CHAPTER 1

1
 INTRODUCTION

Among the renewable sources as an alternative to fossil fuels,wind energy is

also equal in race.Wind on the earth surface are caused primarily by the unequal
heating of the land and water by sun. The differences in temperature gradients
induce the circulation of air from one zone to another. It has been estimated that
roughly 10 million MW’s of energy are continuously available in the earth’s
winds. The utilization of some of this energy through various mechanical
conversion device has played a decisive role in the economic development of many
countries where wind are strong and steady. Savonius wind turbines are vertical
axis wind turbines and are used for wind force conversion into torque through the
rotation of the main shaft. Savonius wind turbines mainly operate on the drag of
the aero foils by their opposing directions and their interaction with the wind
movement. It is one of the simplest wind turbines designs ever designed. Basically
they take advantage of their curvaceous shape in order to suffer less friction in
movement and thus increase rotating speed with the powering of the wind.

DESCRIPTION
While the environmental pollution keeps going on, there is a last try at a
worldwide scale, which will render the production of renewable energy more
accessible and more efficient.
Within this project the goals have been set by the European Community; the
most recent of them is “20-20-20”, which aims to a 20% reduction of the
greenhouse gases, 20% increase of the power efficiency and 20% penetration of
the renewable sources of power in the energy community until 2020. For these
goals to be achieved, various ways and the technological means with which even

2
an individual with limited financial resources can contribute to this twist to the
renewable forms of energy have been developed.
Typical examples are the installation of photovoltaic system and small size
wind turbines. More specifically, this paper aims to study and manufacture a wind
turbine of vertical axis, Savonius type.

WIND TURBINE
The wind energy system transforms the kinetic energy of the wind into
mechanical or electrical energy that can be harnessed for practical use. Mechanical
energy is most commonly used for pumping water in rural or remote locations, the
"farm windmill" still seen in many rural areas of the U.S. as a mechanical wind
pumper, but it can also be used for many other purposes as grinding grain, sawing,
pushing a sailboat, etc.
In addition, the maximum power that can be obtained from a turbine can be
1
measure as: 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑉2 ,where 𝑚 is the mass flow, V is the wind speed. The
2

equation for the maximum power is very important to understand since it tells us
that power increases with the cube of the wind speed and only linearly with density
and area. The available wind speed at a given site is therefore often first measured
over a period of time before a project is initiated.
The wind turbines are classified as the horizontal axis wind turbine and the vertical
axis wind turbine based upon whether the axis of rotation is parallel or
perpendicular to the ground.

3
CHAPTER 2

4
 LITERATURE SURVEY

A. KADAM, ET AL: has studied about Savonius wind rotors and identify
the various performance parameters to increase its efficiency. The experimental
results show that two blades rotor is more stable in operation than three or more
rotor blades, the power coefficient increases with increasing the aspect ratio. The
rotor blades with end plates gave higher efficiency than those of without end
plates. CFD analysis was carried out to study the flow behavior of a rotating two
bucket Savonius rotor. Model the complex flow physics around the rotating rotor
was carried out by Fluent 6.3.26 software. For this purpose, data were taken from
the experiments conducted earlier on the rotor in a subsonic wind tunnel for five
different overlap conditions are 16.2%, 20%, 25%, 30% & 35%.and results shows
that the maximum pressure drop is found in case of 16.2% overlap and minimum
in case of 35% overlap, means that at 16.2% overlap condition power extraction is
maximum from the wind.
SUMPUN CHAITEP, ET AL: has studied the effect of the operating
conditions (tip speed ratio) to the starting rotation, reverse up rotation, power and
torque coefficients of Curved Blades Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (CB-VAWT).
CBVAWT was tested in the laboratory scale in wind tunnel with different
velocities of 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 m/s.
N.H.MAHMOUD, ET AL :has conducted an experimental analysis by
using, wind tunnel experimental setup, the experimental results shows that -Two
bladed Savonius rotors are more efficient than the three and four bladed Savonius
rotors. The rotor with end plates gives higher efficiency than the without end
plates. Blades having overlap ratios are better than the blades with without over lap
ratios. By increasing Aspect Ratio Coefficient of performance (Cp) will also

5
increase.
WIDODO,W.S, ET AL : has intention to design and analysis of the
Savonius rotor blade to generate 5 kW power Output. They designed blades and
done structural analysis with the help of Solid Work flow simulations and pressure
difference between the concave and convex blade surface Savonius rotor surfaces
was analyzed with help of computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis. The two
flow types were analyzed in this paper one was external flow and other one was
internal flow analysis. Both analyses were static analysis. The presented study was
limited by the software and computer capability. In real world condition, when the
air flows throughthe blade, it will induce a force to turn the rotor blade. However,
the Solid Works software is unable to perform the CFD analysis while the blades
are rotating (dynamic condition). Therefore, only the static CFD analysis was
performed in this paper, was for both external and internal flow analysis.
IVAN DOBREV, ET AL: has studied about flow through savonius vertical
axis wind turbine type with aspect ratio having equal to almost 1. They studied
simulation with both two dimensional and three dimensional models.CFD analysis
was carried out to find the behavior of savonius wind turbine under flow field
condition and performance evaluation , the flow analysis helps in determining the
design was stable or not. The simulation was validated by the experimental
investigation in wind tunnel carried out with PIV(Particle image velocimetry) with
rotor azimuthal position.PIV was used to measure the instantaneous velocity field
in the middle of the rotor normally to the axis of rotation.
K.K. MATRAWY,ET AL: has considered main design and performance
parameters of a small scale vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT). They design two
models (Two and Four cambered blades) and tested in an open wind tunnel. The
studied parameters including: variation of rotational speed at different blade angles
as well as variation of torque and power coefficients at different tip-speed ratios.

6
They also carried out to investigation on the performance of (VAWT) with/without
leading edge flap blades. The experimental data obtained at different blade angles
for different ranges are noted down and analyzed in order to give an optimal blade
angle through the study. A simple theoretical model is developed to verify and
check up some experimental results. The final experimental results showed that the
blade angle of 45o increase the performance of (VAWT) comparing the other ones
for both two and four bladed rotors. Using of flap blade which shows increase
power coefficient by 2.4% compared with the same model without flap blade.
ANUM: has studied and proved that improvement of Savonius rotor performance
is depending on partial differential equation. Investigations were conducted to
show the effect of geometrical configuration on the rotor performance in terms of
coefficient of torque and power, and power output. In proving the above case, the
analysis was carried out with the CFD (computational Fluid Dynamics). The
equations of continuity and Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes together with the
realizable K- є epsilon turbulence model were helped in to solve this problem. The
results obtained shows that partial differential equation was important in the
increasing in the performance of the savonius rotor.
PATEL C.R, ET AL: has investigated the aerodynamic performance of
Savonius wind turbine. Wind tunnel was used to find the aerodynamic
characteristics like, drag coefficient, torque coefficient, and power coefficient of
three bladed Savonius wind turbine rotor models, with and without overlap ratio, at
various Reynolds numbers. Numerical investigation was also carried out to find
those aerodynamic characteristics. Commercial computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) software GAMBIT and FLUENT were used for numerical investigation.
Three different models with different overlap ratio were designed and fabricated
for the current study to find the effect of overlap ratios. At higher Reynolds
number, turbine Model without overlap ratio gives better aerodynamic coefficients

7
and at lower Reynolds number Model with moderate overlap ratio gives better
results.
K.K. SHARMA, ET AL: has studied about the performance of a two-stage
two-bladed configuration of the Savonius rotor. Experiments were conducted in a
subsonic wind tunnel. The parameters studied are overlap, tip speed ratio, power
coefficient (Cp) and torque coefficient (Ct). Optimized Overlap ratio was used to
generate maximum performance of the rotor. The study showed that a maximum
Cp of 0.517 was obtained at 9.37% overlap condition. Similarly power and torque
coefficients decrease with the increase of overlap from 9.37% to 19.87%.
AHMED Y.ET AL: has designed vertical axis wind turbine model having three
frames with cavity vanes, fabricated and tested in a low speed wind tunnel. This
type of model has a high drag coefficient when the vanes close the frame on one
side while rotating with wind direction and capture the wind efficiently. On the
other side, the frame rotates in the opposite direction of the wind which opens the
frame causing the wind to pass through the frame with low resistance. The model
is tested in a wind tunnel with the different wind speeds. This new model gives the
maximum power coefficient of 0.32 at a wind speed of 8.2 m/s and tip speed ratio
of 0.31.
BURCIN DEDA ALTAN, ET AL: has introduced a new curtaining
arrangement to improve the performance of Savonius wind rotors. The curtain
arrangement was placed in front of the rotor to avoid negative torque opposite the
rotor rotation. The geometrical parameters were designed to increase the
performance. The rotor with different curtain arrangements were tested out of a
wind tunnel and its performance was compared with that of the conventional rotor.
The maximum power coefficient of the Savonius wind rotor is increased to about
38.5% with the optimum curtain arrangement.

8
 R. D. MALDONADO,ET AL: has done detailed investigation on Savonius
wind rotor in order to obtain the optimal characteristics. They designed Savonius
wind rotor assembly with CAD software. Simulations of theinteraction between the
flow of air and blades were developed through finite element analysis (FEA). A
result of these simulations shows the velocity distribution of the profile blades. The
formations of vortices were studied with the finality to improve the performance of
the Savonius rotor. Blades with different geometry and gap distance between the
blades were simulated, the results shown better geometry for the blade and gap
distance between blades that improved the power coefficient (Cp) of the Savonius
rotor. Simulations results show that the geometry and gap distance of the blades
increases the Cp about 20%. Through gap distance between the blades, the wind
was directed to the surface of following blade to induce its rotation. An air
deflector was located front the Savonius rotor to increase and guide the flow of air
to the blades. The deflector increased the velocity of the Savonius rotor up to 32%.
ANIMESH GHOSH,ET AL: has studied about design and performance of
Savonius, H-Darrieus and combined Savonius-Darrieus turbines. The experiments
were conducted for Savonius rotor for different overlap ratios from 16.2% to 35%.
Results show that optimum value of overlap is 20% at which the maximum
Coefficient of performance (Cp) is 0.38, for a Tip Speed Ratio 0.625. Wind tunnel
experiments were conducted for two bladed and three bladed H-Darrieus turbine to
find the performances. Results show that both the turbines produced a similar value
of maximum aerodynamic torque and two bladed H-Darrieus turbine shows higher
coefficient of performance than the three bladed turbines. They also did
comparative study on a three bucket Savonius turbine & a combined three-bucket
Savonius and three-bladed Darrieus turbines with and without overlap ratios with
different Tip Speed Ratio. The maximum Cp of 0.51 was obtained without the
overlap condition. The performance of the combined Darrieus-Savonius turbine

9
both theoretically and experimentally holds good. It was found that the combined
Savonius-Darrieus turbine was the best of all the turbines reviewed in terms of
power coefficient. Thus, the combined Savonius-Darrieus turbine may be used for
small-scale applications by scaling-up the turbine.
K.K. SHARMA, ET AL: has studied about the Combination of Savonius
and Darrieus type of Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) rotors, which possess
many advantages over their individual designs, like low starting torque, high power
coefficient, low cut-in wind speed etc. They measured the performance of a three-
bladed combined Darrieus-Savonius rotor, with Darrieus mounted on top of
Savonius rotor, for overlap variations from 10.8% to 25.8%. Power coefficients
(Cp) and torque coefficients (Ct) were calculated in a low range of Tip Speed Ratio
for each overlap condition. It is found that Cp increases with the increase of
overlap. However, there is an optimum value of overlap for which, Cp is
maximum, beyond this Cp starts decreasing. The similar trend is observed for Ct as
well. The maximum Cp of 0.53 is obtained at 0.604 Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) for an
optimum 16.8% overlap ratio. The performance of the rotor is also compared with
another version of this hybrid design with Savonius mounted on top of Darrieus
rotor. The present Darrieus-Savonius rotor can be suitably placed in the built
environment where it can harness more power from wind and, at the same time,
would self-start in low wind condition prevalent in such environment.

HISTORY OF WIND TURBINE

THE BIRTH OF THE WIND TURBINE INDUSTRY- Energy from wind

has been utilized for many centuries in the traditional agricultural societies around
the world as supplement to the muscle power of humans and animals. This historic

10
section of the early industry and its development will nevertheless only cover the
period from when scientists in Denmark and the U.S. first experimented with
transforming wind into electricity and the development of wind generated
electricity in the two respective countries.
DENMARK
The Danish climate is due to the country’s long coastline characterized by
consistent and strong winds. With no other natural energy sources such as coal,
water falls for hydropower, etc. it there- fore seems almost natural that Denmark
became one of the first countries in which scientists and engineers started a
dedicated effort to experiment with and implement wind technology as basis for
electrification. The fairytale story of the Danish wind turbine industry started when
physicist Poul La Coura professor in natural science at the Askov Folk High
School – and a team of scientists built the first wind turbine in 1891 funded by the
Danish government. (Krohn 2002) La Cour was drawing on the results of two
contemporary Danish engineers and scientists, H. C. Vogt and J. Irminger, who to-
gether with the American P. S. Langley participated in formulating modern theory
on aerodynamic lift and drag. (Andersen 1999) The purpose was to experiment
with wind power for the production of electricity.
In the beginning, the test-mill produced electricity to the school and later to
the people of the town of Askov. La Cour’s dream, however, was to create locally
produced electricity for the agriculture and all around Denmark 30-something
small village-power stations were soon built. By the 1930s Denmark was well
ahead of many other countries and wind turbines were traditional in the country-
side in Denmark even before World War II. At Askov Folk High School it even
became possible to study wind turbines where La Cour gave courses in wind
energy for Danish “wind electricians”. (Krohn 2002) La Cour and one of his
students, Lykkegaard, soon became some of the most prominent manufacturers in

11
Denmark – maybe even in the world – as there was no real international
competition at that time.
Wind power was nevertheless soon ousted by electricity from central coal-burning
power stations and the national high-voltage net, which was being built at that
time. Before long wind power be- came less appealing compared to other energy
sources but was later given a new chance – first during World War I and even
more so during World War II when temporary shortages of fossil fuels (coal and
oil) led to higher energy costs. Wind power research continued, though at a much
less- publicised rate than previously. (Andersen 1999)
During World War I in 1914-1918 there were approximately 250 electricity-
producing wind tur- bines in Denmark, of which 120 were connected to power
stations. Following the war, however, the interest diminished again and by 1920
only 75 power stations used wind turbines and by 1940 the number had been
further reduced to 25.
When World War II became a reality in 1940, the country was once again
faced with scarcity of oil and coal. At this point in time Danish industrial wind
power developments were undertaken espe- cially by the companies Lykkegaard
Ltd. and the cement group F. L. Smidth& Co., which, in coop- eration with the
aircraft company Kramme&Zeuthen, developed a new type of wind turbine with
aerodynamic wings and a tower of concrete with an output of 40-70 kW.
(Vindmøllerførognu )
In spite of several attempts from small entrepreneurs such as the above-
mentioned, electricity- producing wind power never really became generally
accepted. But the supply deficit and lack of energy sources did leave many
impressions and thoughts for the future and the Danish power sta- tions set up a
committee for wind power, whose task was to look into the potential role of wind
en- ergy in the future.

12
THE UNITED STATES
Wind energy as a resource is also abundant in many parts of the U.S. –
especially along the east coast, the Appalachian Mountain chain, the Great Plains
and the Pacific Northwest and the extrac- tion of power from the wind here also
dates back to before the turn of the century.
The first use of a large wind turbine to generate electricity was a system built in
Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888 by Charles F. Brush. The Brush machine was the first
wind turbine to incorporate a step-up gearbox in order to turn a direct current
generator at its required operational speed. Despite its rela- tive success in
operating for 20 years, the Brush wind turbine demonstrated the limitations of the
low-speed, high-solidity rotor for electricity production applications (Dodge 2002 )
During the 1920s, the two dominant rotor configurations (fan-type and sail)
had both been tried and found to be inadequate for generating significant amounts
of electricity. A shift was therefore undertaken and the further development of
wind generator electrical systems in the United States was inspired by the design of
airplane propellers and (later) monoplane wings.
The first small electrical-output wind turbines simply used modified
propellers to drive direct cur- rent generators. By the mid-1920s, 1 to 3-kilowatt
wind generators developed by companies like Parris-Dunn and Jacobs Wind-
electric found widespread use in the rural areas of the Midwestern Great Plains.
They had two or three thin blades, which rotated at high speeds to drive electrical
gen- erators. These wind turbines were installed to provide electricity to farms
beyond the reach of power lines and were typically used to charge storage
batteries, operate radio receivers and power a light bulb or two.
Wind turbine generators hence achieved a measure of technical and
economic practicality in rural and remote areas of the country during the 1920s and
in the 1930s and 1940s, hundreds of thou- sands of electricity producing wind

13
turbines were built in the U.S. The wind turbine industry in North America
remained very active into the 1930s. During this decade, however, the combination
of demand of farmsteads for ever larger amounts of power and a major economic
depression spurred the U.S. federal government to stimulate the depressed rural
economies by extending the electrical grid throughout those areas. The lower cost
of electricity produced by a central utility plus the greater reliability led to the
rapid demise of the home wind electric generator and therefore be- gan a slow
decline from which the wind turbine industry in North America never fully
recovered.
The largest wind turbine built before the late 1970’s was a 1250 kW
machine built on Grandpa’s Knob, near Rutland, Vermont, in 1941. The concept
for this turbine started in 1934 when an engineer, Palmer C. Putnam, began to look
at wind electric generators to reduce the cost of electricity to his Cape Cod home.
In 1939, Putnam presented his ideas and the results of his preliminary work to the
S. Morgan Smith Company of York, Pennsylvania. They agreed to fund a wind-
energy project and the Smith-Putnam wind turbine experiment was born, involving
a team of scientists who de- signed, built and operated the world’s first megawatt-
size wind power plant (corresponding to the output of the wind turbines of today).
(Johnson 2001)
Between 1941 and 1945 the Smith-Putnam machine, which was connected
into the Central Vermont Public Service Corporation’s network, accumulated
about 1100 hours of operation. More would have been accumulated except for the
problem of getting critical repair parts during the war. In 1945 one of the blades
broke off near the hub, apparently as a result of metal fatigue and hence due more
to inadequate design than to technological limitations. The project was reviewed
and was de- termined to be a technical success. The economics, however, did not
justify building more machines at that time

14
CHAPTER 3

15
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are
transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the
creation of the materials from which the design is made. These materials are then
modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part.
Manufacturing processes can include treating (such as coating), or reshaping the
material. The manufacturing process also includes tests and checks for quality
assurance during or after the manufacturing, and planning the production process
prior to manufacturing.

Figure: 1

16
METAL CUTTING
Metal cutting or machining is the process of by removing unwanted material
from a block of metal in the form of chips.

Figure: 2
Cutting processes work by causing fracture of the material that is processed.
Usually, the portion that is fractured away is in small sized pieces, called chips.
Common cutting processes include sawing, shaping (or planning), broaching,
drilling, grinding, turning and milling. Although the actual machines, tools and
processes for cutting look very different from each other, the basic mechanism for
causing the fracture can be understood by just a simple model called for orthogonal
cutting.

17
 Figure: 3
DRILLNG
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of
circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the work piece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

Figure: 4

18
 Common drill bit materials include hardened steel (High Speed Steel,
Titanium Nitride coated steel); for cutting harder materials, drills with hard inserts,
e.g. carbide or CBN inserts, are used.
In general, drills for cutting softer materials have smaller point angle, while
those for cutting hard and brittle materials have larger point angle.
If the Length/Diameter ratio of the hole to be machined is large, then we
need a special guiding support for the drill, which itself has to be very long; such
operations are called gun-drilling. This process is used for holes with diameter of
few mm or more, and L/D ratio up to 300. These are used for making barrels of
guns.
Drilling is not useful for very small diameter holes (e.g. < 0.5 mm), since the
tool may break and get stuck in the work piece; - Usually, the size of the hole made
by a drill is slightly larger than the measured diameter of the drill – this is mainly
because of vibration of the tool spindle as it rotates, possible misalignment of the
drill with the spindle axis, and some other factors.
For tight dimension control on hole diameter, we first drill a hole that is
slightly smaller than required size (e.g. 0.25 mm smaller), and then use a special
type of drill called a reamer. Reaming has very low material removal rate, low
depth of cut, but gives good dimension accuracy.

INSPECTION

Critical appraisalinvolvingexamination, measurement, testing, gauging, and

comparison of materials or items. An inspection determines if the material or item
is in proper quantity and condition, and if it conforms to the applicable or specified
requirements. Inspection is generally divided into three categories: (1) Receiving
inspection, (2) In-process inspection, and (3) Final inspection. In quality control

19
(which is guided by the principle that "Quality cannot be inspected into a product")
the role of inspection is to verify and validate the variancedata; it does not involve
separating the good from the bad.

Figure: 5

ASSEMBLY

An assembly line is a manufacturing process (most of the time called

a progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added as
the semi-finished assembly moves from work station to work station where the
parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically
moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-finished assembly
from work station to work station, a finished product can be assembled much faster
and with much less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece
for assembly.

20
CHAPTER 4

21
 COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

The major components involved in the fabrication of the power generator using
savonius wind turbine as follows.

 Aluminium sheet,
 Frame,
 Dynamo-300 rpm,
 LED light,
 Bottle,
 Wire,
 M-seal.

ALUMINIUM SHEET

After iron, aluminium is now the second most widely used metal in the

world. The properties of aluminium include: low density and therefore low weight,

high strength, superior malleability, easy machining, excellent corrosion resistance

and good thermal and electrical conductivity are amongst aluminium’s most

important properties. Aluminium is also very easy to recycle.

22
WEIGHT

One of the best known properties of aluminium is that it is light, with a density one

third that of steel, 2,700 kg/m3. The low density of aluminium accounts for it being

lightweight but this does not affect its strength.

STRENGTH

Aluminium alloys commonly have tensile strengths of between 70 and 700

MPa. The range for alloys used in extrusion is 150 – 300 MPa. Unlike most steel
grades, aluminium does not become brittle at low temperatures. Instead, its
strength increases. At high temperatures, aluminium’s strength decreases. At
temperatures continuously above 100°C.

LINEAR EXPANSION

Compared with other metals, aluminium has a relatively large coefficient of

linear expansion. This has to be taken into account in some designs.

MACHINING

Aluminium is easily worked using most machining methods – milling,

drilling, cutting, punching, bending, etc. Furthermore, the energy input during
machining is low.

REFLECTIVITY

Another of the properties of aluminium is that it is a good reflector of both

visible light and radiated heat.

23
CORROSION RESISTANCE

Aluminium reacts with the oxygen in the air to form an extremely thin layer
of oxide. Though it is only some hundredths of a (my) m thick (1 (my)m is one
thousandth of a millimeter), this layer is dense and provides excellent corrosion
protection. The layer is self-repairing if damaged.

NON-MAGNETIC MATERIAL

Aluminium is a non-magnetic (actually paramagnetic) material. To avoid

interference of magnetic fields aluminium is often used in magnet X-ray devices.

PROPERTIES

Specific Weight 0.027N/cc

Melting Point 660°∁
Modulus of Elasticity (E) 0.675×105N/mm2
Modulus of Rigidity (G) 0.260×105N/mm2
Thermal Conductivity (K) 0.530cal/s cm °C
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (α) 23.8µm/m ℃
Poisson’s Ratio (ν) 0.34

24
BLADE PROFILE

Figure: 6

BATTERY

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of
excess solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are
isolated sunshine load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for
storage. In fact for small units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem
to be the only technically and economically available storage means. Since both
the photo-voltaic system and batteries are high in capital costs. It is necessary that
the overall system be optimized with respect to available energy and local demand
pattern. To be economically attractive the storage of solar electricity requires a
battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1) Low cost

(2) Long life
(3) High reliability

25
 (4) High overall efficiency
(5) Minimum maintenance
(A) Ampere hour efficiency
(B) Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar
panel for lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

LEAD-ACID WET CELL

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the
type most commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid
(H₂SO₄). In the application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile,
for example, the load current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One
cell has a nominal output of 2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series
combination of three for a 6-V battery and six for a 12-V battery.
The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be
recharged. The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore
the output voltage, as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat
with excessive charge and discharge currents shortens the useful life to about 3 to 5
years for an automobile battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-
acid type has the highest output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified
battery voltage.
Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The
electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to
from the plates.

26
CHEMICAL ACTION

Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. When the cell
discharges, lead peroxide from the positive electrode combines with hydrogen ions
to form water and with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate. Combining lead on the
negative plate with sulfate ions also produces he sulfate. Therefore, the net result
of discharge is to produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form
lead sulfate on the plates.As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of
the grids, retarding circulation of acid in the active material. Lead sulfate is the
powder often seen on the outside terminals of old batteries. When the combination
of weak electrolyte and sulfating on the plate lowers the output of the battery,
charging is necessary.On charge, the external D.C. source reverses the current in
the battery. The reversed direction of ions flows in the electrolyte result in a
reversal of the chemical reactions. Now the lead sulfates on the positive plate
reactive with the water and sulfate ions to produce lead peroxide and sulfuric acid.
This action re-forms the positive plates and makes the electrolyte stronger by
adding sulfuric acid.At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the
negative plate to react with hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while
reforming lead on the negative plate to react with hydrogen ions; this also forms
currents can restore the cell to full output, with lead peroxide on the positive plates,
spongy lead on the negative plate, and the required concentration of sulfuric acid in
the electrolyte.
The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is
Charge
Pb + pbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ 2pbSO₄ + 2H₂

27
 Figure: 7

DISCHARGE

On discharge, the pb and pbo₂ combine with the SO₄ ions at the left side of
the equation to form lead sulfate (pbSO₄) and water (H₂O) at the right side of the
equation. One battery consists of 6 cells, each have an output voltage of 2.1V,
which are connected in series to get an voltage of 12V and the same 12V battery is
connected in series, to get an 24 V battery. They are placed in the water proof iron
casing box

28
CURRENT RATINGS
Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge
currents they can supply for a specified period of time; the output voltage must be
maintained above a minimum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8V per cell. A common
rating is ampere-hours (A.h.) based on a specific discharge time, which is often 8h.
Typical values for automobile batteries are 100 to 300 A.h.
As an example, a 200 A.h battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A,
used on 8h discharge. The battery can supply less current for a longer time or
more current for a shorter time. Automobile batteries may be rated for “cold
cranking power”, which is related to the job of starting the engine. A typical rating
is 450A for 30s at a temperature of 0 degree F.
Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance,
200 A.h. corresponds to 200A*3600s (1h=3600s). The equals 720,000 A.S, or
coulombs. One ampere-second is equal to one coulomb. Then the charge equals
720,000 or 7.2*10^5ºC. To put this much charge back into the battery would
require 20 hours with a charging current of 10A.
The ratings for lead-acid batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to
80ºF. Higher temperature increase the chemical reaction, but operation above
110ºF shortens the battery life.

Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The
ampere-hour capacity is reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1º F
below normal temperature rating. At 0ºF the available output is only 60 % of the
ampere-hour battery rating. In cold weather, therefore, it is very important to have
an automobile battery unto full charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes more
easily when diluted by water in the discharged condition.

29
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte generally checks the state of
discharge for a lead-acid cell. Specific gravity is a ratio comparing the weight of a
substance with the weight of a substance with the weight of water. For instance,
concentrated sulfuric acid is 1.835 times as heavy as water for the same volume.
Therefore, its specific gravity equals 1.835. The specific gravity of water is 1,
since it is the reference.
In a fully charged automotive cell, mixture of sulfuric acid and water results
in a specific gravity of 1.280 at room temperatures of 70 to 80ºF. As the cell
discharges, more water is formed, lowering the specific gravity. When it is down
to about 1.150, the cell is completely discharged.Specific-gravity readings are
taken with a battery hydrometer. Note that the calibrated float with the specific
gravity marks will rest higher in an electrolyte of higher specific gravity.
The decimal point is often omitted for convenience. For example, the value
of 1.220 is simply read “twelve twenty”. A hydrometer reading of 1260 to 1280
indicates full charge, approximately 12.50 are half charge, and 1150 to 1200
indicates complete discharge.The importance of the specific gravity can be seen
from the fact that the open-circuit voltage of the lead-acid cell is approximately
equal to
V = Specific gravity + 0.84
For the specific gravity of 1.280, the voltage is 1.280 = 0.84 = 2.12V, as an
example. These values are for a fully charged battery.

FRAME
Frame stand is made up of plywood materials. The whole above mentioned
parts are fixed in to this frame stand with suitable arrangement.

30
DC GENERATOR
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy
into direct current electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of
production of dynamically induced emf. This article outlines basic constructionand
working of a DC generator.

CONSTRUCTION OF A DC GENERATOR

A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes

and vice versa is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly
termed as a DC machine. These basic constructional details are also valid for
the construction of a DC motor. Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC
machine instead of just 'construction of a dc generator'.

Figure: 8

31
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC GENERATOR

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is

placed in a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field),
an emf (electromotive force) gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of
induced emf can be calculated from the emf equation of dc generator. If the
conductor is provided with the closed path, the induced current will circulate
within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and
the armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically
induced emf is generated in the armature conductors. The direction of induced
current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule

SEALANT
Sealant is a substance used to block the passage of fluids through the surface or
joints or openings in materials, a type of mechanical seal. In building construction
Sealant is sometimes synonymous with caulking and also serve the purposes of
blocking dust, sound and heat transmission. Sealants may be weak or strong,
flexible or rigid, permanent or temporary. Sealants are not adhesives but some
have adhesive qualities and are called adhesive-sealants or structural sealants.

FUNCTION

Sealants, despite not having great strength, convey a number of properties. They
seal top structures to the substrate, and are particularly effective in waterproofing
processes by keeping moisture out (or in) the components in which they are used.
They can provide thermal and acoustical insulation, and may serve as fire barriers.
They may have electrical properties, as well. Sealants can also be used for simple

32
smoothing or filling. They are often called upon to perform several of these
functions at once.
A caulking sealant has three basic functions: It fills a gap between two or more
substrates; it forms a barrier through the physical properties of the sealant itself and
by adhesion to the substrate; and, it maintains sealing properties for the expected
lifetime, service conditions, and environments. The sealant performs these
functions by way of correct formulation to achieve specific application and
performance properties. Other than adhesives, however, there are few functional
alternatives to the sealing process.
Soldering or welding can perhaps be used as alternatives in certain instances,
depending on the substrates and the relative movement that the substrates will see
in service.

BUCK–BOOST CONVERTER
The buck–boost converter is a type ofDC-to-DC converter that has an output
voltage magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage
magnitude. It is equivalent to a fly back converter using a single inductor instead of
a transformer. Two different topologies are called buck–boost converter. Both of
them can produce a range of output voltages, ranging from much larger (in
absolute magnitude) than the input voltage, down to almost zero.

Figure: 9
33
SHAFT
A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section,
which is used to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which
produces power to a machine which absorbs power the various members such
as pulleys and gears are mounted on it.

The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required,
an alloy steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium or chromium-vanadium steel is
used.

Shafts are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold
drawing or turning and grinding.

STRESSES ON SHAFT
The following stresses are induced in the shafts.

1. Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (due to torsional load).

2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon the
machine elements like gears and pulleys as well as the self-weight of the
shaft.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.

34
CHAPTER 5

35
 WORKING PRINCIPLE

Savonius turbines are one of the simplest turbines. Aerodynamically, they

are drag-type devices, consisting of three or more blades (vertical). A six blades
savonius wind turbine would look like a semi curved shape. The savonius wind
turbine works due to the difference in forces exert on each blade. The lower blade
(the concave half to the wind direction) caught the air wind and forces the blade to
rotate around its central vertical shaft. Whereas, the upper blade (the convex half to
wind direction) hits the blade and causes the air wind to be deflected sideway
around it. Because of the blades curvature, the blades experience less drag force
(Fconvex) when moving against the wind than the blades when moving with the
wind (Fconcave). Hence, the half cylinder with concave side facing the wind will
experience more drag force than the other cylinder, thus forcing the rotor to rotate.
The differential drag causes the Savonius turbine to spin. For this reason, Savonius
turbines extract much less of the wind's power than other similarly sized lift type
turbines because much of the power that might be captured has used up pushing
the convex half, so savonius wind turbine has a lower efficiency.

36
2D VIEW OF THE TURBINE

Figure: 10

METERIAL DIMENSIONS

METERIALS DIMENSIONS
Area of The Frame 15.96 m2
Diameter of Shaft 0.07 m
Height of Blade 0.23 m
Thickness of Blade 1.5× 10−3 m
Width of Blade 0.15 m
D C Generator speed 300 rpm

37
POWER CALCULATIONS

SERIAL WIND SPEED OUTPUT OUTPUT OUTPUT

NO SPEED (N) VOLTAGE CURRENT(A) POWER
rpm (V) Milli amps (P)
volts mW
1 HIGH 90 rpm 2.1 50 10.5

2 MEDIUM 70 rpm 1.9 35 6.5

3 LOW 50 rpm 1.7 25 4.25

From Volt Meter

Voltage =2.1 V

From Ammeter
Current =50× 10−3 W
Power = Voltage × Current
=2.1×50× 10−3
=0.105 W
=10.5 mW
Power =10.5 mW
Output Power
Efficiency of Turbine =
Input Power
2πNT
Input power =
60

38
BILL OF MATERIAL

SI NO PART MATERIAL QUANTITY

1 Frame Plywood 1600𝑐𝑚2
2 Dynamo - 1
3 Wire Copper 1
4 Bottle Plastic 1
5 M-seal - 5
6 LED - 2
7 Sheet metal Aluminum 2640𝑐𝑚2

ADVANTAGES
 It is a renewable source of energy.
 Wind power systems are non-polluting so it has no adverse influence on the
environment.
 Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport.
 On a small scale up to a few kilowatt system is less costly.
 They are always facing the wind - no need for steering into the wind.
 Have greater surface area for energy capture -can be many times greater.
 Are more efficient in gusty winds – already facing the gust.
 Can be installed in more locations - on roofs, along highways, in parking lots.
 Can be scaled more easily - from mill watts to megawatts.

39
ADVANTAGE OF SAVONIUS WIND TURBINE OVER
HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE

 There are several reasons why we would choose a vertical axis wind turbine
over a horizontal axis windmill.
 They are mounted lower to the ground making it easy for maintenance if
needed.
 They may be able to be built at locations where taller structures, such as the
horizontal type, can't be.
 Higher power utilization-- 20% higher than HAWT.
 Lower noise level--only 27-37 DB, suitable for your living condition.
 Safer operation--Spin at slower speeds than horizontal turbines, decreasing the
risk of injuring birds and also decreasing noise level.

COST ESTIMATION

MATERIALS COST
Aluminum sheet 300
Dynamo 300 rpm 160
M-seal 200
Bottle 60
Labour cost 400
Plywood 200
LED & Wire 30
Total material cost 950
Total manufacturing cost 1350

40
CHAPTER 6

41
 CONCLUSION

Vertical axis wind energy conversion systems are practical and potentially very
contributive to the production of clean renewable electricity from the wind even
under less than ideal sitting conditions. It is hoped that they may be constructed
used high- strength, low- weight materials for deployment in more developed
nations and settings or with very low tech local materials and local skills in less
developed countries. The Savonius wind turbine designed is ideal to be located on
top of a bridge or bridges to generate electricity, powered by wind. The elevated
altitude gives it an advantage for more wind opportunity. With the idea on top of a
bridge, it will power up street lights and or commercial use. In most cities, bridges
are a faster route for everyday commute and in need of constant lighting makes this
an efficient way to produce natural energy.

42
CHAPTER 7

43
 REFERENCES

 Peter, C., Sheets, B. and Tablar, S. (2008): Emerging Technologies in the Wind
Turbine Market, The Palace Hotel, San Francisco, CA. 19-20 November 2008.
 Manwell, J.F., McGowan, J.G. and Rogers, A.L. (2009): Wind Energy
Explained UK, John Wiley & Son Ltd.
 Akwa, J.V., Junior, G.A.S. and Petry, A.P. (2012): Discussion on the
Verification of the Overlap Ratio Influence on Performance Coefficients of a
Savonius Wind Rotor Using Computational Fluid Dynamics. Renewable
Energy, Vol.38, pp.141-149.
 Halsey, N. (2011): Modeling the Twisted Savonius Wind Turbine
Geometrically and Simplifying its Construction. Oregon Episcopal School.
 D’Alessandro, V., Montelpare, S., Ricci, R. and Secchiaroli, A. (2010):
Unsteady Aerodynamics of a Savonius Wind Rotor: A New Computational
Approach for the Simulation of Energy Performance. Energy, Vol.35, pp. 3349-
3363.
 Joseph Edward Shigley and Charles, R. Mischke, “Mechanical engineering
design”, McGraw Hill International Editions, 1989.
 Savonius SJ. The S-rotor and its application. MechEng 53, 1931.
 Fujisawa, N., &Gotoh, F. (1992). Visualization study of the flow in and around
a Savonius rotor. Experiments in Fluids, 12, 407-412.
 Modi, V.J., Fernando, M.S.U.K, & Roth, N.J. (1990). Aerodynamics of the
Savonius rotor: experiments and analysis. Energy Conversion Engineering
Conference, 1990. IECEC-90. Proceedings of the 25th Intersociety, 213-218.

44
 Shikha, Bhatti, T.S., & Kothari, D.P. (2003). Wind energy conversion systems
as a distributed source of generation. Journal of Energy Engineering, 129(3),69-
80.
 Guillaume, Algazze, Duc (2009). Economic Feasibility of wind turbines for
individual households. EWEC Proceedings 2009.
 The Windspire: Windspire Wind Turbine by Windspire Energy (Formerly
Mariah Power).

WEB LINKS

 http://windspireenergy.com/windspire/
 http://www.ewec2009proceedings.info/allfiles2/54_EWEC2009presentation.pdf
 www.googleweblight.com

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PHOTOGRAPHY

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