CHAPTER 1

The Birth of Modern Physics

1.1 Classical Physics of the 1890s

1.2 The Kinetic Theory of Gases
1.3 Waves and Particles
1.4 Conservation Laws and Fundamental
Forces
1.5 The Atomic Theory of Matter
1.6 Outstanding Problems of 1895 and
James Clerk Maxwell
New Horizons
The more important fundamental laws and facts of physical science have all been
discovered, and these are now so firmly established that the possibility of their
ever being supplanted in consequence of new discoveries is exceedingly
remote… Our future discoveries must be looked for in the sixth place of decimals.
- Albert A. Michelson, 1894

There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more
and more precise measurement. - Lord Kelvin, 1900
1.1: Classical Physics of the 1890s

Mechanics →

Electromagnetism →

← Thermodynamics
Mechanics began with Galileo (1564-1642)
The first great experimentalist: he established experimental
foundations.
He described the Principle of Inertia.
Mechanics achieved maturity
with Isaac Newton
Three laws describing the relationship
between mass and acceleration.
Isaac
Newton’s first law (Law of inertia): Newton
An object with a constant velocity will (1642-
continue in motion unless acted upon 1727)
by some net external force.

Newton’s second law: Introduces force

(F) as responsible for the change in
linear momentum (p = mv):

Newton’s third law (Law of action and

reaction): The force exerted by body 1 on body
2 is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the force that body 2 exerts on body 1:
Electromagnetism culminated
with Maxwell’s Equations

Gauss’s law:
(electric field)
  E  q / 0

Gauss’s law: James Clerk Maxwell

B  0 (1831-1879)
(magnetic field)

B
Faraday’s law:  E  
t in the presence of
only stationary
charges.
E
Ampère’s law:  B  0 0
t
The Laws of Thermodynamics
First law: The change in the internal
energy ΔU of a system is equal to the
heat Q added to a system plus the
work W done by the system:

ΔU = Q + W

Second law: It’s impossible to convert

heat completely into work without some
other change taking place.
Lord Kelvin
Added later:
The “zeroth” law: Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third
system are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Third law: It’s impossible to achieve absolute zero temperature.

Primary results of 19th-century
Thermodynamics

Established the atomic theory

of matter

Introduced thermal equilibrium

Established heat as energy

Introduced the concept of internal energy

Created temperature as a measure of internal energy

Realized limitations: some energy processes cannot take place

1.2: The Kinetic Theory of Gases

The ideal gas equation for n

moles of a ―simple‖ gas:

PV = nRT

where R is the ideal gas

constant, 8.31 J/mol · K
Primary Results of the Kinetic Theory

Internal energy U is directly related to the average molecular kinetic

energy.
Average molecular kinetic energy, K, is directly related to absolute
temperature.
Internal energy equally is distributed among the number of degrees of
freedom (f ) of the system:

f = 3 for simple
translations in 3D space

where NA = Avogadro’s Number

More Results of the Kinetic Theory
speed

Maxwell derived a relation 3/ 2

 m 
for the molecular speed f (v)  4 N   v 2 exp(mv 2 / 2kT )
distribution f(v):  2 kT 

Boltzmann determined the

root-mean-square molecular
speed:

3kT
vrms  v 2

m

thus relating energy to

temperature for an ideal
gas.
Other successes for Kinetic Theory

It predicted:
Diffusion
Mean free path
Collision frequencies
The speed of sound
1.3: Particles and Waves

Two ways in which energy is transported:

Point mass interaction:

transfers of momentum
and kinetic energy:
particles.

Extended regions wherein

energy is transferred by
vibrations and rotations:
waves.
The Nature of Light

Newton promoted the corpuscular

(particle) theory

Particles of light travel in straight

lines or rays
Explained sharp shadows
Explained reflection and refraction

Newton in action

"I procured me a triangular glass prism to

try therewith the celebrated phenomena of
colours." (Newton, 1665)
The Nature of Light

Huygens promoted the wave theory.

He realized that light propagates as

a wave from the point of origin.
He realized that light slowed down
on entering dense media. Christiaan Huygens
(1629-1695)

He explained polarization,
reflection, refraction, and double
refraction.

Double refraction
Diffraction confirmed light to be a wave.

While scientists of Newton’s time

thought shadows were sharp, Young’s
two-slit experiment could only be
explained by light behaving as a wave.
Fresnel developed an accurate theory
of diffraction in the early 19th century.

Diffraction patterns

One slit

Augustin Fresnel
Two slits
 Light waves were found to be solutions to
Maxwell’s Equations.
The electromagnetic spectrum is vast.

visible
microwave infrared UV X-ray

2 1 0 -1
4 3 2 1 0 -1
10 106
10 105
10 10
10 10 10 10 10 10
radio wavelength (nm) gamma-ray

All electromagnetic waves

travel in a vacuum with a
speed c given by:

where μ0 and ε0 are the permeability and permittivity of free space

Triumph of Classical Physics:
The Conservation Laws
Conservation of energy: The sum of energy
(in all its forms) is conserved (does not
change) in all interactions.

Conservation of linear momentum: In the

absence of external forces, linear
momentum is conserved in all interactions.

Conservation of angular momentum: In the

absence of external torque, angular
momentum is conserved in all interactions.
These laws remain
the key to interpreting
Conservation of charge: Electric charge is even particle physics
conserved in all interactions. experiments today.
1.5: The Atomic
Theory of Matter
Initiated by Democritus and Leucippus
(~450 B.C.), who were the first to
use the Greek atomos, meaning
―indivisible.‖
Proust (1754 – 1826) proposed the Law of definite proportions
(combining of chemicals always occurred with the same
proportions by weight).
Dalton advanced the atomic theory to explain the law of definite
proportions.
Avogadro proposed that all gases at the same temperature, pressure,
and volume contain the same number of molecules (atoms):
6.02 × 1023 atoms.
Cannizzaro (1826 – 1910) made the distinction between atoms and
molecules advancing the ideas of Avogadro.
Opposition to atomic theory
Ernst Mach was an extreme ―logical
positivist,‖ and he opposed the theory on
the basis of logical positivism, i.e., atoms
being ―unseen‖ place into question their
reality.
Wilhelm Ostwald (1853 – 1932) supported
Mach, but did so based on unexplained
experimental results of radioactivity,
discrete spectral lines, and the formation of
molecular structures. (These are good
points, but not against atomic theory, as it Ernst Mach
turned out.) (1838-1916)
Boltzmann committed suicide in 1905, and it’s
said that he did so because so many
people rejected his theory.
Unresolved questions for atomic theory at the
end of the 19th century

The atomic-theory controversy raised fundamental questions.

The constituents of
atoms became a
significant question.

The structure of matter

remained unknown.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope image of The atomic theory wasn’t

76 individually placed iron atoms on a actually universally
copper surface. This image (taken almost accepted.
100 years later) nicely proves the atomic
theory!
1.6: Problems in 19th-century physics

In a speech to the Royal Institution in 1900, Lord Kelvin

himself described two ―dark clouds on the horizon‖ of physics:

The question of the

existence of an electro-
magnetic medium—
referred to as ―ether‖ or
―aether.‖

The failure of classical

physics to explain
blackbody radiation.
More problems: discrete spectral lines
For reasons then unknown, atomic gases emitted only certain narrow
frequencies, unique to each atomic species.

Emission
Absorption
spectra
spectra
from a cold
from
gases of
atomic gas
hot
in front of a
atoms.
hot source.

Wavelength
More problems for 19th-century physics

There were observed differences in the electric and magnetic fields

between stationary and moving reference systems.

When applying a simple Galilean transformation, Maxwell’s

Equations changed form.

The kinetic theory failed to predict

specific heats for real (non-ideal)
gases.

How did atoms form solids?

Bismuth crystal, an interesting solid
Additional discoveries in 1895-7 contributed to
the complications.

X-rays (Roentgen)

Radioactivity (Becquerel)

Electron (Thomson)

Zeeman effect

Roentgen’s x-ray
image of his wife’s hand
(with her wedding ring)
Overwhelming evidence for
the existence of atoms didn’t
arrive until the 20th century.

Max Planck advanced the atom concept

to explain blackbody radiation
by use of submicroscopic quanta.
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
Boltzmann required the existence of atoms (1858-1947)
for his advances in statistical mechanics.

Einstein used molecules to explain Brownian motion (microscopic

―random‖ motion of suspended grains of pollen in water) and
determined the approximate value of their size and mass.

Jean Perrin (1870 – 1942) later experimentally verified Einstein’s

predictions.
The Beginnings of Modern Physics

These new discoveries and the

many resulting complications
c
required a massive revision of
fundamental physical

Quantum mechanics
Special

General relativity
assumptions. relativity

Speed
The introduction (~1900) of the
modern theories of special
relativity and quantum 19th-century
mechanics became the starting physics
point of this most fascinating 0
revision. General relativity Log (size)
(~1915) continued it.