Gondwana itselE
(Isaacson and Díaz-Martínez, 1995; Sempere, 1995).
in Ouenced by ils disconlinllous aclivity, specially th e uplift
and forward migration of the fold-thrust belt. Deepening oE
the basin and increased subsidence rates broadly coincide
in time with th e aforemen lioned Ordovician-Devon ian
peaks oE magmal ic aClivilY, and demonslrate th e syn-
tectonic character oE depos ition , in close relalion wilh
lectonic piling and uplift along this Eold-lhrust belt
(Sempcre, 1995; Díaz-Martrnez el al., 1996) .
'fhe Paleozo ic marginal oragen which Eed lhe basin is
today completely dismantled, with ils roots cropping out in
th e Arcquipa MassiE and other smaller outcrops scatlered
throughout Ih e Arequipa-AntoEalla Craton. Extreme burial
dep lhs locally exceeding 10 km were achieved during the
Late Paleozoic, leading to the reset of isolope ages during
Ih eir maxima, and previolls lo the widespread erosion oE
depocente r arcas. Paleo7.0ic basin fills we re laler variably
eroded, and the resulting st rat igraphicgaps are wider al Ihe
margins oflhe basin,especiaUy towards the weslern lI plifted
areas. rhe original wid lh of the Paleozoic oragen seems
narrower today due lo tectonic eros ioll along the weslern
margin of Ihe Arequipa-Anlofalla Craton (Stern, 1991), as
well as compressional shortening dlle to Cenozoic Eolding
and thrust-piling. Bolh processes (tec lon ic erosioll and
dismantl ing of Ihe orogen and basin fill) cOlllinued du ring
Mesozoic and Ccnozoic subductioll, uplirl and erosion in the
Cent ral Andes, and resulted in the scarcity of evidence for
Ihe more marginal (fore arc and intra arc) and older basins.
Paleozoic scdimenlat ion in lhe Cenlral Andes Ola)' be
sub div ided inlo three main tectono-sed imentary cycles
(limited by majar unconEo rmities): latest Proterozo ic-
MiddIe Camb rian, Late Ca mbrian- Earl)' Carbon iferous , and
Lat e Carboniferous-Early Triassic. The first lectono-
sedi menl ary cyele equates to Ihe Pampean Cyele of
Aceñolaza et al. (1990). The second tectono-sedimentary
cycle equales lo the Tacsarian and Cordilleran cyc1cs of
Suárez-Soruco (1989), and to the Tacsara, Chuquisaca and
Villamontes supersequen ces oE Sempcre (1995). The third
tec lon o-sedimenta ry cyele equates lo lh e Cuevo 489
 I
TECTON I( EVOlUTlON OF SO UTH AMERICA
supcrsequence of Sempere (1995). Overall, Paleozoic
sedimentation was rather continuous. although remarkable
changes in subsidence rates took place du ring ccrtain lime
inlcrvals. Scdimentary ev idence fo r increascd tectonic
instability and uplift occur ncar Ihe Ordoviciall-Silurian and
Devo nian-Carboniferous bounda ries (Díaz- Mart ínez el al.,
1996), which have been traditionally used for further
subd ivisio n of Ihe sedimentary pile (Suárez-Soruco, 1989;
Goh rbandt. 1992; Scmpere, 1995). However, as mentioned
above, tcctonomagmatic proccsses along Ihe margin have
been rathe r contin uous and synchron ous with Ih e
development ofbas ins. Hcnce, il does no! seem appropriate
lo maintain the traditional subd ivisio ns of the Paleozoic
sedimentary record based on discre le orogenic evcnls.
Paleogeography and
paleoclimates
Depos ition wit hin a large marin e basin (Peru-Bolivia
Basin) located adjacent lo él marginal orogen prevailed
during mosl ofthc Paleozoic (Figs. 1and 2). Th e ove rall and
progressive increase of rigidily and thickness of the cr ust
benealh Ihe Central Andes in Ihe Paleozoic,led lo a gradual
i!lcrease of terrestria l (subaerial and lacustrine)
sedimentalion in Ihe Lale Paleozoic. Fluvial deposits are very
rare unlil Ihe Devonian, and beco me frequen! in Ihe
Ca rboniferous. Eolian deposils begin lo be presenl in Ihe
Late Carboniferous and are frequent until the Jurassic. The
areal exlent of marine deposition in the Late Permian and
'Ii'iassic was very limited.
'fhe Central Andes underwent importanl latitudinal
movements during its drift as part of Gondwana's western
margin in the Paleozoic. Despile Ihe scarcity of confident
paleomagnetic data, several models have been proposed for
the Paleozoie paleogeographie evolut ion oflhe region. The
overall trend eonsists of él subt ropical (30°) lat itudinal
position during Ihe Early Cambrian, and a shifl towards
higher latitudes in the Middle and Late Cambrian
(Cou rjault -RaM et al., 1992). DlI ring the Ordovician,Sillllian
and Devonian, Ihe Centra l Andes remained al mid to high
latitudes, with variable shifts.A gradual shift towards lower
latitudes took place during Ihe Early Carboniferous,and the
arca has remaincd al tropical latitudes ever since the Late
Carboniferous (Díaz-Martínez el al., 1993; Isaacson and
DIa7.~Marllnez, 1995; Sempere, 1995; López ~ Gamundl and
Breitkreuz, 1997). Paleozoie tropical carbonates and
evapo rites in Ihe Central Andes are presenl only within
Early-Middle Cambrian deposits and Late Carboniferous -
Permian deposits. Thin earbonate-bearing units are presenl
in Ihe Ordovician,Silurian and Devonian systems containillg
cool-water faunal associations. Plant remains are frequent
in Ihe sedimenta ry record beginn ing in lhe Middle Silu rian,
and eoal development is observed in the late Early
Carbon ifero us (Ambo Grou p) a nd in the Late
Carboniferous-Early Permian (Copaeabana Formation).
Glacially influenced deposits are preserved within latesl
Ordovieian-Early Silllrian unils, and within Late Devonian-
Ea rly Ca rboni fe rous units. However, true tillites a nd glacially
slriated pavements are only ve ry rarely found (Starck,
.
1995), and most oflhe evidence eonsis ls of glacially faceted
and str ialed c1asts, both as dropslones and Wilhin
resedimented ullits (Díaz-Martínez el al., 1999). These
glaeially-related deposils are interpreted as a result of
glaciation ofteetonically uplifted highlands, and therefore
unrelated wilh Ihe large con tinen lal icccaps in Gondwana.
Inherited pre-Andean
structures
Structurcs inheriled (rom Ihe pre-Andean geodynamic
cvolulion of Ihe Central Andes have exerled an important
influence on its laler developmenl. 'fhe crust beneath Ihe
Cent ral Andes originally formed as par! of Prolerozoic
orogens. The trend of the structu res devc10ped during the
formal ion of Ihese orogens greatly condit ioned later
Palcozoic basin formalion and erustal weakness zones,and
therefore influeneed Ihe geometry and distribution of
tectonism and deposition. The boundary zone between Ihe
Arequ ipa-Antofalla Craton and Ihe Amazonian Cra ton is
Ihe principal of Ihese fealuces (Fig. 4), probably inhcri led
as a suture lone from Ihe eollision between Laurentia and
Ihe Amazonia n Crato n as parl oflhe Grenville Orogen (Fig.
5). This erustal weak ness zone was Ihe location of(a) rifting
in Ihe Neoproterozo ic and Cambrian, (b) baek are and
foreland sueeessor basin formation from the Ordovieian to
Carboniferous, (e) syn-sed imen lary magmatism in the
Ordovician and Silurian, (d) Iranspressive stresses
originating local uplifts in the Devoniall and Early
Carbo niferous, and (e) syn-sedimenlary magmatism, and
transtensional st res ses orig inating semigrabens and
grabcns in Ihe Late Carboniferous lo Ju rassic. In turo, the
resulting Paleozoie features also influenccd later evenls. For
instance, (a) Pa leoloic basin gcometry and facies
distribut ion grea tly condilioned the location of decollement
levels and lateral variations in the propagation of thrusts
during Cenozoie lectonism (Baby et al., 1989,1992;Semperc
et al., 1991), and (b) ¡islr ic faulls or iginaled du ring Lale
Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic extensional eondi ti ons were
reversed during Ihe Cenoloic. The samc boundary lone was
active with magmatism and slrong tectonism during the
Cenozoic, resulting in the formation ofthe Eastern Cordillera
and Subandean fold-Ihrus t belts.
 TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF SQUTH AMERICA

[ -zr;.
~t:~~
\.iJ~

70 0 W
_____ _ +- 0°_ - - - - - ---+------ ~- - -- -- -

Colombia

~ Terranes accreled in Ihe Late

~ Cretaceous-Paleogene
~ Fore-arc Zone
~ (probably manne deposlls)

~ Mainly marine deposits

Brasil O Mainly fluvial deposils

Pacific
Orean

+ + 20 0 S

o 250 km
- -=
Salta • 650W Argentina

FIGURE 6 - Paleogeograpltic framework 01 the Andes DI

Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and lJOrtllem Chile fOT the Jurassic.
(liD! af{¡ea tI/res sllOwed are ofllle sume age). 491
'F ®QJ
ITECTONIC EVOLUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

"'"
=>

I~«
=>

70'W
- - - - - - - - - - 0° ..... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Oceanic I continental
allochtonous terranes
No Permo-Triassic
deposits
No data

Evaporites

1 Shale
Limestone intercalations
Volcanic rocks

o_ __ 250I km

FIGURE 7 - Pnleogeograpllicsketch ofEcuador, Perfl,

Bolivia l/lid lIortllem Chile for lhe Late Permhm-
l'ri/lssicperiod (after Dalmaymcet al., 1980),

•
.-
PRE-OROGENIC (LATE PERMIAN-
MIDDLE OLlGOCENE) EVOLUTION
OE THE NORTH-CENTRAL ANDES
This period may be divided ¡nto two main sub-periods,
ofLate Penniall-Late Jurassic and latest Jurassic-Paleogene
age, corresponding to differcnt geodynamic, paleogcographic
and tectaoie scltings.
Late Permian to Late
Kimmeridgian (255 - 140 Ma)
Prior lO the Sinemurian, lhe magma tic are is 1101 well-
defined. During Jurassic, lhe palcogeographic framework
exhibits the c1assical three-fald divisioll ofan active margin
(Fig. 6). The (ore-are rca1m, is nearly unknowll, because of
subsequent te(tanic efosion and/or deformatían. It was
located in the prcsent-day Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador
(Cordillera Real), whereas it probably lies offshore Peru and
Chile. 'fhe magmatic are controlled the paleogeographic
pattern.lt trends NNE in the northern segment; runs along
the present-d ay Subandean Zone of Ecuador and crosscut
obliquely Ihe northern Peruvian margino Farlher S, il
appears locally on the SE trending coast of southern Peru,
and extends ¡nto northcrn Chile, where ils present-day
orientation is roughly N-S. 'nle back-arc doma in covers what
are nowthe Oriente Basin ofEcuador, the Western Cordillera
of Peru and most of the coast of norlhernmost Chile. Distal
back-arc areas covering eastern Peru and Bolivia (Hg. 6)
bordered it to the E.
Late Permian - Middle Sinemurian
(255 - 195 Ma)
This period is characterized by Lale Permian-Triassic
extensional tectonics along NW-SE trending grabens, and
by Late Triassic-Early Liassic marine transgressions. Coeval
alkaline volcanism and intrusions due lo partial melting of
Ihe lower crusl were locally associated with deep-seated
metamorphism.
Late Permian - Early Norian (255 - 215 Ma)
Very Hule is known about Ihe westernmost areas of lhe
margino Coastal areas are, however, affected by significant
although poorly understood deformatíon and
metamorphism. In the Easlern Cordillera of Ecuador, type
I granitoid (Tres Lagunas) yielded ages ranging from 257
(Sm/Nd) lo 200 - 189 Ma (Rb/Sr, Aspden and Lilherland,
1992; Litherland et al., 1994),and in southweslern Ecuador
orlhogneiss yielded melamorphic ages of234 to 198 Ma (KI
Ar, Feininger and Silberman, 1982; Rb/Sr, Aspden et al"
1995). Intrusion and metamorphism are interpreted as due
lo a strong thermaJ event of Late Triassic age, resulting in
partial crustal melting and high temperature
metamorphism, They would be associated with significant
dextral movements related to the Tethyan obligue rifting
(Lilherland el al." 1994).
In northern and central Peru, no pre-Late Jurassic arc
volcanic rocks are known. In the coasl of sOllthern Peru
(Arequipa Massif), metamorphie and inlrusive rocks
yielded KIAr ages ranging fmm 213 lo 187 Ma (Stewarl et
al" 1974; Romeuf el al" 1993), In southern Pem, a Triassic-
Liassic age is assumcd by l30ily el al, (1984) for the arc
volcanism, sincc il is post-dated by, and locally intcrcalaled
with, Sinemurian marine deposits (Vargas, 1970; Jaillard el
al., 1990), However, one of Ihe plutons inlruding these
volcanie rocks yielded a 211 Ma age, thus indicating a pre-
Liassic minimum age (Romcuf el al., 1993).
In northern Chile (26 - 31°5), basic to granitic, I-typc
intrusions yielded ages betwecn231 and 201 Ma (Berg and
Baumann, 1985; Irwin et al., 1988; Gana, 1991), and are
roughly coeval with syn -metamorphic dcformation dated
al 220 - 20 1 Ma (Irwin el al., 1987), tarther to Ihe E, in Peru,
thick sequences of fine- to coarse-grained, red sandstone
and conglomerale beds (Mitll Group) were deposited in a
subaerial environment, and filled fault controlled grabens
(Mégard, 1978; Kontak el 01.,1985; Carlolto, 1998). The
associaled volcanic rock s are alkaline basalt with
subordinate tholeiitic basalt, and acidic, dacitic lo rhyolitie
pyrodastites (Fig. 7). Shoshonitic and peralkaline suites
(Konlak el al" 1985) as well as comendite (Noble el al., 1978)
are present, indicating an intraplate extensional tectonie
regime, Because they overlie fusulinid-bearing Jimcsto nc
ofEarly Permian age, Ihe volcanic anu sedimentary rocks of
the Mitll Group have been aseribed to Ihe Late Permiall-
Triassic (Newell el al., 1953; Laubacher, 1978). Farlher to
the N (Ecuador), this period corresponds to non-marine
cJasties and sllbordinate volcanics (Sacha formatíon,
Rivadeneira and Sánchez, 1991), Deposits similar lo those
ofthe Mitu Group have been recently identified in Bolivia,
wherc they are found in major paleogeographic structures,
which governed lhe Andean tectonics (Sempere et al., 1999;
Fig, 7). In norlhern Chile, deep transtensional rift basins
were filled by thick sequences of subaerial basic,
intermediate and acid volcanic rocks and subacrial
siliciclastic and volcaniclastic roeks of Late Permian-
Triassic age (Chong, 1976; Suarez and Dell, 1991; Flint et
al" 1993).
The Late Permian-EarlyTriassic age has been confirmed
in southern Peru by 270 - 200 Ma ages oblained from
inlrusions and shoshonile, which, however, extenl inlo Ihe
Early jurassic (200 - 180 Ma, Kontaket al" 1985; Clarkel al.,
1990), In southern Peru, coeval biotile granodiorite and
lllonzogranite derived from partia! melting of the lower
crusl (Granitoid province) are crosscul by mafie dykes
showing chemistry and mincralogy similar lo that of the
alkali basalt oflhe Milu Group (Konlak el al., 1985). Farlher
the SE, mosl oflhe granilic lo granodioritic, peraluminous
intrusions of the Bolivian Cordillera Real yielded ages frorn
225 to 195 Ma (Ávila-Salinas, 1990). These sedimentary,
lectonic and magmatic phenomena were interpreted as
resuIting from a NW-SE trending rifting of Late Permian-
Triassic age, related lo Ihe break-up of Gondwana and/or
lo the Telhyan rifting (Vivier el al" 1976; Kontak et al" 1985;
Jaillard el al., 1990; Flinl el al., 1993; Sempereel al., 1998).
No clear evidences of subduction-related volcanisrn have
been found as yet in these areas.
493
I TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF S OUTH AMERICA

"é
--' 70"W
- - - - - - - - - -00 - --- ------ - -
'"
z
Oeeanie , continental
z
'"=i allochtonous lerranes
~

> Norian marine

:"i
transgression
<i.
>-' Sinemurian marine
E3

-
m

'"
m
<C
Iransgression
Toarcian-Bajocian
:;j
Z 5"S marine transgressions
>=
Post-Sinemurian marine
¡ :;:]
I! '6
~
deposils (eastern limil)
Late Liassic volcanogenic
deposits (easlern limil)

I~ O
EZZl
'"
~
+

I~ I

I~ :%
w

+ +

Bolivia
FIGURE 8 - Paleogeographic
sketch of the Lale Triassic and
Early Jllrassic marine
tra'lsgress;om.

+ FIGURE 9 - TransitiOIl betwecn ,he

marine sltelf limestones (Santiago
Fm) intercalated wit" alkafjllc
lava j10ws aud lhe sllbaerial
cOl/tinentaf are volcanism
o_ 250 km
---=:J (Misahllafli Fm) in lhe southcm
Subandeml zone ofEcuador
(Clltt/e/; Cordillera). dllring lile
75"W Sitlemllriml (afier Romellfct aL,
1997).

Misahualli 195 - Weslern Culucú Easlern Cutucú

Fm 150Ma

rf:~
Subaerial
caJc-alkaline
are
Oettaic volcanism
Unnamed l ale
Subaerial
Transition lo Middte - - - X,?c_ _ _ __ ----.

Beds
@ Alkaline luff and
Sinemurian piJIowedlcolumnar Distal
@ alkaline basalts, dellaic
inlercalaled in
@ lurbidiles _--x?--
Santiago Early
Deep shelf Deep shelf
Fm Sinemurian

=
c:::IJ
•
Limeslone

Shale
D
12]
Fine-grained sandslone
and/or greywacke
Coarse-grained sandslone
m
8:~il#1
Lava Hows

Vulcanic tuff
andlor greywacke

J

Late(?) Norian - Middle Sinem urian
(215 - 195 Ma)
'[wo main marine transgressions and a relativc tcctonic
quiescence charactcrize this time-span. Thc Late Norian
marine transgression rcached the wcstcrn part of the
Andean margin from sout hern Colombia to northern Chile
(Fig. 8). Norian deposits usual ly overlie Pennian-Triassic
subaerial volcanic and sedimcntary rocks, locally in angular
unconformity, or may ovcrlie lhe Paleozoic bascmenl. In
the central and northcrn parts ofthe basin (Ecuador, Pcru),
Narian dcposits consist of shallow-marine shelflimestone
and dolomite (Mégard, 1978; Pardo and Sanz, 1979;
Loughman and Hallam, 1982; Prinz,1 985; Rivadcneira and
Sánchez, 1991; Rosas el al.• 1997), whe reas in the eastern
(eastern Peru,Méga rd, 1978) and southern areas (southern
Bolivia, northcrn Ch ile, Groschke el al., 1988; Suárez and
Dalen" 1993; Ardill el al., 1998), they begin with a
transgressive dastic, locally evaporitic scquence, evolving
toward marine deposits.
A stratigraphic hiatus of latest Norian· Rhetian age
occurred locally in Peru (Mégard, 1978; Loughman and
Hallam, 1982; Prinz, 1985) , which may exp lain lo cal
diseonformities (Pardo and Sanz, 1979). The second major
marine transgres sion is of Late Hettangian to Early
Sinemurian agc (Fig. 8).ln Peru, these tra nsgressive deposits
onlap onto the Permian-Triassic volcanogenie rocks
(Mégard, 1978; Loughman and Hallam, 1982). In the central
parl of the basin, Ihey eonsisl of dark limestone units rich in
organic material to biluminous shale, the upper part ofwhieh
is rich in phosphate (Mégard, 1978; Loughman and Hallam,
1982; Prinz, 1985; Rosas el al., 1997). In many southern arcas,
lhe Sinemurian tran sgressive beds are the first marine
deposits lo be reeorded. They may loeally onlap onto Ihe
Paleozoic basement (Antofagasta, Muñoz el al., 1988; Baeza
and Quinzio, 1991 ),or overlie undated (Triassic?) are volcanie
rocks (southcrn Peru, Vargas, 1970; Vicente el al., 1982;
Iquique and Arica, Muñoz and Charrier, 1993).
In the baek- arc areas of central Peru,scattered lava flows
interbedded in Early Liassic marine sediments display
alkaline chemislry, indicating that extensional tectonic regime
still prevailed (Rosas and Fontboté, 1995; Romeuf el al., 1997;
Figs.9 and 12). ln sllmmary, the Late Triassic-F.arly Jurassic
period is marked by a mild extensional regime, interpreled
as related to the break-up of Gondwana and to Ihe Tethyan
rifting. Large-scalemarinetransgressions occurred in Ihe Late
Norian and Early Sin cmu riall, rcspectivcly. Subduclion of a
paleo-Pacific Plate beneath Ihis par! of the South American
Plale has nol been proved as yet.
Late Sinernurian - Kirnrneridgian
(195 - 150 Ma)
This inlerval is marked by aclive subduetion-related
magmatism,sinistral wrenching movements along NW-SE
faulls, and teetonically cont rolled sedimentation. Three
main domains are distinguished: (1) the NNE trending
Ecuadorian-no rthern Peruvian segmcnt is characterized by
a NNE-trending magmalic arc bordered lo Ihe E by a baek-
are subaerial basin; (2) in northern and cenlral Peru, Ihe
carbonate shelf sedimentalion cont inued and was
TECTONtC EVOlUTtON OF SOUTH AMERtCA
l~clfY@ 1
interruplcd by a Midd le Jllrassie lec tonic event; (3) in
sOlllhern Perll and northern Chil e, the westcrn magmatic
arc was f1anked to the E by a marine, subsiding back-are
basin, bordered by emergent castern areas (Pig. 8).
In Colombia (Mojica and Dorado, 1987), southern
Ecuador (Romeuf el al., 1997) and northwestern Perll (Pardo
and S3 nz, 1979), Middle to Late Sinemurian marine
depos ils are intercalated wilh alkaline basaltic flows ,
whereas subduetion-re\ated volean;c arc roeks appear in
Ihe imlllecliately ovcrlying deposits, which evolve toward
subaerial environmenls. The Late Sinemurian age of the
beginning oflhe magmatie arc activity is confirmed by dates
obtained from associated arc-related intrusions (195 - 190
Ma,Aspdcn el al., 1987; Litherland el 111.,1994). The activity
of Ihis NNE trending continental magmatic are (M isahuall i
and Colán formations) eOl1linued 011 during the Middle
11Irassic, and eventually ceased by latest Jurassie times (150
_140 Ma, Aspden el al., 1987; Litherland el al., 1994, Romellf
el al., 199 5). To the W of Ihe magmatie are, marine
voleanidastie sediments, daled as late Middle lo early Late
Jurassic in southern Ecuador and northern Peru (Mourier,
1988), are interpreted as fore-are deposits.
In southwestern Peru, the disconformable marine
transgression is daled as Early Sinemurian, Early Toareian,
Late Toareian (eommonly), or eve n Late Bajocian -
Bathoniall, accordi ng to the regiolls, suggesting either a
contrasted and complex paleogeog raphy, or the
juxtaposi tion of distinct units due to subsequent
displaeements (Kurth el al., 1996). Most of tbe suecessions
display a sedi mentary biatus ofLalc Bajocian-l3alhonia n age
(Vicente, 1981, 1989). Vo\canic arc rocks formerly aser ibed
to Ih e Triass ic-Liassie (Chocolate Formation) yielded
radiometric dates of 177 - 157 Ma and Aalen ian-Bathon ian
paleonlological ages (Roperch and CarHer, 1992; Romeuf el
al., 1995). Ihus suggesting that Ihey are coeval with Ihe
magmaticare ofEcuador, northern Peru and northern Chile.
Thesc volean ic roeks are ove rlain by volcanidastic and
silicidastic ma rine shel f deposits of Aalenian-Callovian age
(Upper Río Grande and Guaneros formalions, Rüegg, 1956;
Aguirre and Offler, 1985; Romellf el al., 1995), thu s
indicating a progressive and significant decrease of the arc
activity during Ihe Middle Jurass ie. No volcanic rocks of
Late Jurassic age known.
In the coast of northern Chil e, outpouring of a thick
accumulation of subduetion-rclated dacite, andesite, basalt
and luff (La Negra Formation, Fig. lO) began also during
the Late Sinemuriall-Pliensbachian (MuilOZ el al., 1988;
Baeza and Quinzio, 1991; Muñ07. and Charrier, 1993). They
follow basic intrusions related to probably transtensional
sinistral movements (Pichowiak el al., 1990). In
nort hernmost Chile, Ihis volcanie se ries is overlain by
marine sedimcnts of early Middle Jurassic lo Late Ju rassic
age, according to Ihe arcas (Muñoz and Charrier, 1993;
Kossler, 1997), bul voJcanic activity is assumed lo have lasted
until the Late ]lIrassic (Charrier and Muñoz, 1994) or even
the Early Cretaceous (Mpodozis and Ramos , 1989; Scheuber
el al., 1994), farther S. Extensional or transtensional regime
prevailed during the Jurassie, favouring Ihe formatiol1 and
play oftheAtacama wrench fault system (Brown el al. , 1993).
Easl of the magmatic are, the Jurassic back-a rc bas in
received poorly daled , mainly argillaeeous and voleaniclastic 495
•
TECTONIC EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA
slIbaerial sed imen tation (Chap iz(\ and Sarayaquillo
formations; Tschopp, 1953; Seminario and Guizado, 1976;
Rivadeneira alld Sánchez. 1991j Fig. 6). Thesc sed imentary
rocks rest OH Ihe Liassic carbonate beds lo Ihe W, or on Ihe
Palcozoic basemenl to Ihe E. In Ihe latter case, they may
indude llnfossiliferous La te Triassic·Liassic beds. They
comprise a lower sequcnce of shale, fin c-grained sandstonc,
dolomite and evaporile of sabkha cnvironmcnt. and an
upper sequencc consistingof coarse-grained sandstone and
conglolllcrate of fluvial cnvironment (Tschopp, 1953;
Mégard, 1978).llowcver. Jurassic marine platform Ii meslone
units are locally knowll in eastcrnmost Ecuador
(Petroproducción, unpublished data).
In the back-arc areas of Peru, pl alform carbonate
deposition, started in the Lal e Triassic, went 011 until the
early Middle Jurassic (Figs. II and 12). This carbonale shclf
was bordered to the E by continental back-arc deposits
consisting in fluvial red beds lo Ihe N,and locally significant
accumulations of eolian sandstone to lhe S (Sempere,
1995). No information is available on Ihe weslern par! of
cent ral Perl!o 0 11 Ihe Peruvian Platform, Ihe bituminolls
facies and phosphate-rich carbonate beds ofthe Sinemurian
transgression (Aramachay Formalion) are overlain by
strati fied oolitic and skclelal limestone presenting local
cross-stratificd calcarenite beds of Late Sinemurian to Late
Toarcian, maybe Aalenian age (Condorsinga Formation;
Mégard, 1978; Westermann el al., 1980; Loughman and
Hallam, 1982; Prinz. 1985). ,[hese Liassic deposits are
overlain by sandy-argillaceous limestone of Late Aalen ian-
Late 13ajocian age (Chllnumayo Formation, Mégard, 1978;
Weslermann el al., 1980). The carbonate series ends loca lly
( Hu ancayo) with unconformable fluvial sandstone
(Cercapuquio Formalion) over!ain by laminated ca rbonate,
shale and evaporite beds of tidal flat environmenl,ascribed
to the Bajocian (Chaucha formation; Mégard, 1978; Moulin,
1989; Fig. 11). However, in many areas, the upper part of the
plalform carbonate sequence is eroded (Prinz, 1985), due
lo the Bathonian tectonie event.
In the back-are areas of norlhcrn Chile, the Sinemurian
Iransgressive beds are overlain by open marine deposits
(Chong, 1976; Vicenle el al., 1982; Muñoz el al., 1988; Ardill
el al., 1998). In soulhcrn Peru (Arequipa Trough), this
stlccession comp rises ti Pliensbachian to 13ajocian diachronic
transgression, Bathonian tu rbidite beds, Call ovian black
shaleand Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian sheJf sandstone (Vicente.
198 1,1989; Vicenle el al., 1982; f ig. 13). In norlhcrnmosl
Ch il e, the 11Irbiditc beds progressively disappea r and
carbonate interbeds appear in the succession (MUlioz el al.,
1988). Farther S (Domeyko Cordillera) , the sucecssion is
dominated by offshore shale deposits locally rieh in organic
matter (Chong, 1976; Ardill el al.• 1998). These marine back-
are basins are bordered to the E (southern Peru, Bolivia) by
emergent areas whieh reeeived locally thick, coarse-grained,
qllartz-rich eolian sandslone ascribed to Ihe Early to Middle
Jurassic (Ravelo and Ichoa formations; Oller ami Sempere,
1990; Carlollo, 1998; Sempcre el al., 1998).
Scaltered alkaJine lava flows are known during this
interval in the back-arc areas. Alkaline basalt flows are
inlerbedded in Ihe Sinemurian Iimeslone of cenlral Peru
(Rosas et al., 1997), searce si lls and intracollli ne ntal
496 tholeiitie flows dated at 185 - 170 Ma oecur in Bolivia (late
Early lO early Middle Jurassic, Soler and Sempere , 1993;
Sempere el af., 1998), and volcanie flows interbedded in
the Bajocian to Callovian deposits of the Domeyko Basin
are regarded as rclated to trans{cnsiollal movements
(Ardill el al., 1998; Fig. 11). On Ihe olhe r hand,lhe mid-
Jurassic Arequipa Trough has been interpreted as a pull-
apart basin due lo si ni stral movements (Vicenle el al.,
1982). Therefore, Ihis period seems lo be dominatcd by a
mild extension, probably due to a sinistraltranstensional
regime (see 3150 Seheuber el al., 1994).
However, the southcrn part of Ihe area (100 S - 25°S) is
charaelerized by a sedimentary hiatus of Lale Bajocian-
Balhonian age (Mégard, 1978; Vicenle, 1989; Ardill el al.,
1998). This "Balhonian phase" is cJassieally regarded as
responsible for the disconformity that separates the lowe r
and upper red beds of Ihe Peruvian Easlern Basin (Mégard,
1978).1t is eoeval with a rapid exhumation (3000 m) of Ihe
Easter n Cordillera of central Peru (Laubacher and Naeser,
1994), wilh metamorphism oft he arc zone of norlhern Chile
(170 - 150 Ma, J.ucassen and Thirlwall, 1998) and with
¡ntense folding and reverse fault ing of the arc zone of north
cenlral Chile (163 - 140 Ma,lrwin el al., 1997). Therefore, a
poorly doeumented compressional deformation seems to
have oceurred in the Late Bajocian-Bathonian.
In sum mary,between 195 and 1<10 Ma, the NNE trending
Colombian-Eeuadorian and Ihe N-S trcnding ChUean
segments are eharacterizcd by abundant arc magmalism,
unstable teetonic regime, subaerial back-arc sedimcntation
and loca lly mar in e fore-are deposits. Al the same lime,
translensional, probably sinistral tcctonic rcgime prevailed
along Ihe NW-SE Irending Peruvian segment, which resulted
in localizcd puB-apart basins and in thealternation of marine
sedimentation and emergent periods. This situation has been
interpreted as the result of a southcastward eOI.lVergenee of
the paleo-Pacific PI ale beneath South America (Aspden el
al., 1987; Jaillard el al., 1990, 1995).
Kimmeridgian to late
Paleocene (140 - 57 Ma)
Ouring Ihe Kimmeridgiall-Paleocenc inlerva!, Ihe
paleogeograph ie framework was slill controlled by Ihe fore-
are, are and back-are zones. However, the trcnd of Ihe arc
zone bccame NE in Peru and N-S in Chile,and Ihe back-are
area presented a Ihree-fold subdivision inheriled from lhe
Jurassie structures. No magmatie are is known al this lime
in Ecuador, which eonsti luled a baek·are domain.
The Kimmeridgian-early Late Cretaeeous rore-are zone
is virtually unknown. During the latest Cretaeeous, fore-are
zones appear in northernmost Peru-southwesternmost
Ecuador and soulhern Peru-northern Chile, due to the
easlward shift oflhe magmalic are from80 Ma. The magmatie
are crops out widcly in eoastal Pcru and northern Chile.lhe
110rthern extension oflhe NW trendingPeruvian arecrosscuts
obliquely Ihe southernmost parl of Ecuador. since lh e
subduction zone probably exlended northwestwards inlo the
oceallie realm. However. insighls into th e geodynamic
evolution ofthe East-Pacific oceanic realm are provided by
the analysis of the stratigraphie con ten! and geochernieal
 TECTONIC EVOLUTlON OF SOUT" AMERICA

140®OI
La Negra Fm, Cerros de Cuevi!as Sec!ion

m Basall
_ Porphyric andesi!e
a Aphanilic andesi!e
Cü>l Daci!e
o Tuff
¡:...:..) Conglomera!e
La ¡:":" ! Sandslone
_ Shale
Negra ~ Limeslone

Fm

Lower FlGURE 10 - Seclio1l ofllle La Negra Formaliot/ ill

Member ll/e }lImssic are zOlle of nortl/em Chile (after Mlllioz
el al., /988).
1st vo/canje @ Arnioceras
Sinemurian HGURE 1/ - paleogeogrtlp/¡ic sketcl/ o[ ll/e Pllct/m
Group (Lale Triassic-Early MiddleJllmssic) of
@ Arnioceras, Coroniceras,
Cellrral Peru {after LOlIgllmallfl afld Hallam,
Cerros de @ Phylloceras, Wey/a sp. 1982).Noscafe.
Cuevilas Fm @ Psi/aceras, Paracaloceras
Schlotheimia? g. FIGURE 12 - paleogeographic sketch o[ lhe Pucam
Group (Late Triassic-EarlyMiddleJurassic) of
Central Peru (aper Rosasalld F01ltboré, 1995).
Compare with Fig. 1J.

Western Cordillera AI!iplano Eastern Cordillera Sub Andes Oriente

Early Cretaceous sandstone Early Cretaceous sandstone

, ,,,,
",," "
Permo-Triassic Heltangian-Sinemurian late liassic
Early Middte Jurassic late Triassic-Middte Jurassic? Middle·late Jurassic?

sw Dxapampa NE
region
..
Condorsinga Fm

I
/ /

D lImeslone
[Z]
Dolomi!e
• Silly, bituminous limeslone
~ Argillaceous, siliceous sedimenls
~ Volcaniclastic rocks 10 km
A Evaporile deposits O Evaporile pseudomorphs
V Volcanic rocks ~ Igneous rocks L::;j Clas!ic supply
497
 TECTONIC EVOLUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

sw NE
Arequipa
Miocene
c:-
'"
1: Mañazo
Oligocene ?
t- "
Barroso Gr.

? Uchurca Fm

- - -? Puno Gr. eabanillas

Santonian
Puno Gr.

Coniacian Umayo Fm

"Middle"

Ea~y

Late

"
o¡¡;
V>
[ID EvaporHe W Comglomerate
~ Middle
..., E53 Umestone 111 Volcanic rocks

•
Puente Fm
Mari, shale O Olistolilh, block

Ea~y
D Sandstooe -.J Thrusl faull

FIGURE 13· Seclio1/s of lIJe jumssic-l ertiary sSlIccessions {/Ccross tlle

Arefl/lipa Das;" of SOlltJnvesteru Peru (after Jaillard (Inri Santander, 1992).

Tithonian

Oxfordian

Balhonian

Aalenian

Toarcian

Sinemurian

Rhaetian

Norian

1498 PIGURE 14 - ChrotJostmtigraph;c ,hart of tlle JUn/ss;c bllck-arc Domeyko Basin (northcrn Chile) (alter Ardifl et 31., 1998).

signatures of thc Cretaceous oceanic terranes subsequently
accreted to the Ecuadorian margino
In Peru, the back-arc area comprised a western, mobile
and subsiding basin (West-Peruvian Trough ofBenavfdes,
1956, present-day Western Cordillera), an axial posilive
threshold (Maraflon Geanticline, Cuzco-Puno Swell, and
present-day Eastern Cordillera) and an eastern. stable and
moderately lo little subsiding basin (present-day
Subandean Zone and eastern basin, Fig. 16) . The lalter
extends northwards into Ecuador (present-day Oriente
Basin), and southwards into Bolivia (Potosí Basin). The
Kimmeridgian-Iate Palcocene time-span (150 - 55 Ma) can
be divided into three periods, characterized by distinct
paleogeographic and t~ctonic setlings, controlled by the
plate killematics evolution.
Kimmeridgian? - Aptian
(150 - 110 Ma)
Latest Jurassic to earlies! Cretaceous times are marked
by a complete reorganization of the paleogeographic pattern
and tectollic evolution of the Andean margin, interpreted
as the result of a drastic change in the convergence direction,
which triggered a magmatic are re-organization and
significant tectonic deformation (Aspden et al., 1987; Jaillard
el al., 1990, 1995). These evenls were followed in Ihe Early
Cretaceous by an important diachronous marine
transgression in the whole area.
Kimmeridgian? - Berriasian (150 - 135 Ma)
In Ecuador and norlhern Peru (and Colombia), the
activityof thecontinental volcanic arc (Misahualli and CoMn
formations) ceased by the end ofKimmeridgian times (150
lo 140 Ma ago,Aspden el al., 1987; Mourier, 1988; Lilherland
el al., 1994; Eg.17). The deformed and eroded magmalic
are is then overlain by unconformable Iluvio-marine
sandstone. the diachronous base of which is dated as
Valanginian (') lo Albian, from SW lo NE (Villagómez el al.,
1996; Robert el al., 1998). This major hialus and
unconformity suggests Ihe occllrrenceof a significant latest
Jurassic-Early Cretaceous tectonic event (Litherland el al.,
1994). No Kimmeridgian deposits are known in the fore-
are areas of Ecuador and northern Peru.
In southwestern Ecuador, the Raspas high pressure
metamorphic complex yielded a 132 Ma KI Ar age (Feininger
and Silberman, 1982) and 130 - 115 Ma Ar/Ar and Sm/Nd
ages (Malfere, 1999). These are interpreled as cooling ages,
subsequenl to the accretion and HP metamorphism of an
oceanic plateau and aceretionaryprism in thelatest Jurassic-
eadiest Cretaceous (Gabriele el al., 1999; Malfere el al., 1999).
Ihis suture extends northwards along the western edge of
the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador (Peltetec suture,
Litherland el al., 1994; Aspden el al., 1995) and lo Ihe W of
the Central Cordillera of Colombia (Amaime Terrane,
Aspden and McCourt, 1986; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1994).
According to Litherland el al. (1994), this event corresponds
to the accretion of a continental microplate (Chaucha
Terrane) to the Ecuadorian margino
In northwestern Peru, Early (?) Tithonian Iagoonal
deposits are abruptly overlain by deep shelf shale, and then
TECTONIC EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA
by a thick series of coarse-grained volcaniclastic turbidite
bcds of Late Tithonian age, which reworked the Jurassic
volcanic arc. This evolution points to the creation of a deep,
N-S trending sedimentary basin interpreted as a pull-apart
basin (Jaillard and lacay, 1989), which extends soulhwards
(Fig. 6). This succession follows (Jaillard and ¡acay, 1989)
wilh Late Tithonian black shale of shelf environment,
Tithonian -Berriasian massive sandstone of nearshorc
environment (Tinajones Formation; Wilson, 1984), and
disconformable massive clean sandstone of presumably
Berriasian age (Chimú Formation, Benavídes, 1956; Jaillard
and ¡acay, 1989).
In the back-arc arcas of Ecuador and northern Peru,
the Late JlIrassic back-arc red beds seem to grade upwards
into coarser-grained red beds interbedded with basaltic
lo rhyolitic flows (Yaupi Mb, ¡aillard, 1997), locally daled
as ear1iesl Crelaceous (Hall and Calle, 1982; ¡aillard, 1997).
This rnagmatic activity would be coeval with small-sized
stocks, which intrude the Jurassic red beds and are
disconformably capped by Early Cretaceous sandstone
(Tschopp, 1953; Tafur, 1991).
In central and southern Pero, Kimmeridgian times were
marked by the arrival of clastic deposits. Siliciclastic shelf
sediments abruptly overlie the Callovian black shale ofthe
Arequipa Trough (Vicenle el al., 1982; Fig. 13). These
sediments are correJated with undated unconformable
conglomeratc of the Peruvian (Chupa Formation, Klink et
al., 1986; ¡aillard, 1995) and Bolivian Altiplano (Condo
formation), which, however, might be younger. The Early
Tithonian marine transgression is recorded in the western
part of central and southern Peru by shallow marine
limestone (Jaguay Formation, Rüegg, 1961; Gramadal
Formation, Chávez, 1982; Batty and ¡aillard, 1989), which
appear to be overlain byTithonian-Berriasian (?) black shale
and sandstone (Oyón Formation, Mégard, 1978; Tiabaya
outcrops, Geyer, 1982).
Volcanic are activity is known in the Lima area
(Alherlon el al., 1985;Alemán, 1996).1t s<cms lo have begun
by Late Tithonian tirnes,sincethe upper parl ofthe arc series
yielded ammonites of Late Tithonian age (BuJot, personal
cornmunication, 1998; formerly aseribed to the Berriasian;
Wiedmann, 1981), and have continued during part of
Berriasian times (Alemán, 1996). Disconformable clean
massive sandstone is ascribed to the Berriasian in the
western parts of central and sOllthern Peru (Chiml¡,
Goyllarisquizga and Hualhuani formations,Benavides, 1956;
Batty and Jaillard, 1989) . However, in spite of limited
paleontological evidence, the base of these deposits seems
to be diachronous, being much younger toward the E
(Wilson, 1963; ¡aillard, 1995; Roben el al., 1998). In Ihe
eastern basins of Perll and Bolivia, no earliest Cretaceous
deposits have been recognized so far, below the
unconformable Early Cretaceous sandstone units.
In northernmost Chile, the Kimmeridgian phase is
marked by a marine regression which a culminated with a
local hiatus and an angular uneonformity, by sinistral
wrench movements along the N-S trending Atacarna Fault
System, and by subsidence ofthe back-arc areas (Bogdanic
and Espinosa, 1994). In the back-arc basin of northernmost
Chile, Oxfordian limestone and shale grade upwards inlo
limes tone and shale with interbeds of evaporite in the lower 499
 TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA
part, and sandstone intercalations in the uppcr part (MUlloz
el al., 1988). Fa rther S (Do meyko Basin), the Ca ll ovian
marine black shale beds are overlain by cvaporite beds
deposited in basin lo sabkha environmcnts, and then by
inncr shelfl imestone of Late Kirnmeridgian-Early Tithonian
age, which laterally grade soulhwards ¡nlo marine siltstone
(Chong, 1976; Ardill el al., 1998; Fig. 14). Fa rther S (31 ·S),
the Coastal Cordillera was defo rmed by W-verging open lo
tight rolds betIVeen 140 and 126 Ma (lrIVin el al., 1987). The
dcformation is coeval with significan! sinistral lateral
displacements offore-are and are slivers along the Atacama
Falll t Syste m (26·S), datcd betIVeen 145 and 125 Ma (Kurth
el al., 1996).
During the lates! )urassic-earliest Cretaceous, magma tic
are activity seems to have continued without changes of
location. However, a magmatic gap seems to have occurrcd
betwccn 150 and 140 Ma (Hammerschmidt el al.. 1992; Fig.
15) and the magmat ic activity appears to decrease
sign ificantly ocar the Jura ss ic-Cretaceous boundary
(Mpodozis and Ramos, 1989; Scheuber el al., 1994; Charrier
and Muñoz, 1994) .
Theend of the NNE trending Ecuadorian-north-Peruvian
magma tic are by Tithonian times, and the beginning of the
activityof lhe NW trending Peruvian magmatic are in the Late
Tithonian, expresses a dras tic change in the convergence
direction, which passcd from nearly southwards to nearly
northeastlVards (Aspden el al., 1987; ¡.illard el al., 1990,
1995). Th is plate kinematics reorganization correlates with
geodynamicevents in the so uthcastern Pacific and the Tethys
Oeean. During the Late Jurassic, Ihe southeastern Paeifie
accrelion ridge would have becn oriented roughly NE-SW
and connected with the Tethyan accretionary sys tem
(Caribbean and Ce ntral Atlantie oceans, Duncan and
Hargraves, 1984). The oUlpouringofa major plume alongthe
Pacific accrelionary ridge in Tithonian timcs (Chatzky ridge)
would have disturbed the accrction direction; brought aboul
the break-up ofthe Eastern paleo-Pacific Plate, and created a
triple junction (N.kanish i el al.. 1989). Meanwhilc, the
Tethyan realm was marked by a significant slowdown in the
spreading rates,allowingthe newly created NW-SE trending
Southcastern Pacific Ridge lo impose a northeastward drift
direction for the Eastern paleo-Pacific Plate. 111ese events
would have provoked, in the Tithonian (140 Ma), a changeof
convergence di rection, according to the process proposed
by Duncan and Hargraves (1984) for Early Crctaceous times.
This major geodynamic change may aceount for the
accretion of the oceanie terrane of Ecuador and
Colo mbia, Ihe creation of the Chicama Basin of norlhern
Pcru, the widespread emcrgence and subsequent gap of
Late Tithonian-Berriasian deposits, the unco nformity
of the Early Cretaceou s deposits and the possible
compressi onal deformation recorded in Ilor thern Peru .
These events may be eorrela ted with the Araucan phase
of Ilorthern Chile (Stipanicic and Rodrigo, 1969 ;
Schcuber el al., 1994).
Berriasian-Aptian {l40 -110 Mal
This period is marked by the widespread deposition of
disconformable, diachronous quartz-sandstone units, by a
relalive lectonic quiescence; and aJongthe Peruvian and Chilean
•
margins, by Ihe ongoing,although mild, volcanic are activity.
In Ecuador and norlhern Peru, very little is known about
Ihis period.ln the back-arc areas of Ecuador, one KI Ar date
and one palynological age suggest that subaerial red bed
deposition continued during part of !his period (Bristow
and Hoffstetter, 1977; Baldock, 1982). Th e ovcrlying
transgressive disconformable sandstone beds are of Albian
age (Jaillord, 1997). In the Cordillera Real of Ecuador,
Litherland el al. (1994) mentioned num erous KI Ar resets
in the 1urassic granitc, interpreted as due to significan!
dextral moveme nts related lo the collision of displaced
terranes. In the neighbouring Maral10n Basin of
norlheastern Peru,a sed imcntary hiatus seems lo separate
the 1urassic red bcds and the disconformable, diachrollous
tra nsg ressivc sa ndstone beds of Early Cretaeeous age
(Lallrent, 1985).
Meanwhile, somewhere in the sou lheastern pa leo-
PaciCic domain, a mantle plume was responsible for the
formation of a large and thick Oceanic Platea u that was
accretcd to the Andean margin in Late Cretaceous times
(Cosma el al., 1998; Reyn.ud el al., 1999), .nd erops out
presently in the Western Cordillera of Ecuador where it has
been dated as Barrem ian or Hauterivian (123 Ma, Lap ierre
elal., 1999).
In Central and Southern Peru, scarce outcrops of
volcanic rocks in the coastal and western areas suggest that
voJcanic are ac tivity continued at least 10caJly until Aptiall
times (Bellido, 1956; Vid al el al., 1990; Alemán, 1996).
However, the occurrence of thick intercalations of quartz-
rich sandsto ne and unusual voJcanic-free shel f limestone
in the Lima area (Rivera et nl., 1975; Alemán, 1996) suggests
that, either voJcanic activ ity was local and sporadic, or part
of the coastal terranes have been subsequenlly displaced
(May and Butler, 1985).
Farther E, in the back-arc areas, well-sorted, clean,
quarlz-sandstone beds werc deposited [rom Late Berriasian
times onwards (Benavides, 1956; WilSOll, 1963). In northero
Peru and Ecuador, lhese were dated as Late Berriasian-Early
Va langinian in the eastern rcgion, (Benavides, 1956; Rivera
el ni., 197 5; Bulot, personal corn munication, 1998),
Berriasian-Barremian in the western part of the Eastern
Basin of Peru (Ta~azona, 1985),Aptian in the centre of the
basin, and carly'Í,ate Albian in the eastern parts of the
EaSlern Bosin (Villagómez el al., 1996; Robert el al., 1998,
rig. 18). In central Peru, such a diachronism wa s suggested
by Wilsoll (1963), .nd, although paleolltologic.1 evidence
is poor, a comparable diachronism may occur in southern
Peru (Jaillard, 1995).
Paleocurrents indica te Ihat the Guiana and Brazilian
shields were the s'ourccs of the c1astic supply.
Paleocnv ironment s evolve from subaerial/fluvial to
nearshorc/shallow marine from E to W, and deposition is
mainly conlrolled by eustatic variations (Moulin, 1989). The
isopach map clea(iy indica tes an eastern depocenter situated
in northern Peru (present Marañan River), and western
depocenters NofUma and aroundArequipa (Jaillard, 1994;
Fig. 19). Scarce syn-sedimentary lec tonic features suggest a
mild extensional regime (Moulin,1989).
In Ihe back-arcarea of northernmosl Chile, Late 1urassic
st rata are overlain by fine-g rained sandstone, siltstone and
shale with occasional tuff and andesitic lava of
 TECTONIC EVOLUTlO N O. SOUTH AMERICA

[~®O[

Tertiary

Cretaceous

es
~
Early ~
o
z
<{
Late ~
150 150
o___-==-~ I
~

esz
Jurassic Middle
o
o Plutonic rocks i=
=>
Early • Volcanic rocks o>
200 ~

~
z
o
~
FIGURE 15 . Age, loraliotl alld natllre 0l,he magmatic are rocks ~
~
¡ti IIorthcrn e/lile (tifter Hamm ersclwlidt et al., 1992).

~Q '~~~~V
AlbianJ...~
A~
~lan,9!",an Paleocurrents~ ~~~ ~ r,,,-, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Berriasian I I
Emersion and Local Erosion I Erosion I Emersion
Tilhonian
Kimmeridgian
Oxlordian Paleocurrenls ~ I
I
I ~ )l: b
sw NE

Cenomanian

50 km

Tilhonian
f=
Kimmeridgian

~Evaporite k\';:~'~JFluvial 10 marine sandstone

g Red shales and carbonate ~ ~Ie"'r<hl"esandstone

Oxlordian .Oxlorfian black shale DMarine shell sandstone

B Polygenic conglomerate DRed shales and sandstone

FIGURE 16 · Paleogeograpll;c profileofsollthertl Pe'" al tlrc end ofllle CCllomaniml (after Jaillard, 1994). Note l/¡ eclllwge
¡ti paleocurretlt directiotls belwcetl Lale Jurassic alld EarIy lo Middle Cretaceolls times. 501
 Ecuador Subandean Oriente
Zone
Hollin Fm
(Mal
120 Early
Cretaceous
l ate
Jurassic
Middle
Jurassic
~-
1I
Early
Jurassic
Kimrncridgian-Barremia n age (Bogdanic and Esp inosa.
1994; Schcuber el (/1., 1994). Farther S, a lirnestone unít of
Hautcrivian-Barrcmian (and Apt ian?) age crops out in the
Coastal Cordillera (Bogdanic and Espinosa, 1994). The Early
Cretaceous volcanic are crops out (arlher S in ¡he Coastal
Cordillera. There, magmatic are aclivity wen! on without
significan! changes in Ihe local ion of Ihe magmatic fronl; a
maximum activity is rccorded in Ihe Aptian (i20 - 110 Ma,
Hammcrschmidt el al., 1992; Fig. 15). In Bolivia, lIndated
continental conglomerate and sandstone are ascribed to the
Early Cretaccolls, since Ihey conceal the ''Araucan'' angular
unconformity (Sempere, 1994). They crop out in the centre
of Ihe Polosí Basin and are associated with alkaline basal!
and basalt ic andesile indicating extensional condi li ons
(Soler and Sempere, 1993). Farther lo the SE, in norlhern
Argentina, sub-alkaline lo alkaline granil ic plutons (130 -
120 Ma) indicate Ihat an extensional tectonic rcgimc
prevailed in Ihe distal back-arcareas (Viramonte el al., 1999).
The abruPI arrival in Ihe Early Cretaceous of huge
amounts of detrital quarl z derivcd from the E in Ilorthern
South America. may be interprcted as the reslllt ofboth the
largc-scalc westward ti lt of the South American Plate due to
Ihe South Atlanlic rifti ng, and a significanl climatic change
wirh increased precipitation, which all owed Ihe detrit al
material lo be transported fur large distances (Jaillard, 1994).
Albian - Turonian (I1O - 88 Ma)
This period was ma rked by a large-scale marine
transgression; by importanl magmatic act ivily along the
Chilcan and Pcruvian ma rgins; ane! by Ihe beginning of
compressional deformation ("Late Albian Mochica phase",
I Méga rd, 1984; 105 - 100 Ma). The only knolV n Oll tcrOp
,02 corresponding lo Ihe fo re-arc zone is represented by the
•
nGURE 17 - CllrOllOstratigraphic sketch of
fhe jUYassic-Early Cretaceolls series of
eastern Ecuador (after lailfard, 1997).
eastern flank of the Amotape-Tahuin Massif of norlhern
Peru-southern Ecuador. There. Paleozoic rocks are covered
by llndaled transgressive siliciclaslic conglomerale beds,
overlain by massive shclf-limestone and anox ic lam inated
black limestone ofEarly to Middle Albian age (Olsson, 1944;
Fischer, 1956; Reyes and Caldas, 1987; Jaillard el al., 1999).
This sllccession is comparable lo that of the coeval series
knowll from the back-arc areas of northern Peru.
The shclf carbonate sedimentation was rapidly overlain
by basinal black shale interbedded with siliciclastic turbidite
beds of Lale Albian age. ex hib iting slumping and bearing
large-scale olistoliths (Copa Sombrero Group or Formalion;
Morris and Alemán, 1975; Reyes aud Caldas, 1987; Ja illard el
al., 1999). These express an ll nstable teclonic setting.
intcrpreted as the result of Ihe crealion of a pull-apart basin
(La ncones-Celica Basin) relaled to Ihe northward migralion
of the Amotape-Tahuin Paleozoic massif(Jaillard et al., 1999).
In Ihe Cenomanian and Turonian. continuation of Ihe
lurbiditic sedimentation (Morris alld Alcmán.1975) suggests
that the northward migratian of Ihe Amotape-Tahui n fore-
arc sliver wenl on, wilh a possible maximu m lectonic act ivi ty
dur ing the Cenomanian (Jaguay Negro Formation).
During Albian t imes, Ihe arc zooe of Peru and
southernmosl Ecuador was marked by the outpouring of
huge volumes of subduction-related calc-¡¡Ikaline lava
(Casma Group. Cclica, Copara and Matalaq ue formalions;
Atherton el al., 1983; Soler 199 1; Reynaud el 111.,1996; Fig.
20). which are loca lly interbedded with ammonite-bearing
sedimenls indicaling a Midd le lO Late Alb ian age (Mye rs
1975; Reyes and Caldas, 1987). These lava flows are associated
wit h volcaniclastic turbidit e beds deposited in strongly
subsiding intra-are basi ns (Atherton and Webb, 1989).
interprcled as pull-aparl basins related lo dextral wrenching
(Soler, 1991). Folds in Ihe Albian volcanogenic pile are locally
 TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

Western Trough
NE I W
Eastern Basin

Early Albian
Aptian
- - Barrerñian - - - -

11000 m
Marañan
Geanticline

Berriasian
~km
Jurassic-Paleozoic

FIGURE 18 - paleogeographic profile of sOlltllern Peru at the etld 01 the ElIrly Cretaceolls.

- - - - - - - - - - -
70'W
+- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

EZI Albian sandstone

Pre-Albian sandstone
D (approximate boundary)
Pre-Albian marine
~ trangression
Early Cretaceous
~ carbonate shelf

+ 15'8

,,
o 250 km --~ . , ,,'----"
'.'
,
- - f - '- - - - - - - - - - -
..'
Argentina

FIGURE 19 - Paleogeograpltic sketch of the Early Cretaceolls trallsgressiotl. 503

 1 TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA

1~~OI
¿
'"
o
~
"'
o
1 <i
z
=i
z
~

:5
<i
>'
m
<i
m

"'
:;:i
Z
>=
oc Late

11 O
Middte

// // / ///
Earty

Fore are

Earty

o
Maastriehtian 70

r~ª~zz:zzt/
....
/./ / / .,L,at;,
Campaman +_-+
//////////

Earty

Turonian

//////////

A Late

Atbian
50 km

Aptian

FIGURE 20 - Age, location alld ¡tllet/sily o/magmal;cevetlts

;11 lh e mtlgmaticarco[central Pe"" alld rhei, relatiolls lo
A1Itlem! tectoll;CeVellts (afterSoler, 1991). Light shatled
1 areas: low magma!ic actívíty, dark shaded areas:"igll
,504 magmatieactí)'ily.

•
 cross-cul by basic lo inlermediate inlru sions daled al 104
'. 101 Ma (Wilson, 1975; Cobbing el al., 1981; Bussel, 1983),
thus índ icating tha! compressional deformations began by
Middle A1bian li mes (Cobbing el al., 1981).
Deform alion was associatcd with signi~eant dexlral
movemenlS (Myers, 1975; Bussel and Pilehcr, 1985). In Ihe
are zones of Peru and Ecuador, the Late Albian teclonic
compression is marked by local folding and faulting, by Ihe
eod of marine sedimentation, by a general decreasc of
magma tic ac tiv ity (Solcr and Bonholllmc, 1990), and by the
replacemenl of volcanic effusiolls by plutonic intrusions,
suggesting tbal the are zones were sign ificantly upliftcd
(Cobbing el al., 198 1; Soler, 199 1). These ealc·alkali ne
pIUIOOS, wh ich inlrude Ihe voJcanic are, define the so-ealled
Coaslal Ba!holi!h ofPeru (P ileher, 1978; Cobbiogel al., 198 1;
Soler, 1991). Effusive magmat ism cea sed by ca rliest
Cenomanian times, and incipient plutoníc act ívity was
ralherlow (Solcr and Bonhomme, 1990),exeept in central·
southern Peru where intrusiolls are dated at 10 1 - 94 Ma
(Beckiosale el al., 1985) .The stability oflhe magmatie front
in central Peru suggests that the Late Albian tecton ie event
did not change significantly the shape of Ihe aclive margin
(Soler aod Bonhomme, 1990; Jaillard and Soler, 1996; rig.
20).Most of lhe are zone ofEcuador and Peru seems lo have
remained emergent during Cenomanian-Turon ian times,
since lhe Albian volcanic piles are usually unconformably
capped by Santonian lo Campanian transgressive sed iments
(Jaillard, 1995; JaiJlard el al., 1996). PllItonic activity lVas high
during the Cenomanian (Beck insale el al., 1985; Mukasa,
1986, 94- 90 Ma pulse 01. Soler and Bonhomme, 1990), but
no intru sions of Tmonian age are known (90 - 85 Ma
plutooie gap,Sole r,t 991).
In northern Chile, the locus of the magmatic are
sign ifieantly shifted easLward during Aptian-Albian times
(Hammerschmidt el al., 1992),aod the Middle Crelaceous
magmatic are (1 15 - 90 Ma) is partly superimposed on the
Jurassie are (Charrier aud Muñoz, 1994; Scheuber el al.,
1994; Fig.15). ln oorthernmost ChiJe,arc· related andesi le,
breccia, agglomerate, tuff. sandstone and conglomerate of
Albian age overlie the EarlyCretaceous dcposits ofthe back-
are basio (Sehellber el al., 1994). They yielded 115 - 104 Ma
dates and are crosscut by 115 - 80 Ma inlrusions (Bogdan ic
and Espinosa, 1994). An extensional or transtensional
regime is assumed lo have prcvailed (Scheuber el al., 1994).
However, although no deformalion of Albian age has been
recognized, the significant eastward shift of the Middle
Crelaceous are (50 km) may resu lt from a shortening event.
Volcanic are act ivity continued until ear!y Late Cretaceous
times (Seheuber el al" 1994).
No arc-rclaled magmatism is known on the continental
margin N of 3°S (Ecuador). Thcreforc , Ihe Pcruvian
subduction zone extended probably northwestwards ioto the
oceanic doma in by means of an intra-oeeanic subduction
zone, which gave way lo the formation of island arcs of
Albian lo early Late Cretaceous age. This interpretation is
supported by th e occurrenee, on the accreted oeeanic
terranes of Ecuador. of pre-Cenomanian island arc rocks
(Las Orquídeas and Toachí units.Jaillard el al., 1995; Benítez,
1995; Cosma el al., 1998),overlain by volcaniclastícarc series
of Cenomanian to Sa ntonian age (Cayo and Pilalón
formations, Faucher el al., 1971; Kehrer and Va n der Kaaden,
1979; laillard el al., 1995). Note that, Ihere too, voJcaoie
acliv ity seems to have ceased by Cenomanian times.
111 the back-arc arcas of Ecuador and Peru, the Aptian-
Albian bounda ry is marked by seattered volca nic
manifes tations, varying fram basaltic flows to rhyolithie
tuff, intercalated within Lhe firsl transgressive units. This
bimodal volcanism as been loeally determ ined as alkaline,
ind icating an intracolltinental extension (Soler,1989).
Earl iest Albian times are markcd by the beginllingof a
major large-scale marine transgress ion wh ich reached its
maximum extent by Turonian times (Figs.13 and 21). 'fhe
Lima arca already reeeived a marinc sedimcntation from
Early Crctaceous ti mes (Rivera el (/1., 1975; Alemán, 1996).
The Early Alb ian transgressioll fi rst reachcd Ihe western part
of lhe back-arc arcas (Beoavides, 1956; Jaillard, 1995; Robert
el al., 1998), where it dcposited red to yellow colourcd silt
and sandstone, with glauconitic and locally oolit ie lirnestone
in Ihe upper pa rt (In ca and Pariahuanca fo rma tions,
Beoavides, t956; Wilsoo, 1963; MOlllill, 1989).
The Albian transgression is then marked by three pulses
01. mid Early,early MiddJcand early LateAlbian age (Robc!'t el
al., 1998). The firsl pulse only reached the western part of
the Eastcrn basins (Chulec Formatioll, Benavídes 1956;
Wilson, 1963; Robert, in progress), whereas the third one
reached locally Ihe eastcrn bordcr of the Eastern Basin of
Ecuador(Basal Napo Shales) and northern Peru, where il may
res t on Paleozoic rocks (Jaillard, 1997). Th is latter
transgressio n probably reached also th e axial swell of
southern Pcru and triggered the deposition of transgressive,
partly marine sandstone (Huaneané Formation, CarloUo el
al., t995; Jaillard, 1995), whieh grade to the E ioto thieker
deposits (lolVer part 01. Putina Group, Audebaud el al., 1976;
Jaillard, 1995). 1t cou ld have reached also the Bolivia n Potosí
Basi ll where a few tcns of Illetres of coarse-gra ined, locally
conglomerat ic sandstone are known (La Puerta Formation,
Sempere, 1994). The early Middle and early Lale Albiao
transgressive pulses are associated wilh wides pread anoxic
deposits in central and northern Peru and in Ecuador
(Pariatambo, Basal Napa, Chonta formations, Villag6mez et
al., 1996; Roberl el al., 1998). Late Albiao limes are theo
marked by the dcvelopment of carbo nate shelves in the
wcstern part (Yumagual Formati on, part of Mujarrún,
Jumasha and Arcurquina format ions, Benavides, 1956, 1962;
Wilsoo, 1963; Jaillard, 1987),and by Ihe deposition 01. dellaie·
fluvial sandstone in the eastern parls of the back-arc areas
(Agua Caliente Formation, T salldslo ne, Putina Group), the
progradalion and retreat of which are mainly co nt rolled by
eustatie variations witb a subordina te in fluence of tectonie
cveols (Jaillard, 1994, 1997).
Theeffects of Ihe Late Albian tectonic evenl are mild in the
back-are arcas. The LateAlbian shelf carbonate sedimentation
exhibits slumps, syn-sedimenlary faults and brcccia, dastic
dykes and differential subsidenee, which together exprcss an
extcosiooal regime (Audebaud, 1971; Jaillard, 1987, 1994).
Farlher lo the E, progradation of deltaic systems may be
rcgardcd as Ihe resllll 01. a slight uplift re1ated lo !he LateAlbiao
tectooie eveot (Jaillaro, 1987, 1997).10 oor!hern Argeolilla,
alkalinevolcanic rocks (110 - 100 Ma) are interpreted' as relatcd
lo a rift cpisode (Viramoote el al., 1999).
In the western part of the baek-arc areas of Ecuador
an d Peru, the carbonate shelf sedimentation recorded 505
TECTONIC EVOlUTION OF 50UTH AME RICA
sign ifi ca nt eus tatic transgression ncaT th e Albian-
Cenoman ian boundary, in MiddJe Cenomanian, early Late
Cenoma niall (widely character ized by Neolobites
vibrayeafllls (;;;; N.kummeli),and Early'l'uronian tim es. Each
transgrcssion is marked by cOllspicuous marly ¡evels which
grade upwards into massive platform ca rbonate exhibitillg
frequently desiccaticin [eatufes. thus indicating a sha!!ow
marine env ironmenl (Jaillard, 1987, 1995,1997; Fig. 22).ln
same southern parts of lhe Eastern Basin of Peru, Ihe
Albiall-Cenomanian fluvio-marine sandstone beds (Oriente
and Putina groups) aTe overlain by Early Turo nian marine
shale, illustrating !he ¡arge extcnt of Ihe Turonian
tra nsgrcssion. ln sorne arcas, lhe uppe r parl ofthe Turon ia n
shelf limcstonc exhibits mild syn-sedimenta ry tectonic
fealures announcing the tectonic event of the Turonian-
Con iacian bOllndary (Jaillard,1987,1995,1997).
Subsidcnce was illtcnse in the wcstern areas of northern
Per u, alld decrcased drastically toward the NE and SE: The
Albian -Turonian series reaches nearly 2000 m in the western
pan of northern Peru (Benavides, 1956; Wilsoll,1963),about
300 m in the Orienle Basin of Ecuador (Jaillard, 1997),600
m in southwestern Peru (Benavides, 1962; Jaillard, 1995),
and 30 m in the Potosí Basin of Bolivia (Sempere. 1994).
The axial swell continuously behaved as a positive arca.
The Middle to Late Alb ian deformation was the first
significant compressional deformation recorded in the
Cretaceous evolution of the Andean margin, which affected
mainly the fore-arc and arc zones. 1t coincided with a period
ofhigh convergence rate and with the opening of the South
Atlantic Ocean at equatoriallatitudes, which triggcred lhe
westward drift oftheSouthAmerican Plate and therefore, the
trenchward molion of Ihe overriding plate (Frutos, 1981;
Jarrard.1986; Soler and Bonhomme 1990; Jaillard and Soler,
1996). The slro ng dextral wrench component of this
deformation (Bussel and Pitcher, 1985; Soler,1991; Jaillard,
1994) resuhed from Ihe nOrlheastward motion oflhe Farallón
Plale, indicated also by the lack of any arc magmatism along
theColombian-Ecuadorian margin (Aspden el al., 1987). Due
to the oblique direction ofthe oceanic plate, convergence was
accommodated by lateral displacement and wrenching
deformation along the cdge ofthe active margin, rather than
by shortening of the whole margino The rcsumplion of
voJcanic activity along the Peruvian margin may be related
lo !he beginning of the Middle Cretaceous period of high
cOllvergellce rate (Soler, 1991).
Coniacian -late Paleo cene
(88 - 57 Ma)
This period is marked by a major change in the
paleogeographic pattern, by the occurrence of
compression al tectonic events, Ihe inlensity of which
in creased through time, and by th e incipient easlward
migration of the are zone in Pem . A progressive bul general
marine regression, the arrival of fine-grained detrita l
depos its and the eastward shift of depocenters in the eastern
basins marked sedimenlation. Teclonic events are of Late
Turonian-Early Coniacian (88 Ma),Santonian (85 Ma), Late
Campanian? (80 - 75 Ma) and Late Maastrichtian age (70-
~6
65 Ma). Some of these events coincide wilh the aceretion of
oceanic tcrranes in Ecuador or northern Peru .
Turonian-Coniacian boundary evenl and
Coniacian - Early Sanlonian evolulion
(88 - 85 Ma)
In the fore-arc Celica-Lanco nes Basin (northern Peru-
southern Ecuador), the youngest fossil rccovercd from the
turbidite series is of Early Conician age (Pctersen. 1949;
Jaillard el al., 1999).A sedimenlary gap occurred thCIl during
Late Coniacian and Sa ntonian times. In the Talara fore-arc
basin of norlhwestern Peru, no deposits are known between
the A1bian shelf carbonate and the Campanian transgressive
marine deposils (González, 1976; Morales, 1993). No
informalion is available on the other fore-arc zones.ln the
oceanic fragments accreled lo Ecuador, the Turonian-
Cooiacian boundary roughly coincides wilh the beginning
of the Cayo island-arc activity, as expresscd by thick series
of coarsc-grained volcanicJastic turbidite bcds (Cayo and
Pilatón Eormations, Jaillard el al., 1995; Benílez, 1995;
Kehrer and Van der Kaaden, 1979) .
The Albian volcanie are series of southcrn Ecuador are
uneonfo rmably eapped by Early Campanian transgressive
marine deposits (Naranjo Formation, ]aillard, 1997). In
sou thern Peru, Albian voJcanic rocks are unconformably
capped by undated shelflimestone ofSenonian age (Omoye
Formation, Vicente, 1981; }aillard, 1994). In the are zones,
the effects of Ihe La te Albian and Turonian-Cooiacian
deformation are, Iherefore, indistinguishable. However, Ihe
deformalional event seems to haveoceurred before Ihe Early
Campania n transgression of soulhe rn Ecuador. In the
Coastal Batholith of Peru, sign ificant wrench movements
associated with a variable compressional regime has been
recognized during Turonian-Coniacian times (Bussel and
Pitcher, 1985). Plu to nic intr usions are very scarce, and
volcanic activity is unknown (90 - 85 Ma magmatic gap,
Soler, 1991; Fig. 20). However, aithollgh Ihe magmat ic [ronl
appears to be nearly stable, a slight eastward shifl of sorne
kilomelres can be detected (Soler and Bonhomme, 1990;
Jaillard and Soler, 1996). In norlhern Chile, the magmalic
arc is marked by a well-expressed magmatic gap between
90 and 80 Ma (Hammerschmidt el al., 1992; Scheuber el al.,
1994), which followed (Hammerschmidl el al., 1992) or was
assoeialed with Ihe eastward shift of the magmatic front
(Schellber el al., 1994).
In Ihe wcstern part of the back-arc areas of Ecuador,
Peru and Bolivia, the end of the carbonate platform
sedi mentation marks the Turonian-Coniacian boundary.In
the N, il is rcplaced by ammonile-rich marine shale with
limes tone interbeds (Celendín, Upper Napo, Upper Chollta
formations, ·"chopp, 1953; Benavides, 1956; Wilson, 1963;
J,illard, 1987, 1997; Figs. 21 and 22), whereas in Ihe S, .he
Turonian limes tone units are overlain by red shale and silt
wilh abundant evaporite laycrs (Chi1cane, Aroifilla
formations, Vicente, 1981; Sempere el al., 1997; Figs. 13
and 21). In Ecuador and northern Peru, two main marine
transgressions are recognized, of Early Coniacian and Late
Coniacian-Early Santonia n age, respect ively. They determine
two thickening-upward progradational sequen ces, of
Coniacian and Early Santonian age, respectively (Jaillard,
1997). The appearance of detrital quartz in the Coniacian
sequence ind icates the crcation DE new source areas. No Late
Santonian fauna has been found so far in these sequen ces.
 TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

~0I~~
YZJ::::I'\ZJ~ I

NW West-Peruvian Trough Peruvian Bolivian SE

Altiplano Altiplano

Pateocene

Maastrichtian

Campaman
Santonian
Eocene
ConiaGian
FIGURE 21 - Correlatioll of
represelltative Albiall-Eoeelle
stratigrapllie slIecessiollS of
Peru ami Bolivia (after
jamard arld Soler, 1996).

FIGURE 22 - Represelltati¡'e
welf log allll
c1/rotlostratigrapllie ehart of
tI,e Cretaceolls sllceessioll 01 late Albian 1000 m
t11e Oriente Bas;" (eastcru
Ewador; after jaiflard, 1997). I>~I Evaporite IA ~I Conglomerate
O limestone
I~t><ll
••
Breccia
FIGURE 23 - Represetltafive Marlstone
sectio1l of the Cretaeeolls
Early
Albian Shale 1-\-1 Synsedimentary faults
series of file Potosi Basill
(central Bolivia; after O
O Sandstone 1""'1 Mud cracks
Sempere et al., 1997).

Ag.

Oligocene

Eocene

Paleocene?
Potosi Basin
Maastricht.
Potoco Fm Early
Campanian Eocene
Cayara Fm
Santonian

Santa
Coniacian Lucía late
Paleocene
Fm
1500
late

Early
Paleocene
Cenomanian El
Early • Middle Molino
Fm
Maastrichlían
late 1000
Albian
Chaunaca Campanian
Fm - Santonian
Middle Albian

Aroifilla ConiaGian
Fm
500
; Turonían
Tarapaya Fm

Albian
L,
Puerta Neocomian?
Fm

507
 TECTONI C EVOlUTlON OF SO UTH AMER ICA

I..&Vzit¡f~~<'!-"'\~J
r~ --
..a:lJ~'\J

D'"
=>

Paila Lancooes lanoones

D SWAmolape
z La Tortuga - La Mesa West Cenler
<{
=>- ,
¡¡¡ "
Paleocene
~ - Erosion • Erosion
' ..'
>-
ro Maaslrichtian
<{
ro

I ~-
w
z Campanian
>=
oc

l.~
D
Ccniacian
Turonian Hialus
~- Cenomanian

1I Albian

"">-'
BJ ~ rn
~
Shale and turbidile Umestone \) Inoceramid '." Microfossil

I
ca ¡,'····,I Sandstooe ~ Shale @ Ammonile /J Rudist

"o
I~

.. Oceanic magma tic rocks 1:r;:~:r; 1 Continental volcanic rocks

lB Oceanic volcanlc rocks P;:i:;:¡:;:1 TransgrBssive shelf limeslone

l1li Oceanic yolcanlclastic rocks E:::::~ Shelf mall and shale

~ Pelagic chert t<·~::·::::·::1 Nearshore lOCOlllinental sandslooB

Acaetions (quartz-rich derSilS.

I:~:~·: ~·J Nearshore lo continental conglomerate
urICOnformitles, are jumps

FIGURE 24 - Chrotlostratigraphic ,IIart of lile Middle

Cretaceolls to early Eocelle sedimenlrlry Ilflits oftheJo re-are
zOlles of Eclltulor alld IIorthenl Perll (after Jnillard el al.,
1999).

HGURE 25 - Cllro1lostra tigrapllic cI/(/rt offore are

stratigrap¡'icsllccessio1lsoftlOrthem Perll and westem
Ewador. Probableaccretioll episodes are ShOlV1I by the hlack
Ulle separati"g ocea"ir magmatir ami sedimentllly rocles (dark
rolollrs) fro", q/lartz-rich sedimellts (¡"d cOlllillelllal are
JOS yolca" ism (lig llt colo/lrs) (afterCosma el al., J998).

•

Since th e Co niacian lo Early Sanlonian ma rine shale is
generally overlai n by transgressive sandslone of Ca mpan ian
age, a sedi mentary ga p ofLale Sanlonian-Early Campanian
age is infcrred. In southern Peru, and probably in Bolivia,
the Late Co niacia n-Early Santonian transg ression is wcll
marked and forms a thin marine laycr (Midd le Querque;
Vicente, 198 1; Jaillard, 1994), which is used as a corrclation
layer (Middle Vilquechico, Chaunaca formalions, Jaillard el
al., 1993; Sempere el al., 1997; Carlotto, 1998; Fig. 23).
In Ihe back-arc areas, subsidence significanlly
increased during Ihe Coniacian-Early Santonian lime-
span. In Bolivia, Ih e spectacular ¡ncrease in subsidence is
regarded as Ih e resull of a foreland-typc , fl exu ral
subsidence (Sempere, 1994; Sempere el al., 1997; Fig. 23),
due lo significanl tec lonic shortening in Ihe wcstern areas
(nor lhern Ch ile). Extension prevailed, however, in Ihese
back-are areas (Soler and Sempere, 1993). The occurrenee
of disoxigcnated deposits (northern Peru, Ecuador) and
of evaporites (soul hern Peru, Bolivia) suggests thal the
baek-are basin wa s separated from the open sea by an
ineipient morphologiea l ba rrie r, whi ch wa s more
pronolln eed lo Ihe S. In Ihe whole area , Coniacian-
Sanlonian marine deposits onlap eastwards onlo the
Guiana and 13raúlian shields (Sempere, 1994). In eastern
Ecuador, Ilortheastern and southern Peru and in eastern
Bolivia, th e Coniacian-Santon ian bcds are the first
Crelaeeous marine shales lo be deposited, and overlie the
Albian (?) - Turon ia n f1uvio-lllarine Illassive sa nd stone
unit s (Jaillard, 1995, 1997; Sempere el al., 1997). Th is
signifiean t castward migration of the early Scno nian
depoeent er is assoeiated with a reo rganization of Ihe
isopac h maps, whieh beeo me narrower and elongated
parallel lo the present-day chain,suggesting that the back-
are basi ns began to behave as distal foreland basins.
This Late Turonian-Early Coniacian paleogeograph ie
reorganization is associated with loca l tectoni c
manifestatio ns. In Bolivia, continental red beds
uneo nform ably overlie Middle Cretaceous marine slrata
(Vilcaplljio event, Sempere, 1994) and in Ecuador (Jaillard,
1997), Coniacian sill or shale disconforlllably overlie Ihe
eroded Tu ronianlimestone. In the Oriente Basin of Ecuador,
Ihe Late Turonian -Coniacian deposits exhibit significant
thickness variations related to syn-sedimentary faulting of
Late Turonian-Coniac ian age (Christophou l et al., 1999). ln
this area and in th e Eastern Basin of norlhern Peru, mild
eompressional deformal io n has been recognized (Dashwood
andAbbots, 1990; Gil et al., 1996; Rivadeneiraand Baby, 1999).
Thi s, toge ther wilh the ehange in sedilll entation an d
paleogeography, the slight relreal of the magmatic arc and
lhe ¡nerease in subsidenee, illdicatethat tectoniedeformation
and mild shor ten ing affeeled the western areas.
Santonian-Early Campanian tectonie even!
and Campanian-Middle Maas!richtiall
evolution (85 - 68 Ma)
The Sa ntonian (Early Campanian?) event is a major
lurning point in the Andean evolution, recognized a long
time ago as the Peruvian phase (Steinmann, 1929). ln Ihe
fore-are Celi ea- Lancones-Basin (northern Peru-southern
Ecuador). diachronous, lates t Santon ian to Middle
TECTONle EVOlUT ION OF SOUTH AMERtCA
Campa nia n Iransgressive shelf sediments uneonformably
overlie the deformed turb id ite series of pre-Santonia n age
depos its (Jaillard el al., 1997, 1999; Fig. 24). The
eom press ional closure of the basin seellls to be associalcd
with the intrusion of syn-tectoniegabbro (Reyes and Caldas,
1987), 10caUy dated at 82 Ma (Mollrier, 1988).ln the Ta lara
fore-arc basin of Ilorthwestern Peru, the Albian shelf
ca rbonate units are al so co vered diseonforlllably by
Call1panian Iransgressive marine deposits (Go ll zá lez, 1976;
Macharé el al., 1986; Séranne, 1987; Moral es, 1993) .ln the
fore-a re zone of Paila (northern Peru), Middl e Campanian
transgressive dcposits rest unconfo rm ably on the Paleozoic
basement (Bengtson and ¡aillard, 1997; ¡aillard el al., 1999) .
Therefo re, the Illain deforma tioll of Ihese fore-arc zones
occllr red du ri ng the latest Coniacian+Early Ca mp anian
time-span.
In the Cclica-Lancones Basi n, Ihe middle Ca mpa nian
transgressive beds are overlain by basinal dark shale
inte rb edded with fine-grained turbidite beds of Lale
C. mpa nian-Early Maastrichlian age (Ja ill ard el al., 1999).
Soulh of Paita, theMiddleCampania n lransgressive sequenee
consists of transgressive marlstone and sandstone, rud ist-
bearing massive limestone, and transgressive Illa rl and
lim es tone grading upwards ¡nto sandstone and
eonglomerate, suggesling the oceurrence of a Late
Ca mpanian teclonie event (La Mesa, Bengtson and Jaillard,
1997) . ,ar!her to the W (La Tortuga), the successioo follows
with a 3000 to 4000 m-thick series of alluv ial to marine
breccia, overlain by transgress ive nearshore sandstone
eo ntaining ammonites of Maastrichtian (p robably Middle
Maastrichtian) age (Bengtson and ¡aillard, 1997; Fig. 24).
These are unconformably overlai n by latest Paleoeene-early
Eoeene eoarse-grained conglomera le, suggesting that a ne\Y
leetonic even t deformed this area in Ihe Late Maaslrichtian
or Paleoeene. No information is available about the othcr fore-
are zo nes.
In Sa ntonian -Early Campanian limes, Ihe Ecuadorian
margi n underwent lhe acereti on of an oeeanic ter rane
eonst ituted by an oceanic plaleau da ted at 123 ± 12 Ma
(Lapierre el al., 1999; Reyn aud el al., 1999) overlain by iot ra-
oeeanie island arc series (Fig. 25). This event is marked by
a regional hiatus of Campanian age on the co nt inental
margin, by a significant thermal evenl whieh affeeted Ihe
Easlern Cordillera ofEcuador around 85 - 80 Ma (Cordillera
Real, Litherland el al., 1994 ) .nd by the abrupt arrival of
disconformable quartz-rich turbidiles of Late Campan ian
(?)-Maastrichtian age on lhe accre led ocea ni c series
(Yunguilla Formation; Faucher el al., 1971; Kehrer and Van
der Kaaden,1979; Cosma et al., 1998). In the oecanie domain,
the collision led lo lhe end of the Middle Crelaeeo us island
are aetivity (Cayo Formatio n,..f,enítez, 1995), and to the
onset, farther W, of a new island are of Late Cam pan ian-
Maastriehlian age (San Lorenzo Formation, Lcbra t et al.,
1987; Ordoñez, 1996). Since the aecreled isla nd are series is
locally dated as Coniacian in the Western Cordillera (l:auchcr
et al., 1971), the aceretions occurred belwcen the Coniaeian
and lhe Late Campa nian. This are jump expresses a
significa nt reorganization of the intra-oeea nic subdueli on
zone geomelry (Cosma et al., 1998). 'fhe accreled oeea ni e
lerrane (Palla tanga unit,McCou rt el al., 1998),charaeter ized
by ils associalion with lhe Yunguilla Formation, crops ou t 509
I TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA
~,.'''.
.' '.i ~': ,, (~,.~
'(\.~~
,",
~~
presently along the eastern edge of the Westcrn Cordillera
of central and northern Ecuador (San 1uan-Pujilí Suture,
Jal ean el al., 1977, MeCourt el al., 1998).
O>
z The Early Maastrichtian Yu nguilla Formation (Bristow
«
:i and Hoffstetter, 1977) consists DE alternations of basinal
z
shale and medium-graincd turbiditc beds rework ing
~ volcanidastic and siliciclast ic material. Thesc locallyoverlic
<i
>- units of transgressivc limcslone of Late Campanian-
ro
«
ro Maastrichtian age (Kch rer and Kehrer, 1969). This
oc succession, comparable lo that of the Celica-Lancones and
~¡
~
z Paila areas, indica tes the crcation of a wide rore-are basin
¡¡o of Middle Campanian-Middle Maastriehtian age (rig. 24),
IjO>
which extended at ¡casI (rom the Paita area (SOS) lo N of
Quito (O').
The Albian volcanic arc series of southern Ecuador are
unconformablycapped by Late Santonian-Early Campanian
transgrcssive marine deposits (Naranjo Formalion,Jaillard
el al., 1997), which al low refining Ihe age oflhe main tectonic
event as pre-Campanian. In southern Peru, Ihe Albian
volcanics are unconformably (apped by Ihe undaled Omoye
Formalion (Vicenle, 1981), which has been ascribed lo the
Santonian (Jaillard, 1994), although it might be younger
(Campanian?). In Ihearc zones, the cffects oflhe LateAlbian,
Turonian-Coniacian and Late Sa nlonian deformation are,
thereforc, indistinguishablc. In both areas, the transgressive
sequence grades inlo coarser-grained, locally conglomeralic,
nearshore lo continental deposits, dated in southern
Ecuador as Maastrichtian (Cosa nga Formation, Baudino,
1995; Jaillard, 1997), which indica te new tectonic
movements in Ihe Maastrichtian.
The Santonian-Early Campanian event coincided with
the bcginningof a significant rclreat of lhe Coastal Batholilh
ofPeru (Solerand Bonhomme, 1990, Fig. 20). Th is,together
with lhe subsidence of the Late Campaniall-Maastrichtian
fore-are basin of northern Peru-southcrn Ecuador, suggests
Ihat tectonic erosion began to act as a significan! mass
Iransfcr process in the fore-are and arc zones at that time
(Jaillard and Soler, 1996, jaillard, 1997). The Late Santonian-
Early Campanian evcnt is followed by a major plutonic pulse
in the Coastal Batholith of central Peru, during which mainly
granodiorile bodies werc emplaced (85 - 77 Ma episode of
Soler, 1991). A probable magmatie gap (77 - 74 Ma) might
correspond to the Late Campanian event, and is followed by
a new magmatic episode (74 - 69 Ma), which began with
dyke swarm cmplacement (Soler, 1991). In southern Peru, a
plutonic gap (84 ~ 70 Ma) may coincide with the Santonian
and Late Campanian events. The lalter are responsible for
the major NE-vergent Lluta Thrust, near Arequipa, which
resulled in Ihe thrust of Precambrian rocks onto Cretaeeous
sediments (Vicente el al., 1982).Since it involves Coniacian-
Early Santonian beds and is concealed by latest Cretaeeous-
early Paleogene uneonformable conglomerate beds, it is of
Lale Cretaceous age (Vicente, 1989).
In northern Chile, magmalie activity resumed around
80 Ma ago (Early Campai,;an, Harnrnersehmidt el al., 1992),
and Ihe loeation of the magmatie arc significantly shifled
eastward, thus indicating Iha! the Middle and Late
Cretaceous tectonic events resulled in significant crustal
shortening and/or erustal erosion (Scheuber el al., 1994).
~10
This significant contractional event dated as 90 - 78 Ma,
resulted in (he folding, emergence and eros ion of the arc
zone, the tectonic illversioll ofthe Domeyko Cordillera and
creation of the retro-arc Purilactis Basin (Mpodozis and
Ramos 1989, Seheuber el al" 1994).
In the back-arc areas ofEcuador and northern Peru,Late
Santonian-Early Campanian times are marked by a regional
sed irnelltary gap (Tschopp, 1953, Benavides 1956,
Seminario and Guizado 1976; Jaillard 1987,1997; Mathalone
and Montoya, 1995), which coincides with the accretion and
rc1ated deformations recorded in the wcsterly zones. In
northcrn Peru and eastern Ecuador, the Santonian marine
dcposits exhibit a thickening-upward evolulion expressing
the arrival of sandy detrital material regarded as related to
the incoming Late Santoninn tectonic movements . In
southern Peru and Bolivia,stratigraphic delta are insufficient
lo demonstrate Ihe occurrence and duration of Ihis hiatus
in the mostly continental dcposils (Middle Vilquech ico,
Middle Yuncaypata, Chaunaca forma tions; Sempere el al.,
1997; jaillard el al., 1993, Carlollo, 1998). The Early
Santonian age of Ihe lasl marine deposits in northern Peru
and Ecuador, however, supports a Late Santonian age for the
ma in deformationa l evento
Campanian times are then marked by a short-lived,
regional marine transgression, locally dated as Middle
Campanian (northern Peru, Mourier el al., 1988), and
thercfore, probably coeval with the main transgression in
Ihe fo re-arezone (fig. 24). In Ecuador and northeastern and
central Peru, this Iransgression is associated with
conspicuous disconformable transgressive sandstone (M- l
Sandstones, LowerVivian formation) overlain by a thin ¡ayer
of marine shale (Augusto el al., 1990, Sal",1991, Mathalone
and Montoya, 1995, jaillard, 1997). In ,outhern Peru and
Bolivia, the Middle Campanian transgression is correlalcd
wi lh a thin Jayer of charophyte-bearing shale overlain by
fine-grained red beds oE presumed Late Campanian age
(Middle Vilqueehico, Middle Yuneaypata, Upper Chaun aca
formatiol1s, Jaillard el al., 1993; Sempere el al., 1997; Figs.
23 and 27). The hiatus betwcen Campanian and
Maas tri chtiíl n deposits suggests the occurrenceof a tectonic
event in the Late Campanian, but an eustatic origin for Ihis
sediment ary gap cannot be ruled out. Mid-Campanian
alka li ne volcanic rocks (80 - 75 Ma) point lo an extensional
stra in in northern Argentina (Viramonte el al., 1999).
A new regional marine transgression occurred in the
Early Maastrichtian, which deposited transg ressive
sandstone units grading upwards into marine shale, which
rest disconformably on the Campanian beds. In Ecuador and
northern and central Peru, these Early Maastrichtian marine
layers are daled by marine microfossils and very scarce
ammonites (Lower Tena, Upper Vivian,Areniscas de Azúcar
formations, Koch and Blissenbach, 1962; Rodríguez and
Chaleo, 1975, Vargas, 1988, Mourier el al., 1988; jaillard,
1997). They are gene rally overlain by eharophyte-bearing
fine-grained continental red beds of Maastrichtian age. A
disconfo rmity separa tes these deposils from the ovcrlyillg
fine-grained, continental Paleocene red beds (Upper 'lena,
Yahuarango, Sol formations), suggcsting the occurrence of
tectonic movements near the Maastrichlian-Paleocene
boundary (Mathalone and Montoya 1995, jaillard, 1997,
Christophoul, in progress).
In southcrn Peru and Bolivia, the Early Maaslriehtian
maximum nooding is marked by epheme ral marine
 TECTON IC EV OlUTI ON OF SOUTH AMERICA

~(:)(~J

7rY'W
- - - - - - - - -0"+- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .

Turonian marine
Iransgression
Early Maaslrichlian
marine trangression

• AJea common lo
bolh transgressions

® Eocene7

+
O_ _~~2=;
50 km

)
.:f> Paleocene

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Añtófá!lasta'"
75"#

FIGURE 26 - Pafeogeograpll¡c sketclJ sholYillg lhe relative

extcmioll s o/lhe Tlrrollimr aud Maastr;chtiatl marine
trallsgressiOlls.
CampaniBm

FIGURE 27 - Late Cretaceous - Eocetlc stratigrapllic

sllccessiotl in lile Ctlscoarea (Mides ofsolltheru Pe",) ((ifter

F
Carlotto, 1998),
$anlooiam

S I Conglomerale
O
OOo._M
Sand!Jone

~Vl!f1ebraleS
....
~

~
LimestOl1e

TrilCkway

30 Ma Radiomelrie Age

fnvlronmenll : 11: shal~ maMe: b: coastal plain I \acu~m:

e: dI$IaIl'Io.M;JI; d: proJIitrIaI fIJyja1; . : alkNial lan

511
1 TECTONIC EVOl UTI ON QF SOUTH AMERICA

1~®Q]
I~ =>
'"

7O"W
Barbón

'.,,
'.
Manabi ....p.~ "'~,
•'- ~,
,,
\ ...... -, .... - ,. ", ......... - '
Progreso 1_:-, ,:
Guayaquil
,
,••
Tumbéz ....+-......:;.~:,... ••
Talara "'-/ir"
5"5

Trujillo
10"5
5alaverry

Lima

o Marine fore-are basins

Camaná
al Magmatie are zone

g:;~;j Oeformed baek-are area

. '.~'.~ and Andean basins Moquegua

t:·::::.:·:..::.:·j Retro-are basins

FIGURE 28 - Pa/eogeographic sketch of Ecuador ami Pcru for ,lIe Pa/eogcue .


condilions (Jaillard el al., 1993; Gayel el al., 1993) and Ihe
Maastricht ian deposits significantly onlap onto Ihe eastern
border of Ihe Cretaceous basill (Scmpere et al., 1997), thus
expressing Ihe gradual eastward shift of Ihe depocenter
during Ihe Late Cretaceous (Fig. 26). Lacustrine conditions
prevailed in parl orlhe Bolivian-Argentinc par! ofthe basin
(Rouehy el al., 1993; Sa lfily and Marqui llas, 1994). In
southern Pertl, an erosiona l disconformity separates Ihe
Maastrichtian and Tcrtiarybcds (Jaillard et al., 1993; CarlOUD,
1998). bul sedimentation is assumed lo be continuous in
Bolivia (Sempere el al., 1997). The tcctonic regime in Ihe
back-arc areas of norlhern Chile and Bolivia is assu med to
have been cxtensional during Ihe Maastrichtian, thus
allowing sporadic shallow marine ineursion and the
outpouring of alkaline basie volcanies (Reyes el al., 1976;
Seheuber el al., 1994; Viramonle el al., 1999).
Late Maastrichtian - early late Paleocene
(68 - 57 Ma)
The carly lo early la le Paleoeellc sequenee
diseonformably overlies la test Cretaeeous slrata. It eonsists
of vo1canic roeks (are zone), and of fine-grained deposits,
either marine (fore-arezone) oreontinental (baek-arc zonc).
In the are and fore-are zones, beside the regional hiatus of
Late Maatriehtian-early Palcoeene age and the frequent
diseonforrnities between Cretaeeous and Tert iary beds, a
Late Maastriehtian tcetonie event is suggested by numerous
intrusions (Mukasa, 1986), the emplaeement of a eentred
eomplex (Mukasa and Tillan, 1985) and high slr ike-slip
rates between 68 and 64 Ma in the Coastal Batholith of Pc ru
(Busscl and Pileher, 1985), and by nurnerou s KJAr resels
indieating a thermal event at 70 - 60 Ma in the Cordillera
Real ofEeuador (Lilherland el al., 1994).
Paleoeenc marine deposits are only known in the fore-
are Talara Basin of northwesternmost Peru (Iddillgs and
Olsson, 1928; González, 1976; Zuñiga and Cruzado, 1979;
Séran nc, 1987; Morales, 1993; Fig. 29) and maybe in Ihe off-
shore fore-are zone of northern Peru, where the presenee of
pre-Iate Eoeene sediments has been assurncd locally (9°S,
Kulm et al., 1982). In Ihe Talara Basin, Ihe Late Cretaeeous
deposits are disconformably overlain by early Paleoeene
transgrcssive sandstone and eonglomerale interealated with
marine grey shale, whieh grade upward into marine dark
shale of middle Paleoeene age (Weiss, 1955; Paredes, 1958;
González, 1976) . The uppcr unil overlaps lo Ihe E (Séranne,
1987), and is strongly eroded loward Ihe S by pre-Eocene
erosion (Paredes, 1958). To Ihe E, thin cont inental to
ncarshore cJastie facies grade westward into thiek fine -
grained deposits of relatively deep ma rine environment
(Séranne, 1987). Farlher lO Ihe S (Paila), Ihe Crelaeeous
sedimcntation ends up wilh the 3500 m thick breecia of the
Maastrichtian La Tortuga Formatíon (OIssoo, 1944; Fig. 24).
In the presently aeereled oecanic terranes of Ecuador,
sinee the Sa n Lorenzo island-are did not yield ages younger
than Maastrichtian (Lebrat et al., 1987; Ordoñez, 1996), its
aetivity may have ceased by Palcoeene times. Moreover,
MeCourl el al. (1998) reeenUy idenlified an early lo middle
Paleoeene quartz-rieh turbidite series resting on aecreted
oceanie is lan d are series in the Western Cordillera of
Eeuador.Sineethese early Paleoeene turbidite beds are found
TECTONIC EVOLUTtON OF SOUTH AMERICA
lo Ihe W of Ihe oulcropping bell oflhe Yunguilla Formalion,
they migh! indieate that an other fragrncnl of oeean ie
terranc has been acereted during the Late Maastrichtian
and/or the carliest Paleocene. However, in sorne parts, th e
Maastriehtian-Paleoeelle sedimentation continucd
without any notieeablc ehanges (Guayaquil Formation,
Benítez, 1995; Keller el al., 1997; Fig. 25).
In the rnagmatie are of southwestern Eeuador,subaerial
andesilie lava , breee ia,agglomerate and acid tuff(Saeapa\ca
Format ion) are of latest Maastriehtian (67 Ma) to early
Eoeene age (Jaillard el al., 1996; Hungerbiihler, 1997; Pral!
el al., 1998), indieating that vo\can ie are aetivity resu rned
after a gap that lasted from Late Albian times. In central
and northcrn Ecuador, vo\canie are aetivity did not start
before the early Eoeene. ln central and northern Peru, ring-
eomplexes (68 - 64 Ma, Cobbing el al., 1981; Soler, 1991)
and ealc-alkalinc intrusions were emplaeed (64 - 59 Ma,
Cobbing el al., 1981; Beckinsale el al.; 1985) and were
possibly associated with coeva l voleanism (ParaTÍn
Formation, Bussel. 1983). These ¡ntrusions are
volumctrieally important, indieating Ihe loca l resumption
of magmatie are aetiv ity, but no signifieant eompositional
changes is noted wilh respeet to the Late Cretaceous
magmalism (Soler, 199 1; Fig. 20). The 68 - 64 Ma peciod is
also marked by importa nt dextral wreneh movements
(Bussel, 1983; Bussel and Piteher, 1985), whieh may be Ihe
expression of a Late Maastriehtian tceton ie cvent. A
magmatie gap thell oeeurred durillg the late Paleoeene (59
- 54 Ma, Soler, 1991). In southern Peru, plutonie intrusions
began during la test Crctaeeous limes (78 Ma) and exhibit a
majar pulse during the early lo middle Paleoeene (62 - 57
Ma,Beckinsale el al., 1985; Mukasa, 1986; Clark el al., 1990).
Associated volcanism (Toquepala Formation) consists of
3000 m of dacitie to rhyolitie tuff with minor andesitie
interealations, the eompos ition of whieh suggests that Ihe
Andean erust was not Ihickened (Boily el al., 1990).11 is
crosseut by gabbroic an d granitie intrusions dated mainly
al 66 - 63 Ma (Laughlin el al., 1968; Valin-Pérignon el al. ,
1982; Mukasa and Tillon, 1985; Clark el al., 1990). The
resumption of are magmatism reeognised in Ecuador and
Peru is expressed in northern Chile by abundan! Late
Maastrichtian-early Paleoeene ages in Ihe magma tic are
roeks (Hammersehmidt el al., 1992; Charrier and Reutter,
1994), and by eoeval volcanic illtercalations in red beds
depositcd in proximal baek-are basins (Purilaetis Group,
64 Ma, Flint el al., 1993).
In the proximal baek-a re zones of Peru (present-day
Andes ), Paleocene dcposits un eonformably rest on Late
Crelaeeous roeks (Noble el al., 1990; Jaillard el al., 1993;
Mégard el al. , 1996), whereas Ihe eo nlael is only loeally
disconformable in the Eastern Basin (Vargas, 1988; Augusto
el al., 1990; Salas, 1991; Malhalonc and Monloya, 1995; Gil
el al., 1996; Figs. 27 and 31). In additioll, eo mpressional
deformation duc to tectonie inversions near the Cretaeeous-
Tertiary boundary areeommon and widespread in the baek-
are areas of easteen Ecuador (Dashwood and Abbots, 1990;
Rivadeneira and Baby, 1999; Christophoul, in progress),
northeastern Peru (Contreras el al., 1996; Gil el al., 1996)
and Colombia (Cheillelz el al., 1997).
In the distal baek-are areas of Ecuador and Peru, the
Late Ca mpanian-Maastriehtian sequenee is overlain by a 513
 TECTONIC EVOlUT ION OF 50UT" AMERICA
~ ~
z
l o~ thick series ofPaleocenc fine-grained red beds (Uppcr 'Iena,
Yahuarango, 5011, Quilque. Chilca, Santa Lucia formations ,
Kummel, 1948; Koeh aod Blisseobaeh, 1962; Malhalooe and
Mooloya, 1995; jai llard, 1997; Sempere el al., 1997;
Christophoul, in progress) which wedges out toward the W,
mainly beca use of pre-Eocene erosion (Naeser el al., 199 1;
Jaillard el al., 1993; Carlotto. 1998) , In Ihe western zones,
Pal cocene deposit s are l1 sually lacking. However, in th e
Andes of Central Peru. a series of fluvia til e red beds has been
assigned to Ihe Palcocene (Casapalca Formation, lacay,
1994), although il may be younger. These Paleocene fine-
graincd red beds were deposited in wide. distal alluvial
plains or in coastal setting. Clastic material proceeded from
the smoo th relief of the Paleo-Andes . Microfossils are
dom inatcd by charophyte associat ions (Gutierrez, 1982;
Jaillard, 1994), but scarce foraminifera indicate lo cal and
sporadic marine influences (Koch and Blissenbach,1962).
In northea stern Peru, th e Paleocene beds are
disconformably overlain by transgressive conglom erate and
marine to brackish beds of Eocene age (Pozo Formation).
In Bolivia and norlhern Argentina, extensional condition s
are marked by early Paleocene K-rich lava flows (65 - 60
Ma, Viramontc el al., 1999).
The widespread hiatu s, lIn conformities and detrita l
sedimentation,as well as the deformation and thermal event
suggest that a significant . although poorly known, lectonic
event occurred near the Maastrichtian-Paleocene boundary.
This evenl might correspond to the accrelion of an oceanic
terrane , sin ce part of western Ecuad or received early
Paleocene quartz-rich sedimentation. and rccorded the end
of Ihe aclivity of an island are (are jump).
Late Paleocene - late
Oligocene
Ihis period corresponds to a Iransit ion between Ihe pre-
orogenic and the sy n-o rogenic periods. Compressional
deformations became sign ificant and involved Ihe western
parts of the back-arc areas, where mar ine sedimentalion no
longer oceurred, except locally in Ecuador. The subsidence
of fore- arc zones, wh ich follows th e compress ional events,
creatcd sed imenla ry basins. Detrital sedimentation in the
eastern area shows evide nce for tectonically-indllced
disconformities. Finally. activity of the volcanic are resumed ,
including along the Ecuador ian margin where are
magmatism was unknowll since Late Jura ss ic times.
Beeause of the ongoing cru stal shortening. eastward
migration of the magmat ic front, and uplift of Ihe Alldean
domain , Ihe paleogeographic pat tern progressive\y changed
dur iug Ih is per iod (Fig. 28). The fore-are lOoes rough ly
co rrespond lo the presenl-day coastal and offshore parts of
the margin oDue lo tectonie erosion, shortening, and/or
tlattening of Ihe slab, Ihe are 7.One migrated and enlarged
eastwards through time.1t corresponded lo the western par!
of the present-day Wes tern Cordillera. The back-arc areas
ca n be divided into a wes lern, deform ed and usuall y
emergent area, also referred to as the "Paleo-Andes", and an
easlern area, wh ich still received sedimenlation,and evolved
Ihrollgh time toward a foreland re tro-are basin.
•
Late Paleocene event (58 - 55 Ma)
and Eocene Sequence (55 - 40 Ma)
The late Paleocene event, (¡rst suspec ted by Cobb ing el
al. (I 981) and Bussel and Pileher (1985), is one of Ihe major
events in Ihe Andea n hi story (Maroeco el al., 1987; Noble el
al., 1990; Sempere el al., 1997; jaillard, 1997). 11 is eoeval
wilh an important plate killematic reorganization in the
Pacific realm,dated at 58 - 56 Ma, which resu lted in a change
in the eonvergence direc tion ofthe Farallón PI ate. The laller
eha nged direeli oo from N or NNE lo NE (Pilger, 1984;
Gordoo aod jurdy, 1986; Pardo-Casas aod Moloar, 1987;
Alwaler, 1989). The lale Paleoeeoe eveol is followed by Ihe
deposition of disconformable, well-identifiable sedimentary
or volcanic sequences of earIy to early late Eocene age.
In Ihe fore-arc zone of Ecuador, the collision of an
occanic terrane resulted in loeally inlense deformation of
early late Paleocene che rt (Santa Elena Formati on)
belonging to Ihe accreted terralle (Benítez, 1995; Jaillard el
al., 1995).Since a Ihick series of quartz-rich coarse-grained
turbid ite beds oflales! Paleocene ageconceals the aceretion,
Ihe laller occurred in the late Paleocene (Jaillard, 1997; Fig.
25). Afurther tec tonic evenl of probable earl iest Eocene age
deformed Ihe uneonformable quartz-r ich lurbidite beds
(Jaillard, 1997).ln theTalara fore arc basin of northcrn Peru,
sandslone and conglomerate (Basal Salinas) disconform ably
ove rlie Paleocene marine shale (Séranne, 1987) and grade
so uthwards into diachronous,lalest Paleo cene lo early
Eoeene, coarse-grained alluvial conglomerate (Mogollón
Formation,Morales, 1993; Fig. 29). ln Ihe Paita area,thelatter
eo nlain boulders of inlra- oceanic origin, thus
demonst rating th at acc retion occurred before Ihe earIy
Eocene in northern Peru. Since ocea ni c terra nes are
presently in Ecuador, they were subsequently displaced
northwards along dextral falllts. with a min im um eSl imate
rale of 5 mm/y (Peeora el al., 1999).
Due to the late Paleocene event, the fore-are zones of
Ecuador are marked by a widespread sed imenlary hiatus
encompassing mos t of the early Eocene (Benítez, 1995;
jaillard el al., 1995). Sedimentation resumed diaehrooically
since the end of the early Eocene. The Eocene seq uen ce
Iypically begins with breccia,slumped shale or transgressive
peri-reefallimestone concealing fault -controlled relief.
Diachronism and teeton ic figures indicate an extensional
tectonic regime, related lo the subs idence that led lo the
deposition of the overlying thinning and shallowing-upwards
sequence of marls interbedded wi th tu rbidilie sandstone
(Jaillard el al., 1995). The Eoeeoe sequ ence eods up with
di sconformable, locally co ngl omeratic sandstone of
nearshore to continental environment, daled as lale middle
lo early late Eoeene (Jaillard el al., 1995). Thesc iodicate Ihe
beginning of the late Eocene teetollic movements (Jaillard,
1997). A comparable sequence is knowll in mosl of the
coaslal arca (Benilez, 1995; jaillard el al., 1995) aod Ihe
Western Cordillera (Saotos el al., 1986; Egüez, 1986;
Bourgois el al., 1990). Th is suggests that mos t of wcstern
Ecuador undcrwent a similar sedimentary evolution du ri ng
the middle Eocene, and Ihat most of oceanic lerranes were
probably already accreted to Ihe cont inental margin by
middle Eoeeoe lim es (Jaillard, 1997; Cosma el al., 1998).10
Ihe Western Cordill era,howeve r, an island are unit (Macuchi
 TECTONIC EVOlUTION QF SOUTH AMER ICA

1~~O I
Age Chronostratigraph ic Chart
(M a)
Oualemary Uodiff. recenl
deposilS
o Villama Fm
Rupelian
5'" Pliocene
Mfddle Miocene
Fore-arc basln
Sar¡ Bartolo Gp

Priabonian PaciEmcia Gp
Early Miocene
Oligocene Intar-are basln
Bartonian

"" Eocene Purilactis Fm

w
""o l utetian 45
Back-arc
basin

50 Latesl
Crelaceous Tonel Fm
Ypresian

55
Thanetian
""
""o 60 p,,,,,,,"
Triassic
Peine Fm
Rift
"-
"
-¡¡; Danian

65 Paleozoic

Maastrichtian f:::·.'>;:-::;:1 Fluvial classic rocks

[ .:.: A~ Evaporites
70 t:?4?óf{ Al!uviallan
~ Mudslone
BI VoIcanic roc!¡s
Campanian -. "(
CJ Sandstone
1: : :1 Intrusive rocks
'-' Redondo
75

FIGURE 29 - Chrotlostratigraphic , hart of

tlle Late Cretaceolls-l'aleogetle Talara Pliocene
Tamborapa
Bas;" (Joreare zo"e 01 tlortl/CnJ Pent) Fm
(after Morales, 1993).

FIGURE 3 O-Mesozoic-Qfla temary San 500 m

stratigrap/¡ic sllccessioll i" tlle Alacama Antonio
Fm late
area ("orllle", C!tile) (afler FU" I el al., Miocene
1993), Dile lO lile eastward ",igralio" of
lile are zotle, 11,is area evo fved from a back-
are lo afore-arcsetti"g betweelllalesl
Crelaceolls atld Plioce1le times.

FIGURE 31 - Late Cretaceous-Pliocelle

Middle
stratigraphic stlccessiol/ i" t/le Bagua area Miocene
(norllle", Peru) (after Naeser el al" 1991). Vertebrales
Charophytes
Salachians
Sivalves
Early
Miocene
Sambimera
Fm

... 28,7 ± 3,7

-- l ate Oligocena
31,O!.3,1
@

Campaniam

Celendin Santoniam
Fm
Coniacian
515
 TECTON IC EVOlUTlON OF SO UTH AM ERI CA

Subandean
Western Cordillera Altiplano East. Cordillera
Zone

PUocene

Miocene

I Oligoceno

?
Eocene

~-
-----

j~ Volcanic rocks c=J Conglomerate Sandstone m~B Sitstone ~ Marino d~S- ]

- - --- --

FIGUR E32 ~ Cllronologic ellart oftite sedimentary ami volca uic sllccess;o"Sal/d tleforma/ioual elle"ts ;1I sOllthem Peru (after Sébrier el al., 1988)

Girón . Santa Isabel Playas

Pliocene

Late Miocene

Middle Miocene

Early
Miocene
late Oligocene

Early Otigocene

Late Eocene
40
Middlo 45
Eocene

50
Early Eocene

_ Basidintermediate volcanics _ Estuarine/deHaic facies F'. :·;·,::.] Fluvial facies

~ Intermediate/acidic pyroclaslics ~ I" trusioos ~ Lacustrine facies Ri!i-tl Fluvial fan facies

FIGURE 33 - Chrolloslrtltigmphic charl ollhe volean;' al/d sedimelltary success;otls ¡ti tlle Aneles
af sO/lthem (/ /1(1Central Ew(ulor (after H/llIgerWhler, 1997, Steillmallfl et al., 1999) .

•

Sandstone) seems lo be assoe iated with Eocene pclagie
chert, and was Iherefore not yet in conlacl with the Andea n
margin (Hughes and Pilatasig, 1999).
In Ihe fore·a rc zone of Per u, al though early Eocene
deposilS have been locally mentioned (Kulm el al., 1982,
Suess el al., 1988), deposils of thal agc are well known only
in the Talara Basin (Eg. 29). Th ere, the very thick Eocene
series comprises three main sed imen lary sequences limited
by disconformities of earliest Eoccne,lalest carly lo early
middle Eoccne, and late middl e Eocelle age, respectively
(González, 1976; Sé ran ne, 1987; Morales, 1993). The
diachronous transgressioll begins wilh disconfo rmable
marine sandstone and conglomerale of lates t Palcocene lO
early Eocene age, from W to E (Morales, 1993), the base of
which contains bOl1lders of ocea nic origin, which post· dale
Ihe accretion of oceanic terralles (Pécora el al., 1999). The
Eocene sequences generally cOllsist of marine shale and fine
to coarse·grained sandslone, which grade laterally E or NE
inlo coarse·grai ned co ntinental sa ndslo ne and
conglome rate (González, 1976; Sé ranne, 1987). Pre-middle
Eoeene erosions removed part ofthe early Eoecne sequen ce,
and th e second seq uen ee locally rests o'n the basal
conglomerate (Paredes, 1958). The upper part of the late
middle Eo ce ne sequence ex hibits compressional syn·
sedimentary deformations related lo a transpressional
regime (Slranne, 1987; Becerra el al., 1990). The third
sequence (late middle lo early la le Eocene) is made of
uncon forma ble massive coa rse·grained sands tone of
nearshore environment (González, 1976; Morales, 1993),
announcing Ihe late Eoeene tectonic event. Overlying open
marine shale beds are ascribed lO lhe lale Eocene (González,
1976) or the early Oligoeene (Morales, 1993).
Nea r Ihe early· middle Eocene boundary, subsidence of
Ihe fore·arc zone triggered lhe crealion of a new general ion
of fore-a rc basins, where Ihick middle to early late Eocene
deposits unconformably rest upon Paleozoic lo early Eocene
units. In Ihe offshore fore-arc basins of central and northern
Peru, drillholes crosscut as much as 2000 In of middle
Eocene shale. siltstone and sandstone of shallow marine,
high·energy environment (Ball esteros el al., 1988; Suess et
al., 1988), which usually unconfor mably overlies Cretaeeous
to Paleozoic roeks (Macha ré el al., 1986). It ends up loea ll y
with breccia, sugges ting a teetonic inslabili ty oflate middle
Eocene lo late- Eocene age. Subsidence and basin tectonies
is eontrolled by NNE trending normal faults (Macharé et
al., 1986; Azálgara et al., 1991). The middle Eocene series is
commonly direetly ove rl ain by Mioeene marine sediments,
thus providing evidence for a widespread sedi menta ry
hiatus encompassinglale Eocene, Oligocene, and often early
Mioeene limes (Suess el al., 1988; Von Huelle et al., 1988).
In the arc zone of southern Ecuador, subaerial are
volcanism and associated continental vo1caniclastie
sedi mentation occurred during Ihe late Paleocene and early
Eoeene (Sacapalca Formation.Jaillard, 1997; Hu ngerb üh ler,
1997). In the resl of Ecuador, resumption of are volcanism
is dated as early or middle Eocene (53 - 45 Ma, Egüez 1986;
Wallrabe-Adams, 1990; Van Thoumout el al., 1990 ;
Stein mann, 1997; Dunkley and Gaibor, 1998}.1t is eornrnonly
associated wilh subaerial volcaniclastic red beds of middle
Eocene age deposited in proximal back·arc basins (Silante
Formalion, Wall rabe·Adams, 1990; Hughes and Pilatasig,
TECTONtC EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AMER ICA
1999; Quingeo Forma tion, Ste inmann, 1997; Playas
Formation, Hunge rbühler, 1997; Fig. 33). The renewal of are
activily along th e Ec uadorian margin is due to Ihe more
easte rl y convergence direclion, subsequent lo Ih e late
Paleocene plate tec tonic re·organ izalion (Pilger, 1984;
Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987).
In northern Peru, Ihick calc·alkaline subaerial voleani e
se ries are dated between SS and 40 Ma (Laughlin et al., 1968;
Cobb ing el al., 198 1; Noble el al., 1990; Soler, 1991},and post-
dat e eompressional deformation (Cobbing el al., 1981;
Bussel, 1983 ; Bussel and Pitcher, 1985). Although th e
chemical sign alUre did not change with respec! lo the
Paleocene magmatic are (Soler, 1991), Ihe Eoeene magmatic
activit y is ma rked by a sligh! eastward shi ft of the western
magmatic fron t, a deerease of plulonie inlrusions in lhe
Coasta! Balholilh and Ihe beginn ing of Ihe enla rgement of
Ihe magmatic are, whieh reached the present-day Westcrn
Cordillera (Noble el al., 1990; Soler, 1991; Fig. 20}. 1n contrast,
a magma tic gap occu rred in soulhern Per u durin g!he early
Eocene (Mukasa, 1986; Boily el al., 1990; Clark el al., 1990;
Soler, 1991). Howeve r, subvolcanic stocks and associated
porphyry copper deposils were emplaced in lh e 'loquepala
prospect betlVeen 57 and 52 Ma (Sébrier el al., 1988; Clark
et al., 1990). Farther to th e E (In ner Are),lhe enlargement
oflhe magmatic are is marked by Ihe emplacement of several
calc· alkaline plutons, among whieh the large is Ih e
Andahuaylas-Yauri BatllOlith (48 - 34 Ma,Carlier el al., 1996).
In northero Chile, Ihe magmatic are drastically shifted
easlward betweell SS and 48 Ma (Hammerschmidt el al.,
1992; Seheuber et al., 1994), thus suggesting thal sig nificanl
crustal shortening and/or leelonie erosion occurred in Ihe
ea rl y Eocene (Fig. 15). Ihis event has been ascribed to Ihe
late Eocenetectonic phase (Scheuberel al., 1994),but is better
corrclated with the late Paleocene evenL I he latter is followed
by a significan! resu mption of the magmatic aC livity along
Ihe whole margin. ln northern Chile, the resumption of are
magmatisl11 is expressed by numerous volcanic outcrops
dated as middle Eocene (48·38 Ma, Hammerschmidt et al.,
1992). Products of this are were deposited in a proximal,
extensional baek· arc basin, which reee ived a thi ck,
coarsening·upward pile of mainlyvolcanidastie roeks, wh ich
may rest eonformable on Lale Cretaceous scdime nts or
uneonfor mably on older roeks (HarUey el al., 1992; Flint el
al., 1993; Purilactis Formation ofCharrierand Reutter, 1994;
fig. 30). Tecton ic regimc in the baek·arc zone is no longer
extensional (Seheuber el al., 1994).
In the western back·arc arcas of Ecuador (Cordillera
Real), K/ Ar age resets near 65· SO Ma indicale the occurrenee
of a noticeable thermal event (Aspden and Li therland, 1992;
Litherl and el al., 1994), related to the late Paleocene tectonic
event. In the Andes of northern Peru, early Eoeene volcanic
roeks dated at SS to SO Ma uncollformably rest 011 dcformed
Cretaeeous sediments (Cobbing el al., 1981 ; Bussel, 1983¡
Noble el al., 1990; Soler, 1991). In theAndes of central Peru,
continental red beds bearing Paleoeene·Eocenecharophytes
unconformably rest on Crelaeeous sediments (Mégard,1978¡
Mégard el al., 1996).
In the prese nt -day Andes of cen tral Peru,
unconformab!e continental red beds are locally dated by
latest Maastriehtian eharophytes, whereas in other parts,
apparently sim ilar. but conformable, red beds yielded late 517
 !rECTONIC EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AME RICA
~~"~\
[ 7J::7~~
Eocene-carly Oligocene charophyte oogons and 40 to 37
Ma K/Ar dates (Mégard el al., 1996) . Therefore, sorne red
beds may be oflate Paleocene-middle Eocene age. bUI their
characteristics and extension are unknown so faro Undated
fluviatile red beds (Casapalca Formation) overlying the
latest Cretaceous strata have been ascribed to the Paleocene
(laeay, 1994), although they may be younger. In southern
Peru, Paleo cene fluviatile red beds (Quilque Formation) are
disconformably overlain by lacustrine deposits (Chilea
Formation, )aillard el al., 1993; Carlotto, 1998), possibly of
Eoccneage.
The eastcrn back-arc areas are marked by a regional
unconformity below massive coarse-grained sandstone alld
conglomerate of early Eocene age (Tiyuyacu Formation of
Ecuador, Dashwood and Abbots, 1990; Benftez el al., 1993;
Jaillard, 1997; Rivadeneira and Baby. 1999; Renlema alld
Basal Pozo formations ofPeru, Naeser el al., 1991; Robertson
Research, 1990; Cayara Formation ofBolivia,Semperc, 1994;
Sempere el al., 1997; Figs. 13,23, and 31). They one n post-
1'"
ci
dale a sedimenlary gap. which encompasses a large parl of
the Palcocene. Morcover, no early Eocene deposils have been
aceuralely dated so far in the back-arc areas ofEcuador alld
1"'
Peru. Early to middle Eoccne times are then marked by a
regional marine transgression.
In Ecuador, the unconformable Lower Tiyuyacu
Formalion is overlain by marine lo brackish beds ofEocenc
age (Benítez el al., 1993). In eastem Pern, the ea,ly Eoeene
basal transgressive lag is overlain by a marine to brackish
fine-grained layer ofEocene age and by coarsening-upward
laeustrine to fluviatile red beds of middle lo late Eocene age
(Pozo Formation, Kummel, 1948; Müller and Aliaga, 1981;
Robertson Research, 1990; upper part of Sol 3 Formation,
Koeh and B1issenbaeh, 1962; Gutierrez, 1982). The Veayali
Basin seems to be marked by a sedimentary hiatus of eady
Eoeene age (Koeh and Blissenbaeh, 1962). On the western
border ofthe basin (Rentema), eonglomerate beds dated at
54 Ma are conformably overlain by early to middle Eocene
lacustrine deposits, equivalent to Ihe Pozo Formation
(Naeser el al., 1991; )aillard, 19~4). Comparable laeustrine
deposits of Eocene age are known in the Altiplano of
soutl"rn Peru (Chilea Formation, Carlotto, 1998) and IoeaUy
in Bolivia (Cayara rormation,Sempere el al., 1997). Probably
due lo subsequent erosions, the overlying late Eocene
succcssion is frcquently lackingon the borders ofthe basin
(Ecuador -Subandean Zone; Peru - Renlema, Ucayali Basin).
Middle-late Eocene event (40 - 35 Ma)
and Oligocene evolution (35 - 28 Ma)
The late Eocene event has long been recognized in the
Andes of Peru (Incaie phase, Steinmann,1929),and has been
further documented on Ihe basis of radiometric data. 1t is
followed by Ihe deposition of unconformable beds of latest
Eocene-middle Oligocene age. Sedimentation is chiefly
leetonically driven in the easlern intermontane and foreJand
cont inental basins. This period ended with the late
Oligocene Aymara teetonie evenl (28 - 26 Ma, Sébrier el al.,
1988; Sempereel al., 1990; Fig. 32).
In the fore-arc basins. the la le Eocene tectonic event
was announced by the deposition of late middle Eocene
disconformable coarse-grained deposits (42 - 40 Ma).JI
•
culminated in the late Eocene (37 - 35 Ma) with the
deformalion and eme rgence of many external fore-arc
basins (Macharé el al., 1986; Sérannc, 1987; Ballesteros et
al., 1988; )aillard el al., 1995; figs. 25 and 29). This event,
together with the late Oligoeene crisis, is rcsponsib1e for a
widespread Oligoeene hiatus in the fore-arczo ne. However.
sedimentation occured in a few basins (Talara,locally),
and some inlernal (eastern) Eore-arc basins were affected
by significant subsidence, which allowed the deposition
of late Eocene to early Oligocene marine (Pisco) or
continental sequen ces (Moquegua) (Macharé el aL, 1988;
De Vries, 1998). This subsidence pulse announced the
aceelerated subsidence, related lo leclonic eros ion
processes, which affected the Andean fore-are zones fram
Ihe Eocene (Suess et al., 1988; Bourgois el al., 1990; Von
Huene and Seholl, 1991).
In Ecuador, undatcd coarse-grained conglomerate beds
offan-dclla environment. which unconformably overlie the
Eoccoe sequence may be ascribed either to the latest Eoeene-
early Oligocene (Jaillard el al., 1995; Fig. 25), or to the late
Oligocene (Benítez, 1995). Marine shale, siltstone and fine-
grained sa nd stone are dated as middle Oligoccne (Playa Rica
Formatioll, Benítez, 1995). They rest disconformably on the
Eocene scq uence and are separaled from Ihe Miocene
deposits by a sedimelltary hiatus (Benítez, 1995). In northern
Peru (Talara Basin).lhe late middle Eoeene sandstone beds
are overlain by pelagie shale of debated, poss ibIy early
Oligocene, age (Chira Formation, Morales, 1993).10 southern
Central Peru (Pisco Basin), 600 m of transgressive shale,
siltstone and subordinate sandslone of intertidal to
nearshoreenvironments are regarded as oflale Eocene, maybe
early Oligocene (?), age (Paracas Formation, Newell, 1956;
Maroeeo and De Muizon, 1988; Macharé el al., 1988). A
middle Oligoccne marine sequence has been recently
described (De Vries, 1998), whieh probably correlates with
the Oligocene beds of Ecuador (and northern Peru?). In
Southern Peru (Moquegua), transgressive fan conglomcrate,
fluvial sequences and evaporite-bearing lacustrine silt and
shale are ascribed to the Eocene. and ¡nfiJl an extensional,
fauIt-conlralled basin, probably created afterthe late Eocene
event (Maroceo el al., 1985). As Eor many fore-arc basins of
Peru, these beds unconformably overlie Precambrian to
Mesozoic rocks deformed by the Late Cretaceous to late
Eoeene teclonic phases.
In the are zo ne of central Ecuador (Cuenca), voleanic
roeks of early middle Eocene age (43 Ma,Steinmann, 1997)
are overlain by a 1000 m thick series of fluvial
conglomeratc and sandstone beds of late middle to late
Eocene age (Quingeo Formation,42 - 35 Ma, Steinmann,
1997; Fig. 33). In central and northern Peru, intrusions in
the Coastal Batholith ceased by latest Eocene times (35
Ma, Beekinsale el al., 1985; Mukasa and Tilton, 1985; Soler,
1991). With respect lo the Cretaceous-Paleocene
intrusions, the late Eocene-reeenl arc magmatism exhibits
significant geochemical changes, regarded as resulting
from the late Eoeene tectonic event (Soler, 1991; Fig. 20).
In the present-day Andes of oorlhern and central Peru, the
late Eocene event is materialised by a widespread
unconformilY, the age of which is bracketed betwcen 44
and 40 Ma (Noble el al., 1974, 1979, 1990; Mégard el al.,
1996). In southern Peru, the middle lo late Eocene

batholiths of Ihe inner arc are intruded by acid, calc-
alkaline subvolca nic stocks of earliest Oligoce ne age (34 -
32 Ma), thus indicating a stroog uplift event duriog the
late Eocene (Carlierel al., 1996; Carlotto, 1998).
In the arc zone of norlhern Chile, a significanl angular
uncooformity is dated al 39 - 38 Ma (Hammerschmidl el
al., 1992). Lale Eocene uprighl anticlines, which accounl for
25% shortening in Ihe arc ZOlle, were associated with arc-
parallel dextral strike-slip movements and with E-vergen!
folds and reverse faults in Ihe back-arc zone (Scheuber el
al., 1994). In the proximal back-arc area, Ihe middle-lale
Eocelle tectonic event is recorded by the post 42 Ma
uncollformity which separa tes Ihe Purilactis and Paciencia
groups (Fl int el al., t993; Fig. 30).
In the arc lone of central-soulhern Ecuador, Ihe late
Eocene eve nl is followed by an importan! pulse of arc
vo1canism (andesi te. dacile and subordinate rhyolite)
dated as latest Eocene-Oligocene (39 - 23 Ma, Sa raguro
Group; Egüez el al., 1992; Dunkley and Gaibor, 1998).
Within this pile, Dunkley and Ga ibor (1998) identified
erosional periods oflatest Eocene-earHest Oligocene (36 -
34 Ma) and middle Oligocene age (30 - 27 Ma).ln northern
Ecuador, volcanic activity seems lo have decreased in Ih e
Oligocene, but chronological data are scarce (Egüez, 1986;
Wallrabe-Adams, 1990).
In the arc zone and the paleo-A ndes of cen tral Peru. a
plutonie pulse oC late middle and late Eoeene age (42 - 36
Ma) is followed by a minor pulse of middle Oligocene age
(31 - 30 Ma), Ihe latter being restrieted to the Paleo-Andes
(Soler, 1991). Vo1canic activity displays a correlative
evolution,since the volcanic Calipuy Formation yic\ded ages
of 41 - 35 Ma,and 31 - 29 Ma (MeKee and Noble, 1982; Noble
et al., 1979; Soler, 1991). The middle to early late Oligoce ne
magmatic quiescence is correlated wilh a low convergence
period (31 - 26 Ma, Sébrier and Soler, 1991), and is marked
by a subtle change in the geochemical composition of the
arc magmatism (Soler, 1991) . In the Altiplano and Eastern
Cordillera of southern Peru, a significant episode ofhigh-K
alkaline magmatism occurred between 30 and 27 Ma
(Bonhornme el al., 1985; Bonhornme and Carlier, 1990),
which express a local extensional regime (Carlier el al., 1996)
and is coeval with the emplacement of mOlllogabbro al the
southern edge of the Altiplano (30 Ma, Clark el al., 1990).
These late Oligocene-earliest Miocene alkaline. shoshonitic
and high ~ K calc-al kaline effusions and intrusions are
interpreted as Ihe result of partial melting of an enr ichcd
mantle wedge (Sébrier and Soler, 1991).
In the arc zooe of northern Chile, Oligocene times are
markcd by the deposition of mainly sedimentary, fluvial
beds. which indica te a period of magmatic quiesccnce (40
- 28 Ma, Azapa Formation and Paciencia Group. Coira el
al., 1982; Flint el al., 1993; Garcia, 1997; Fig. 30). In the
Paleo-Andes, the middle·late Eocene cvent is well -
expressed. In the Western Cordillera of Ecuador, late
Eocene times are marked by the deposition of subaerial
conglomerate on the Eocene marine seq uence.inte rpreted
by sorne authors as the result of the accretion of Ihe
Western Cordillera terrane (Bourgois el al., 1990;
Litherland el al., 1994; MeCourt el al., 1998).
Deformation is maximum in the Western Cordillera
where E-verging fold and thru st belts developed (Mégard,
TECTONIC EVO lUTIO N OF SOUTH AMERtCA
1 ~®~
~<fl\¡tJ.;~
~
I
'i'
1978; Ángeles. 19B7; Mouricr, 1988). In southern Peru , late u
r
Eocene times (42 - 38 Ma) are also ma rkcd by Ihrusting lo ~
the NE along Ihe southern border of the Altiplano
(Laubacher, 1978; Farrar el al., 1988; Carlotto, 1998), and
'"
z
~
~
oc
also by SW-verging thrust fauh s NE of the Altiplano
(Huaneané Fault Zone, Laubacher, 1978). Farther to the NE, "'
o
z
"
z
Ihe middle~late Eocene evellt is responsible for widespread
unconformities in the arc rolle and Ihe Altiplano, and for """"
;;
disconformities in Ihe easlcrn areas (Sébrier el al., 1988; §
Farrarel al., 1988; Noble el al., 1999).
=
oo-
~
In the present-day Western Cord illera of norlhern and ~
~
~­
central Peru, Lale Cretaceous strata are folded and faulted, o
and in the eastern part, compressional deformalions result "
in a 50 km-Iargc, NE-verging fold and IhruSl bclt (Marañon
FTO, Mégard 1984,1987), which occurs 011 the wcstern
'"
u
~
::;
borderof the Mesowic positive zone (Maraflon Geanlicline),
:;:
and interpreled as the result of Ihe tectonic inversion of "z
normal paleo-faults (Mourier, 1988). This belt exp resses a
""
~
oc
r
significanl shortcning of the continental CHist and its ::;
Z
ovcrlying cover. They are associaled wilh coarse-grai ned o
¡::
deposits exhibiting internal unconformities (Pacobamba oo
Formation, Ángeles, 1999). In southern Peru, Ihe Incaic
15
i;;
Deformatíon resulted in a comparable NE-verging fold and u
Z
thrust belt to the S of the Cusca-Puno SlVell (Maliaw FTB, §w
Jaillard and Santander, 1992; Carlotto, 1998), and in !he SW- r
vergillg Huan cané Fault Zone (Audebau d el al. , 1976;
Lau bacher, 1978). The subsequent eros ion per iod is
concealed by the deposition of widespread, unconformable
coarse-grailled conglomerate (Chanove el al., 1969), and
documented locally by Oligocene terrestrial faunas
preserved in karst excavations (Hartenberger el al., 1984).
Farther to the NE, the middle-Iatc Eocene cvent is
responsible forwidespread unconform ities 00 IheA ltiplano,
and by disconformities in the eastern areas (Laubacher,
1978; Sébrierel al., 1988; Farrar el al., 1988).
In Ihe Cusca area (southern Peru), 5000 to 6000 m of
alluvial red beds (San Jerónimo Group), formerly ascribed
to the Late Cretaceous (Gregory, 1916; Jaillard el al., 1993;
Noblet el al., t 995), are presently dated as late Eocene(?)-
middle Oligocene age (Carlotto, 1998; Fig. 34) . They
comprise two thick coarsening-upward sequences affected
by large-scale progressive unconformities show ing evidcnce
for syn-sedime ntary compressio nal or tran spres~ional
deformation (C6rdova, 1986; Noblet el al., 1987; Carlotto,
1998). Farther to the E, as much as 2000 m of very coarsc-
grained fanglomerate and sandstolle of late Eocene to
middle Oligocene age (Anta Formation) ullconformably
overly Cretaceous lo middle Eocelle rocks, thu s providing
evidence for slrong magmalic and tectonic activity (Carlouo,
1998). Coeval deposits are known farther to the SE from
isola ted basins exhibiting cha ng ing sedimentary and
paleogeographic evolutions, and yielding sca rce early
Oligocene ages (30 - 27 Ma, Carlotto, 1998).
In the Altiplano Basin ofBolivia,the Paleozoic basement
is unconformably overlain by a 3000 m thick series of red
shale and salldstone beds, with evaporite units in Ihe lower
part, dated at 30 ·29 Ma (Tiwanacu Formation, Rochat el
al., 1998; Fig. 35). This succession exhibits eastward
paleocurrents and is interpreted as the foreland sequence
of the Western Cordillera deformed during Ihe late Eocene
evcnt (Sempere el al., 1990; Sempere, 1995, Rochat el al., 519
 ECTONIC EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA
[~
1998). However, Lamb el al. (1997) determi ned westward
paJeocurrents and proposed that the Eastern Cordillera was
also uplifted along an E~ ve rgj ng thru st fau lt duri ng the
middle-Jate Eocene deformation, and thus, scparated the
Altiplano Basin (rom the incipicnt eastern foreland basin
(Lamb and Hoke, 1997).
In th e back-arc basins ofEcuador late Eocene-Oligocene
tim es a re represented by disconformable quarlz-rich
conglomerare (UpperTiyuyacu Formation),overlain by finc-
grained red bed s (Orteguaza Formation) exhibiting a
conspicuous transgressive layer of pa rtly marine glauconitic
sandstone (Benítezel al., 1993; Rivadeneira and Baby, 1999).
In eastern Peru, the late Eocell e event aCCQu nts fo c a
widespread sedimentary hiatus cncom passíng lhe late
Eocene-middle Oligocene lime-span in the weslern and
sou thern zones (Koch and Blissenbach, 1962; Naeser el al.,
1991; Figs. 31 and 36) and for a slight un conformity fa rther
to the Eand NE. There,Robertson Researeh (1 990) identified
a th in lacustrine unit of probable Oligocene age. Although
ava ilable stratigraphic data are sca rce and sometimes
conflicting, they suggesl a nOliceable decreaseofthe tectonic
subsidence during the lat~ midd le lo lale Eocene inlerval
(40 - 35 Ma,Thomas el al., 1995; Berrones and Cotrina, 1996;
Cont rerasel al., 1996).
The frequent lack of late Eocene-middle Oligocene
deposits in Ihe Oriente Basin eontrasts with the Ihick
accumul alions of coeval deposits in Ihe Paleo-Andes, whi ch
seem lo have been marked, however, by an E lo NE drainage
syslem. Th is suggests Ihal, eilher these deposits have been
eroded due to a signi fi cant lale Oligocene uplifl of Ih e
Eastern Basin, or Ihe enlire delrital scdimenls have been
trappcd within the Andean basins, which aCled therefore as
Ihe proximal foreland basins of Ihe Western Cordillera FTB
(Sempere, 1995; Carlott o, 1998), the Eastern Basin
eons tituting a by-pass lOne for low discharge rivers.
OROG ENIC E VOLUTION
OF THE NORTH-CENTRAL A NDES
(LATE O UGOCENE - PRESENr)
Late Oligocene - middle
Miocene evolution (28 - 10 Ma)
The late Oligocene ''Aymara'' tectonic
event (28-26Ma)
A major teetonic and geodynamic event occurred in the
late OIigocene (28 - 26 Ma).lt has been described by Sébrier
el al. (1988) and Sem pere el al. (1990; Fig. 32). The late
Oligocene event is relaled lo a major plate dynami cs
reorganization thal oecu rred al 26 Ma. This eonsisted of
Ihe break up oflbe Farallón Plate into Ibe Cocos and Nazca
plales , accompanied by a change in Ihe direetion of
convergence (Pilger, 1984; Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987).
Convergence beca me approximately E-W, which Iriggered
a progressive rotation ofthe strain, from NNE-SSW during
the late Oligocene, to E- W at the end ofthe Miocene (Noblet
) ~ el al., 1988).
I
Th is tectonic evenl was marked by regional Oli
unconformities in the Andes (Sébrier el al., 1988; Sempere MI
el al., 1990), by the deposition of disconformable coarse- fOI
grained eonglomerate in the Eastern Basin,by the ineeplion sa l
of castward th rust ing in Ihe Sub-Andean Zone (Sempere el en'
al., 1990), and by a sharp inc rease ofthe subsidence rates in al.
the Easlern Basin (Thom as et al., 1995; Berroncs and (M
COlrina. 1996). It also triggered oraeeelcraled Ihe subsidence gr'
rclaled lo su b dllctio n ~ re l ated leetonie erosion in Ihe fore- (2.
are lOnes, since in mos! arcas, pc1agic Mioeene deposils M,
discollformably overl ie Eoeene shelf deposits (Macharé et Ir;
al., 1986; Suess el al., 1988). This event is also marked by fa l
pre-23 Ma disconformities in the Andes of norlhero Peru co
(Mollr ier, 1988), by sorne resets of KIAr ages in the Easlern Al
Cordillera of Ecuador (35 - 25 Ma, Li therla nd el al., 1994), th
by unconformities al the base of the late Ol igocene volcanics ti l
of Ecuador (base of the Saraguro Formation, 29 - 26 Ma, n<
Dunkley and Gaibor, 1998; Steinmann el al., 1999), and by
un co nformi ties an d sy n~t ectonic sedimenls in Bolivia
(Sempere el al., 1990; Rochat el al., 1998).
Latest Oligocene-early Miocene
evolution (26 - 17 Ma)
The major plate dynamics reorganization of lale
Oligocene age provoked a renewa l of tectonic activity, which al
aecelerated the shortening and uplift of the Andes, and D
induced thick continental sedim en ta tion in the 2·
intermontane and retro -are fore land basins. The late SI
Oligocene teclonie eve nt is post-dated by the crealion of a F
nearly eontinllous belt of fo re-are (Macharé el al., 1986) and
by a sharp increase of the subsidence rates in the Eastern C<
Bosin (Thomas el al., 1995). Offshore northern Peru , h
tectonic subsidenee is marked by the ullconformable rest a.
of Middl e Mio cene pelagic deposits upon Eoeene shelf b
deposits (Macharé el al., 1986; Suess el al., 1988; Von Huene e
el al., 1988; Bourgoisel al., 1990; Fig. 37). I
In coastal Ecuador, the early Miocene sequence bcgins 2
10eally with transgressive eonglomerate overlain by marin e o
shale and siltstone rich in planktie foraminifera and
radiolaria (Dos Bocas and Villingota formations, Evans and
Wh ittaker, 1982; Benltez, 1995). The upper pa rt, of early g
middle Mioeene age. locally grad es lalerally into coarser-
grained subaerial depos its (Benítez, 1995). Rapid subsidenee "
of the nort hern Talara and Tumbes basins is expressed by
the deposition of a 250 lo IODO m thick Iransgrcss ive series
of loeally conglomera tie sandstone beds, with marly and
carbo nate-rich inlercalations of paralic env ironmen t
(Máncora Formation), which unconformab ly rest on
Paleozoie rocks (León, 1983). Fu rlher sllbsidcnce allowed
the deposition of as much as IODO m of shale, marlstone "
and spo radic turbidite uni ts rich in planktonic foraminifera,
which indicate a significa nt deepening of Ihe basin during
Ihe early lOmiddle Mioeene (Heath Formation, León, 1983).
Offshore norlbern Peru, early Miocene marine deposils are
men tioned only locally. They overlie directly middle Eoeene
strata (Ballesterosel al., 1988).
In so uthern central Peru (Pisco Basin), the latest
Oligoeene-ea rly Miocene deposits consist of a 60 to 300 m
thick series of transgressive shale,siltstone and fine-grained
sandstone, which uneonformably rests 011 Paleozoie lo early
r
TECTONIC EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA

~6(~~~""
L»='~\;J
-- -~~

oligocenc roc ks (Caballas Format ion, MJn)((o and De

Muizon, 1988; Macharé el l/l.. 1988). Farthcr lo the S (olller
(ore-are). Ihe late Oligoccne series is re presented by
sandslOJlc, co nglolllerate and shal c of nearshore
environmenl (Ca maná For matioll, Riiegg, 1956; Macharé el
Cusca Series
al" 1988). In Ihe ¡nner rore-are zone oC sou th ern !'CfU
(Moquegu<1 Basin; Fig. 32), as Illuch as 700 m of coa rsc-
gra ined fluviatile dcposits datcd by volcanic intcrcalations
E
~
(25 - 23 Ma, Uppcr Moquegua Formatio n, Noble el al., 1985; ~ Middle
Marocco el al., 1985) recarded local and short -liycd marine =u Miocene
transgressions. 011 its easlern bordcr,supcrimposed alluvia l "::¡
~
lo late
fans indicate a coeval lectonic uplirt of Ihe paleo-Andes. The "
~
"-
coarsc-g rai ned forc·a rc deposit s indieate tha! the pa leo-
Andes of southcrn Pcru were /llore acti vely uplifled than
those of Central Pcr u during late Ol igoecne-earl y M iocene
times. A si milar situ al ioll is reco rded in Ihe Aza pa Basin of
northcrn Chile. The Chi lean ma rgin shows in its northern - JOMa
part a well -cxpressed extcnsional, aSylllJlle tri e basi n
Earlylo
(Muñoz and Fucnzalida, 1997) , similar to th e Neoge ne middle
basins occurr ing fa rl her N (Van Huene alld Scho11, 1991). Oligocene
and a horst and graben topography (Fig. 2C).
In Ihe magmatic are of southern Ecuador, a signifi cant
pulse of main ly acid lo in termcdiate are magmatism of late
early Ol igoccne-ea rly Mioeene age has been recogni zed (33
_ 16 Ma, Sa raguro Formation, Aspde n et al., 1992; Laven u et
al., 1992; Hungerbü hler, 1997; Dunkley and Gaibor, 1998).
Detailed ana lysis discloses ignimbritic evenls at 28 - 26 Ma,
24 - 22 Ma and 20 - 18 Ma,suggcsl inga n extensional teclonic
sctting in central and so uthern Ecuador (Stei nmallll, 1997;
Fig.33).
In north crn Peru. on ly continental grcywaeke and
conglomerate yiclded a 23 Ma K/A r agc (Noble el al., 1990).
Early
In the magmatic arc zone and Paleo-Andes of Central rem, Oligocene?
after the 30 - 26 Ma plutonic gap. effusion of cak-alkal ine -late
Eocene
basaltic andes ite, andesile and dacile resumed near the
Oligocene-Mioeene bounda ry (26 - 19 Ma), and oeeupied a
150 km lVide arca (Sébrier and Soler, 1991; Soler, 199 1; Fig.
~ Umeslone
20) They originaled in Ihe mantle wedge modified by fluids
or J11elts issued (ram Ihe subducting slab (Sébrier and Soler, D Sandstone _ Shale

1991). 00 Charophytes [?2J Trackways

In Ih e are zonc of southern Peru, after a long vo1ca nic ~ Vertebrales 30 Ma Radiornetric Age
gap (55 - 27 Ma), huge volumcs of basalti c to dacitic flows Environmenls : a: shal10w marine; b: coastal plain I
and luff were outpoured (Tacaza and Sillapaea formations, lacuslrine; e: distal fluvial; d: proximal fluvial;
Barroso Group, 27 - 15 Ma, LcfCv re, 1979; Tosdal el al., 1984; e: alluvial fan
Klinck el al., 1986; Sébrier el al., 1988; Clark el al., 1990; Fig.
32). Their chemieal signaturc ind icales a significant crustal
co ntamin alion, in dicat ive of Ih e begi nning of cr ustal
shortcning and thickening (Boily et al., 1990). Gra nodiorite
plutons (25 Ma, Bonhomme el al., 1985) and abundant ca lc-
alkaline volcanism occurred along the westcrn Cordi ll era -
Altiplano boundary (Carlier el al.• 1996). Th is period is also FIGURE 34 - Stratigraphic slIccessiol/ af lhe Eocelle-
Miocelle "Red Beds" of tite Cusco area (A l/des of SO l/tI/UI/
marked by a significa nt peraluminous magmatism in Ihe
PCrlI) (after Carlollo, 1998).
Eastern Cordillera of soutbern Pcru (28 - 23 Ma, Kontak el
al" 1986; Laubacher el al., 1988; Clark el al., 1990; Carl ier el
al.• 1996), which would res ul! fram mell ing of crustal
co ntinental mat eri al (Sébrier and Soler, 199 1) . It is
associa ted wilh and /o r followcd by empla cerncnt of
shoshonilic bodies and K- rich to high- Kminettes exJlibiti ng
lamproitic affinitics (25 - 20 Ma, Bonhomme el al .• 1985;
Konta k el al., 1986; Carlier el al., 1996). The lalter 1V0uld
reflec! the thicken ing of the li thos phcre duc lo incipient 521
 TECTONIC EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA

I~eo
I =~==~--
=>
C>

I~
=i
z
w

I~
>'
ro
«
ro

I ~'
.",
~
<{ w E

I~
Teclonic and Drogenic
Evo/u/ion
Mauri 6 55 5
I(........
~';';~. Mauri6 -
=4 ~
·5 Ma Compression
>-" ......... Rosapala
'" 9 Me Tectonic inversion

~
,",", Relative tectonic

1I quiecence,
active erosioo

§
>-'
~.
'ntramontane Basin

I~
Berenguela

I~ '~
tt' ++ + Upliflo(lhe
'"6
~
t+++
+++ Poopo Besin
.55 Ma ~;r;cordilera

~
Mauri-Villa
Flor Basin

r "Id d,.,
Lom Foreland 01 Ihe
Westem Cordillera

I
_ ~j,!-oI!!!.e..
• 5.34 t 0,003 Ma .. 55 Ma~""
geophisical datas Westem Cordillera
O 9,03 t O,OO7Ma
interpretation Corque Basin . . 25,2t1 Ma

~ Cretaceous ~~ Conglomerate ~ Graywacke and Erosional 5 Pliocene

~peli!e ~ tuffaceous sandstone
e Sandslone
- - surface
4 Upper Miocene
~ Paleozoic • Conglomerale r::iW,I
&W:J Sills with ..
conglomeralic tenses 3 Mlddle MlQCene
. . ArgiJlile
2 Upper·Lower Miocene
; ~ Precambrian l2J Evaporites ~
~
Sandstone wilh
conglomerales len ses
r~~ Congtomerate
e.~ and graywacke 1 Eocene·Lower Oligocene

FIGURE 35 - Represeutat;vc stratigrap/¡ic slIccessiollS accross rlre Altiplallo

Basin ofBolivia (afrer Lamb el al., 1997, Roe/mr el al., 1998).

thrusting to Ih e NE of Ihe Alt iplano an ta Ihe I3razilia n
ShicJd, Ir iggering also Ihe partial melting of Ihe continental
Cftl sl (Carl ier el al., 1996).
In northernmost Chile, vo!canic activity resumed by
25 Ma Oligocene terrestrial scdiments (Azapa Formation,
Mufloz and Cha rrier, 1996; Ga rcia, 1997; Ga rcia el af., 1999;
rig. 38) are 1I1lconformably overlain by late Oligocene-
midd le Mioccne acid luff associalcd with nuvial scdiments
deposiled in an extensional environmcnl (Lupica and Oxaya
tor maliolls. 25 - 18 Ma). Farther lo the S (Alacama area). no
dcpos its are known belwecn Ihe playa and fan scdimenls of
the uppcr Paciencia Group (28 Ma) and Ihe unconfonnilble
vo!canic rocks of the San Haflolo Group, Ihe base of which
is dated at 17 Ma (Fli nt el (/1., 1993).
In Ihe present-day Andes of Peru and Ecuador, Ihe late
Oligoccne-ea rly Mioce ne \Vas Ihoughl lo be marked by the
crealion of a remarkabl e belt of intc rmonl ane basins
{Marocco ef al., 1995; Noble ef (11.. 1999). Howevcr. recenl F-
T dates led lo Ihe consideration thal most inlermon tanc
basins of Ecuador are late early lo early middle Mioccne in
age (l8 - 9 Ma, Hunge rb ühler, 1997; Steinmann, 1997;
Steinmilnn el al., 1999; Fig. 40).
In Ihe Cuzco area, Ihe Oligocene red beds are
disconformably overlain by a fine-graincd unit, in lurn
unconformably overla in by a 4000 m Ihick se ries of
sandstone and conglomera le beds of la te Oligocenc-early
Miocene age (Punacancha Formalion. Carlotto, 1998; Fig.
34). Th ese mainly represent reworked volcanic rocks and
exhibit compressional syn-sedimenta ry defonnalion. thus
evidencing noticcable coevi¡1 voleanic and teclonic activ il y
(Marocco and Noblet, 199U; Carlolto, 1998).
011 the Alt iplano and in Ihe Eastern Cordillera, Ihe late
Oligocene-early Miocene sequence is marked by the arri val
of coa rse-grained conglomerate unit s (Azurita and Co niri
fo rmations. Kennan ef al., 1995; Rochat ef af., 1998; Fig.35).
The back-arc area is marked by a strong increase in the

•
 l'

TECTONIC EVQlUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA

[SM00
~----~
1

Contamana area
T
M.lL. Miocene
.. '
'" ... ',
Middle "

Miocene ......... " ,

' ....
Early
Miocene
Tectochara
lo ucayalensis
principalis
Lale
Oligocene

1000m

100m
Eocene N.

Nilellopsis
supraplana
Eocene Maedleriefla

I :
Early Eocene
Paleocene

Maaslrichlian

Campanian No microfossils

FIGURE 36 - PaJeogeogmpllic profiles of lile latest Cretaceolls-MiocClle "Red Beds" of lhe Ucayllli Basi"
(caste", Central Peru) (after Kocll amlBfisscllbaclt, 1962j afterMiilleratld Aliaga, 1981).

tectonic su bsidence. which marks Ihe start of its evolutioll
as a !fue ret ro-are foreland basin (Sempere el al., 1990;
Dashwoad and AbbolS, 1990; Thamas el al., 1995; Baby el
al., 1995; Berrones tlnd Cotrina, 1996; Contrcras el al., 1996;
Fig. 39). The lates! Oligoccnc-middle Miocene sequences
overlic a marked unconformity reprcsenting a long period
of non-deposition. In Ecuado r, Eocene red beds are
ullconformably overlain by 500-1000 m of siltstone with thin
interb eds of sandstonc or evaporite, of lacustrine to
continental environment, ascribed to the early (10 middle?)
Miocene (Chalcana Formation). Near Rentema (northcrn
Peru), a 1000 m thick series of alluvial siltstone, sandstone
and conglorncrate beds (Upper Sambimera Formation) is
probably of late Oligocene lo middle Miocene age (Naeser
el al., 1991; Fig. 31). Farlher lO Ihe E and SE (Marañon,
Ucayali basins), Ihe distal equivalent of thi s series
(Chambira Formation, Contamana 1) consisls of red
siltslone, shalc and Ihin -bedded sandstone. with local
evaporite and coal beds of brackis h lo la custrine
environmenl. They overlie directly the Eocene beds (Koch
and Blissenbaeh, 1962; Maroeea el al., 1993; Fig. 36). These
deposils express a resumed erosion of the paleo-Andes
subscquent lo Ihe lale Ol igocenc phase (Marocco et al.,
1993). Farthcr lO Ihe SE (Madre de Dios Basin). the Tertiary
succession has Ilever been slud jed.
In Ihe Cordillera Real ofBolivia,an importan! magmatic
pulse is responsible fol' the ¡ntru sion of numerous S-type
gnmitoid plulons dated between 28 and 23 Ma (Ávila -
Salinas, 1990). Fanher lo the E, Ihe Eastern Basin ofBolivia
is marked by a late Oligocene-early Miocene succession of
continental sandstone associated with subo rd ina te
conglomerate and shale, i nterpreted as ea rly forcland
deposils relaled lo the uplift oflhe Eastern Cordillera (Petaca
Formatioll, Marshall el al., 1993; Sempere, 1995).
523
~IC EVO;UTlON OF SO UTH AMERICA
~ Z' ~OI
J
o
n

1
=i
(

~\
Middle
Miocene C'

b
,.
=
«
= _ Mudstone and ooze
S
ti
~ Mudstone
~ Sillstone "1
CJ Sandslone
t
o Metamorphic basemenl Middle?
f
Eocene

[\ w
-Sea Level

Peru
Trench
Axis
FIGURE 37 - ¡ nterpretative structllral sectiotl tmd
lYeU succeSS;OIIS across lile Jore-are zone ofllortherll
Peru (Tmjillo and Naq llilla basim) (after Suess el
t D Pliocene-Pleistocen
al., 1988). D Midlle Miocene
-50Km _ Middle Eocene
FIGURE 38 - Representative sectio1lS in lIle eastern
Jore-are z01le ofllorthernmost Chile (after Garda,
1997; Garda el a L, 1999).

w E
Azapa Pampa Oxaya Belém
Pliocene
Late
;¡;;;;;¡;;;¡;;#..4A----------- Huayla, " ."""CY1// HuaYQuerense
Diablo Huaylas ~ 9-8 Ma Miocene
= Zapahuira
Lale Middle
Oxaya Miocene
Oxaya

Lale Lale Early

Joracane
Azapa Oligocene? Miocene
Uvilcar Early
Cretaceous
Arica
Jurassic

_ Shale Earliest
[]]]] Limestone

t·:·::·:·::.:l Sandstone
m
ro m
Lupica
Miocene

Latest

rn
Conglomerate

Volcanic or sedimentary breccia

° Ofigocene

1;';';1Tuff and welded tuf(

_ Andesilc and basiltic f10ws Precambrian

•

"Quechua 1» event (17 - 15 Ma) and
middIe to late Miocene evolution
(15-9Ma)
In Ihe rore-are basins of Ecuador, no good record of ¡he
event, which occurred near Ihe ea rly-middle Miocene
boundary (I7 - 15 Ma), is known. This event may be
recorded by the arrival of moderate amounts of delrital
sedimenls and by local lransgression (Progreso Basin). In
the Andes of Ecuador, F-T dates 011 sediments indicate an
uplift stage around 18 Ma (Steimann el al., 1999). In the
Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, rcsels of KI Ar ages al 20 - 15
Ma mar be duc lo compressional dcformations (Li lherland
el al., 1994). This interval is followed by the openingofthe
Guayaquil Gulf(Deniaud el al., 1999).
In central Peru, the middle-late Eocelle struclures were
re-activatcd in the Western Cordillera and in the Marañan
Fold and Thrust nelt (Mégard, 1984; Mégard el al., 1984),
which (ald late Cretaceolls red beds. A possible magmatic
gap occurred around 19 - 18 Ma in the are of eenlral Peru
(Soler, 1991). In southern Peru, il is responsible for
monoclinal folds and reverse falllts, large scale incisions
due lo Ihe resumption of eros ions triggered by a pulse of
uplift (Sébrier el al., 1988). The latter is thought to be
responsible for a 400 m uplift (Sébrier el al., 1988).
In Ihe are and fore-are zones of norlhern Chile (Fig. 42),
W-verging fault Ihrusts are assllmed lo have bcgan around
18 - 15 Ma (Garcia el al., 1996; Muñoz and Charrier, 1996;
Charrier et al., 1999). This event is assoc iated io
northernmost Chile, with unconformable late middle
Mioeene lava nows (Zapahuira Fo rmalion, 13 - liMa) 00
Ihe early Mioeenc luff and eooglomerate (Garcia, 1997; Fig.
38). Farther to the S (Antofagasta), the volcanie roeks ofthe
San Bartolo Grou p (17 Ma) overlie Oligoeene nuv ial
sedimeots with ao angular lInconform ity (Flinl et al., 1993).
In Ihe fore-arc basios of Ecuador, early Miocenc
ma rlstone beds are disconformably overlain by midd le
Miocene sandstone and marlstone (Subibaja-Angoslura
Formation). They are in turn overlain by ea rl y lale Miocene
conformable mudslo ne (Onzole Formalion, Benílez, 1995).
lo the Progreso Basi n, Ihe middle Mioccne disconformity
(Sub ibaja and San Antonio transgress ive limestone
membe rs) is followed by deposition of nearshore
sa ndstone of late Mioce ne age (Progreso Formation),
relaled to Ihe beginning of Ih e first opening slages of Ihe
Guayaquil Gulf. After an openingstage (late Oligoeene-early
Miocene) Ihe Tumbes Basin of northernmosl Peru received
deep-marine turbidite beds (León, 1983). In the foreare of
cent ral and northern Pcru, Ihe early Miocene deposits are
conformably overlain by Ihick middle Miocene marine
mudslone (Macharé el al., 1986; Ballesteros el al., 1988;
Fig.37).
Except in Ecuador, Ihe are zooes are marked by the
resumption of significan t amounts ofvolcanie produets. In
central Peru, a magmat ie pulse oeeurred in lhe Easlern
Western Cordillera and the Altiplano betwcen 18 and l3
Ma, whieh comprises abundant volcan ism (Soler, 1991; Fig.
20). In southe rn Peru, Ih e shos honitic and High -K
rnagmatism carne to an end, while ealc-alkaline magmatism
went on (Carlier el al., 1996). In the are and fore-arc LOne of
north ernmosl Chile, late middle Mioeene lava flows
TECTONIC EVOI.UTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA
(Zapahu ira Formalion, 13 - 11 Ma) unco nformably ovc rlie
carly Miocene tuff and conglomerate (Garcia, 1997; Fig. 38).
Farther lo the S, a volcanic unit (San Bartolo Group, 17 Ma)
overlies Oligocene fluvial sed im en ts with an angular
uneonformity (Flint el al., 1993; Fig. 30).
In the paleo-Andes of Ecuador and Peru, the opening
of Ihe "Mioce ne" inlermonlane basins had becll dated as
mainly carly Mioccne (K/A r, 26 - 22 Ma, Lavcnu el al., 1992)
and were regarded as pull-apa rt basins, opcned by the play
of an oblique NE trend ing strain exertcd on pre-cxisting
NNE and ENE trending faults (Noblet et al., 1988; Baudino
el al., 1994; Maroeco el al. , 1995; Barragán el al., 1996).
Howevcr, recent F-T concordant dates support a late early
lo early middle Miocene agc (16 - 14 Ma) for Ihe creation of
mosl inlermontane basins of Ecuador (Figs. 33 and 40 ),
wh ich have been alternatively regarded as the rcsult of an
E-W extensional regime (Sleinmann.1997; Hungerbühler.
1997; Steinmann el al.. 1999).A n extensional regime is al so
thoughl lo have governed the ereation of Illany Miocene
inlermolltane basins o{Peru (Noble el al., 1999 ).
In Ecuador, Ihe rapidly opened internlOntane basins (16-
15 Ma) were fUled by middle Miocene fine-graiJ1ed laeuslrinc
deposi ts (14 - 10 Ma) representinga period ofrelative teetonic
quiescenee (Noblet er al., 1988; Maroeeo el al., 1995). 111e fine-
grained dcposi ts are overlain by a coarsening-upward sequcnee
ofsandstoneand conglomerale, coeval with the eompressional
elosure ofthese basins (Mégard eral., 1984; Noblet el al., 1988;
Baud ino el al., 1994; Maroeeo el al., 1995; Hungerbü hler et al.,
1995; Hungerbühler, 1997; Fig.40).The Cueneaand Loja basins
of southern Ecuador contain middle Mioce nc marine
intercalations, indieatingthat theywereJocated al orveryclose
lo sealevel and are regarded as embaymenlsoffore-arcbasins
(15 - 11 Ma, Hungerbühler 1997; Steinmann el al., 1999; Fig.
40). In Peru,the non marillevolcanidasticand sedimentary in-
fil! of the middle Mioeene basins is usually unconformably
overlain by mainly volcanic deposits datcd at 10 lo 7 Ma
(Mégard el al., 1984; Maroeeo el al., 1995; Noble et al., 1999).
The Altiplano Basin oE Bolivia is a peculiar case of
inlermontane basin eonsisting ofN-S-trendi ng half~grabens
(Fig. 35). In this basin, shale, sandsto ne and subordinate
conglomerate of middle Mioeene age rest eonformably on
the early Miocenc deposits (Lamb el al., 1997; Rochat el al.,
1998). The middle Miocelle sequence was deposited with
vcry high sedimenlalion rates,cspecially in the Corque Basin
of southern Bolivia (Roperch et al., 1999a).Clastic sediments
ma inly derived from Ihe Eastern Cordillera, the erosion of
which allowed the development oE region al-sea le flal
morphologieal surfaces. Th ese are the Chayanta (13 - 14
Ma) and San Juan de Oro (10 Ma) su rfaees, which can be
observed and traeed from northern Argentina up lo Ihe La
Paz region (Servanl el al., 1989; Hérail el al., 1993; GlIbbcls
el al., 1993). This period coincides with a low uplift rate of
the Easlern Cordillera.
In the back-arc basins, a cOllspicuous shallow marine
Iransgression is recorded during Ihe la le middle Mioccne
(15 Ma, Pebas Formalion of Peru, Hoorn, 1993), wh ich was
connected lo the open marine realm Ihrough Ihe Maracaibo
area (Hoorn el al., 1995) and possibly the Guayaquil seaway
in so uthern Ecuador (Sleinmann el al., 1999). A similar
shallow marine invasioll of earJy late Miocene age is known
in Ihe Eastern Basin ofBolivia (Yecua Formation, Marshall 525
1 TECTON'~"EV~"LUT'ON OF SOUTH AMER'CA
..1:I'.r,:¡..f~'\1i~
~,~~
~
z
o
el al" 1993), which was connected southward to the
"o=> Atlantic Ocean.In Ecuador and northern Peru, this periad is
marked by slight de crease of the tcctonic subsidencr.
(Thomas el al" 1995; Conlreras el al., 1996; Fig.39).
HOWCVCf, in eastern Bolivia, a strong in crcase of tecton ic
subsidencc has been rc1ated to the deformatioll of the
easlem Cordillera (Marshall el al., 1993; Sempere, 1995).
"Quechua 2" event (9 - 8 Ma)
and late Miocene evolution (9
- 6 Ma)
'fhis periad begins with the Quechua 2 tectonic phase
(9 " 8 Ma, Mégard, 1984; Sébrier el al., 1988). Ralher Ihan
a majar deformational event, the Quechua 2 evcnt is a
turning point in the evolution of the northern Central
Andes, which corresponds to the change from a
dcpositional periad characterized by thick and relatively
widcspread fining-upward seq uences, lo a eompressional
and uplift period marked by erosions and deposilional
arcas restricted lo Ihe fore are and retro are domains. This
is inlerpreted as Ihe rcsult oflhe beginning oflhe nearly en
bloc eastward thru st ing of Ihe Paleo-Andes 0010 Ihe
Brazilian and Guiaoa shields, whieh resulted in cruslal
Ihickening and rapid uplift oE Ihe arc zones and paleo-
Andes, and the transfcr of active deformatíon into Ihe
Subandean Ihrust and fold belts.
'fhe Eore-arc zone are mainly marked by uplift (Sébrier
et al., 1988), unconformities and reverse Eaulting. In coaslal
Ecuador, the middle Miocene diseonformity is overlain by
transgressive marine sandstone (Angostura Formation) and
then by a thinlling-upwards suceession of marine nearshore
sands tone oElate Mioeene age (Progreso and Lower Onzole
Eormations), related lo the beginning oE the opeoing of the
Guayaquil GulE (Deniaud et al., 1999). In the fore-are zone
ofPeru, Ihe uneonformity between middle and late Miocene
marine deposits in Ihe fore-are basins of central Peru (Lima
Basin, I¡OS) has nol been recognized Earlher N (Yaquina
Basin, 90 S, Ballesteros et al., 1988). In Ihe Lima Basin, low
energy shelE deposils of late Mioeene age evolved loward
shelf lo slope deposils (Ballesleros el al., 1988), indiealing a
noticeable deepening of Ihe depositional environment, due
to Ihe subsidenee related lo leclonie erosion of the fore-arc
zones (Von Huene el al., 1988). ln the Yaquilla Basin, middle
Mioccne low energy turbiditc beds grade upwards into
higher energy lu rb idi les oE late Miocene-Pleistocene age
(Balle"eros el al., 1988).
In Ihe Eore-arczoue of norlhern Chile~ where W-verging
thrusting wenl on (Fig. 42),a sallle kind of unconformity is
recognized between lale middle Miocene lava and late
Mioce ne alluvial deposils (Huaylas Formation, 9 - 8 MOl,
Ca rda, 1997; Fig. 38). In Ih e magmalic are of Peru, no
local ion ehange is observed in the magma tic activity, with
respeet to Ihe forrner periods. A major magmatic pulse
occurred belween 12 alld 7 Ma (peak activity around 10 Ma).
It corresponds lo Ilumcrous intrusions, and vcry abundant
effusive produclS (Soler, 1991). A possible gap, or alleasl
magmalic quiesccnce. is menlioned at 9 - 8 Ma, which may
526 coincide wilh a compressional event (Soler, 1991; Fig.20) .
1
•
The Paleo-Andes and surrounding areas are marked by
a general and rapid uplift (Sébricr el al., 1988; Steinmann el
al., 1999), Ihe local rates oEwhich remain to be specified. In
Ecuador, Ihe estimates of mean rock uplift rate since Ihe
lale Miocene (9 Ma) is ofO.7 mm/y aud the mean su rEaee
uplift is ofO.3 mm/y (HungerbUhler, 1997;Sleinmann el al.,
1999), which is consistent wilh estimatcs by Delfaud el al.
(1999) in Ihe sa mearea, by Séb rier el al. (1988) in soulhern
Peru,a nd by Parraguez el al. (1997) in northern Chile. In Ihe
lalter area and in Bolivia, uplift involved both the Western
(Sébrier el al., 1988) and Easlern (Benjamin el al., 1987)
Cordilleras.
In Ecuador, Ihis period is marked by Ihe compressional
dosure of Ihe Miocene intramontane bas ins (Noblet el al.,
1988; Marocco el al., 1995; Hungerbühler, 1997; Steinmann
el al., 1999). which are filled by eoarsening and thickening-
upward clastie deposits. 1'his is intcrpreled as the resu lt of a
changc Ero m an extensional (15 - 10 Ma) lo a compressional
regime (9 - 8 Ma), which resulted in the uplift oEsouthern
Ecuador, the establishment of terrestrial conditions in the
inlermonlane basins oE southern Ecuador and rising reHef
in Ihe Easlern Cordillera (Hungerbühler, 1997), Latest
Miocene times are Ihen marked by the development oE
smaller-scale inlcrmontane basins filled with mainly
volcanic and volcanogenic rocks (Lavenu el al., 1996;
HungerbUhler, 1997; Fig. 41).
In northero Peru, although liming constrain ls are
poorer, and Ihe change from extcnsional to compressional
regime is assumed lo beoflate Miocene age.ln central Peru,
N-S shortening indllced mainly dextral movements along
NW Irending fault s (Mégard, 1984).ln Ihe Ayacucho Basin,
compressional deformation occurred between 9.5 and 8.5
Ma (Mégard el al., 1984). In soulhern Peru,lalesl Mioeene
Iransprcssional stress is Ihought lo be responsible Eor the
dosure ofinlermontane basins (Paruro Basin) opencd abolll
12 Ma ago (Carlollo, 1998). Farlher lo Ihe S, lale Mioeene
limes are marked by Ihe contraclion of theAltiplano, related
lo the teclonic inversion of the pre-existing normal faults
defining the hemi-grabens located W oflhe Altiplano Basin
(Kennan el al., 1995; I.amb el al., 1997; Rocha. el al., 1998,
1999; Fig. 35). In Ihe Altiplano Basin, luff beds daled al 9
Ma are disconformably ove rl ain by a thin sequcnce of
conglomerate reworked Paleozoic basemenl rocks (Lamb et
al., 1997; Rochal el al., 1998).
In norlhern Chile, eompressional tcctonic activity went
on inlhe Prc-Cordillera, with the developlllenl oflhe weslern
thrusls of Ihe W-vcrgent thrust systcm (Fig. 42), whercas
an exte nsional regim e prevailed far th er lo Ihe W
(Longitudinal Valley and Coastal Cordillera; Muñoz and
Charrier, 1996; Garcia el al., 1999).
Regarding the Eastern Basin, the eastward migration
of Ihe deformal ion Eronl during the la le Miocene is Ihe
prevailing fcalure (Sheffels, 1990; Baby el al., 1997). From
Ihis time onwards, most ofthe deformalion and shorlening
oElhe Andeal1lllargin is accommodated by the eastero areas,
which received W-proceeding eoarse-grained c1astic,
lerrcstrial sedilllenls. In Ihe Oriente Basin oE Ecuador, late
Miocene deposils consist oEthick sequenccs of poorly daled
coarse-grained eonglomeratic sequences separa ted Erom
each other by disconEonnities (Christophoul, 1999). In the
western parl of the Easlero Basin oE Borthero Peru (Bagua
 ·~
TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

!1!@00]

1. 1995)

NE Peru (Contreras,

FIGURE 3 9 - Average tecton;c SIlbsideltce curves for

Ihe Oriente BtlS;" of ECllador (TllOmas et al., 1995) Turi Fm F·T ages
lUId ti/e Mararloll Basin of 110rtllem Peru (Cof/treras
el ,1.,1996).

9.5Ma
FIGURE 40 - Lithology. age, ellviromncnts a"d
evalutio1l of lil e sedimentary itlfill of lile Cllet/cll
Bas;,z (EcuadorJ; after Maroeco et aJ., J 995;
Stei1lmaml el al., ( 1999). Mangán
Fm
FIGURE 41 - Representorive slIccessiotls of Ihe
vofcanoget/ic infill af tlle ínter-Andean basitls af
central Ecuador (after Laverlll et al., 1996). Ma

Biblián
Fm
-- 14.7 Ma

N Quito Ambato Riobamba

s
Cangahua

Palmira Fm
Cangahua
1.2 Ma
~~ .....
. ?' Ma

14-18 Ma Slcalpa Fm

1000· •

Alausi Fm

HUlgra Fm
? Om 35.5 Ma

527
TECTONIC EVO lUTIO N OF SOUTH AM ERICA
arca), a marked unconformity (10 Ma) separates fluvial
sandstone and conglomerate of middle Miocene age, from
late Mioccne coarse-grained fanglomerate (San Antonio
Fo rmation, Mourier el al.. 1988; Naeser et al., 1991; Fig. 31).
In the Ucayali Basin, fluvial siltstone and sandstone ofla te
Miocene age abruptIy ovcrlie marine lo brackish beds (Koch
and Blissenbach, 1962; Fig. 36).
Quechua 3 event (7 - 5 Ma) andlatest
Miocene-Present evolution (6 - OMa)
Al Ihe bcgi nning of Ihis peri od, Ihe significan! 7 - S Ma
contractional event is markcd by a chiefly E-W shortening
(Mégard, 1984; Sébrier el al., 1988). It is marked by folding
an d rcverse an d strike-slip faulting in southwestern Peru
(Sébr ier el al., 1988), and by Ihe anse! of Ihe slIb-Andea n
thrust and fold belts, which accornmodatc mast of th e
shorte nin g in the Andean Cha in du rin g the Plioccne
(Roeder, 1988; Sheffels, 1990; Baby el al., 1992).
In the fore-are zone the defo rm ation and uplift were
influeneed by the incip ient subduction of the Nazea and
Carnegie aseismic ridges (7 to 3 Ma ago, Suess el al., 1988;
Yon Huene and Scholl, 1991, Benllez, 1995), and 1he ongoing
teeto nic eros ion of the rore-are lones. In the fore-are zones
of Ecuador, a regional disconformit y dated at the Miocene-
Pliocene boundary (5.5 Ma ) precedes the deposition of a
coarseningand shallowing-upward sequence, related to the
increased uplift and erosion of the Andean Chain from 9
Ma (Be ní1e7.. 1995; Deniaud el al. , 1999). In the Guayaquil
Gulf, however, a strong subsidence due to transtensional
movements all owed the deposition of huge volumes of
clastic sediments, especial1y during the early Pleistocene
(Deniaud el al., 1999). A similar disconformity and hiatus
secm to be recorded at 5 Ma in Ihe offshore basins of Peru
(Yo n Huen e el al., 1988).
In central Peru (6° - 14°5), the subsidence of the fore-
are lones related lo the teclonic erosion is recorded in the
Lima Basin by Pliocene low energy turb idite beds, which
indica le deepening of th e envicollment (Balles teros el al.,
1988), by lhe local tran sit ion from upl ift to subsidence at 6
Ma (Yon Huene el al., 1988), and by Ihe Iack of lIplifted
lerraces in Ihe coaslal zone (Macharé and Ortlieb, 1993).
On the contrary, significa nt upl ift movements affected the
caast oE northern (4° - 6°S, < 0.2 mm/y) and so uthern Peru
(14° - 18°5, < 0.7 mm/y) sin ce the late Plioce ne (Macharé
and Ortlieb, 1992; Von Hucne el al., 1988). Illlhis latter case,
uplift is due to the subdu ction oflhe Nazca aseismic ridgc,
which ind uced a reg ion al eX lellsiona l stress regime
(Macharé and Orllieb, 1992)
Al! segmenls of the Andes are marked by the
conlinuation ofthe major and rapid uplift. 111 Ecuador, llplift
rate cSlimatcd by F· T evidence a slow dow n between 6 and
tj Ma, and an ¡ncrease from 3 Ma (Steinmann et al., 1999).
Other methods estimate 1000 - 1200 m of net uplirt sin ce 5
Ma (0.2 mm/y, Delfaud el al., 1999 ). Plioccne·QlIalernary
lim es are also marked by Ihe uplift of lhe sub-A ndean Zone
of Ecuador (Baby el al., 1999). ln the Andes of soulhern Peru,
upl ift is est imated at 1300 m si nce Ihe late Miocene,of which
200 - 300 111 wou ld be of Qllaternary age.
The are zones oE Ecu ador (Steinmann el al., 1999), and
Norlhern and Central Peru are marked by an effusive pulse
centred around S - 4 Ma.ln Peru, il corresponds mainly to
ig nim briti e luff associated with rhyolit ic dykes in the
Weslern Cordillera (So ler, 1991). In soulhern Peru, Ihe
emplacement of alkaline. peraluminous and shoshonitic
sllites along major fault systems suggests Ihat an extensional
regime prevailed around 6 - 5 Ma (Carlier et al., 1996).
EfEusions of shoshonite, minett e, lamproitc an d
peraluminous rhyolile and dacite \Vent on during the past 3
Ma, and took place along the fa ult systems limiting the
Altiplano,and interpreted as sinistral wrench-Eauhs (Carlier
el al. , 1996; Carlollo, 1998).
In Ihe eas lern basins, latest Miocene-Pliocene tim es are
marked by a strong flex ural subsidence allowing Ihick
acc umulation s of foreland clastic deposits (Thomas et al.,
1995; Cont reras el al., 1996; Baby el al., 1995; Fig. 39),
whercas Recent times are marked by a strong decrease of
the sedimentation rate and local uplifts. Howcver, Recent
sedimentation continues in restricted and/or more casterly
area s (Ucamara depression of easternmost Peru; Pastaza-
Marañon alluvial fan).
In Ihe Oriente Basin of Ecuador, locali7.ed coarse-
grained fanglom erate are incised by present-day rivers
(Chr istophoul , 1999). In northeastern Peru, apatile fiss ion
tracks data indicare Ihat Ihe Santiago Basin underwenl a
rapid uplirt (DA mm/y) du ri ng Ihe last 10 Ma, probabIy
rclated to the onset of the Santiago Fold and Thrust 8eh
du ring Ihe lalest Miocene (Pardo, 1982; Mégard, 1984). In
the Marañon Basin,a sedimcntary hiatus separates middle-
late Mioeene fine-grained deposits from disconformable
coa rse-grained fanglom erate of latest Miocene-Recent age
(Math alone and Montora, 1995) and Pliocene times are
marked by Ihe uplirt of the area (Con1 reras el al., 1996). In
the Ucayali Basin, no post-Miocene depos its are known
(Koch and Blissenbach, 1962). In 1he Madre de Dios Basin,
late Miocene deposits fill inciscd valIeys, and the recent
alluvial terrace morphology shows a Pl eistocene uplifl of
the arca. In the sub-Andean foreland bas in of northern
Bolivia,a significant increase in Ihe subsidence allowcd Ihe
accumulation oE abo ut 5000 m oE late Mio cene-Pliocene
clastic sed im ents. This is inlerpreted as the result of the
rapid eastward migration oftheAndean deEormalion 10 to
6 Ma ago (Gubbclsel al., 1993; Baby el al., 1995). However,
no foredeep sedimentation occurs at present (Roeder, 1988).
TECTONIC AND I{INEMATIC
EVOLUTION OF THE
N ORTH- C ENTRAI ANDES
From Bolivia lo Ecuador, slructural slyle of the Andes
cha nges dra mat ica lly. Geomelry of the present-day
deformation of the Solivian and North-Chilean Andes
results from Neogene thin -skinned tectonics, whereas the
Ecuadorian Andes have been struclured by Ihick-skin ned
and wrench tec lonics since Crelaceous times. Figures 2A,
2Band 2C iIluslrate globa l changes in structural geometry
and chaln width. These two parls DE the Andes form two
ex trem es. Neogene tecton ic evenls see m to occur
contemporaneously, but express two shapes of orogenic belt.
'fhree Neogene orogenic stages, lat e Oligocene-ea rl y
 :;¡
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o
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:
Central Precordillera Western Cordillera Altiplano ~ Huaylas Ignimbrite
~ (4-5Ma)
QLaucaFrn ¡
Depression
[;2
~
West-vergent Thrust System
g:~:t:i Huaylas Fm (post
~ Chucal Fm. I
\ampa Oxaya Anticline
Chuca! Thrust
........... 11 Ma ante 4-5 Ma) ~ (Upper Member) I
Cerro Syslem
= Chucal Fm. I
Ausipar Fault
I

/ Lauca
Basin
~
-
_
Joracane Fm
(18Ma - 12Ma)
Zapahuira Fm
t::::=::j (Lower Member)
~Miocane I ,.,........
m

(11-13 Ma)
~ Statovolcanoes I
O
~OxayaFm unmapped ,.,z
~ (.25 - 1 9 Ma) D area m

C7771lupica Fm O"o:
~

1LLLI (.23 - 18 Ma)

:l
~ Basemenl
~ (l ower Paleozoic)
• Early Oligocene [:..~~~~ Early Miocene
,.,.".. Syn-tectonic sediments D =
~ Livilcar Fm
(Jurassic)
O
z
O

~i
Pliocene and ~ Belén Metamorphic
W7m:l ~ Complex
Jurassic and
~ Cretaceous D Late Oligocene and
early Miocene
~ late Miocene
~ syntectonic sediments
Pleistone

t:'J!j, "
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111
N
\D TECTON IC EVOLU TI ON OF THE ANDES OF ECUADOR, PERU, BOLIVIA ANO NORTHERNMOST CHILE !O
l ECTONIC EVOLUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

1 ~~OI
o
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~6
..
z

-9offi90
Rolalion angle

j
'"

1
J

Lale Crelaceous - Eocene Miocene lo Presenl

FIGURE 43 - Tecton;c rotatiollS j" tlle CfIltral Al/des.

Importan! rotn!iOlls c/UlYacterize tite¡ore-are's evollltioll before
,IIeMioccllc. Thc Ar;C(I elbow probablydevefoped cluri tlg file
UpperCretaceolls alld EocclIC. rile rotatiotls fOll1ld in ,IJe
A {tipltltlO-PUlla are /i"kel/ la lhe pusllitlg ofllle rigidlore-are
ami lo li,e paleogeogmphic cOlltrol oftbe propagarían ofthe
tleformarion ;1I tl,cSllballdeall belt (tlfter Roperc" et al., 1999b) .

.

Miocene,late Mioccne,and Pliocene-Quaternary, have been
distinguished aeeording to the defonnation stylc and rateo
They have becn reeo rded in fo re-are, intermontane and
back-arc basins. Sedirnentary successions ¡nvolved in th e
deformat ions eonsist ofCambrian lo Oligocene prc-orogenic
strata. and Oligoeene-Miocene to Recent continental syn-
orogenic in-fill.
Central Andes of Bolivia
Recent work has shown the importanee of crustal
shortening for the dcvelopment of the struc tural pattern o(
this part of the Andes (Allmendinger el al., 1983; l,acks,
1988; Roeder, 1988;Sheffe1s, 1990; Scmpere el al., 1990; Baby
el al., 1992, 1997; Gubbc1s el al., 1993; Schmit" 1994; Klcy
and Reinhardt, 1994; Dunn el al., 1995; Rochat el al., 1999;
Giese el al., 1999).
Crusta! structures and Neogene
shortening
The Central Andes are divided from E to W into several
morpho -tectonic units (Fig. 43). The Chaco and Beni plains
correspond to a slightly deformed Neogene foreland basin
underlain by the Brazilian Shield. It is overthrust by the
Subandean lone. a complex thin-skinned fold and thrust belt
characterized in its central part (Santa Cruz elbow) by large-
scale transfer zones (Baby el al., 1996). The northern braneh
ofthe Subandean lone is characterized by large scale thrust
sheets (!O - 20 km of offset) and broad synclines (Roeder,
1988) filled by up to 6000 m of syn-tectonic Neogene
sedimentary rocks (Baby el al., 1995a). Surface mapping,
seismic reflection data, and drilling information show that
the main detachment planes are located in the Ordovician,
Silurian, Devonian and Permian shaly leve!s (Baby el al.,
1995b). The slope ofthe base ofthe foredeep is 4" toward the
Sw. The amouot of shorteniog is 74 km, Le. 50%.
In the sou thern branch of the Subandean Zone, a
regional E-verging thru st (Mandiyuti Thrust) divides the
southern Bolivian Zone into two fold and thrust bclts, which
differ according to their th rust system geometry. Mainly
f.u!t-propagation folds and fau!t-bend folds characterize the
western be!t, whereas fault-propagatioll folds and passivc-
roof duplexes characterize the eastem belt. Main
detachments are located in Silurian dark shale, Lower
Devonian shale, and at the base and top of the Middle to
Upper Devonian dark shale. 'fhe Silurian-Devonian
successio n is covered by more than 2000 m of upper
Paleozoic and Mesozoic sa nd stol1c with 110 potential
detachments; in sorne plaees it is also covered by several
thousand metres of syn-orogenic Neogene sedimentary
rocks (Moretti el al., 1996). The base of the foredeep slopes
at 2°W. 'Iotal shortening decreases southward from 140 km
(50%) at 20"S, to 86 km (35%) at 22"S.
The Interandean Zone and Cordillera Oriental are
deformed by E~vergent thrusts which involve basement
roeks {Kley, 1996),and associated thin-skin ned thrusts and
back th rusts.Mainly Silurian, Devonian, aod Carboniferous
strata are exposed in the Interandean Zone.In the Cordillera
TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA
Oriental, the Neogcne thrust system is superimposed on a
deeply eroded pre-Cretaceous fold bclt th at deformed
Ordovician anchimetamorphic sedimentary rocks.
Shortening is concentrated in the W-verging thrust system
of.the western part of the Cordillera Oriental and of the
Interandean Zone. The Cordillera Oriental is charactcrized
by smal! Neogene piggyback basins (~ornari el al., 1987;
Hérail el al., 1996).Good surfacc data allowed us to construct
so me balanced cross sections, according to whieh total
shortening may be estimated between 80 and 100 km. The
Altiplano is a complex Ncogc ne intermontane basin
deformed by both extensional and comp ressional tcctonics.
Surface mapping, seismic refleeUon data, and drilling
information made possiblc the constructioo of balanced
cross-sections. 'fhe total shorteningcalculated is 20 km and
13 km in the southern and northern pa rts of the Altiplano.
respeetively.
The western areas inelude several morphological uni ts.
The Cordil lera Occidental ¡neludes Plio-Quaternary
volcanoes.lts western part is formed by a W-vcrging thrllst
system (Muiíoz and Charrier, 1996; Fig. 42), characterized
by the reaetivation of high angle faults and the lack of
Paleozoiccover. On the eastern part ofthe Precordillera, baek
thrusts limit a blind pop-up structure beJow the Tertiary
deposits (Riquclme and Hérail, 1997). Shortening is close
to 18 km.Jn the Central Valley, within which Late Cretaceous-
Paleoeene magmatic arc and associated deposits are
deformed by a mild Plio-Pleistocene extensional teetonics
(Parraguez el al., 1997). The Coastal Cordillera shows low
relief constituted by ]urassie - Early Crctaceous magmatie
arc rocks. The Chilea n margin exhibits a horst and graben
topography, and in its cen tral part, a well ex pressed
extensional, asymmetric basin (Muñoz and Fuenzalida.
1997), similar to the Neogene basins located farther N (Von
Hueneand Schol!, 1991).
Crustal balancing across the Central Andes between
15°S and 18°S (Fig. 2) 00 the basis of a normal pre-orogellic
erustal thiekness (according to the location ofthe Palaeozoic
basin and the lack of significant Meso-Cenozoic extension)
allows us to calculate 210 km o( shortening during the
Neogene (Baby el al., 1997).At Ihe latitude oftheArica elbow,
shortening is associated with the dockwise rotation of
crustal block, controlled by inherited fauhs (Fig. 43), due
to the compression exerted by the fore-arc zone that behaves
as a rigid butlress. These rotations are coeval with the
compressional deformation, but the elbow shapc of the
Bolivian orocJine has been acquired prior to thi s
deformation, alld is probably of Late Crctaecous or Eoeene
agc(Roperch el al., 1999b).
The Moho shape and the Nazca Plate geometry at this
lati tude are well eonstrai ned by geophysieal studies (James,
1971; Cahill and Isacks, 1992; Dorbath el al., 1993; Beck el
al., 1996; Zandt el al., 1996). Deep crustal structures are
imaged by lower crus t reflectors located at different
strueturallevels (Wigger el al., 1994; AlImendinger and
Zapata, 1996). The crustal duplexes below the Eastern and
Western Cordillera are insufficient to produce the crustal
thickening evidenced by geophysical data below the
Altiplano and the fore-arc zone. Duplex structu res in the
lower erust (Lamb and Hoke, 1997) cannot explain the over
balanced volume (7216 km 2 in cross-section; Fig. 2). si nce 531
TECTONIC EVO LU TlON OF SOUTH AMERICA
~
z
o
Ihe lower (rus! structurcs have bee n taken i!lto account in
"
=>
o Ihe (fustal balanc ing. Asthenosphere wedge as well as
significan! yolumes of magmatic addilion caUIlO! aCCQunt
for the observed thickness (Rochat el al., 1999). The
significan! tec lonic erosioll ofl he Chilean margin (Rulla nd,
1971; Cloos and Shreve, 1996; Von Huene and Scho11 , 1991)
and assoc iated extcnsional deformations suggest tha! dcep
crllS! material removed fram Ihe contine ntal edge has been
underplated below Ihe rore-are lOoe and Altiplano (Schmilz,
1991; Baby el al., 1997).
Timing of Neogene deformations
In Ihe Cent ral Andes, Ihe back-a rc thrusting started in
the late Oligocene (5empereel al. , 1990; Baby el al., 1997).
'fhe firs t W-vcrgent thrust motions in Ihe Eore-are zone
occurred in Ihe late Oligoccnc-Iower Miocene alo ng Ihe
median thrust plane (Garcia el al., 1996). Meanwhi le, Ihe
Alt iplano corresponded lO al1 endorheic basi n (Rochat el
al., 1998,1999) situated al Ihe back of Ihe more in tern al
crustal lhrust of Ihe Eastern Cordillera. During the upper
Miocene, Ihe media n Ihrusl pla ne of Ihe W-vergent Ihrust
systcm was reactivated (Garcia el al., 1996) and crustal back
thrusts pro duced Ihe partial expulsion of Ihe Altiplano,
which rep rescn ted, thercfo re, a broad piggy-back basin
carried over Ihe crusta l duplex of Ihe Eastern Cord illera
(Baby el al., 1997). Activ ity ofthe Subandeau fold and thrust
syslem starled al Ihe same period (Gubbcls el al., 1993); ils
eastward propagalion accelerated in the Pliocene and
conlinues presently.
Kinematic and dynamic analysis
Teclono-sedimentary slud ies of Ihe Altiplano (Rocha!
el al., 1998) indicate a local Iype isostatic behaviour (deep
basin conlrolled by verlical mo l ion along pre-exisling high
augle faulis) . Prcd icted topograp hy from 10 km of depos its,
assuming a normal crus! isostalically compcnsa ted, is 1.5
km (Rochal et al., 1999). However, 110 significant absolute
subsidence and uplift occurred in the Alt iplano during the
Neogene. r he continuity of the sedimentation in Ihe centre
of Ihe Altiplano shows tha! the lopography was archived by
fill ing up of Ihe thick sy n-o roge ni c deposits and
progradation over Ihe uplifting borders.
The Neogene filling of the fore-arc exlensional basin
(Von Hue ne and 5cho11, 1991) is coeval wit h the
sedimentary overloading of lhe Altiplano, wh ich
corresponds lo 30% of Ihe volume eroded from Ihe back-
are and the Cordille ra Occiden tal (Rochat, 1999). Ti ming
ofbo th proccsses ind icales tha t deep tectonic eros ion and
underplating were able lo main tain isostatic equilibrium
and cOllsequen tly Ihe vertica l aggrada tion of Ihe Altiplano
leve!. Along the fore-arc zone, slruc tural traps (like the
Alt ip lano cruslal piggyback basin) do not exist. rhe
intensily of Neogene erosion shows that these areas were
overcompensatcd by the deep underplaling. The upper Plio-
Pleistocene dccrease of scd imentat ion areas in the Alt iplano
(Rochat et al., 1998) was associated with exorheic drainage.
Consecut ive minor uplift, as is shown by lacustr ine over-
deepcning an d cxtensional deformat ions (Lavenu,1995),
532 show that the equi li br iurn be twee n supe rficial
sedimentation-erosion and deep crosion unde rpla ting was
broken. In an ongoing convergence lecton ic conlext, deep
up-drive wi ll involve destruction oflhe Al tiplano by erosion
and assoc iated collapse.
Andes of Ecuador
The Ecuadoria n Andes (IoN · 4°S), are one of Ihe
narrowest and mos l act ive part of the Andean Beh. It is
deformed by NNE-SSW righl-Iateral transpressive shear
zones (ribaldi and Fer rar i, 1992) and underwent an inlense
Holoce ne tec tonic and volcanic activity. The Dolores-
Guayaquil Megashear consti lules an important dextral
transcurrent boundary which marks roughly Ihe sutu re ZOne
bctween the Sou th American cont inental margin and the
eoastal Block with occanic basemenl. accreted during Late
Cretaceous-Palcogene times (Juteau el al., 1977; Lebrat el
ni., 1987; Cosma el ni., 1998; Rcynaud el al., 1999). Decp
geophysical dala are nol numerous enough to constra in the
Moho geomelry. Below the chai n, Ihe average depth of Ihe
Moho is about 50 km (Prévot el al., 1996).
Crustal structures and Neogene
deformations
rhe Ecuadorian Andes are divided from E lo W into su
morpho tecton ic units (Hg. 2). The Amazonas foreland
basin is deforrned by two major NNE-SSW Irending,
transpressional righl-Iate ral fault zones. which correspond
lo inverted Mesozoic rift syslems (Baby et al., 1999). Posil ive
flower struclures werc developed along Ihese trcnds and
formed Ihe mai n oil fields of Ecuador. No Quaternary
sedimen!ary sequenccs are croppingout in th is basin, which
seems lO undergo uplift presently.
'Ibe Subandea n Zone is formed by two en eehelon NNE-
SSW trendingposilive flowe r sl ructu rcs (Napo and Culucú
uplifts, Baby et al., 1999), which are sti11 seismica11y and
volca nícally act ive. Thcy resull also from transpressional
dextral movements, and are sepa raled by a Quaterna ry pull-
apart basin (Pastaza Depression).
The Cordillera Real is a rneta morphic bel t, intruded by
]urassic balholilhs and strongly deforrncd by wrench
Icc lonics. A W-dipp ing. high angle reve rse fa ult zone
separa tes it fro m Ihe Subandean Zone. In lhe Interandean
Valley, thick alluvia l, lacustrine a ll d volcani cl astic
conli nenta l sediments wcre deposited in several Ncogene
intermontane basi ns,controlled by regional slrikc-slip faults
Iimit ing the Inlerandean Valley (Marocco el lIl., 1995;
Barragán el al., 1996; Hungerbüh ler, 1997).
The Western Cordillera and Coastal area are part of the
allochlhonous oceanic terranes accreted lo the Andean
ma rgin during Late Cretaceous-earlyTert iary limes (Lebrat
el al., 1987; Cosma el al., 1998; Hughes and Pila tasig. 1999;
Reynaud el (jI., 1999). 'rhe Western Cordillera is made of
ocea nie plateau and island are magmatic rocks and Iheir
Crelaceous-Eocene flysch cover, ovcrlain and crosscu t by
continental are magmatic rocks. The Coastal area is
characterized by four main Neogene fore are basins (Borbón,
Manabí, Progreso,Guayaqu il; Fig. l ) related to dextral strike-
 TECTONIC EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA

Nazca Plate

J. Femandez R\dge

CTJ Chile Triple Junction

• Aseismic ridges
E] Uplifted zone
[QQ9J Exlensional stress direction
~ Compressional stress direclion
______ Convergence direclion
y =22 to 38° Angle of convergence obliquity .

FIGURE 44 - Principal direclÍons af stress ded/lced [rom strflctllra( allafysis of Qunternary alld active fU/dls.

533
1 TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

f~ef)OI
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>-'

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6

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-
3

FIGURE 45 - Geody"amic ellvironmetlt

IJ4L-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - - l
ofllle Marm;Oll (l1/(/ Be,,; basílls.
A: LocatiolJ. 8: Rivers lUId basement
structures ¡ti lhe Mnra,lo11 Bas;", SlIil!
of lile illflection points from A lo e
(Ucayali Ríver)atldfrom D (oF
(Maraño" ríver). 1 - Tapiclle FUl/JI,
[rolll of S"ba"dem¡ thmst tectoníes;
2 - mai" basemen l falllts;
3 - struclIIral elotlgatecl fakes;
4 - maillgeographicaI directioll ofriver
shifts.
C: Reu; Basill ami sllifts of the Hen;
River. A ro E sholV rhe slIccessive
lateral slrifts of lile river, which
correspond lo lile deflectio" poillts e'
lo E', Lakes;n ,lIe Den; Bas;" tlre 1101
of tecton;e origin,

,
 slip displacenlen lS (lJe ll iaud el al., 1999) . The Gu lf of
Guayaquil is th e dee pest Ncogc ne (ore-are basin. It
corresponds lo a pull-apart basin developcd betwec n Ihe
Dolores-Guayaquil Mcgashear Zone lo Ihe E,3nd Ihe obligue
convergen! Nazca-So uth America Plate bou nda ry lo lhe W
(Deniaud el al., 1999).
Timing of Neogene deformations
Neogene deformations have been rccorded in Ihe fore-
are, intermontane and fordand bas ins. The crcatio n of the
intermontanc basins sla rted al aboll! 28 - 26 Ma (Marocco
et al., 1995) , like th e 1301ivian Altiplano Basin. In Ihe eoastal
area, lhe evolution of lhe Manabí and Progreso Neogc nc
basins began in lhe early Miocenc. In the Amazonas Basin.
slratigraphic data are insufficient lo specify Ihe age of lhe
oosel of Ihe Neogene forcland basin. It is marked by th e
eastward wedge of the subaerial Arajuno Formati on
(Petroproducción seismic informal ion), of probable early
Miocene age.
rhe upper Miocene is characterized by Ihe dosure and
the piggyback evolulion of Ihe inle rmonla ne basins
(Maroceo el al., 1995), and the closure of Ihc M,nabr and
Progreso fo re-arc basins (Den iaud el al., 1999).At Ihe same
time, the Amazonas forel and was mildly deformed and
invaded by mar ine incursiolls (Hoorn el al., 1995).
The Pliocene showed ao acceleration of lhe deformation
and marked the onsel of Ihe strongest orogenic stage of the
Andes, which is slill aclive. The opening of Ihe pull-aparl
basio of!he Gul f of Guayaquil sta rted during the Pliocene,
and sedimentation rale reached a maximum (8600 miMa
in Ihe depocenter) in the lower Pleistocene (Deniaud el al.,
1999b). The uplift oflhe Subandean Zone (Napo ,nd Culucú
uplifts) occurred duringth is period and continues presently.
O VERVIEW OF THE NEOTECTONICS
OF THE NORTH-CENTRAL ANDES
(ECUADOR, PERU, BOLIVIA, AND
NORTHERN CHILE)
'fhe main fealures of the Andean Cord illera were
acquired during the Miocene, and few changes occured since
th en. However, significant modificatiolls of Ihe topography
are produced by neoteclollic deformatio ns. resulti ng in Ihe
present-day topography. During Ihis period, altiplano basins
are formed or maintained in Ecuador and Bolivia, the Nazca
and Ca rn egie aseismic ridges are inlrod uced in th e
subduction lOne, lcading th e coast to cise, and Ihe two
depressions of Ihe Maral10n all d Beni basi ns are
individu.alized,giving birth to the present Amazonas River.
This evolulion of the la ndscape is better approached and
understood co nside ring three different aspec ls of
neotectonic studies and melhods. The first determines the
state of stress (Fig. 44). as deduced from fault analysis. As
far as Quaterna ry terranes are co nsidered. a co mpariso n
with Ihe preseo! state of stress can be ca rr ied out. The
second deals with Ihe vertical movements aloog the coast,
as determined from the stud y of marine teeraces. The third
type of neotectonic stud ies is dedicated to the forela nd
basins, wher~ river lo calions and shift s are controlled by
neotectonic deformation of the basin su rface (Fig. 45).
The conve rgence vector is oblique with respect to the
plate bo undar y zone. The Illode of the obliqu e
accomm odation is problemalic. specially the relationship
betwee n lhe overridi ng pI ate defo rmatiol1s and th e
subduction. The geometr y of Ihe coast and Ihe subduc tion
syslem suggests thal il strongly controls the building of lhe
range. The coastal areas of SOllth America are gencraUy
submitted lo exlensional teclonics, mostly because it lies
over the subducted plate wit hout lateral constrai nts.
However, Ihe direction of extension is variable. In areas of
oblique convergence and relal ivcJy wide coaslal zone
(comprised between trench and Western Cordillera) it is
orthogonal lo the direction of plate convergen ce (Ecuador,
sO lllhern Peru ). In Chile, where Ihere is a narro\V belt
between the trench and lhe Main Cordillera, the exlensioll
is orthogol1al to lhe margin, and interpreted as related to
gravitational pos t·seismic effects.
In Ihe coaslal region of Ecuador, lhe stress patlcrn is
dominated by a N-S extension (Dumon! el al., 1997), du e
eilher lo Ihe ge neral northward escape of Ihe Andeall Block,
or, more 10cally, Io the northward increasing obliquity ofl he
converge ncc, from the Gulf of Guayaquil lo Colombia. The
Iriangle-shaped Andean Block accommodates the
deformation al the triple junction between lhe South
American, Caribbean, and Nazca platcs. At Ihe soulhern tip
of the Ecuadorian Coasta! Block, which forms the soulhern
corne r of Ihe Andean Block, Ihe Gulf of Guayaquil ope ned
as a result ofthe right latera l movement of theAndean Block
wilh rcspecl lo the South Ameri ca n Plate. I his righ! lateral
movemen t is accommodated alo llg the Pallatanga Fault,
which extends northeastwa rds towards the Inte randean
Depression (Iocated belween the Eastern and Western
Cordilleras) and farlher N to other fault segments (e.g.,
Chi ngual-Sofia Fault).SOU lhweslwards,l he Pallalanga Fault
extcnd s into the Gu lf of Guayaquil,by the means of a system
of transcurrent and normal faults. The calculated average
Quaternary extensional rate of the Gulf of Guayaquil is of
2.5 ± l.l mm/y:
The subdu ction of the Carnegie Ridge during early and
middl e Pleistocene is an important parameter oflhe coastal
uplift. Several Quaternary abrasion surfaces at elevations
rangi ng from 7 m to as much as 330 m (e.g. , Ihe surfaces of
Ihe Tablazos Formation) are observed between lhe Gul f of
Guayaqui l aod Esmeraldas. suggesting a maximu m uplift
cate of about 0.2 mm/y during the Quaternary. Along the
Pacific coasl of Peru, Ihe Quaternary fau lts ev idence a N-S
trendingextension.ln the Pacific lowlands of southern Peru ,
this state of slress is ab oul neutra l, due to a topogra phic
effec! rclated to the proximityof the deep Peru·Chile Trellch.
On the northern Peruvian Coast, th e present~day elevati on
of the abrasion surfaces suggests an uplift rate of 0.2 mml
y du ring the Qualernary. In southern Peru, in fron t of lhe
Nazca Ridge, uplifted marine terraces located at 300 to 700
m high, suggesl an average uplift rate ofO.18 mmly and a
maximum upl ift rate of 0.7 mmly for lhe same period
(Macharé and Ortlieb, 1993).
In Chile, in localised coastal areas, which are the c10sest
lo Ihe Ircneh (80 lo lOO km); Ihe observed state of Sl ress 535
\ TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA
during Ihe uppcr Pleistocene is an E- W exlension. This E-
W stretching is related lo uplifted terraces, located ayer a
crllstal bulge due lo the subduction. Thus the extension is
interpreted as resulting from an accornmodation of Ihe
rising topography, related lo body forces. The E- W trending
sxx is 53 (sHmin, Horizontal minimum principal stress, or
tcnsiona! deviatoric stress). syy N-S trending is 52
(intermediate deviatoric stress) and szz. vertical. is 51
(Hmax. maximum principal stress or compressional
deviatoric stress). The state of stress is szz > syy > sxx. In
norlhern Chile (23 lO 27°$) Ihe Qualernary marine abrasion
0
surfaces, located a l an elevation of 200 m, suggest a
maximum uplift Tate of aboul 0.2 rnm/y for the Quaternary
(Ortlieb el al., 1996).
In the Main Range of Cenlral Andes, present-day stress
field and crustal deforrnations are nol homogeneous along
slrike. In the whole Andean range of Ecuador, the present-
day stress ficld appears to be homogeneous and Ihe
Quaternary dominant tectonic regime is an E-W trending
compression. Near Ihe trench, Ihe state of stress is si =
N810E; in Ihe High Cordillera between 0° and 1°5, Ihe state
of stress is N7rE < sI < N1200E; and in Ihe Subandcan
Zone, s 1 is N99'E (Ego el al., 1996). In the northern parl of
Ecuador, along the right lateral Chingal-La Sofia Fault, Ihe
lateral slip rale displacement is of 7 ± 3 mm/y for the las!
37 ka UP (Ego, 1995). In Ihe Interandean Depression, in Ihe
reslrain ing bend oflhe Latacunga Zone, Ihe shortening rate
is of 1.4 ± 0.3 mm/y since 1.4 Ma (Laven u el al., 1995).
Along Ihe right laleral slrike-slip Pallatanga Fauh, Ihe
horizontal rale motion is of 4 ± 1 mm/y for Ihe same period
(Winter and Lavenu, 1989; Winter, 1990; Winter el al.,
1993).
The present-day state of stress in the Peruvian Andes
has been deduced fram the structural analysis ofQuaternary
and active faults and seismic data (Sébrier el al., 1985,1988,
Mereier el al., 1992). The cruslal deformalion of Ihe High
Andes is characterized by normal faulting, excepted with in
Ihe Eastern Cordillera of central Peru, whereas Ihe western
and eastern boundaries of the High Andes (fore-are and
fore\and) are characterized by thrust mechanisms that
indicale compressional deformalions.
In Ihe High Andes, two leclonic regimes occur. In the
Western Cordillera, recenl and active deformatiolls result
from a N-S Irending extensional tectonics. In the Eastern
Cordillera,seismicity and active strike-slip faults rcsult from
both a N-S trending extension and an E-W trending
compression. In the Subandean Zone, reverse faulting is in
agreement with an E-W trending compression. Close lo Ihe
trench, at the contact between the Nazca and South
American plales, focal mechanisms of ear thquakes evidence
an E-W trending compression rough ly parallel to Ihe
convergence between Ihe two plates. In southern Peru, Ihe
state of stress in the High Andes as well as in Ihe Pacific
Lowlands resu lts from a N-S trend ing extension.
Thus, Ihe state of stress in the Andes of central Peru
and those oft he Andes of southern Peru may be inlcrprcled
as an effec! of compensaled high topography. Howevcr,
compressional tectonics affecIs the High Andes of cenlral
Peru bul not those of southern Peru.
In central Peru, the stress model is such that the vertical
stress szz ¡ncreases wilh the topography and Ihe
compressional st ress sHmax is considered constant and
trends E- W, i.e., roughly pa rallel lo the convergence
direction. ln the Weslern Cordillera of the High Andes, szz
becomes l,Hmax is s2 and Hmin is s3, trending N-S. In the
Eastern Cordillera,szz becomes s2, sHmax is si and trends
E-W,and sHmin is s3 trending N-S. ln Ihe Eastern Cordillera,
Ihe compressional strike-slip faulting may be explained by
an effect oftopography, belween Ihe high Wcstern Cordillera
and lhe Subandean Lowlands. The Eastern Cordillera being
llndercompensated, its e1evalion should be lowe r in an
isostalic equilibrium . The change belween Ihe
compressional regime in theSubandean Zone and the strike-
slip regime in the Easlern Cordillera should take place
belween IODO and 2000 m in e1cvalion.
In southern Peru,lhe state of stress is different in Ihe
High Andes; there, szz is sI, sHmax is s2 31ld sHmin is s3
and trends N-S, i.e., roughly perpendicular to Ihe
convergence vector (Sébrier el al., 1985,1988; Mercier el al.,
1992).llllhe Bolivian High Andes,durillg Ihe Pliocene (6 -
3 Ma), Ihe leclonic regimewas eXlensional;s3 is sHmax and
trends E- W (Lavenu and Mercier 1991). Dllring uppermost
Pliocene-Iower Pleistocene (3 - 2 Ma) a compressional
tectonics affected this region, which is characterized by si
trend ing E-W, parallel to theconvergence. This tcctonic event
is characterized by a weak deformation, and by the
reactivation of old faults as reverse and strike-slip faults.
This stress regime is followed by a nearly coeval N-S
trend ing compressional tectonics. Since lower Pleislocene
to Present, Ihe whole range is affected by an extensional
tectonics with s3 trending N-S (kilometric normal faults
wilh hcctomelric Ihrow). In Ihe Altiplano and the High
Andes, Qualernary tectonic regime is eXlensional with
sHmin = s3 and trends N-S, sHmax = s2 and trends E-W,
alld si is vertical. As in Peru, this stress field results from
body forees due to a compcnsed high lopography. The E- W
Irending horizontal stress sHmin = s2 is rough ly paralle! lo
the convergence direclion; szz (s I ) increases with the
lopography due lo Ihe range load.
The intermediate zones (e.g., Tarija, 1900 m in
elevation) are characterized by two superposed slress
regimes. One is a relative!y weak strike-slip compressionaJ
stress, wilh s2 vertical, sI = sHmax, E- W trending, and s3
= sHmill, N-S trending. The other one, more intensive, is
an cxtensional, axial stress, with 51 vertical; s2 Irends E-
W and is equivalent lo s3, which trends N-S. If we admit
that Ihe vertical stress szz is the result of the weight of an
isostatically compensated topography, Ihe strike-slip state
of slress is consiste nI wilh the intermediate location of
the basin, belween Ihe Subandcan Zone and Ihe High
Andes (Lavellll and Mercier, 1991).
Along Ihe Chilean coast, the Quaternary regime is
extensional and of an E-W slrikes. This deformation
characterizes Ihe westernmost porlions of Ihe continental
fore-are, close to the trench axis (80 km). This deformation
does nol appear lo be directly linked to boundary fo rces due
to the convergence, bul could be lhe consequence of co-
seismic crustal bending with subduc tion-related
earthquakes. It could be topographic accommodation to Ihe
uplirt oflhis part of Ihecoast (body foreedue lo topography),
sxx st riking E-W becomes s3,syy st riking N-S is s2,and szz
is s l. The state of stress is such that szz > syy > sxx. This

phenomenoll could be rclated lo Ihe zones of maximulll
coupling betwcen Ihe occanic and continental plales in Ih e
Central Andes, which (ou ld <le! as a buttress zone.
The partition of Ihe dcformation across Ihe platc
boundary lone shows tha! Ihe teclonic rcgime of Ihe
Quaternary is more complex Ihan previously recognized. In
1 Ihe southern Andes (Chilc),as wdl as in Ih e northern Andes
(Ecuador), Ihe Cordillcran segments, linked lo large st rikc-
slip' faults and high angle convcrgence obliquity, sl ides
toward Ihe North. A par! of Ihe cnergy, transmitted (rom
Ihe subducting platc lo Ihe overriding plate, is absorbed by
Ihe free escape of rore are slivers, parallel lo Ihe margino The
Jack of importan! (rustal lhickening and widening of the
range characterizes lhese parts of th e Andes. Gn th e
conlrary, in Ihe Co rdilleran segmenls linked to low angle
convergence obliquity, Ihe progressive stop of lhe laleral
movemcnlS is due to buttress zones and the energy is
absorbed by the crus tal thickening and widening of the
range (Bolivia).
The Subandean Zones of Ihe Cenlral Andes are
dominat ed by a compressional stress regime. In the
Subandean Zone of Ecuador, Ihe Quaternary stress fleJd is
compressional and trends E·W. In the Subandean Zone of
central Peru, reverse fauIting is in agreement wilh an E· W
trellding compressiol1, whereas dcformatiol1s result from a
N·S trcnding compressiol1 (s 1 is sHmax) in the Subandean
Zone of soul hern Peru. In the Suband ean lowlands of
Bolivia,deformations are compressional, with sHmax as sxx,
is sl,E-W trcnding.
'fhe Marañon and Beni basins are respeclively situated
at the northern and soutbern ends of the Peru· Bolivia
Andean segment (Fig. 45A). This segment corresponds to
the flat slab subduc tion of Ihe Nazca Plate bencath lhe
Andes. Specific slructures of the foothills ofthe Subandean
Zone control twa basins, each one having only one outlet,
Ihe Amazonas and Madeira rivers, respectively. The flat
surface ofthcse basins shows a complex networkofHowillg
and fossi l river traces. These active and abandoned fluvial
traces are used, together with neotectonic, seismotectonic
and subsurface structural data (Dumont and Fournier,
1994) , lo determine Ihe neotectonic evolution of the
Peruvian and Bolivian foreland basins (DlImont, 1996).The
phenomena exemplified below refer to short lerm
neotectonics, occurring during the Holocene (0.1 - OMa).
In both basins, recent direclional shifts of the main
rivers arecontrolled by the offset of faults .The Ucayali River
flows northwards along a N-S intra·subandean basin, then
enters the Marañon Rasin where it has been deRected to the
NE (Fig. 458). The successive deflection points shifled
upstream and along the foothills. The !ine joining the
deflection points (Eg.4SB, pointsA, Band C) Jies just behind
the Andean Frontal Thrust, represented here by Ihe Tapiche
Fault (Fig. 45B). Contemporaneollsly, Ihe Marañon River was
deflected to the NE, lined up with the straight,NE trending
lower reaches of the HlIallaga River, which is controlled by a
fault observed on satellile ¡mages.ln the eastern part of lhe
Marañon Depression, the rivers trelld NE-SW, parallello the
strike ofthe main basement faults ofthe Marañon Structural
Zonc (Laurent, 1985). Elongated lakes are situated over
structurally downwarped blocks (Dumont, 1993).
Successive sh ifts of the Beni River (Fig. 45C) show Ihe
------------------------.......
TECTONIC EVOLUTlON OF SOUTH AME. leA
Ilorthward migration of the detlection point made by the
Beni River enlering lhe basin.A N-S Irend ing falllt crossing
Ihe foothillmargin conlrols this downstream incremenl.
'fhe present regional state of stress in Ihe Subandean region
is roughly E· W,except in Ihe southern par! ofthe Marailoll
Basin where it is NE· SW (Assull1p~ao, 1992). Qualernary
normal faults displayillg a NNW·SSE exlension in Ihe
distal par! of Ihe Marañon Basin,as well as rising ofbulges
on Ihe easlern margins of bOlh basins are consistent witb
the present-day state of st ress. The interpretation
emphasizes Ihal in Ihe distal arcas of th e Marañon Basin
the river traces are guided by lopograp hic lows along
tensional faults, or basement blocks, uplifted or
downwarped by tensional faulting. Near Ihe piedmont.
river shifrs are cont rolled by the increme nl of fauIt
Illovements toward th e basin. However, the effecl of fauIts
in Ihe near piedmont is more difficult lo explain than in
lhe dislal arcas. Topographic efrect belweell Ihe High
Andes and the foreland basin (Assump~ao and Araújo,
1993) may explain Ihat the geomelry of active (aults on
the foothills piedmont depend al so 011 Ihe local trend of
the Cordillera. The interprelation of the successive sh ifts
involves the knowledge of paleoclimate oscillaliolls. It
appea rs that a river moves toward a new forllled
depocenter al Ihe onset of a wetter period,a nd can stay in
place, even if tectoni c deformation progress, during
relatively dryer periods (Schumm el al., 1998).
In summary, the stlldy of the Recent state of stress in
the Andes shows several types of behaviour of the
conti nental plate along!.he active margino 'fhis behaviour is
Jinkcd to the dip of the subductcd pi ate, thc obliquity of
convergence between the ocean ic and continental plales, the
body forces and boundary forces, the prcsence or absence
of buttress zones in the upper plate, and the possibility for
thc coastal blocks of free escaping (Hg. 46).
In Ecuador, wheretheconvergcnce obliquily is very high
(g = 31° to 4S0), the Coastal Block is pushed northwards,
and is affected by a N·S Irellding extension. Since Ihe
elevation of the Andean range is re!atively low, Ihe
topographk effect is weak. The range is separated from Ihe
Coasta l Block by a large slrike· slip fault, and an E·W
trending compressional st ress developed, due lo boundary
forces.
In Peru and Bolivia, convergen ce obliquity is rclalively
low (g = 20° - 24°). Thc High Andes, which prescnt th e
highest average altitude, are affected by a N·S extensioll,
mainly due to the body forces. A compressional regime is
observed only along the bOlllldary between the range and
th e Brazilian Shield (boundary forces).
In cen tral and southern Chile, convergence obliquily is
infermediate (g = 22° to 30°). The fore·arc and i!llra-arc
zones of the Cordillera, Ihe topography of which is lower
Ihan in Peru and Bolivia, are affected by a N-S to NE·SW
compression.
Regardingthe uplifted marine terraces, thetype and rate
of vertical movements are Ihoughl lo be relal ively
independenl on the rate and direction of conve rgen ce, the
convergence obliquity, and the age and dip oflhe subducled
plate (Macharé and Ortlicb, 1993). Conversely, these vertical
movements are tightly dependent on the morphology oflhe
subductingplate (aseismic ridges),and on Ihe struclure and 537
I TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

BO'W 70'W 60'W

I I I

10'N -
: -10' N

, ,
'--
- _'" I
,
,
," \
O' - -
,
, - - O'S
\
,-,
I o~ 1
-.1
1 South
, " American
" Plate
,I
,-
\

10' S - " " , -10' S

- -.- ,
/

Nazca Plate

20'S - _20' S

--:::; \
"
30'S -
{1/t _30'S

1 \
I

1/t Slrike·slip faulls paralel

to the margin /1/t
,
\
-40'S
O
Areas more Ihan 1 km
in elevation
,
LOFZ

Areas with N-S extension due 1~,

O" ..
~
/ // . lo IiIhospheric body forces
O

....--.- Convergence vector

and convergence obliquily BO'W

I
70'W

I
60'W

f:lGURE 46 . Geotly"am;c featl/ res {Hltl re fatioll ships

betwl!en collvergence obliqllity (Uld A11deall Cordjlfera.
AB - Alldetw Block; CSF· Chi"gllul-Lrl Sofia FaJl";
GG - G/l1f 01 Guayaquil; TAD - lllteraruleml Depressioll;
I.OFZ - Uqllitl e-Ofqui Falllt Zo ne¡ PF - Palla tanga Fal/le
(a¡",Ego, 1995) .

•

densitydistribulion in theoverrid ing plateo In Chile, as weH
as in Peru, Ih e vert ical molian of (oastal arcas is dependen!
on Ih e distance from Ihe cDasl lo lhe trench, and Ihis
deformatioll characterizcs Ihe westernmosl porl iol1s of Ihe
continental fore are, 80 km c10se lo Ihe Irench axis. The
relationships between Quaternary vertical movemenls and
seismic activity are slilJ poorly understood.
C ONCLUSIONS : GEODVNAMIC
P ROCESSES OF THE NORTHERN-
CENTRAl ANDEAN OROGENY
Plate Kinematics Framework
'fhe evolulion of Ihe central and nor thern An dean
syslem can be divided jnto fou e maio pcriods wilh different
sedimentary, tec tonic and magmatic cha racteris ti cs,
indica ting distinctive geody namic situatio ns and
convergence directions.
Late Permian - Late Jurassic: JL/ O tfft... with the res ump tion of subduction- related volcanic act ivity
Tethyan Period
The Ea rly Mesozoic evolution of Ihe Andean margin is
influenced by Ihe Tethyan ri ftjog and evolution (Jaillard el
al., 1990,1995), and is charac terized by Ihe onset of a
southeastwards subduc ti on aloog Ihe Colom bian ,
Ecuadorian and Peruv ian margi ns (Fig. 47). After Ihe Late
Paleozoic coalescencc of Pangea, Ihe Triass ic evolulion of
Ih e northern and central Andes was dominated by ao
extensional regime responsible for Ihe crea tion of grabens
and the extension of alkaline volcanics. This tectonic context
is dearly related lo thewestward propagation of lhe Tethyan
break· up between Laurasia and Go nd wa na.
rhe Early Jurassic evolutioll of Ihe Ilorlhern Central
Andes was domina ted by Ihe destructioll o( Ihe Late
Triassic· Li ass ic ca rbona te plat fo rm, caused by a gene ral
extensional tectoni c activity th a! progressed
diachronously southwards. This is Ihought to have been
induced by Ihe rifting of the E· W trendiog Tethyan system .
Meamvhilc, no significant absolute motioo of the Soulh
Ame rican Plate occurred relative lo th e su rrou nd ing
continental plates (Africa, North Ameri ca).
Betweeo late Early and early Late Jurassic times, Ihe
Tethyan breakline resulted in the opening of NE·tre nd ing
oceanic·floorcd rhombochasms (Alpí ne and centralAtlantic
I oceans, Bernoulli and Lemoi ne, 1980) Iinked by E lo ENE
trending sinistral Iransform zones (e.g., Ihe Caribbean
I Tra nsform Zone). The opening.of~ce ntra l Atlanti~n
I began before lh I! le Midd le jurassic (1 57 Ma, Kl ilgord and
Sehoulen, 1986) and possibly a; ;arly as lalest Liassie (180
Ma, Seotese el al" 1988). In the Andes, lhis period (190 .-
140 Ma) IVas marked by the emplaeemenl of l-type plutons
and calc-alkaline volcanics along the NNE trend ing
Ecuadorian-norlhern Peruvian margin, which should have
been coeval with an active subduction beneath thi s par t of
Ihe Andean margin oAccording to th e pre-break- up
reconstruction , this situation can be interpreted in Iwo ways:
TECTONIC EVOlUTI QN OF S OUTH AMERICA
I ~~·t~~
1 - If the Colombian segment was faciog co ntinental
blocks, the subduction musl have involved the new ocea nic
cr ust of the Tcthyan arm created between Ihe Colombian
segmenl and these bloeks (' ailla rd el al., 1990; Litherla nd
el al., 1994).
2 - If the Colombian segment directly faccd the occanic
paleo· Pacific PI ate, subd uction was probably ac tive before
Ihe Early Jurassic, an d the crea tion of a magmatic are may
have resulted from more rap id subd uction, du e lo an
accclerated accretion rate in Ihe paleo-Pacific system.
Whatever the case, th e roughly sou th eastward
sllbduct ion belleath the Ecuadorian segment must have
in duced obl ique subduc tioll nlong the Peruvian marg in,
associated witil a slrong sinistral strike-slip component,
mani fested by the crea tia n of lhe large NW trending sOlllh-
Peruvian turbid it ic pull-apart basin (Vicente el al., 1982)
and by tra nstensional features in the back-arc zones
(Se mpere el al., 1998 ; Fig. 47). Tile Ki mmer idg ian-
13e~n ti me-span is transi tio n periodoAlo ng the
Colombia n-Ecuadorian segment, th is period was markcd
by accrelions of displaced terran es, compressional
deformation,and the end of magmalic ac tiv ity, while aloog
the Peruvian segmen t vari ed tec tonic events were associated
(Aspden el al., 1987; jaillard el al., 1990, 1995).AII this c1early
resulted fro m an import a nI, global-scale geody namic
change. In the wes t-Telhyan realm (central Atlant ic, Alpine
ocea nic ridges), sp reading rales sig nificantly decreased
(Dlivel el al., 1984; Klilgard and Schouten, 1986; Savostin et
al., 1986). If a Telhyan-Colombian oceanic arm did exist, the
molion vector of the Phoenix oceanic plate was Ihe sum of
the ex pansioll vecto rs of the Tet hyan and Pacific ridges
(Du ncan and Ha rgraves, 1984). As a result, slowdown of
Telhyan expansion would have induced a norlheastward
co nvergence be twecn lhe Phoeni x and South American
plales (Duncan and Hargraves, 1984; jaillard el al., 1990).
Moreover, the outpouring of a large oceanic plateau along
lhe Pacific Ridge in Tithonian times may have modified Ihe
accret ion di rection oflhe East-pacific paleo-plate (Nakinishi
el al., 1989). \i2t'\N<itT'l~,J'RrLB--4~JDj) IL( O-IDOK",
Early Cretaceous-Paleocene:
South Atlantic Period
During lhis period, Ihe development of Ihe Sauth
Atlantic Dcean co nt rolled the westward drift of the South
Amer ica n Plate and Ihe variations in the convergence rate
along the subduction zane. These are thought lO determ ine
the sedimentary, tectonic and magmat ic evolulion of th e
Andean marginoDuring tbe Early Cretaceous, th e suddc n
arriva l of a great amo unt of east-derived sands can be
interpreled as the resull ofthe westwa rd doming of eastern
Soul h America due lo lhe inc ipient rifting of the South
A~laotic Dcean. Although no rcliable geodynamic
reconstruction is available, the lack of significant tectonic
or magmatic activily aloog lhe Pacific margin of lhe Soulh
Ame rica n Plate N of 18°5 would indicate a slow, steep-
dippi ng subduetion oflhe paleo-Pacifie slab.
The defi nili ve opening of the South Atlantic Ocean at
equatoriallatitudes du ringAlbian ti mes(Emery a"iW. ~í,
1984; Seotese el al., 1988) indueed the beginning of lhe 539
I TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SO UTH AMERICA
1~
,
... t;1t. . ." " : I
:-;
1 .,
o
absoJute weslward mol ion of the Sou th American PI ate.
''""
::>
Therefore. as nOled by va ri ous autho rs (Frutos, 1981;
Mégard, 1987; Soler and Bo nhomme, 1990), the beginning
of compressional defor mation along the Peru vian an d
Co lombian segments during the Late Albian (100 - 95 Ma)
coincides with the Dnsel of the trenchward mol ion of th e
upper plale (Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979; Cross and Pil ger,
1982; J.rrard, 1986).
The Alb ian-Turonian E.criod coincides with a period of
high ( onvcrgence rat e and with Ihe mi d-Cretacco us
magnelic quict zone (Larson, 1991). In Ihe Central Andcan
margin, il is cha racterized by importan! magmatic activity.
• high .verage subsidence rate (Jaillard and Soler, 1996) . nd
t' ~'prob ably significan! dcx lral strike-sli moverncnt Bussel
/i D and Pitcher, 1985). The I.tter are probably related to the
\~ n,Qtlb -northeasterl y matian assumed foc the palco-Pacific
slab du riog Late Crctaceous times (Pilger, 1984; Gordoo
and Jurdy, 1986; Pardo-Casas and Moln.r, 1987; Fig. 48).
This conve rgence direction accounts for lhe lack of
Creta ceOlls are magmatism along the NNE trending
Ecuadoria n margin oThe NW trending subduction lo ne
along the Peruvian maegin ex tended prob ab ly
northwestwards into lhe oceanic domai n as an intra-occanic
subduction zone allow ing Ihe development of CrctaceOllS
island ares, such as tbose knowll in western Ecuador.
The Coniacian-Iate Paleocene interval was marked by a
signifi ca nt slowdown in lhe convergence rate (85 - 75 Mal.
followed by a pcriod aflow mean convergence rate bctween
Ihe Phoen ix and $ou th American plates (80 - 58 Ma. Soler
and Bonhornme. 1990) . This period was characterized.
however. by the beginning of the Late Cretaceous Andean
compressional events. In the northern parl of the studied
area, sign ifi ca nl deformalion was restricted lo the fore-arc
and arc zones. However. the Late Cretaceous and Paleogcne
teclonic cvents are coeval with a noticeable decrease of the
subsidenee rale in the baek-are arcas. whieh favo ured
detritital deposits. sedimentary hiatus and unconformities.
This suggests thal during Ihis period of oblique subduetioll,
most of the conve rgence was aecommodated by lateral
displacements of fore-arc slivers along the edge of the
margino ra ther than by shorlening and thicken ing of the
upper plate. In the southern Peru and northern Chile,
however, deformalions seem lo have been more imporlant.
Jnd a signi fican t increase of the subsidence rate in Bolivia
is interpreted as Ihe result of a forcland-type subsidenee
related lo th e deformation and tectonic load ing of the
margin (Sempere. 1994).
Late Paleocene-late Oligocene:
Transition Period
'fhe lale Paleocene to late Oligocene interval (SS - 25
Ma) is a keyperiod in Ihe wholeA ndean evolution. Displaced
terranes were accreted or obducted along the Colombian
seg mento important co mpressional de form ation oceurred
in the Andean rea lm and sedimen ta ry gaps a nd
uneonformities oceurred in Ihe eastern domains.
Thesc events coi ncided with global plale kinematic
reorga nization (Seolese et al.} 1988). In late Paleocene-
Eoeene times, the eonvcrgence of Ihe paleo-Pacific pi ale
ch.ngcd from N or NNE lo NEor ENE (Pilger, 1984; Pardo-
Casas and Molnar, 1987). pravoking the change fram a
domin antly dexlral Iransform zone lo a nearly norma l
co nvergent regime in the Colombian-Eeuadorian segmen t
(Figs. 47 and 48). Such dramatic ehanges explai n how
lerra nesjhaf \Vere previously situated W of the Andean
margin, were drifted east ward s and accretcd lo Ihe norlhern
Andcan margin at that lime (JaiHard el al.• 1995). On Ihe
ol her hand, the more easterly convergence direction allowed
sub duc tion to take place benealh the NNE trending
Ecuadorian margill and Iriggered the res umption of arc
magmalism in Ih is area by early Eocene times.
A second major reorgan iza tion occurred by late
Oligocene ti mes, as Ihe Farallón Plate splitted into the Cocos
and Nazca plates (Wortcl and Cloething, 1981).Convergenee
direction evolved from ENE lo nearly W-E and convergence
rate subsequently increased (Pilger, 1984; Pardo-Casas and
Moln.r, 1987; Tebbens aud Caude, 1997; Somoza, 1998; Fig.
48).As a consequenee, Ihis period is marked by a significan!
increase of Ihe orthogonal component of the convergence
velocity belween Ihe paleo-Paeifie oeeanic plate and the
Andean marg in oThe subsequent increased coupling along
the subductio n lOne was responsible for a significan t
eastward migration of Ihe deformed zane, which involved
Ihe former arc zone and proxi mal back-are areas. j. e., Ihe
present-day Easter n Co rdillera of Ecuador, Western
Cord illera of Peru and Bolivia. and event ually Ihe Eastern
Cordillera of Bolivia. This suggesls a significa n! decrease of
Ihe playoflateral displacement along the Andean margi n in
the accommodation of convergence, and a correlative
¡ncrea se of the shortening and thiekening of the overriding
conti nental plate. Note Ihat this period does nol correspond
to the subduction of a younger plate (Fig. 49).
Late Oligocene to Present:
Pacific Period
From the lale Ol igocene onwards, the norlhern central
Andea n margin w.s completely controlled by the W to WNW
motio n of Sou th America and the E to ENE motion of Ihe
paleo-Pacific Plate, that delerm ined a roughly E-W couple
and a nearly norma l subduclion system (Hg. 48). Duririg
this pe riod o the subdu ctin g slab is rej uven at ing, Ihe
convergeoee rate is relatively high (Fig. 49) and aseism ic
ridges arrived in th e su bduction lOne (Fig. 3). This
geodynamic pattern, whieh remains relatively stable and
differs significantly from the precedi ng ones. corresponds
lo the c1assical Chilcan-type convergent margin o
Fro m 30 Ma onwards. Ih e age of Ihe oeeanie plate
rejuvenated slightly, becomi ng probably more buoyant. and
favouring. therefore, a low-dipping angle of subduetion.
Although the convergence rale did not change significantly.
late Oligocene-early Miocene tim es are marked by an
acceleralion. while the Plioee ne is marked by a slight
deceleration (Fig. 49). Correlation of these rate variations is
difficult lo link with specific tectonic evenls. During this
period, the deformed lOne significantly migrated eastwards
and enlarged, eventllally involving crustal-scale Ihrusting
in the Peruv ian and Bolivian parts of lhe ehain (Figs. SI and
52). Due to this large-scaJe thrusl movemenl, the chain was
considerably uplifted. most ofthe present-day altitude being
acqui red during the last 8 to 9 Ma . Do Ihe other hand,
 TECTONIC EVOlUTlON OF SOUTH AMERICA

[~~Ol

v
IV
V

Late Cretaceous (c. 90 Ma)

,.-J ? J '..J .........u '--J

I
I
I
I
FIGURE 47 - Sketch o[ the plate tectollic evoJ"tioll o[ tlle A"deart
margill si'lce Early Mesozoic times (afier Jaillard el al., 1990, 1995). 541
I rECTON IC EVO lUTION OF SO UTH AMERICA

~eol
I 'Z
o
"
=>
o

o
z
<r
=3
z
~

5<i ~'----~-------+-------t-------t------7E~~~~'-~~
r-
=
<r
26M3
=
oC
N

'!' 42 Ma
~
<r
"
N
.:o
o
OM,
36 Ma '\9'01
dl/lo\n3f ,
:.1 "
patuO -
- casas .anll5!.'t=~_ _ _ - /-------f- --t

70 Ma

1000W 80Wl

I-'IGURE 48 - Evo/lIlion of the convergence

Tectonic Convergence Slab age allhe
direerio" of the paleo-Pacific ocea,,;, plate Age
Phases Rale time It Subducted
relative fo tlle Alldeatll1largill s;llce the
lates! CretaceOlls, (after Pi/ger 1984; Pardo-
Casasa"d Molllar, 1987).

FIGURE 49 - Evo/ution of tite cOl/vergence

rate (Ind tIJe age of (h e sIab w/¡jle
slIbtlllcted, si"ce Middle Cretaceolls times
(after Soler and BOllllOmme, 1990).

Eocene

Maastrichlian

Cenomanian

[nitialopening
A1bian
of Equatorial
Soulh Atlantic

Aplian

subsidence in the castern basins of Bolivia and southern
[peru increased, due to flexural loading. In contrast,
subsidence did no! ¡ncrease in Ecuador and evcn decrcased
in northcaster n Peru (Fig. 39), thus indicating that the
tectonic proccsses diffcr significantly in both regions.
Meanwhile, the fore-are zones subsided eonsiderably, in such
a manner thal Plioeene outer shelf deposits are found
presently at more than 4000 m bclow sea-Ievcl, indicating
an average subsidencc rate of abo u! 1000 mIMa.
In spite of a nearly orlhogonal eonvergence direction,
the rate of dextral displacements of fore-arc slivers or
terranes of western Ecuador are high (0.5 cm/y). This
suggests that such movcments may have been much higher
in the Late Cretaccous, when convergence rale was much
higher(Fig.49) and much more obligue than in the Neogene
(Pig. 48). In the same way, local rotations have been
significan! during Ihe Neogene, demonstrating that
contractional shortening was a leading process in the
th ickening and bending of the Altiplano Orodine, and
suggesting that the cumulated amounl of rotation may have
been significan! since Ihe Crelaceous.
Role of kinematic parameters
in the Andean Orogeny
Masl dassical geodynamic models for the origin of the
tectonic phases in continental active margins are based on
the observation and comparison of various present-day
active margins (Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979; Scholl et al.,
1980; Uyeda, 1982; Cross alld Pi1gcr, 1982; ¡arrard, 1986), or
through physical modell ing (Bott el al., 1989; Whittaker el
al., 1992; Cloos, 1993; Shemenda, 1994). Only a feIV have
been elabora ted through the study of a single active margin
evolution through a long period of time. The study of the
Andean margin since earliest Mesozoic times, however,
provides some geological constrainls on the origin and
nature ofthe tectonic phases of continental active margins.
Plate tectonic reconslructions are poorly constrained for
the LateCretaceous period (Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987),
especially as regards subduction of ridges, dip.of Ihe
subducting slab and direction of convergence. However,
qllantitative approxima!ion of some pa rametcrs,such as the
convergence velocity (Soler and Bonhomme, 1990) deduced
from the global spreading rates (Larson,1991), the absolute
mol ion of the Soulh American Plate driven by the opening
and ridge activity of the South At lantic Ocean (Nürnberg
and MOller, 1991) and the age of lhe oceanic slab while
subducled, calculaled by Soler el al. (1989), allolV us lO
analyzc Ihem in re\alion lo the ea rly tecton ic evolution of
the northern Central Andcan margino
Age of the subducted slab
Classical models assume !hat thesubduction of a young,
buoyant oceanic Iithosphere induces a contractional strain
in the overriding continental piate (Molnar and Atwaler,
1978; Cross a Ild Pilger, 1982; Sacks, 1983). According lo Soler
[. el al. (1989), the beginning of Ihe contractional period
(Albian) and lhe late Ol igocene lo Recent contractional
TECTONIC EVOlUT ION OF SOUT" AMER ICA
~;y.:>,>(~
. iJjJ~
phases roughly coincide with lhe rejuvenation of Ihe
oceanic plate subducting at Ihat time. However, the Late
Cretaceous and major Paleo gene shortening phases
occurred during a continuous increase in lhe relalive age of
Ihe subducled slab (Fig. 49). Therefore, Ihe 1ilhosphere age
of lhe subducled slab may contribule to lhe appearallcc of
a long-termed contractional regime, but cannol account for
short-termed shortening phases.
Absolute trenchward motion
of the overriding plate
As noted by many authors, Ihe opening of the Soulh
Atlantic Ocean al lh e equatori al latitudes dur ing Albian
times, which provoked the beginning of!he westward shift
of the South American Plate, roughly coi ncides wi th the
initiation of the contracti onal de form atio n along th e
Peruvian-Ecuadorian margin oThus, thi s parameter seems
to co ntrol the long-termed contractional regime of th e
conti nental act ive margino
As emphasized by Sébrier and Soler (1991) for Ihe lale
Tertiary Andean contractional phases, only a slight
shorteningoccurs in the Andean retro-arc foreland during
the periods of tectonic quiescence, and then mosl of the
westward drift of the South American Plate should be
accommodated by an absolute westward overriding of the
continental plateover a retreatingocean ic slab. 011 theolher
hand, the amount of teclonic shortening observed during
the contractional phases implies that virtuatly all Ihe
westward drift oftheSouth American Plate is accommodaled
by the shortening. Therefore, during the contractional
phases, the western continental margin of lhe South
American Plate is virtually mationless in an absotute
referenee frame (i.e., there is a stopping of the slab relreat).
This recurrent stopping of the slab retreat, the mechanical
origins of which are undear, might be one of the driving
phenomenon ofthe short-Iived conlractional tectonic crisis.
Collision of continental or oceanic
obstacles
It has been proposcd that the arrival in the subduction
trench of oceanic or continental obstades (aseismic ridges,
sea-mounts, continental microplates) willlead lo blocking
of subduction, contractional deformat ion of the continental
margin and plate reorganisation (Scholl el al., 1980; Cross
and Pilger. 1982; Bell-Avraham and Nur, 1987). According
to Cloos (1993), only continental blocks and oceallic island
arcs with a crust more than 15 lo 20 km thick or basaltic
pi atea ux of more than 30 km of crustal thickness will
provoke a jam in the subduction zone. The current
subduction ofthe 15 km-thick inactive Nazca Ridge rcsults
in the extensive subduction erosion ofthe fore-arc, and local
upli ft of c. 900 m assoc iated with only moderale horizontal
compressional slress (Couch and Whitsett, 1981; Macharé
and Orllieb, 1992). Thus, Ihe arrival of moderalely high
obstacles in the trench seems to have modera te
deformational effects on the upper active margino On the
olher hand, the accretions of oceanic island are terranes of
Coas ta! Ecuador (Santonian, late Paleocene,late Eocene) are
coeval with contractional phases observed in Bolivia, 543
I TECTaNte EVOlUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA

1 1~®OI
'"'"
=>
Northern
Peru

5
Concordia

10
Rentema

20

10

Cajamarca

W
Chicama-
Tembladera

FIGURE 50 - Tectol/i, slIbshlellce of represclltafive areas o[ file Pcmviall lIIargil1 (after jailfurrl (lnd Soler, /996).

Coastal Zona Wastarn Trough Eastarn Basin

Paleocene

Maastrichl
~1--------1
~

-t
Peruvian
+-

valangin.

Serrias.

ti Tithon.
;:;1-",._.,.,---_140

e :~:~ Conglomerate {:' : .:'/. 1Continental Sandslone t~:;:1 Continental clay ~ Marine shale D Marine limeslone

• Volcanic Rocks
Plulonic rocks
111 (Coaslal batholilh)
U Subsidence ir Uptlit J Reverse or thrust faun

FIGURE 51 - Tectol/ic. magmatic IIml sedimentary evo/utio" 01 lile IIortll Peruviall

IIUlrgill belweell latest jllmssic {/nd Oligocene times (after Jaillartl (/1Id Soler, 1996).

soulhern Peru and norlhern Peru where no collisions are
known 10 have occurred. Thus, in Ihis case, it seems thal
accretions or collisions of terranes ca nnot be the cause of
regional conlraclional phases.ln lhe studied arca, the faet
Ihat contraction too k place in nón -accretionary setti ngs
al the same time as acc relions occurred suggests that Ihe
accretion evenls and Ihe coeval contractional phases are
consequences of a same global geodynamic mcchanism.
Convergen ce rate
According lo Uycda and Kanamori (1979), Cross and
Pilger (1982); Pardo-Casas and Molnar (1987), a rapid
convergence between Ihe oeeanic and continental pi ates
provokes a compressional stress in the latter.According to
Soler and Bonhomme (1990), periods of high convergcnce
rates along the Peru vian margill occurred in Albian-
Campanian and late Eocene-early Oligocene times, which
coincide roughly with mainly contractional tectonic periods
(Fig.49), However, rathcr than with Ihe convergencevelocil y
itself, the shorl-lived lectonie evenls seem lo correlate beltcr
wilh changes in the convergence velocity, whichever their
sign.either positive (acceleration) or negative (deceleral ion).
If the reconslruction of Soler and Bonhomme (1990) is
corree!, acceleration occurred in Late Aptian (110 Ma), Late
Campanian (75 Ma), early lo middle Eocene (50 Ma),lalesl
Eocene (38 Ma),alld late Oligocene-early Miocene tim es (25
- 20 Ma), whereas deceleration occurred in Ihe Late Albian
(100 - 95 Ma), 5anlonian (85 Ma), middle-lale Eocene (42
Ma), and Pliocene (4 Ma). AH Ihese periods coincide wilh
apparently extensional (Late Aptian, early-middle Eocene
boundary) or important contraetional tectonic phases.
Therefore, short-Iived con tra ctional phases as well as
extellsional tectonic events seem to be mainly controlled by
changes in the convcrgence velocity.
Direction of convergence
The geometry of the geodynamic reconstructions are too
poorlyconstrained to allow a valuable discussion forthe Late
Cretaceous. The Incaic contraclional tectonic phases oflate
Paleocene (58 - 55 Ma),late middle Eocene (43 - 42 Ma) and
late OIigocene age (26 Ma) co incide \'Iith successive
clockwise rotation in the direction of convergen ce (Pilger,
1984; Pardo-Casas and Moloar, 1987; Mayes el al., 1990;
Tebbensand Cande, 1997). Thesc changes in the convergence
direction. which caused successive sign ifican! increases of
the normal convergenee rates seem lo have the same effeets
as those assumed for a cOllvergence acceleration.
Moreover, Ihe important changes in the convergence
direetion from NNE to ENE by late Paleocenc must have
induced drastic changes in subduction gcomctry. The NNE
trending Ecuadorian margin ehanged from a mainly
transform to a chiefly convergen! rcgime. This must have
induced the easlward drift and accretion of oceanic island
ares along the Ecuadorian margin and the birth of new
subduclion lOnes lo Ihe W of Ihem (¡ai!lard el al., 1995).
The cha nge in the cOllvcrgenee direetion of late middle
Eocene age also resulted in a new event of collision ofisland
arcs along the Ecuadorian margin (Bourgois et al" 1990;
Hu ghes and Pilalasig, 1999). Thus, changes in Ihe
TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF SOUTH AMERICA
convergence direction not only control the normal
convergence rate, but al so playa part in the regional
subduction pattern thal could in lum influenee the tcctonic
regime. Such changes in the co nvergence direction during
the Paleogene can explain the cOlltemporaneily of the
contraclion al evenls in non -accretionary sclt ings of the
Central Andes and Ihe eollisions of island ares.
Relation convergence rates -
subsidence
In northcrn Peru, periods of slow platc eonvergenee
co rrclale with low sllbsidence rates (130 lo 110 Ma, 75 to 45
Ma, 35 to 25 Ma). Converscly, pcriods of high convcrgence
velocity are coeval with periods ofincreased subsidcnce rate
(110 lo 85 Ma, 50 lo 40 Ma; figs. 49 and 50). This cannol be
explained by increased subduction erosion of th e deep
continental margin (Von Hl1ene and Scholl, 1991), because
this lalter model is only proved lo aecount for the subsidence
of Ihe fore-are or are zones, whereas increascd subsidence
is observed as far as Ihe easlern domain between 110 alld
85 Ma (Conlreras el al., 1996; figs. 39 and 50). In conlrasl,
Ihese observations are consistenl with the Ihermal model
of Mitrovica el al. (1989). that assumes that a fas!
convergence provokes an inc rease of the subsidence rates
alo ng Ihe whole continen tal margin, through mantle
conveclion (Gurnis, 1992; 51ern and HolI, 1994). The lack
of such correlation in so uthero Peru is mosl probably due
to the faet that contractional teclonic events occurred earlier
and were strongerthan in northern Peru. There,tcctonie uplift
of the margin by crustal shortening and thickening, and
overload tcctonic subsidenee of Ihe foreland would have
prcvailed since Senonian times (Sempere, 1994).
Dip of subduction and subduction
erosion
The continentward shift of the volcanic front is
interpreted classically as a result of the shorlening of the
con tinental margin, ei th er by compressive tectonic
shorlening, or by subduclion erosion (5choll el al., 1980).
DlIringAlbian and early Late Cretaceous limes, the location
of the magmatic are of Peru was stable. indicating that
neither significant shortening nor subduction erosion
oecurred at this lime (figs. 20 and 51). The eastward shift
of the magma tic are in the Late Campanian can be explained
mainly by the tecto ni c shortening related to the major
Pcruvian phase. As a conscquence, it seems that no
sign ificant subduclion erosion look place in Peru before
latest Cretaceo us, and possibly before Paleocene times, as
indicated by the relative stabilit,y of the magmatic are
Jocation before Ihis periodo ,. <J
In Eocene tim es. the ongoing eastward shift of the
magmatie belt is associated with its abrupt widening
interpreled as the resull of a widening of Ihe melting zone
in the asthenosphere wedge linked to a decrease of the dip
of Ihe Benioff Zone. in turn controll ed by th e normal
eonvergence velocity (So ler, 1991). The coeval rapid
extellsional subsidence observed in most of the fore-arc \
regions by early middle Eocelle times is loo widespread to
result from local teetonie events or paleogeographic effects. 545
 I TECTON IC EVOlUT ION QF SQUTH AMERICA

Il~e-ºJ
o

'""
D

.
~
:ó
z
Miocene

~ Eocene
<i
.
>-
~

a:
N-

'i!
.."
.~

.~
D
Early
"'
~-
W
~
late
~
O

" MlddJe

Early FIGURE 52 - Tectonic, magma tic

ami setlimeutary evallltion of tlle
l/oral C/Jilean tlJargin siuce [.ate
late Triassic Triassic times (aft er Schellbcr el
al., / 994).

Sincc il is associated witb rhe ongoing eastward sh ift of Ihe
lllagmatic (ront, \Ve propose tha! both phenomena are due
lO Ihe subd uction eros ion of Ihe margin edgc (Von Huene
and Lallcmand, 1990; Van ¡Inene and Scholl, 1991). Because
Ihe widening of Ihe magmatic are coincides grossly with Ihe
assllIned in itiation of Ihe subduction erosion proccss. \Ve
Ihink tha! a low-a ngle subduction plan was ti nccessary
condition for Ihe subdu ction erosion or,he Central Andean
margin edge. A low dipping subduction zone would rcsult
in increased coupling and shea r stressat Ihe contae! betwccn
Ihe plates, inducing a greater pOlenlia l of abrasive rcmoval
al the base of the overriding plate.
Compressional deformation and
subduction eros ion
La te early Eocene 10 early middle Eocene times (50 - 45
Ma) are characterized by Ihe creillion of subsid ing fore-arc
basins along Ihe Andean ma rgin of Perll and Ecuador (Fígs.
25. 29. and 51). SlIch widesprcad phenolll cna can be
regarded as a consequcnce of Ihe le(IOIlíc erosían of Ihe
Andeanmargin, whieh is wdl doeu menlcd fo r late Terl iary
lim es (Von Huelle and I.a llemand 1990; Von Hucn e and
$eholl, 199 1). Th e Peruv iall tectunie pllase (Stc illlllann,
1929) is followcd by Ihe creatio n (J I' the Ca rn panian-
Maasl richtian Pai til- Yunguílla lore-are bas in¡ Ihe ( realion
uf Ih c rnidd lc Eoo':l1e fore-are bas ins is subsequent lo Ihe
lil le Paleoecne conlraetional deformal ion, and Ihe creation
uf Ih e widespread Mioccne fore-are basins is subsc'luent
lo the la te Oligo(cne co mpress ional even!. These cxamples
suggest Ihat Ihe cre¡ltion oflore-Me basins frequcntly occurs
soon after con lfi1 ctiona l dclormationa l cvents. Therl'lore, Wl'
the subsequent creation and su bsidenee oE fore-are basi ns
occur only aEler the compress ional strain has been released.
lhe ercat ion of the latesl Cretaccolls, Eoeenc and Mioeene
fore -are bas in s is inte rpreted. thereEore, as a dclayed
consc'lllence of Ihe lectollic erosion caused by Ihe Peruviau)
late Paleocene and late Oligoecne con traclional phases)
respectively.
REFERENCES
Aeeiiolaza, F.G., MilIcr, Il.ancl ·loselli.A.J. (1990) . El Ciclo Pampeallo
en e/noroeste argentiuo. Univ. Nac. de Tucuman, Serie
Correlación Geológica, vol. '1, 227 p.
Aguirre. 1" ano Oflle r, R. (1985). Burial metamorphism in the
Wcstern Peruvian Trough: its rel,ltion lo AndC:ln lllagllla tislll
and teetonies. In: MagllUl/islII a/ (/ Pla/e Edgc: t/¡e Pertlv;nll
II/ldes,cos. Piteher,M.P.et al., pp. 59-71. B1ackie Halstcd Press,
London.
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