Diapositiva 1

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Diapositiva 2

Descripción de lenguajes
Lenguajes de programación
1. Programas
2. Lenguajes de alto nivel y de máquina
3. Traductores
1. Especificaciones gramaticales y semánticas
Lenguajes formales
◦ Alfabeto
◦ Palabras
Sintaxis
◦ Reglas de formación de palabras y frases
Semántica
◦ Significado de las palabras y frases

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Diapositiva 3

El problema de la traducción
MOVE 3 to A A := 3;
(Cobol) (Ada,Pascal)

A=3 3A !
(Fortran) (Forth)

MOV AX, 3
A =3;
01010111 /A 3 def
(C/C++, JS, (Postscript)
Java) 11101010
00000101

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Diapositiva 4

Reconocimiento de código fuente

Programa
escrito en Análisis
algún Léxico
lenguaje
tokens

Unidad I
Análisis
Sintáctico
árboles

Programa en
Análisis Traductor lenguaje de
Semántico máquina
Unidad II

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Diapositiva 5

Conceptos sobre lenguajes

Símbolos Operaciones con palabras
Alfabeto: Σ = {a, b, c, ...} Concatenación: X.Y
Potencia: Xi
Cadenas o palabras
Reflexión: X-1 o XR
Σn con n >= 0
Σ0 = {λ} (vacío λ, ε, ∆, ∅) Operaciones con lenguajes
Unión: L1 ∪ L2
Σ* = Σ0 ∪ Σ1 ∪ Σ2 ∪ ... Intersección: L1 ∩ L2
Σ+ = Σ1 ∪ Σ2 ∪ ... = Σ* - {λ} Resta:L1 – L2
Concatenación: L1 • L2
Universo de un alfabeto
Potencia: Li
W(Σ) Clausura: L+ = U∞i=1 Li
Lenguaje sobre un alfabeto Cierre: L*=L+ U {λ}
L(Σ) ⊂W(Σ) Reflexión: L-1

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Diapositiva 6

Reglas de producción
N R N (elemento a definir) R (patrón de generación)
Sean: v w donde v, w ∈ Σ*
Derivación directa: v w
Derivación: v v1 v2 … w

Regla compresora
N R |N| > |R| Ej: 101 11

Derivación por izquierda y por derecha

Sea la palabra 00011 y las reglas a) 01 11 b) 00 10
Por izq: 00011-> 10011-> 11011-> 11111
b b a
Por dcha: 00011-> 00111-> 01111-> 11111
a a a

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Diapositiva 7

Gramáticas formales
Definición: G = {Σ, Σt, S, P}
Σ alfabeto (Σt U Σn) Σn = variables
Σt conjunto de símbolos terminales
S axioma S ∈ Σn
P conjunto finito de reglas de producción
Lenguaje generado: L(G) conjunto de todas las
palabras o cadenas generadas por la gramática
Equivalencia: L(G1) = L(G2)

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Diapositiva 8

Gramáticas formales
P = { S -> aSb, S -> aSbb, S -> b } S
Σn = { S }
aSb
Σt = { a, b } ¿Qué genera?
aSbb
Dados ∑n = {S, T} ∑t = {a, b}
Obtener P para L = { ar b / r > 0 } b
aabbbb
S -> aS S -> aT S -> aS
X
S -> b T -> aT S -> aT
T -> b T -> b
Dados ∑n = {S, T} y ∑t = {a, b, c}
Obtener P para
L = { ar b cr / r > 0 } X
S -> aSc
S -> b
S -> aSc
S -> T
T -> b

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Diapositiva 9

Jerarquía de gramáticas (Chomsky)

Irrestrictas (G0)
• Condición: N R donde N ≠ λ
• Ejemplo: S → aSBC | aBC, CB → BC, aB → ab, bB → bb, bC → bc, cC → cc, A → bc

Sensibles al contexto (G1)

• Condición: N R donde |N|< |R|, N = αAβ, R = αΓβ
• tal que α, β, Γ ∈ V* con V = (Σt ∪ Σn)* y A = Σn
• Ejemplo: S → abc | aAbc, Ab → bA, Ac → Bbcc, bB → Bb, aB → aa | aaA
Libres de contexto (G2)
• Condición: N R donde N = Σn, R = sin restricción
• Ejemplo: S → aSb | ab | λ

Regulares (G3)
• Condición: N R donde N=Σn, R = (Σt ∪ Σn) ó Σt ó λ
• Ejemplo: A → aB | a | λ

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Diapositiva 10

G3 (regulares)
Regular x derecha Regular x izquierda
S -> 1A S -> C0
A -> 1A | 0B | 0 C -> C0 | D1 | 1
B -> 0B | 0 D -> D1 | 1
Ambas generan
11000

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Diapositiva 11

Recursividad por izquierda

Problemas con los analizadores de código
No puede procesarla
Se debe eliminar
Recursividad por izquierda inmediata
A →A α | β
Eliminación de recursividad por izquierda
Se trabaja con el término β (que no es RI)
A→βB
B→αB | ε

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Diapositiva 12

Eliminación recursividad izquierda

Sea por ejemplo el siguiente caso
S → Aa | b
A → Ac | Sd | f
1. Reemplazar: A → Sd por A → Aad | bd
2. Queda: A → Ac | Aad | bd | f
3. Eliminar recursividad inmediata:
A → bdB | fB
B → cB | adB | ε
Finalmente:
S → Aa | b
A → bdB | fB
B → cB | adB | ε

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Diapositiva 13

G2 (independientes de contexto)

G1 (no estricta) G2 (estricta)

S -> AB S -> AB | A | B | λ
A -> 0A1 | λ A -> 0A1 | 01
B -> 2B | λ B -> 2B | 2

Ambas generan
0 n1 n2 m con n, m ≥ 0

G1 no es estricta ya que incluye reglas nulas

asociadas a símbolos que no son el axioma

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Diapositiva 14

Árbol de derivación y ambigüedad

Sea G = { Σt, Σn, S, P } Para la cadena: [0[01*]+]
Σt = { 0, 1, [, ], +, * }
Σn = { E } S = E
P = { E [EE+],
E [EE*],
E 0, E 1 }
Necesidad de reglas de precedencia y asociatividad
a+b*c a+b+c a–b–c

Sea: S SaS|SbS|c ¿ Qué pasa para cbcac ?

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Diapositiva 15

Notación BNF y EBNF

Es un meta-lenguaje para especificación sintáctica de uso casi
universal

BNF (John Bakus, Peter Naur Normal Form - 1959)

<no terminal> ‘a’ ‘+’ ::= () |
Ejemplo
<dígito> ::= ‘0’ | ‘1’ | … | ‘9’
<número> ::= <dígito> <número>
<número> ::= <dígito>

EBNF (Extended BNF)

{ }* o {} { }+ []
Ejemplo
<dígito> ::= ‘0’ | ‘1’ | … | ‘9’
<número> ::= <dígito> {<dígito>}*

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Diapositiva 16

Diagramas sintácticos

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Diapositiva 17

BNF – EBNF – Diagramas

BNF:
<expr> ::= <expr> ‘+’ <term> |
<expr> ‘-’ <term> | <term>

EBNF:
<expr> ::= <term> { (‘+’ | ‘-’) <term> }

Diagrama sintáctico
expr

term

+
term
-

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Diapositiva 18

Notaciones
Infija
más usual (requiere paréntesis)
Postfija
Evaluación muy eficiente
Prefija
notación funcional

Infija Postfija Prefija

a+d*g-h adg*+h- -+a*dgh

C PostScript Lisp
a=a+ b /a a b add def (setf a (+ a b))

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Diapositiva 19

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Diapositiva 20

Máquinas abstractas
Permiten simular procesos para tratar información
la información se codifica en cadenas de símbolos
son “dispositivos” que manipulan cadenas de símbolos
procesan cadenas de entrada y producen cadenas de salida
reciben los símbolos de entrada secuencialmente
El símbolo de salida, en un instante dado depende de
el último símbolo de entrada
la secuencia o cadena, que ha recibido hasta ese instante
el estado en que se encuentra
Estados de un autómata
en un instante de tiempo dado, sólo puede estar en un estado
estados iniciales y estados finales
Formas de descripción: gráfica, matricial, funcional
Se usan como reconocedores de lenguajes
Existen distintos tipos de autómatas

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Diapositiva 21

Máquinas abstractas
Máquina de Mealy
ME = (Σe, Σs, Q, f, g) 0/11
1/11
0
1

Σe: alfabeto de entrada Σs: alfabeto de salida A A/11

Q: conjunto finito de estados ≠ ∅ 0/00 1/01 0 1

f: Q x Σe Q g: Q x Σe Σs B C B/00 C/01

La salida depende del estado actual y de la entrada

00 00/0
Máquina de Moore 10 10/0

A/0 A
ME = (Σe, Σs, Q, f, g) 10 00 10/1 00/0
Σe: alfabeto de entrada Σs: alfabeto de salida
B/1
Q: conjunto finito de estados ≠ ∅ C/0 B C

f: Q x Σe Q g: Q Σs

21
La salida depende sólo del estado actual

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Diapositiva 22

Autómata finito determinista

AFD = (Σ, q0, Q, F, f)
Σ: alfabeto de entrada q0: estado inicial ∈Q Notación funcional
f(1, a) 2
Q: estados ≠ ∅ F: estados finales ⊂ Q
f(1, b) 3
f: Q x Σ Q f(2, a) 2
f(3, b) 2
$, 2 a b, $, 2 0 f(3, $) 4
f(4, $) 4
2 a, 2 $ a, b f(4,2) 3
a
1 b 4 Notación matricial
2
a b $ 2
b
3 $ 1 2 3 - -
2 2 - - -
Habitualmente se representan las transiciones que conducen al 3 - 2 4 -
reconocimiento de alguna cadena, considerándose implícito un
"estado de captación global“ donde llegan los arcos omitidos. 4 - - 4 3

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Diapositiva 23

Algoritmo de implementación
est = 1
repetir { b, $, 2 0
$, 2 a
leer c
segun (est) { 2 a, 2 a, b
a $
1: si c == ‘a’ hace est = 2
si c == ‘b’ hace est = 3 1 b 2 4
sino est = 0
b
2: si c == ‘a’ hace est = 2 3 $
sino est = 0
3: si c = ‘$’ hace est = 4
si c == ‘b’ hace est = 2
sino est = 0
4: si c == ‘$’ hace est = 4
si c = ‘2’ hace est = 3
sino est = 0
}
} hasta c == ‘’

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Diapositiva 24

Autómata finito no-determinista

AFND = (Σ, q0, Q, F, f)
Σ: alfabeto de entrada ?? q0: estado inicial ∈Q ??
Q: estados ≠ ∅ ?? F: estados finales ⊂ Q ??
f: Q x (Σ ∪ {λ}) P(Q) ??

1 q1
1 0 1 0 0 …
q0 0,1
0
λ,1
λ
q2 q3

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Diapositiva 25

Gramáticas G3 y autómatas
Un lenguaje regular es el que se puede generar a partir de la aplicación de las operaciones de
unión, concatenación y el cierre de Kleene un número finito de veces.

Gramática regular
ΣT = {0, 1}
ΣN = {A, B, S}
P = { S 0A, A 0S, A 1B, B 1, B 0 }

Autómata

Expresión regular
0.(0.0)*.1.(1|0)

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Diapositiva 26

Expresiones regulares
Kleene (1956)
Describen máquinas de estados finitos
Operadores
Unión | V +
Concatenación .
Cierre (Kleene) *
Cierre (positivo) +
El problema de la conversión
Obtener el AEF
a.(b|c*).d ¿y la gramática?
y z

x w
(x | y*).z*.w q0 q1 q2 ¿ y.y.y.z.z.w ?

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Diapositiva 27

Conversión AEF a ER
Algoritmo de transformación
c c
b
a b a
qi qk qf qi qf qi qf
c
a
b d
qk

a.c*.b
a.c*.b qi
a | b.c*.d qf
qi qf qi

Sea
b.(b*.a.b)*.b*.(a|b).b*
1) b.bbb.a…. y queda en q0
Desde q0:
2) b.bbb….
(b.b*.a)*.b.b*.(a|b).b*

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Diapositiva 28

Conversión ER a AEF
Algoritmo
McNaughton,
Yamada,
Thompson

Sea (1 | 0)*1

convertir a
AFD y
minimizar

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Diapositiva 29

Equivalencia de autómatas
Se basa en la construcción de subconjuntos
Cada estado de AFD contiene un conjunto de estados del AFND
∀ AFND ∃ AFD (AFD son casos particulares de AFND)
N=(∑, q0, Q, F, f) equivale a D=(∑, {q’0}, Q’, F’, f’)
Es decir N = D / L(D)=L(N)
Si se cumple que:
Q’ = 2|Q| (conjunto potencia P(Q) )
q’i = [qi , …, qf ] => {qi , …, qf} ⊂ Q’
q’0 = {q0}
F’ = { q’ ∈ Q’ / q’ ∩ F ≠ ∅ } (al menos uno sea final)
f’(q’, a) = {∪q∈q’ f(q, a)} / q ∈ Q Λ a ∈ ∑

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Diapositiva 30

Equivalencia de autómatas
Algoritmo:
Eliminar estados superfluos (no alcanzables o que no conducen a un
estado final)
Construir el conjunto 2|Q| de estados combinados
Para cada estado de 2|Q| y símbolo de entrada, analizar cuáles estados
son alcanzables
Eliminar los estados
No alcanzables (excepto el inicial)
Aquellos que sólo son alcanzados por los eliminados en el paso previo
Los duplicados (debe quedar uno de ellos)
Construir el grafo del AEFD
El grafo obtenido debe ser conexo

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Diapositiva 31

Equivalencia de autómatas
Estados a b c
{} - - -
*
>* q0 q0,q1,q2 q1,q2 q2
*q1 - q1,q2 q2 **
*q2 - - q2
>*q0,q1 q0,q1,q2 q1,q2 q2
**
>*q0,q2 q0,q1,q2 q1,q2 q2 **
*q1,q2 - q1,q2 q2
>*q0,q1,q2 q0,q1,q2 q1,q2 q2

Se eliminan:
* estado de captación global
** no alcanzables

Tanto en el AEF original y el resultante, todos los estados, son finales.

Al aplicar el algoritmo queda con dos estados iniciales y se debe elegir uno de ellos.

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Diapositiva 32

Equivalencia de autómatas
Estados a b
q1
λ {} {} {}
a > {q0} - -
q0 b {q1} *{q2,q3} -
a
*{q2} - -
q2
{q3} *{q2} {q1}
q3 a {q0,q1} *{q2,q3} -
*{q0,q2} - -
La transición vacía no se considera {q0,q3} *{q2} -
sólo se tiene en cuenta cuando está en el
camino de otro símbolo procesable *{q1,q2} *{q2,q3} -
{q1,q3} *{q2,q3} {q1}
q2, *{q2,q3} *{q2} {q1}
a q3 *{q0,q1,q2} *{q2,q3} -
q0, a {q0,q1,q3} *{q2,q3} {q1}
a *{q0,q2,q3} *{q2} {q1}
q1 b
*{q1,q2,q3} *{q2,q3} {q1}
q2
*{q0,q1,q2,q3} *{q2,q3} {q1}
q1

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Diapositiva 33

Minimización de autómatas
Si para AFD=(∑, q0, Q, F, f) ∃ AFDM=(∑, q’0, Q’, F’, f’) entonces
L(AFD)=L(AFDM)
Eliminar los estados no alcanzables desde el estado inicial
Eliminar los estados desde los que no se alcanza un estado final
Luego:
1. Hacer partición inicial P en dos grupos G’(F) y G’’(Q – F)
2. ∀ G de P (|G| > 1) obtener nueva Pn de modo que:
∀ qi, qj ∈ Gi ∀ α ∈∑ se cumple: f(qi, α), f(qj, α) Gi
sino deben separarse en un nuevo grupo
3. sustituir G en Pn por el nuevo conjunto de subgrupos
4. si Pn= P entonces Pfinal := P e ir a (5) sino P := Pn e ir a (2)
5. Elegir en cada grupo un qi, como representante del grupo
6. Eliminar estados pasivos (“sumideros” no finales o no alcanzables)

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Diapositiva 34

Minimización de autómatas
AFD reconoce L = (a|b)*abb
Caminos posibles ¿cuál es válido?
Q1 aQ2 aQ2 bQ4 aQ2 bQ4 bQ5

Q1 aQ2 bQ4 bQ5 aQ2 bQ4 bQ5

Q1 aQ2 aQ2 bQ4 bQ5

P1:= {Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4} = {Q – F} {Q5} = {F}

P2 := {Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4} x b {Q1, Q2, Q3} {Q4} {Q5}

P3 := {Q1, Q2, Q3} x b {Q1, Q3} {Q2} {Q4} {Q5}

{Q1, Q3} no se separan:

- para ‘a’ van a una misma partición
- para ‘b’ van a la propia partición
Se elige Q1 en representación de
ambos por ser estado inicial

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Diapositiva 35

Minimización de autómatas
AFD reconoce L = (a|b)*abb Est a b

P1:= {Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4} {Q5} >Q1 Q2 Q3

Q2 Q2 Q4
P2 := {Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4} x b {Q1, Q2, Q3} {Q4} {Q5} Q3 Q2 Q3
P3 := {Q1, Q2, Q3} x b {Q1, Q3} {Q2} {Q4} {Q5} Q4 Q2 Q5
*Q5 Q2 Q3

Est a b Est a b Est a b Est a b

>Q1 Q2 Q3 >Q1 Q2 Q3 >Q1 Q2 Q3 >Q1 Q2 Q3
Q2 Q2 Q4 Q2 Q2 Q4 Q2 Q2 Q4 Q2 Q2 Q4
Q3 Q2 Q3 Q3 Q2 Q3 Q3 Q2 Q3 Q3 Q2 Q3
Q4 Q2 Q5 Q4 Q2 Q5 Q4 Q2 Q5 Q4 Q2 Q5
*Q5 Q2 Q3 *Q5 Q2 Q3 *Q5 Q2 Q3 *Q5 Q2 Q3

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Diapositiva 36

Minimización de autómatas
a

Q1 a Q2 b Q4 b Q5
a
b a b
Q3
b

P1:= {Q5} + {Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4} a

b a
P := {Q5} + (Q1, Q2, Q3) x b + Q4 x b
a b b
P2 := {Q5} + {Q1, Q2, Q3} + {Q4} Q1 Q2 Q4 Q5
a
P := {Q5} + {Q4} y {Q1, Q3} x b y Q2 x b
b
P3 := {Q5} + {Q4} + {Q1, Q3} + {Q2}

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Diapositiva 37

Autómatas de pila
AP = ( Σ, Γ, Q, a0, q0, F, f )
Σ: alfabeto de entrada q0: estado inicial
Γ: alfabeto de pila F: estados finales
Q: conjunto de estados f: Q × (Σ ∪ {ε}) × Γ → Q × Γ
a0: símbolo inicial pila
Descripción o configuración instantánea: terna (q, x, z) que define el estado del
autómata, donde q ∈ Q, x ∈ Σ, z ∈ Γ
Movimiento: paso o transición de una descripción instantánea a otra y se produce
como resultado de la aplicación de f

q x, z /w donde w ∈ Γ

Símbolo distinguido: puede pertenecer a Σ o Γ, pero no forma parte de las cadenas

del lenguaje reconocido y a menudo se utiliza para evitar el indeterminismo.
37

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Diapositiva 38

Descripción de autómatas de pila

Para cada gramática G independiente del contexto, existe un autómata de pila M tal
que L(G)=L(M)
Los símbolos en la pila se ordenan en sentido cima base (convención)

0, ε # 1, # ε

ε, ε $ ε, ε ε ε, $ ε
q0 q1 q2 q3

Descripción funcional Descripción tabular

f(q0 x ε x ε) q1 x $ Estado Entrada Pila Transición
f( q1 x ε x ε) q2 x ε q0 ε ε e1,$
f( q1 x 0 x ε) q1 x #
q1 ε ε e2,ε
f( q2 x ε x $) q3 x ε
f( q2 x 1 x #) q2 x ε q1 0 ε e1,#
q2 ε $ e3,ε
q2 1 # e2,ε

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Diapositiva 39

Formas de reconocimiento
Reconocimiento por vaciado de pila
Lvp(M)={w∈Σ*/(q0,w,a0) (p,ε,ε),p∈Q}
Reconocimiento por alcanzar el estado final
Lef(M)={w∈Σ*/(q0,w,a0) (p,ε,h),p∈F,h∈Γ*}
Lvp y Lef reconocidos pueden ser diferentes

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Diapositiva 40

Comportamiento de un AP
Gramática libre de contexto Autómata de Pila
ΣT = {a, b} ΣN = {S} Σ: {a, b} q0: e0
P = { S -> aSb| λ } Γ : {$, a} F: {e3}
L1 = {anbn / n > 0} Q: {e0,e1,e2,e3} a0: $

Cinta

a a a b b b $
Pila

a, λ a b, a λ

λ, $ $ b, a λ λ, $ $
e0 e1 e2 e3

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Diapositiva 41

Comportamiento de un AP

Cinta

a a a b b b $
Pila

a, λ a b, a λ

λ, $ $ b, a λ λ, $ $
e0 e1 e2 e3

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Diapositiva 42

Comportamiento de un AP

Cinta
a
a a a b b b $
Pila

a, λ a b, a λ

λ, $ $ b, a λ λ, $ $
e0 e1 e2 e3

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Diapositiva 43

Comportamiento de un AP

Cinta
a
a
a a a b b b $
Pila

a, λ a b, a λ

λ, $ $ b, a λ λ, $ $
e0 e1 e2 e3

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Diapositiva 44

Comportamiento de un AP

a
Cinta
a
a
a a a b b b $
Pila

a, λ a b, a λ

λ, $ $ b, a λ λ, $ $
e0 e1 e2 e3

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Diapositiva 45

Comportamiento de un AP

a
Cinta
a
a
a a a b b b $
Pila

a, λ a b, a λ

λ, $ $ b, a λ λ, $ $
e0 e1 e2 e3

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Diapositiva 46

Comportamiento de un AP

Cinta
a
a
a a a b b b $
Pila

a, λ a b, a λ

λ, $ $ b, a λ λ, $ $
e0 e1 e2 e3

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Diapositiva 47

Comportamiento de un AP

Cinta
a
a a a b b b $
Pila

a, λ a b, a λ

λ, $ $ b, a λ λ, $ $
e0 e1 e2 e3

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Diapositiva 48

Comportamiento de un AP

Cinta

a a a b b b $
Pila

a, λ a b, a λ

λ, $ $ b, a λ λ, $ $
e0 e1 e2 e3

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Diapositiva 49

Autómatas de pila deterministas

Es determinista si cumple
∀(q∈Q ∧ A∈Γ) |f(q,ε,A)|>0 ⇒ ∀a∈Σ,f(q,a,A)=∅

∀(q∈Q ∧ A∈Γ ∧ a∈Σ ∪ {ε}),|f(q,a,A)|<2

Sea AP = { ∑, Г, Q, a0, q0, F, f } donde ∑ = { 0, 1 }, Г = {0, 1, #},

Q ={ q0, q1, q2 }, a0 = #, q0 = q0, F = {q2} especificar el APD que
reconoce por vaciado de pila (dejarla en la situación inicial) y
alcanzar el estado final, para el lenguaje: L = (wwr / w Є {0, 1}*)

Uso de símbolo distinguido para eliminar no-determinismo

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Diapositiva 50

Autómatas de pila y gramáticas

AP que reconoce una G2
Sean G={ΣN, ΣT, S, P} y AP ( Σ, Γ, Q, a0, q0, F, f )
construir APND=(Σ, ΣT∪ ΣN, {q}, S, q, fi, f)
El reconocimiento es por vaciado de pila
Algoritmo
si A ::= w ∈ P entonces (q, w)∈ f(q, ε, A)
si a∈ Σ entonces (q, ε)∈ f(q, a, a)
Sea P = { S→0S1, S→c } entonces
f(q, ε, A)= {(q, 0S1), (q, c)}
f(q, 0, 0)= f(q,1,1)= f(q, c, c)= {(q, ε)}

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Diapositiva 51

Algoritmo para convertir G2 en AP

Gramática G2 Definir
Σt = {a, b, z} 1) Σ con Σt
Σn = {S, M, N} 2) Γ con Σt + Σn + #
S zMNz 3) Q como i, p, q y fi
M aMa Agregar transiciones
M z 4) (i, λ, λ; p, #)
N bNb 5) (p, λ, λ; q, S)
N z 6) (q, λ,N; q,w) ∀ Σn
Autómata de pila 7) (q, x, x; q, λ) ∀ Σt
Σ = {a, b, z}
Γ = {a, b, z, S, M, N, #}
8) (q, λ, #; fi, λ)
Q = {i, p, q, fi}
a0 = #
q0 = i
F = fi

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Diapositiva 52

Definir el AP correspondiente
G2 = (∑T, ∑N, S, P) Definir AP
∑T = {a, b, c, d} 1) Σ con Σt Σ = {a, b, c, d}
∑N = {S, A, B} 2) Γ con Σt + Σn + # Г = {a, b, c, d, S, A, B, #}
3) Q como i, p, q y fi
P={ Agregar transiciones Q = {i, p, q, fi}
S aAa, 4) (i, λ, λ p, #) a0 = #
A bB | c, 5) (p, λ, λ q, S) q0 = i
B Acd 6) (q, λ,N q,w) ∀ Σn F = fi
} 7) (q, x, x q, λ) ∀ Σt
8) (q, λ, # fi, λ)

λ, A / c λ, B / Acd
λ, S / aAa λ, A / bB

λ, λ / # λ, λ / S λ, # / λ
i p q f
b, b /λ a, a /λ
c, c /λ d, d /λ

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Diapositiva 53

Comportamiento del AP

S aAa
A bB | c
a b c c d a
B Acd
λ, B / Acd
λ, A / bB
λ, A / c
c
A
λ, S / aAa
c
b
a
λ, λ / # λ, λ / S λ, # / λ B
A
d
i p q f
a
a
S
b, b /λ #
c, c /λ
a, a /λ
d, d /λ

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Diapositiva 54

Autómatas Linealmente Acotados

ALA= (Q, ∑, Γ, δ, e0, b, F) donde b = blanco
longitudcinta = longitudcadena

Q: conjunto finito estados

∑ : alfabeto de entrada; ∑ ⊆ Γ (input)
Γ : ∑ ∪ {b} ∪ otros símbolos, b ∉ ∑ (output)
δ: Q x Γ → Q x Γ x {D, I, N}
e0: estado inicial ∈ Q cinta
F: estados finales ⊆ Q
estados Control

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Diapositiva 55

Máquinas de Turing
AP = (Γ, Σ, b, Q, q0, F, f)
Σ: alfabeto de entrada ⊂ Γ
Γ: alfabeto de símbolos de la cinta
b: blanco ∈ Γ, ∉ Σ
Q: conjunto de estados
q0: estado inicial ∈ Q
F: estados finales ⊂ Q
f: Q x Γ Q x Γ x {I, D, P}
cinta
… …

estados Control

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Diapositiva 56

Máquinas de Turing
Duplicador
1 → $, R 1 → 1, L 1 → 1, R

q0 ◊ → ◊, L q1 $ → 1, R q2
◊ → ◊, R En 1936, Alan Turing resolvió el planteo
◊ → 1, L hecho por David Hilbert sobre si las
q3 Matemáticas son decidibles, es decir, si hay
un método definido aplicable a cualquier
sentencia matemática que determine si es verdadera o no.
En el artículo On Computable Numbers, Turing construyó un modelo
formal de computador, la Máquina de Turing, demostrando que había
problemas que una máquina no podría resolver.
Esa máquina fue el primer modelo teórico de lo que
luego sería una computadora programable.
Con el tiempo se las denominó máquinas
de estado finito, debido a que en cada etapa
de cálculo, la siguiente acción se contrasta
con una lista finita de estados posibles.

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Diapositiva 57

Lenguajes, gramáticas y autómatas

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Diapositiva 58

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Diapositiva 59

Análisis léxico
Funciones de un scanner
1. Recibir caracteres de entrada
2. Agruparlos según la G3 para reconocer lexemas y
generar tokens
3. Detectar algunos significados y errores
1. identificar los tokens y evaluarlos
4. Introducir información adicional descriptiva
5. Eliminar separadores innecesarios
6. Sustituir macros

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Diapositiva 60

Análisis léxico

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Diapositiva 61

Análisis léxico

patrón conjunto de secuencia de nombre

token
lexema
lexemas (texto caracteres con asociado a cada
del programa) un significado lexema
específico
(componentes
léxicos)

Enunciado Lexemas Tokens

index = 2 * count + 17 index identifier
= equal_sign
2 int_literal
* mult_op
count identifier
+ plus_op
17 int_literal
; semicolon

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Diapositiva 62

Análisis sintáctico
Funciones de un parser
1. Recibir tokens suministrados por el scanner
2. Agrupar tokens
1. de acuerdo a producciones especificadas por la G2
para reconocer frases
2. determinar si son sintácticamente correctas
3. establecer la estructura subyacente
3. Detectar errores sintácticos
4. Generar árboles sintácticos

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Diapositiva 63

Análisis sintáctico
Proceso de análisis
Tokenizado Árbol

Analizador
léxico

Analizador
sintáctico

Reglas de
producción

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Diapositiva 64

Análisis sintáctico
Árboles de sintaxis
Concreta: sirve para el análisis sintáctico
Abstracta: sirve para el análisis semántico
Sea: S if expr then A endif ;

Concreta Abstracta (AST)

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Diapositiva 65

Análisis sintáctico
Analizadores recursivos
cada no-terminal tiene asociada una rutina de análisis,
creada a partir de las reglas gramaticales
scan de izquierda a derecha
Estrategias de análisis
DESCENDENTE(Top-Down)
construye el árbol desde la raíz (S) hacia las hojas
problemas con recursividad a izquierda
ASCENDENTE(Bottom-Up)
construye el árbol desde las hojas hacia la raíz (S)
se basa en encontrar una derivación por la derecha

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Diapositiva 66

Analizador por izquierda (a)

Sea la gramática G = (N, T, S, P) con
N = {A, S}, T = {a, b, c},
P = {S → aAc, A → Ab | λ }
L = {a bn c / n > 0}.
Se quiere reconocer: abbc

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Diapositiva 67

Analizador por izquierda (b)

Sea la gramática G = (N, T, S, P) con
N = {A, S}, T = {a, b, c},
P = {S → aAc, A → λ | Ab}
L = {a bn c / n>=0}.
Se quiere reconocer: abbc

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Diapositiva 68

Problema del retroceso

Sea: G = (N, T, S, P) donde
N = {<PROGRAMA>, <DECLARACIONES>, <PROCEDIMIENTOS> }
T = {module, d, p, ;, end} S = <PROGRAMA>
El conjunto P de reglas de producción es:
<PROGRAMA> ::= module <DECLARACIONES>; <PROCEDIMIENTOS> end
<DECLARACIONES> ::= d | d; <DECLARACIONES>
<PROCEDIMIENTOS> ::= p | p; <PROCEDIMIENTOS>
Análisis aplicando derivaciones Leftmost: module d ; d ; p ; p end

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Diapositiva 69

Gramáticas LL(k) y analizadores

Características de los analizadores LL
Permiten el análisis descendente sin retroceso, usando un
subconjunto de las G2
L = reconocimiento de la cadena de entrada de izquierda a
derecha
L = toman las derivaciones más hacia la izquierda ("Leftmost")
con sólo mirar los k tokens situados a continuación de donde se
halla, donde si k=1 se habla de gramáticas LL(1)
Posibilitan la construcción de analizadores deterministas
descendentes (sólo examinan el símbolo actual de la cadena
de entrada, para saber que producción aplicar)

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Diapositiva 70

Analizador descendente
Sea: {S->xAx, S->λ, A->yAy, A->xBx, B->z}
1 2 3 4 5

Pila Árbol Entrada Regla

xyxxzyx$

xyxxzyx$ 1

x xyxxzyx$

xAx xyxxzyx$ 3

y xyxxzyx$

xyxxzyx$ 4

x xyxxzyx$

xyxxzyx$ 5

z xyxxzyx$

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Diapositiva 71

Gramáticas LR(k) y analizadores

Características de los analizadores LR
Eficiente análisis ascendente sin retroceso
Detectan errores sintácticos rápidamente
L = lee entrada Left-to-right
R = aplican derivaciones Rightmost en sentido inverso
k = número de símbolos de entrada por delante
(lookaheads) que lee el analizador (gramática LR(k))
Pueden construirse para la mayoría de las G2
Complicados de construir

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Diapositiva 72

Analizadores LL y LR
Sea
Producción:
E E+E | E*E | (E) | E | id
Enunciado:
id + id * id
Derivaciones
- por izquierda
- por derecha

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Diapositiva 73

Analizador ascendente
1 2 3 4 5
E E + E | E * E | (E) | E | id
Pila Árbol Entrada Regla

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Diapositiva 74

Analizador ascendente
1 2 3 4 5
E E + E | E * E | (E) | E | id
Pila Árbol Entrada Regla

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Diapositiva 75

Analizador ascendente
1 2 3 4 5
E E + E | E * E | (E) | E | id
Pila Árbol Entrada Regla

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Diapositiva 76

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Diapositiva 77

Fases de análisis
sup = alto*ancho;

análisis léxico

(id,sup)(asignador)(id,alto)(opMult)(id,ancho)(separador)

análisis sintáctico

(asignador)

(id,sup) (opMult)

(id,alto) (id,ancho)
análisis semántico

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Diapositiva 78

Semánticas
La sintaxis es insuficiente para describir lenguajes
int A; léxica y sintácticamente correcto, pero…
¿ cuál es el significado ?
Utilidad de las semánticas
1. Definir “qué deben hacer” los enunciados de un lenguaje
2. Implementar correctamente el lenguaje
3. Desarrollar técnicas y herramientas de
1. Análisis y optimización, depuración, verificación, etc.
4. Ayudar a “razonar sobre el funcionamiento” de los
programas (recursos usados, corrección, …)

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Diapositiva 79

Semántica estática
Se calcula en tiempo de compilación
Ejemplos de aspectos que controla
Correspondencia de la signatura de funciones
Accesos a variables consistentes con su declaración
Que identificadores y expresiones sean evaluables
Que el Left-side sea asignable
Compatibilidad de expresiones y operadores
Accesibilidad de las variables según su alcance
Uso de identificadores únicos

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Diapositiva 80

Semántica dinámica
Ciertos significados se detectan en la ejecución
Punteros con referencias nulas
Valores límites de subíndices de arreglos
Consistencia en el pasaje de argumentos
Otros: x := z / y ¿ qué pasa si y == 0 ?
Errores de “lógica” que cambian la semántica de un enunciado,
NO SON DETECTABLES
x := z / y si lo que se quería escribir era x := z * y
Ejemplo de semántica dinámica en JS
Si z = “45”; entonces z + 5 = 455
Si z = 45; entonces z + 5 = 50

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Diapositiva 81

Especificación de la semántica
Es deseable satisfacer características como:
No ambigüedad: facilitar la creación de descripciones rigurosas
Demostración: permitir la posterior demostración de propiedades de
los programas escritos en el lenguaje especificado
Prototipado: posibilitar obtener prototipos ejecutables de los
lenguajes que se diseñan de forma automática
Modularidad: realizar la especificación de forma incremental
Reusabilidad: facilitar la reutilización de descripciones para diferentes
lenguajes
Legibilidad: ser legibles por personas con formaciones heterogéneas
Flexibilidad: adaptarse a la variedad de lenguajes existentes
Experiencia: ser capaz de describir lenguajes reales, no sólo quellos
sencillos o experimentales

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Diapositiva 82

Técnicas de especificación semántica

No ambigua

Modular

reusable

demostrar

prototipar

legible

flexibñe

experiencia
Semántica

Lenguaje natural S S R S S

Operacional S R R R S S

Denotacional S S R S R

Axiomática R S R S

Algebráica S R S S R R R

De estado abstacto S S R R S R S

De acción S S R R S R R

Monádica modular S S S R S

Monádica reutilizable S S S S S S

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Diapositiva 83

Tipos de Errores
SINTAXIS SEMÁNTICA ESTÁTICA SEMÁNTICA DINÁMICA

int main (){ int main (){ int main (){

int pt, qr*; int pt = 1; int pt = 1, qr;
system("pause"); if (pt != 0){ if (pt != 0){
} int qr; int qr = 3;
qr = pt; qr = pt;
int main (){ } }
int pt, qr, cout << qr << endl; cout << qr << endl;
!qr; system("pause"); system("pause");
system("pause"); } }
}
int main (){ int main (){
int main (){ long pt = 9687372626; long pt = 68737262;
int pt, qr; int qr = 1425; int qr = 7425;
¡qr; pt = qr; pt = qr * pt;
system("pause"); cout << pt << endl; cout << pt << endl;
} system("pause"); system("pause");
} }

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