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2 Marks
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UNIT -1
INTRODUCTION
Leakage Coeff. = total flux/useful flux; total flux = useful flux + leakage flux
Kcs = Carter’s Coefficient for slots depends on the ratio of slot opening /airgap length or the
empirical relation is 1/ {1+ (5lg /Ws )}
If ducts are provided on the stator and on the rotor, then Kcd should be based
on half the air gap.
Considering the effect of both slotting and ducts, K g ( gap contraction factor) = Kgs Kgd where Kgs
={ ys / ys l } and Kgd ={L /Ll }
If slots are provided on both sides of the airgap, K gs = Kgss Kgsr (ss and sr denoting stator and rotor
slots respectively).
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The calculation of MMF for producing flux in the Teeth of the machine is difficult because :
i) the teeth are tapered when parallel sided slots are used and this results in variation in
the flux density over the depth of the tooth.
ii) the slots provide another parallel path for the flux flow, the teeth are normally worked
in saturation and hence µr becomes low.
Following methods are usually employed for the calculation of MMF required for the
tapered teeth:-
ii) Simpson’s rule :at mean = (at1 +4 at2 + at3 )/6 A/m
λ=µo [(h1 /3ws ) + (h2 /ws )+ {2h3 /ws +wo )} + (h4 /wo ) ]
Concentric winding
The temperature of the machine rises when it is supplying load. As the temperature rises, the heat
is dissipated partly by conduction, partly by radiation and in most cases largely by air cooling.
The temperature rise curve is exponential in nature. Assuming the theory of heating of
homogeneous bodies ,
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Th =heating time constant (time taken by the machine to attain 0.632 times θm) = Gh/Sλ
Tc = cooling time constant (time taken by the machine to fall to 0.368 times θi)
6. Rating of machines
From the point of calculation of motor rating, the various duty cycles listed earlier, can be
broadly classified as
i) Continuous duty ii) Fluctuating duty and iii) Short time and intermittent duty.
Fluctuating loads
The motor is switched on for a period T1 and kept off for a period T2 .
In most cases, the cooling electrical machines is carried out by air flow and this cooling is called
ventilation. In high speed machines such as turbo alternators, hydrogen is used for cooling.
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i) (1/14) th density thereby the windage losses and noise reduced ii) 14 times specific heat and
1.5 times heat transfer leading to improved cooling iii) 7 times thermal conductivity resulting in
reduced temperature gradient iv) reduced corona effect v) will not support combustion so long
as the hyd /air mixture exceeds 3/1.
In operation, the fans mounted on the rotor circulate hydrogen through the ventilating ducts and
internally mounted gas coolers. The required gas pressure is maintained by a regulator. The
precaution to be observed is the stator frame must be gas tight and explosion proof and oil film
gas seals at the rotor shaft ends are essential.
Induced and Forced ventilation: In induced ventilation, the fan produces decreased air pressure
inside of the machine, causing air to be sucked into
the machine under the external atmospheric pressure ; and in the forced ventilation, the air is
forced into the fan by the fans mounted internally or externally.
The ventilation can also be classified as i) Radial, ii) axial and iii) combined radial and axial.
Similar calculations can be made for the volume of hydrogen or air or oil used for cooling the
machine.
UNIT II
DC MACHINES
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1. Output equation
Pa = E Ia x 10 -3 = (p/A)(ΦZN/60) Iz A 10 -3
Generator: P a = (P/η) – (FW & Iron losses) ; Motor : P a = P + (FW & Iron losses)
P a = P/ η (Generator)
=P (Motor)
For small machines : FW & Iron losses can be taken as 1/3 rd of the total losses. So,
i)Temperature rise(θ)
θ depends on Q (losses),which in turn depends on ac.
Allowable θ depends on insulating material used.
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The MMF required for the airgap = 50% of the armature MMF and gap
contraction factor = 1.1.
In the design process, choose p based on f& I b and then calculate D and L
5. Armature Design
Slot dimensions:
i) the slot area should accommodate the armature conductors and the required
insulation depending on the operating voltage ii) Bt1/3 ≤ 2.1 Wb/m2 iii) deep slots
cause eddy current losses iv) slot opening should be narrow to reduce the flux
pulsation and hence to reduce eddy current losses.
ra = (Z/2) ρL mt /(a2 az ) ;
where Lmt = length of mean turn, m = 2L + 2.3τ +5ds ; a = no.of parallel paths and a z = area of
each conductor, m2 .
Area of each pole (Ap ) = Flux in the pole body / Flux density = c l φ / Bp
where cl = leakage coefficient
Height of the pole(hf) chosen based on the MMF to be provided by the pole at full-load.
= δf2 ρL mt S f h fd f ; ………………….(1)
where df = depth of the pole winding. Tf = no.of turns in each field coil.
Permissible loss = S qf = 2L mt h f q f ..(2)
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Equating (1) and (2) ; δf =104 √ q f / S f d f
where nb = number of brushes per brush arm, w b = width of the brush, c b = clearance
between brushes , c1 = clearance for staggering (10–30 mm), c 2 = clearance for end ply (10-25
mm).
= Ib = 2Ia/p = Ab δb ; where Ab = nb wb tb
= total brush contact area ; δb = current density in the brushes (≈0.1 A/mm2 ).
nb is selected such that each brush does not carry more than about 70 A .
viii) The thickness of brush = (2-3) βc
ii)Iron loss a) Hysterises =Kh Bm1.6 f b) Eddy current loss =Ke Bm2 f2 t2
For the calculation of copper losses , the total length and area cross section of each
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UNIT III
TRANSFORMERS
1. Single-Phase Transformers
The window in a single-phase transformer contains one primary and one secondary winding. The
total copper area in the window:
Ac = Kw Aw = 2AT/ δ → AT = Kw Aw δ/2
Rating in kVA = Q = Vp Ip x 10 -3 = Ep Ip x 10 -3 = Et ( Tp Ip )x 10 -3
= 2.22 fΦm ( Kw Aw δ ) 10 -3
2. Three-phase transforme rs
= 3.33 fΦm ( Kw Aw δ ) 10 -3
r is a constant for transformer of a given type ,service and method of connection, since Φ m
determines the core section and AT fixes the total copper area.
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In addition to the above , we must add stray losses which may be 5 to 25 % of copper loss.
The total iron loss / Kg = specific iron loss (pi ) can be found from the iron loss curves. Then the
total iron loss = Wi = pi Gi
Where Gi = weight of iron . Ratio of Iron loss / copper loss = pi Gi / pcGc
The core section of the core type transformer may be rectangular , square or stepped.
Shell type transformers use cores with rectangular cross section. For the rectangular
core the ratio of depth to width 1.4 to 2.0.
Square or stepped coreWhen circular coils are required for high voltage transformers , square and
stepped cores are used . Circular coils are preferred because of their superior mechanical
characteristics.
As the size of the transformer increases, it becomes wasteful to use rectangular cores. Square cores
are used and the surrounding circle, representing the inner surface of the tubular form carrying the
windings, is called the circumscribing circle. Even now a lot of useful space is wasted and the
length of the mean turn increases causing higher I 2 R losses.
With larger transformers, cruciform cores, with better utilization of the space, are used. It should
be born in mind that two different types of laminations are used in cruciform cores. With still
larger transformers, further step sizes are introduced to utilize the core even more effectively.
However, larger step sizes → larger number of lamination sizes → higher labor cost.
Assuming a stacking factor for iron = 0.9 , Net core area / area of circumscribing circle = 0.637
for square core and = 0.710 for stepped core with a= 0.851d , b= 0.526 d ; where d = diameter of
the circumscribing circle.
The area of conductors for the primary and secondary windings determined after choosing a
suitable value for δ which depends on the method of cooling.
6. Types of Windings
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7. Design of insulation
For core type, the yoke section may be either rectangular or stepped. In rectangular yoke sections,
depth of the yoke = depth of the core; when stepped cores are used
the core depth = width of the largest stamping; area rectangular yokes = Ay
= Dy Hy = a Hy
The phasor sum of the magnetizing current (Im) and the loss component of current (I l ) ; I m is
calculated using the MMF/m required for the core and yoke and their respective length of flux
path. Il is determined using the iron loss curve of the material used for the core and yoke and the
flux density employed and their weight.
Losses dissipated in transformers in the core and windings get converted into thermal energy and
cause heating of the corresponding transformer parts.The heat dissipation occurs as follows: i)
from the internal heated parts to the outer surface in contact with oil by conduction ii) from oil to
the tank walls by convection and iii) from the walls of the tank to the atmosphere by radiation and
convection.
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= λconv = 40.3 (θ /H) ¼ W/m2 - o C ; = temp difference of the surface relative to the oil and H =
height of the dissipating surface.
Experimentally found that a plain tank surface dissipates 6.0 W/m2 -o C by radiation and 6.5 W/m2 -
o
c by convection (.for a temp rise of 40 o C above an ambient temp of 20 o c). Thus a total of 12.5
W/m2 - o C is taken.
The temp rise θ = total loss/ (λ St ) = (Pi + Pc) / (λ St )
Where St = heat dissipating surface area of the tank.
For small transformers , plain walled tank is enough to dissipate the losses. As the rating of the
transformer increases, the volume increases as he cube of the linier dimensions but the heat
dissipating surface area increases only as square of the linier dimensions. So above certain rating,
plain tank becomes inadequate to dissipate losses and the area is increased by providing tubes. For
larger ratings forced air cooling is used.
If tubing is provided, the oil circulation is improved due to the head of the oil, and this causes an
additional dissipation by convection of about 35 % .
The arrangement of the tubes on tank side walls should be made uniformly with a spacing of
usually 75 mm. Examples of calculation of nt and the arrangement of the tubes should be studied.
UNIT IV
INDUCTION MOTORS
1. Output Equation
= 11 Bave ac Kw x 10-3 D2 L ns = Co D2 L ns
2. Choice of Bave
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It should be remembered that the Power factor (PF) and efficiency(η) of the motor at full load
increases with the rating of the machine. Again η and Pf are higher for high speed motors
compared to low speed motors.
The stator winding can be connected in star or delta. The motors meant for starting with star- delta
starter should be designed with delta connected stator winding.
After designing the main dimensions, the following calculations can be made:
iii) Number of slots per pole per phase can be suitably assumed
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xi) A suitable tooth flux density is assumed and tooth width is calculated
xii) slot width = slot pitch- tooth width (at different diameters)
xiii) The core flux(Φ m/2) , core area and core depth are calculated
assuming a core flux density. Core depth = core area/ Li
xiv) The rotor bar and end rings are designed (sq.cage rotor)
xv) The rotor winding is designed similar to stator winding (wound rotor)
i) stator copper loss ii) rotor copper loss iii) iron loss in the stator teeth and
core iv) friction and windaoss (1- 1.5 % of output)
6. No-load current
ATtotal = sum of the ampere turns for airgap ,stator tooth and core and rotor tooth and core.
No-load current = In = { Il 2 + I m 2 }1/2
UNIT V
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
1. Construction
2. Output Equation
= 11 Bave ac Kw x 10-3 D2 L ns = Co D2 L ns
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Damper winding is used for starting and damping rotor oscillations that occur during sudden load
changes.
iv) stability : P ma x =VE/Xs . Since high Bave gives low Tph and hence low Xl
P max increases and improves stability.
i) Copper loss and temperature rise: High value of ac → higher copper loss
leading high temperature rise. So choice of depends on the cooling method used.
ii) Operating voltage : High voltage machines require large insulation and so the slot space
available for conductors is reduced. So a lower value for ac has to be chosen.
Thus SCR is the reciprocal of Xd , if Xd is defined in p.u.value for rated voltage and rated
current. But Xd for a given load is affected by saturation conditions that then exists, while
SCR is specific and univalued for a given machine.
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iii) Short circuit current : A low SCR → high Xd →low short circuit
current. But short circuit current can be limited by other means not
necessarily by keeping a low value of SCR.
Summarizing ,high value of SCR leads to i) high stability limit ii) low voltage regulation iii)
high short circuit current iv)large air gap
The present trend is to design machines with low value of SCR, this is due to the recent
development in fast acting control and excitation systems.
6. Length of airgap
The length of air gap very much influences the performance of a synchronous machine. A
large airgap offers a large reluctance to the path of the flux produced by the armature MMF
and thus reduces the effct of armature reaction. Thus a machine with large airgap has a small
Xd and so has
i)small regulation ii) high stability limit iii) high synchronizing power which makes the
machine less sensitive to load variations iv) better cooling at the gap surface v) low magnetic
noise and smaller unbalanced
magnetic pull.
But as the airgap length increases, a large value of Field MMF is required resulting in
increased cost of the machine.
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i) Flux density in the pole core ii)Winding depth (d f)iii) Leakage factor (pole flux/gap flux) iv)
Field winding space factor (Sf) v) Power dissipation (q f) in W/m2 v) The ratio of field MMF to
armature MMF vi) Allow about 30 mm for insulation , flanges and height of the pole shoe.
MMF per unit height of the winding = 104 Sqrt (Sf d f q f )
The process of design any electrical may be broadly divided into three major aspects: i)
Electrical design ii) Mechanical design iii) Thermal design. Even though, these problems can be
solved separately, there are many inter- related features.
The advantages of computer aided design are : i) The computer can handle large volume of data
to make a number of trial designs. And speed and accuracy of calculations are very high. iii) It
can be programmed to satisfying take logical decisions iv) An optimized design with least cost
and the required performance can be easily obtained.
In the analysis method of design , a preliminary design is made by the designer regarding the
machine dimensions, materials and other constructional features and these are given as input
data to the computer and the performance quantities are calculated. The designer examines the
performance and accordingly alters the input data and then feed them to the computer again.
The computer calculates the new performance with the revised data. This process is repeated till
the required performance is achieved.
In the synthesis method, the required performance values are also given to the computer as
input. The computer through an iterative process alters the dimensions till the required
performance is obtained.
In the hybrid method, by some human intervention, a combination of analysis and synthesis
methods are adopted.
The independent variables which has a significant effect on the performance are
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stator core diameter, stator core length , stator core depth, stator slot depth, stator slot width,
rotor slot depth, rotor slot width, end ring depth, end ring width, . airgap length and airgap
flux density.
The other variables in the design are either taken as constants dased on the voltage and power
rating of the machine or they are in some way related to the above 11 variables.
During the course of optimization when the variables undergo incrementing or decrementing,
they should also be constrained to be with in practical ranges. This is obtained by variable
transformation. For example for airgap Xact = X tran + Lg min ; where they respectively denote
actual and transformed values and Lg min = minimum airgap required.
Performance Specifications:
1. Starting torque 2. maximum torque 3. Full- load power factor 4. full -load efficiency 5. full
load slip 6.tooth and core flux densities 7. starting current 8. temperature rise 9. cost of the
machine.
Objective function
The objective function is formed by comparing the specified and calculated values of the
performance quantities at each iteration. Objective function minimization can be carried out
either using conventional methods such as Powel’s algorithm or Rosenbrock method or the
recent techniques such as Genetic algorithm.
It should be noted that the independent variables or the performance specifications vary with the
type of machine and its application.
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