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Also, the bond energy is the amount of energy absorbed when the bond is broken.
(ii) The bond lengths and bond energies of carbon-carbon single, double and triple bonds are
listed below.
State the relationship between the strength of a covalent bond and its length [1 mark]
The shorter the bond, the stronger it is. That means that more energy will be required to break
it.
This is why the carbon-carbon triple bond is the shortest, and thus has the highest bond energy
(839 KJ mol-1)
(b) Bond energies can be used to estimate the enthalpies of reactions in which bonds are broken and
new bonds are formed. Consider the gas-phase reaction between methane (CH 4) and chlorine to
produce methylchloride (CH3Cl) and hydrogen chloride
(ii) Using bond energy values from Table 1, calculate the enthalpy change of reaction ∆H rxn for the
equation required in (b) (i) [3 marks]
(iv) On the axes provided below, draw the energy profile diagram for the reaction in (b)(i) [2 marks]
This of course depends on your ∆H value…
Energy (KJ mol-1)
Reactants EA
Progress
(c) A student is asked to determine of reaction
the enthalpy of the neutralization reaction between 75cm 3 of 1.00M
hydrochloric acid and 75 cm3 of 1.00 M potassium hydroxide solution. Outline the experimental steps
(including calculations) required to obtain and accurate value.
[Assume that the densities of the solutions of acid and base and their heat capacities are equal to the
density (1 g cm-3) and heat capacity (4.18 J g-1oC-1) of water]
Steps:
Measure 75cm3 of 1.00M hydrochloric acid into a polystyrene cup
Stir gently for three minutes, taking the temperature reading every minute for 3 minutes
Record the constant temperature as the initial temperature
Add 75cm3 of 1.00M potassium hydroxide and stir for the next seven minutes, recording the
temperature of the mixture at 1 minute intervals. Record the highest temperature as the final
temperature
The temperature change (∆T) = initial temp=final temp
Calculations:
Using EH = mc∆T where m= mass of solution= (75 +75 = 150g) and c = 4.18 J g -1oC-1
The number of moles of HCl (or NaOH) used:
1000 cm3 = 1 mole
1cm3= 1/1000
75 cm3 = 1/1000 x 75 = 0.075 moles
We say 0.075 moles = EH (from above)
So 1 mole = EH/0.075 (this would be the molar enthalpy of neutralization)
MODULE 2: KINETICS AND EQUILIBRIA
2. (a) Define EACH of the following terms:
(i) Standard electrode potential of a half-cell [2 marks]
The potential of that half cell relative to a standard hydrogen half-cell under standard
conditions.
This is the maximum potential difference obtained when two half cells are connected together
under standard conditions
OR
This is a cell potential against which the cell potential of other elements can be measured
(b) Consider the following (unbalanced) equation which describes the process that is taking place in an
electrochemical cell under standard conditions:
Al (s) + Sn2+ (aq) → Al3+ (aq) + Sn (s)
As you can see, Al is being oxidized (change from 0 to +3). Oxidation occurs at the anode (An Ox)
Also, Sn is being reduced (change from +2 to 0). Reduction occurs at the cathode (Red Cat)
(i) Write the ionic half-equation for the reaction taking place at EACH of the electrodes [2
marks]
(iii) Draw a well labeled diagram of the electrochemical cell. Include the direction of electron
flow [6 marks]
Electron flow
Salt bridge
Solution B: 1 moldm-3
Solution A: 1 moldm-3 Al3+
Sn2+ ions
ions
(iv) For EACH electrode shown in Table 2, select the E Θ value to determine EΘ cell [2 marks]
Ag+ + e Ag +0.80
Al3+ + 3e Al -1.66
Ba2+ + 2e Ba -2.90
Maybe I am not understanding correctly, but.. is the question phrased correctly? What were
they asking for? The overall emf of the cell…?
(a) Complete Table 3 for the oxides of carbon and lead. [4 marks]
Oxidation state +2 +4 +2 +4
of Group IV
element
x + (2 x -2) = 0
x -4 = 0
x = +4
(b) (i) Explain the relative stabilities of the +2 oxidation states of the oxides of carbon and lead [4
marks]
Carbon is most stable in the +4 state (as CO 2) and least stable in the +2 state (as CO)
Lead is most stable in the +2 state (as PbO) and least stable in the +4 state (as PbO 2)
+4 state
C Si Ge Sn Pb
Group IV Elements
Lead is a metal, and so prefers to lose two electrons to be stable. This gives Pb an oxidation
number of +2.
Carbon being a non- metal prefers to share electrons. It is less energetically feasible for C to lose
two electrons and exist in the +2 state
(ii) Use the electrode potential value in the electrode reaction for lead ions to explain the relative
stabilities of the +2 and +4 oxidation states of lead: [2 marks]
The EΘ value for Pb going from the +4 to the +2 state is large and positive. This means it is very
energetically feasible for Pb to be converted from the +4 to the +2 state. This suggests that for
Pb, the +2 state is much more feasible than the +4.
**Since PbO2 is amphoteric, it will react with both acids and bases to form a salt and water
A white precipitate (which is the salt) will be formed and may dissolve in the (colorless) water
which is also formed
(ii) Concentrated hydrochloric acid is added to solid lead (IV) oxide [2 marks]
Both lead (IV) chloride and water will be formed. Since lead chloride is insoluble, there will be a
white precipitate in a colorless liquid (water)
Potassium iodide (KI) can be added to the ions in solution. If Pb 2+ is present, there will be a bright
yellow precipitate.
4. (a) The atoms of certain elements contain nuclei in which the ratio of neutrons to protons is
greater than 1. These nuclei tend to emit radiation in order to bring the ratio closer to 1.
(i) Describe the THREE types of radiation that an unstable atom may emit. Include in your
answer the symbols and penetrating power of EACH type of radiation [6 marks]
4 2
He
2
β Particles Electrons 100
0e
1
γ Rays Electromagnetic waves 10,000
(ii) Americium-241 (Am-241) decays via alpha particle emission. Write the nuclear
241
equations to show the new element that forms when an atom of 95 Am decays via the
emission of 2 alpha particles [2 marks]
+ +
241 4 4 233
Am He 2+
2+ He 2+
2+ Pa
95the diagrams of the atomic orbitals2 of principal quantum number
(b) (i) Draw 2 91 z axes in
2. Include x, y and
your drawing [2 marks]
Principal quantum number is the same as the shell number. In the second shell, there are two orbitals: a
2s and a 2p.
(ii) Comment on the similarity and difference in the electronic configuration of K, Sc and Zn 2+ given below
K: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Sc: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
Zn2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
Similarity:
All of the elements have more than 18 electrons, and they have the same arrangement of
electrons up until the 3p orbital (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6). This is sometimes represented as [Ar]
followed by the rest of the electronic configuration
Difference:
Sc and Zn both have electrons in the d orbitals, but K does not. This is because Sc and Zn are
transition metals and K is a Group 1 metal OR
K and Sc have electrons in the 4s orbital, but Zn 2+ does not. This is because the configuration of
Zn is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2. For Zn2+, 2 electrons were lost from the 4s orbital first, making it
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
5. A buffer consisting of H2PO4- and HPO42- helps control the pH of physiological fluids. Many
carbonated soft drinks also use this buffer system.
(a) Using the buffer system mentioned above, describe how the solution maintains and almost
constant pH even when small amounts of acid or alkali are added to the solution [6 marks]
This buffer consists of a solution of a weak acid in the presence of one of its salts (that is, H 2PO4- and
Na2HPO4).
Two reactions will be happening:
If acid (H+) is added, Equation 1 is affected. This is because this equation also contains H + ions.
According to Le Chatelier, in Equation 1, the equilibrium will shift to the left. This gets rid of the
added H+ ions and pH returns to normal.
Equation 2 has not yet been used. This equation produces a large amount of HPO 42- ions. In the
event that a large amount of acid (H +) is added to the solution, then the HPO 42- from Equation 2
will be used to trap the added acid (H +).
(b) Calculate the pH of a soft drink in which the major buffer ingredients are 6.5 g of NaH 2PO4
and 8.0 g of Na2HPO4 per 355 cm3 of solution
[salt]
Since we are told that K a (H2PO4-) = 6.4 x 10 -8 moldm-3, if it has a Ka (acid dissociation constant) value then
this is the acid! (NaH2PO4)
120 g = 1 mole
1g = 1/120
1 cm3 = 0.05417/355
142 g = 1 mole
1g = 1/142
1 cm3 = 0.0563/355
(0.1587moldm-3)
In living things, the pH of the blood must be kept constant, or else they will die.
If a person has been running rapidly for a long time, he usually starts gasping for breath. This means that
he is struggling to inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.
If carbon dioxide is allowed to build up in the blood, it combines with water to form carbonic acid. This
carbonic acid rapidly breaks down into H + and CO32- ions. The H+ ions can cause the blood to become
acidic. This can be lethal to cells.
By exhaling carbon dioxide rapidly, there will be less reactant in Equation 1. According to Le Chatelier,
the equilibrium will shift to the left. This causes the carbonic acid to break up into CO 2 and H2O, instead
of harmful H+ ions. The CO2 produced can then be exhaled.
6. (a) The atomic and ionic radii of the Group II elements gradually increase down the group.
Outline the reasons for this trend [3 marks]
The atomic radius can be visualized as the distance between the nucleus and the outermost
shell.
As the Group is descended the atoms have an increase in the number of electrons. Be only has 2
electrons, while Ba has 56 (optional). Since Ba has more electrons, there will also be more shells,
and so the distance between the nucleus and the outermost shell increases.
The Group II elements lose 2 electrons to become stable, thus forming cations with a charge of
+2. Since they all lose one shell, there is still an increase in the number of shells as the Group is
descended. Hence the radius of the ion formed also increases.
(b) Account for the variation in the melting points of the Group II elements from magnesium to
barium [4 marks]
There is actually a decrease in melting points as the Group is descended. All of the Group 2
elements are metals and so are held together by metallic bonds. This is the attraction between
the cation and the sea of delocalized (lost) electrons.
It would make sense to reason out that, as the Group is descended, there are more electrons
and so there would be more metallic bonds, hence an increase in melting points. However, this is
not so for Group 2.
What happens is that since the ionic radius is becoming larger, the attraction for the delocalized
electrons becomes weaker. Thus there is a decrease in melting points.
**I am not sure if you were supposed to know this… or if CAPE wanted you to just reason it out
and go with what is expected…
(c)Table 4 shows the observations when 0.1 moldm -3 solutions of the metal ions are treated with
1 moldm-3 Na2SO4
0.1 moldm-3
Mg2+ No precipitate
Ca2+ Thin, white precipitate
When the ions are reacted with sodium sulphate, the Group 2 sulphates are being formed.
It is observed that as the group is descended, there is a general decrease in solubility of the
sulphates. This is seen from the observations, as BaSO 4 is a thick white precipitate (less soluble) than
MgSO4 which is no precipitate (very soluble)
We can explain this by considering the sulphates being dissolved in water as two steps:
(Remember: An ionic lattice is being broken up. The energy needed for this is the reverse of the
lattice energy -ΔHlatt).
The smaller the ionic radius, the less hydration energy will be required. Hence BeSO 4 will require the
least hydration energy, while BaSO4 will require the most.
It makes sense that the greater the total energy for these processes, the less soluble the compound will
be. As the group is descended, solubility of the sulphates decreases.
(d) Explain the variation in the thermal decomposition of the nitrates of the Group II elements
[3 marks]
The oxide ion is smaller than the nitrate ion. It will follow that the oxide ion is more stable than the
nitrate ion. This explains why the nitrates of the Group II elements decompose under heat to form
Group II oxides.
As the Group is descended, it requires more heat to decompose the nitrates. This is because the
stability of the nitrates increases as Group II is descended.
The more reactive an element is, when it forms a compound, that compound will be very stable.
Since reactivity increases as the Group is descended, the most reactive Group 2 element would be
Ba. Therefore Ba(NO3)2 would be most stable
No matter how many mistakes you have made, this paper was ONLY 40%. You still have a
fighting chance to get that distinction. CAPE accepts many answers, and I have only
given a few of them here. And marks CAN be given for different things than I have
suggested… Keep believing in yourself… Yes, you can still do it!