TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction to UT……………………………………………………………………………….3
General …………………………………………………………………………………….3

Generation of Sound ………………………………………………………………………...3

Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing ……………………………………………..5

The Test Sequence………………………………………………………………………………..6

Display of Test Information ………………………………………………………………….6

Time /Distance Relationship …………………………………………………………………7

Echo Amplitude …………………………………………………………………………….8

Wavelength & Its Elements……………………………………………………………………..8

Reflection………………………………………………………………………………………..10
Major Test Variables…………………………………………………………………………...11
Basic Test Techniques ……………………………………………………………………...11

Coupling Techniques ………………………………………………………………………11

Immersion Testing …………………………………………………………………………12

Sound Wave Modes ………………………………………………………………………..14

Sound Travel Geometry ……………………………………………………………………16

Data Presentation Method ………………………………………………………………….16

Introduction to Test Instruments…………..………………….………………………………17

Ultrasonic Instrument Functions……………………………………………………………...18
General …………………………………………………………………………………...18

Power Supply ……………………………………………………………………………...19

Clock Circuit ……………………………………………………………………………...20

Time Base …………………………………………………………………………………20

Pulser ……………………………………………………………………………………..20

Receiver …………………………………………………………………………………..21

Display ……………………………………………………………………………………22

Test Validity…………………………………………………………………………………….22
Reflector Size Estimation………………………………………………………………………23
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Sound Beam Geometry …………………………………………………………………….23

Laws of Distance …………………………………………………………………………..25

Test Performance Variables……………………………………………………………………27

Angle Beam Theory…………………………………………………………………………….28
Ultrasonic Reference Blocks…………………………………………………………………...33
Calibration Blocks …………………………………………………………………………33

Calibrations Using the IIW Type 1 Block ……………………………………………………36

Standard Reference Blocks …………………………………………………………………40

Area-Amplitude Reference Blocks …………………………………………………………..41

Distance-Amplitude Reference Blocks ……………………………………………………….43

Calibration Procedures………………………………………………………………………...45
Introduction and Guidelines ………………………………………………………………..45

Time Base Calibration ……………………………………………………………………..46

Sensitivity Calibration Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) Curve ………………………….48

Calibration: Angle Beam Probes ……………………………………………………………49

Ultrasonic Instrument Familiarization………………………………………………………..51

Glossary of Terms………………………………………………………………………………55
Glossary of Terms , Part 1 ………………………………………………………………….55

Glossary of Terms, Part 2 …………………………………………………………………..83

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INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC TESTING

General
Ultrasonic testing operates by introducing high frequency sound into a test object to gain information about
that object. In most cases, the ultrasonic method accomplishes this by measuring two quantities: time for
sound to travel and amplitude of the received signal. The ability to perform these simple measurements
permits a broad range of applications. Most ultrasonic test applications can be categorized as either thickness
measurement or flaw detection.

Wall thickness gauging of pipes and containment vessels are major thickness applications; flaw detection,
which is often extended to include evaluation of material discontinuities, comprises a broad spectrum of
applications in the petrochemical, power utility, primary metals, fabrication, aerospace, automotive, railroad
and other industries.

A major application of ultrasonic testing, and one that utilizes much of the method's potential, is the inspection
of weldments. Recognition of the method's effectiveness in this application is indicated by the fact that
ultrasonic inspection is specified by the American Welding Society for examination of welds in buildings and
bridges, by the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers for inspection of welds in pressure vessels and nuclear containments, and by
the American Petroleum Institute for inspection of welded pipe.

Practical use of ultrasound for nondestructive testing began in the 1920's. Sokolov was a major pioneer, using
the through-transmission technique whereby sound is transmitted in one direction through the test material,
from a transmitter of sound to a receiver. Reduction in received amplitude indicates the possibility of
discontinuities in the path of the sound beam.

Development of more advanced equipment in the 1940's permitted the use of pulse-echo testing, which derives
information from round trips of sound travel, and thus requires access to only one side of the test object.
Another method, called resonance testing, depends on the resonant frequency of the type of material and
thickness of the component being tested.

Generation of Sound
SOUND

Sound is the passage of mechanical energy, in the form of vibrations, through a substance. Although sound can
be propagated in all three states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases, factors such as type of sound wave,
material composition, and sonic wavelength can make propagation difficult or impossible under certain
conditions.

Generation of Sound

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In ultrasonic testing, the transducer is the link between the test instrument and the test material. A transducer is
a device that converts energy from one form to another. Ultrasonic transducers behave like loudspeakers in
that they convert electrical energy to mechanical energy and they behave like microphones in that they convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Ultrasonic transducers are usually manufactured from piezoelectric crystals. If a piezoelectric crystal is
deformed it will produce a voltage. Conversely, if a voltage is applied across a piezoelectric crystal it will
vibrate, that is, it goes through a series of successive cycles of deformation. Thickness of the crystal
determines its frequency of vibration - thinner the crystal, the higher the frequency.

A complete transducer assembly consists of several parts. In order to make electrical contact with the
instrument, electrodes are bonded to the front and rear surfaces of the crystal. A wear plate is bonded to the
front electrode to provide protection. A damping block is bonded to the rear electrode to control the duration of
crystal vibration or "ringing".

The complete transducer assembly, sometimes called a search unit, is connected to the instrument by means of
a coaxial cable. Coaxial cable reduces interference from other electrical devices. The transducer is used for
scanning the test object, that is, the transducer is moved either manually or automatically over the test surface.

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Major categories of transducers include straight beam transducers for detecting reflectors that are parallel to
the surface, angle beam transducers for detecting discontinuities oriented at an angle (obliquely) to the surface,
and immersion transducers to be used for tests conducted in a water environment. Transducers may be round
or rectangular and vary in size according to application. A long narrow configuration, called a paint brush
transducer, employs a mosaic of several crystals bonded together in a single search unit.

Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

Like any nondestructive test method, ultrasonic testing has both its advantages and limitations. The advantages
include:

1. Relatively deep penetration.

2. Much of the equipment is portable, lightweight, and battery powered.
3. Access to only one side of the test material is required in most cases.
4. Potential for high accuracy in measuring thickness and locating discontinuities.
5. Volumetric testing capability (subsurface flaw detection and location).
6. Ultrasonic testing is suitable for go/no-go test situations; audible and visible alarms, triggered by
instrument gates, are available to provide high speed test results.
7. There is no danger from radiation or other such hazards.

The limitations of ultrasonic testing include:

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1. The test object must be able to conduct sound without excessive losses.
2. Liquid couplant is required to transmit sound from the ultrasonic probe into the test object.
3. In most cases, due to the interpretation of displayed signals on the instrument screen, ultrasonic
testing requires a trained operator.
4. Discontinuities just beneath the surface may not be detectable (due to the dead zone effect).

THE TEST SEQUENCE

Display of Test Information
The basic components of an ultrasonic test include a test instrument, a transducer, and a test object. These
elements function together to form a chain of events during a typical ultrasonic test, which could be
summarized as follows:

1. The instrument's time base initiates readout of time/distance information on the horizontal scale of the
display.

2. Electrical zero is the point in time when the pulser emits the initial pulse. The initial pulse, or main
bang, is displayed as a vertical signal at zero on the horizontal scale. When using a single element
transducer, there is a "dead zone" represented on the CRT screen from zero to the right most edge of the
initial pulse.

3. Acoustical zero is the point in time when sound passing through the couplant first strikes the front
surface of the test material. As the sound travels through the object, it reflects from material boundaries as
well as from discontinuities within the material. An echo from the material surface opposite to the sound
entry surface is called a back reflection.

4. These reflections or echoes strike the transducer, which converts them into electrical signals that are
displayed by the test instrument.

Time/Distance Relationship

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Sound travels at different speeds in different materials. However, the speed of sound is constant in a uniform
medium. This means that sound will complete a round trip through a specific distance in a specific amount of
time. It is therefore possible to measure distance by measuring sound travel time.

It is important to clarify the difference between absolute distance and round-trip distance. Note the ultrasonic
examination being performed on a 6" long test object which contains a discontinuity at a depth of 4 inches
from the surface.

These six inch and four inch dimensions are absolute distances; lengths that are measured from point to point
in a single direction. During an Ultrasonic test, however, the sound makes round trips: an eight inch round trip
to travel from the test surface to the discontinuity and back to the test surface, and also a twelve inch round
trip from the test surface to the far side of the test object and back again. The distinction between absolute
distance and round trip distance is significant because, during an ultrasonic test, the instrument is adjusted to
display absolute distances as a matter of operator convenience and simplicity of operation, whereas the actual
measured quantity of sound travel is a round trip - a two way journey along those distances.

Controls marked ZERO OFFSET (a.k.a. DELAY) and RANGE are used to adjust the instrument's time
base for proper display of distances. The ZERO OFFSET control shifts the vertical signals to the left and
right without altering the spacing between them. The RANGE control expands or contracts the spacing
between vertical signals, while maintaining a constant relationship of spacing among them.

Echo Amplitude

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The amplitudes of individual echoes striking the transducer determine the relative heights of the corresponding
vertical signals on the display. The GAIN control adjusts vertical display sensitivity and thus determines the
actual amplitude at which signals are displayed.

If the signal height of flat bottomed holes located at the same distance from the test surface is compared, the
echo heights will be proportional to the reflecting areas of the holes. However, if flat bottomed holes of
identical reflecting areas are located at different depths from the test surface, reflectors intercepted at greater
distances will produce lower amplitude signals.

WAVELENGTH & ITS ELEMENTS

Velocity, frequency and wavelength are important properties of sound. Velocity is the speed at which sound
travels. It is expressed as distance traveled per unit time. The most common units of time in ultrasonic testing
are the second and microsecond (//sec). A microsecond is one millionth of a second.

The velocity of sound depends upon:

a. the density and elasticity of the substance through which sound is traveling.

b. wave mode, the manner in which material particles vibrate as sound travels through the test
material.

c. material temperature, which has a minor effect on sound velocity.

Several formulas used in ultrasonic testing employ material velocity as a variable. Some convenient units for
making calculations with these formulas are kilometers per second (km/sec), inches per second (in/sec), inches
per microsecond (in/^sec) and centimeters per microsecond (cm/^sec), depending on the test setup and
operator preference.

Frequency is the rate of vibration, the number of vibrations per second. Because sound waves are in motion,
frequency can also be viewed as the number of complete waves which pass a given point during one second.
One complete unit of vibration is called a cycle. A cycle is graphically represented by a sine curve and consists
of two opposing motions, such as forward and backward, or up and down. The rate of vibration, or cycles per
second, is expressed in "hertz" units as follows:

Hertz (Hz) = cycles per second

Kilohertz (kHz) = thousands of cycles per second

Megahertz (MHz) = millions of cycles per second

Twenty hertz to twenty kilohertz is known as the audible range, the range of human hearing. Ultrasound
encompasses all frequencies higher than 20kHz. Ultrasonic testing utilizes only a portion of the ultrasonic
range. Most commercial ultrasonic testing is performed within the range of 100kHz to 25MHz, a few
applications being performed both above and below this frequency band. Actual test frequency depends on the
frequency of the transducer selected for the test.

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A sonic vibration in motion is often called a sound wave. A series of sound waves is called a wave train. A
short series of waves sent into a test object is often called a pulse.

Wavelength, an important variable in ultrasonic testing, is defined as the distance from one point on an
ultrasonic wave train to the next identical point. It is also defined as the distance sound travels within the
duration of one complete cycle. Wavelength, represented by X (the Greek letter Lambda), is calculated by
dividing velocity (V) by frequency (F), as follows:

REFLECTION
Sound reflects when it strikes a surface called an acoustic interface. An echo is therefore defined as a
reflection from an acoustic interface. An acoustic interface is the boundary between two materials of
different acoustic impedance. Acoustic impedance is the opposition that a material offers to the passage of
sound. It is the product of the test material's velocity and density. The greater the ratio difference in

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acoustic impedance (impedance mismatch) at an interface where two materials meet, the greater the
reflection from the interface and, consequently, the less the transmission across the interface. The
percentage of sonic energy reflected from an interface is calculated by the following formula, where Zj is
the acoustic impedance of the medium through which the sound is initially traveling and Z2 is the acoustic
impedance of the medium that the sound meets at the interface.

Material discontinuities reflect sound because they have an acoustic impedance different from the test
material. In addition to acoustic impedance a number of other factors determine the amplitude of the echo that
the transducer will receive from a discontinuity. The size, shape, orientation, texture, and thickness of a
reflector all affect its echo performance. Position of a reflector is particularly important due to the effects of
sound beam geometry and material properties. The more the sound beam has spread at the point of reflector
interception, the less will be the reflected sound pressure per unit area. In addition, longer sound travel through
the test material means increased scattering and absorption of sound by the material's own structure. When
ultrasonic indications are evaluated for severity, some type of distance/amplitude correction must be employed
to compensate for amplitude losses caused by the sound beam and test material.

MAJOR TEST VARIABLES

Basic Test Technique
Ultrasonic testing is versatile in application. Tests are usually classified according to the following major
variables:

1. Basic Test Technique

2. Coupling Technique
3. Wave Travel Mode

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4. Sound Travel Geometry

5. Data Presentation Method

In pulse echo tests, display indications are obtained when sound pulses transmitted into the test object reflect
from surfaces such as discontinuities or the back surface of the test material. Assuming that proper
distance/amplitude correction has been employed, higher amplitude echoes indicate reflections from larger
surfaces. Pulse-echo is the most commonly used test technique in that access to only one side of the test object
is required and specific information is available from individual reflectors.

In a through transmission test, sound is transmitted in one direction from transmitting transducer to a receiving
transducer, placed on opposing surfaces of the test material. The presence of discontinuities obstructs the
passage of sound, reducing the amplitude of the received signal. This technique is used for high-speed
automated testing of large sections of airframe components, and for components where a high degree of
material attenuation makes the round-trip sound travel of pulse-echo testing impractical.

In resonance testing, an early method used for thickness measurement, test frequency was continuously varied
to determine the material's resonant frequency. The fundamental resonant frequency is achieved when one-half
of the wavelength equals material thickness; multiples of this thickness cause "harmonics" (i.e.; material
thickness equal to wavelength is 1st harmonic, material thickness equal to 1 !4 wavelengths is 2nd harmonic,
material thickness equal to 2 wavelengths is 3rd harmonic). This technique is still used in the testing of multi-
layer bonded structures in airframe components, most of which are too thin for practical pulse-echo testing.

Coupling Techniques
Because of the high reflectivity due to impedance mismatch at air interfaces and the fact that wavelength is so
short in air at the high frequencies used for testing, a liquid couplant is needed to exclude air and function as a
medium for transmitting ultrasonic vibrations from the transducer to the test surface. There are two ways to
accomplish this: contact testing where couplant is applied only to the test surface between the transducer and
test material, and immersion testing, where both the transducer and the test object are immersed in water.

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The primary advantage of contact testing is portability, permitting ultrasonic testing at remote field
applications. Contact testing also allows the transducer to be moved by hand over complex part geometries and
requires a lower initial investment in equipment. A variety of couplants are available for contact testing.
Generally, the rougher the test surface the more viscous (higher viscosity) the couplant should be.

Immersion Testing
Immersion testing, in its pure form, involves the submersion of the test part and the transducer in water.
Immersion tests can be automated, facilitating high speed testing and recording of test results. Moreover,
immersion tests provide uniform coupling, are virtually immune to transducer wear caused by abrasion, and
allow use of higher frequency transducers than contact testing. In general, immersion testing offers excellent
control over test variables and provides test results of the highest quality. The primary disadvantages of
immersion testing are the cost of the equipment, the test part size is limited by the size of the immersion tank,
and the fact that not all test parts can be submerged in water without causing damage to the part.

There are several techniques that attempt to gain the advantages of immersion testing, without completely
submerging the part in the tank; these techniques are called modified immersion techniques, and they basically
create a simulation of an immersion test in a localized area.

One of the modified immersion techniques is the wheel transducer. The transducer is enclosed inside a tire,
usually made of latex rubber, which is filled with water or other suitable couplant. The wheel is then rolled
across the test surface, with only a thin layer of couplant between the tire and the surface, to facilitate sound
transmission into the test material.

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Another modified immersion technique is the water column technique, cailed the bubbler technique. The
transducer is mounted in a housing, usually made of clear plastic, that is connected to a water pump. The
housing sets the stand-off distance of the transducer from the test piece, also ensuring proper orientation of the
sound beam to the test part surface. The water is pumped into the housing at a low rate of pressure and flow,
which allows it to fill the housing and displace the air between the transducer face and the test part surface.
The excess water is allowed to escape through the small gap between the housing and the surface. In
applications where this excess water would present problems, a membrane, usually of latex rubber, may be
placed over the end of the housing, capturing the water inside (hence the term, "captive water column
technique"). A thin layer of couplant is then needed between the membrane and the test surface, to facilitate
sound transmission into the test material.

Another modified immersion technique is the water jet technique, called the squirter technique. The transducer
is mounted in a housing, usually made of clear plastic, that is connected to a water pump.. The water is
pumped into the housing at a higher rate of pressure and flow than the water column technique^ which causes

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a stream of water to travel from the housing to the test surface. This stream of water connects the transducer
face to the test part surface, precluding the presence of air in the soundpath. The housing is spaced away from
the test piece, allowing the sound beam to be manipulated over complex surface contours and inconsistent
surfaces. The housing used in the water jet technique is not in contact with the test part, so fixturing devices
must be used to ensure proper orientation of the sound beam to the test part surface. This technique is
commonly used in high-speed automated inspections of largfc or complex parts.

Sound Wave Modes

Sound waves travel through material by displacing tiny particles of the material, generally at the molecular
level. Depending on the manner in which vibrations are introduced, the particle displacements exhibit certain
behaviors, called wave modes, as the vibrations travel.

There are two basic wave modes, which differ from each other depending on how material particles move
relative to the direction of transiting sonic energy. Longitudinal waves (also known as compression waves),
are characterized by particle motion parallel to the direction of wave travel. Transverse waves (also known as
shear waves), are defined by particle motion perpendicular to wave travel. The difference in wave motion
causes these wave modes to also differ from each other in their relative velocity as well as in their ability to
propagate in the various states of matter.

Longitudinal waves are characterized by alternating zones of compression (high particle density) and
rarefaction (low particle density). Longitudinal waves develop particle motion in solids, liquids, and gases, and
their acoustic velocity is higher in any given material than other types of waves.

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Transverse waves are characterized by alternating zones of peaks (upward particle displacement) and troughs
(downward particle displacement). Transverse waves can travel in solids only, and their acoustic velocity is
approximately half the velocity of longitudinal waves.

In addition, there are other modes of sound vibration. Surface waves (a.k.a. Rayleigh waves) travel across the
surface of the test material, producing an elliptical particle motion. Surface waves travel at approximately 90%
the velocity of shear waves. They penetrate the test material to a depth of approximately one wavelength,
where their amplitude decreases to approximately 4% of their amplitude at the material surface.

When material thickness does not exceed three times the wavelength, plate waves (a.k.a. as Lamb waves) can
be propagated. Plate waves have the same elliptical particle motion as surface waves, however, they have a
phased velocity dependent primarily upon the test frequency, material thickness and material elasticity. Plate
waves can be propagated in two basic modes: symmetrical and asymmetrical.

Sound Travel Geometry

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To obtain maximum reflection amplitude in pulse echo testing, the sound beam must be perpendicular to the
discontinuity being investigated. When this discontinuity is parallel to the sound entry surface, a straight beam
transducer provides suitable test geometry. However, when the interface to be examined is obliquely oriented
to the test surface, such as a weld fusion zone, the sound beam must enter the test material at an angle that
orients the beam perpendicular to the interface.

This is accomplished by the process of refraction, which is a change in angular direction, as a sound beam
passes obliquely through an interface between two materials of different acoustic velocity. In contact tests,
angle beams are produced by attaching a plastic wedge to the transducer crystal so that the sound will refract at
the interface where the wedge is coupled to the test material. In immersion tests, angle beams are produced by
angulation of the transducer so that sound travels through the water/test material interface at an appropriate
angle; moreover, angulation of the transducer can be varied during testing to maximize echo amplitude from a
particular reflector.

Data Presentation Method

Ultrasonic inspection instruments can present test information in various ways. Display media include cathode
ray tubes, paper chart recorders; digital readouts, and audible/visual alarms. Three types of display are
specially designated: A-Scan, B-Scan, and C-Scan:

a. A-Scan shows distance/time information as the points where signals deflect vertically from the
horizontal base line. Size/amplitude information is displayed as the height of the vertical deflections.

b. B-Scan is a pictorial presentation. The display screen shows a side view of the test object,
displaying the profile of interfaces reflecting the sound beam. B-Scan can thus show the distance of a
discontinuity from the transducer, as well as discontinuity length along the direction of transducer
travel.

c. C-Scan is a plan view of test material interfaces, often plotted on recording paper.

INTRODUCTION TO TEST INSTRUMENTS

Ultrasonic test instruments are comparators, devices for comparing the test material to a reference standard.
Consequently, an ultrasonic instrument must be calibrated prior to use. Calibration is the process of comparing

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an instrument or device with a known reference standard. The term calibration is often used in two ways in
ultrasonic testing.

The process of true calibration, sometimes referred to as instrument calibration. involves the verification of
instrument linearity, that is, the output received from the instrument is proportional to the input given to it. For
example, if an instrument receives a signal from the transducer that represents a given amount of travel
distance and produces a signal on the display from that input; and then the instrument receives a second signal
from the transducer that represents an amount of travel distance that is exactly double the first
distance, is the signal produced on the display from the second input exactly double the signal produced from
the first input. This would represent horizontal linearity of the instrument. This must be verified for various
Junctions of the instrument on a periodic basis.

The other use of the term calibration is properly termed standardization. sometimes referred to as test
calibration. This process involves the adjustment of the instrument controls to produce a known response from
a known condition, (e.g., a known thickness, a known distance, a known discontinuity, in the reference
standard). This provides a reference signal, against which signals from an unknown condition, (e.g., wall
thickness of the test part, material discontinuities within the material), can be compared.

Most industrial ultrasonic test instruments are A-Scan, pulse echo units. Pulse echo equipment includes a
variety of configurations, differing in complexity, degree of portability, and type of display. The range extends
from hand held thickness gauges with digital display to multi-channel immersion system installations with
both display and recorded output. Typical ultrasonic flaw detection units are suitable for a wide range of flaw
detection and thickness measurement applications. These instruments display time and amplitude information
on a display. Optional accessory circuits include electronic distance amplitude correction, monitor gates,
digital distance/thickness readouts, and mathematical calculation circuitry for use in angle beam tests.

Ultrasonic thickness gages are similar in concept to flaw detectors except that the display is replaced by a
digital readout for thickness readout only. Data recorders are often available as accessories. However, the
inability to verify echoes on a display is sometimes considered a limitation of digital-only instruments. For
this reason, digital thickness gages are often equipped with an A-scan display as a backup, particularly for in-
service monitoring of corroded surfaces.

Ultrasonic flaw detectors are considerably more versatile than thickness gages. To estimate discontinuity size,
the instrument is adjusted so that a particular gain setting and
displayed signal screen height represent the echo amplitude produced by a known size reflector in a reference
standard. To determine the difference in echo amplitude between a discontinuity signal and the reference
signal, the operator adjusts the peak of the discontinuity signal, using a calibrated gain control, to produce the
same amplitude as the reference signal. The gain difference between the two signals, in decibels, is then noted,
and corrections made for factors such as differences in distance and surface condition.

Most ultrasonic instruments have gain controls calibrated in "decibels", a logarithmic unit. Because sound
amplitudes can vary over an enormous range, decibels are used to compress this range for convenient
measurement of differences in sound amplitude. The formula for converting an amplitude ratio to decibels is:

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The formula for converting decibels to ratios is:

ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT FUNCTIONS

General
Understanding the operation of ultrasonic test equipment is aided by examining a functional block diagram of
a typical instrument. A basic instrument contains several circuits: power supply, clock (also called
synchronizer or timer), time base (called sweep generator in analog-display instruments), pulser (also called
transmitter), receiver (also called receiver-amplifier), and the display. We shall examine the function of each of

these circuits, its relationship to other circuits in the instrument, and identify when each is active during the test
cycle.

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Power Supply
The power supply provides the necessary voltages to the other circuits in the instrument. That is, the power
supply converts the AC input voltage to the lower voltages utilized by most of the instrument's circuits. The
power supply may also contain batteries and a battery charger, if the instrument is so equipped. Regarding
battery operation, certain precautions should be noted:

1. Lithium Ion batteries must be charged by a charger designed for use with Lithium batteries; the
charger should have the word "Lithium" or the symbol "Li" (the standard symbol for the element
Lithium) on the charger itself.

2. Nickel Cadmium batteries can develop a memory. That is, if the battery pack is capable of
operating for eight hours before recharging is needed, but the batteries are usually only operated for
about two hours before being recharged, they will "remember" the two hour operation cycle and
eventually only provide two hours of operation before charging is required.

3. Nickel Metal Hydride batteries are not subject to the "memory" problems associated with Nickel
Cadmium batteries, therefore, they can be recharged at any stage of battery capacity. It is not
necessary to fully discharge them prior to charging. However, they will, after several hundred cycles
of use, eventually degrade and require replacement.

4. Lead/Lead Dioxide batteries can be destroyed if they are allowed to completely discharge. They
should be kept fully charged and their state of charge should be checked at regular intervals.

Clock Circuit
The clock circuit initiates a chain of events which results in one complete cycle of an ultrasonic test. The clock
sends a trigger signal, at a regular interval, to both the time base and the pulser. As the name "clock" implies,
this trigger signal is repeated at a given frequency, called the pulse repetition rate. On some instruments pulse
repetition rate is adjustable by the operator, on other instruments it may be controlled automatically.

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The pulse repetition rate establishes the number of times per second that a complete test cycle wili occur. In
instruments with adjustable pulse repetition rate, adjustment is made by a PULSE REPETITION RATE
control, sometimes labeled REP RATE. Greater sound travel time requires a longer test cycle and, therefore, a
lower pulse repetition rate to provide the longer test cycle or interval.

Although the clock triggers both the time base and the pulser into action, we do not necessarily want them to
be triggered simultaneously for all test conditions. With some test techniques, particularly immersion testing
applications with long water path travel distances, it is desirable to trigger the time base at some time interval
after the pulser, thereby eliminating the tracking of the time interval corresponding to the sound beam
traveling through water. The time base will then begin tracking the time interval corresponding to when sound
begins to travel through the test material. Delay sub-circuits in both the time base and the pulser allow these
two circuits to be activated at different times relative to each other. One of these circuits will have a fixed
delay, while the other is provided with an adjustable delay.

Time Base
The function of the time base, also called a "sweep generator" in analog instruments, is to establish a display of
sound travel time on the horizontal scale of the display. The horizontal scale can then be used for distance
readout. The RANGE control adjusts this scale for the range of distance to be shown. Typically, the horizontal
scale can be adjusted to display a range of one inch or less to fifty or more inches. The scale will be valid for a
given sound velocity only, that is, a particular mode of sound wave traveling in a particular material. The
horizontal display is adapted for different material velocities using a VELOCITY control, sometimes termed
"material calibration" or "fine range".

Pulser
The pulser emits the electrical signal which activates the transducer. This signal, known as the initial pulse or
main bang, is quite brief, usually lasting only several nanoseconds (billionths of a second). The output of the
initial pulse is in the order of hundreds of volts, the brief duration providing a fast rise time to the full voltage.
The pulser is connected via output connectors on the instrument front panel to the transducer cable. The pulser
is also connected internally through the receiver circuit, to the display, thus making available (depending upon
the delay setting) a displayed initial pulse signal. This signal is, of course, available whether or not a
transducer is connected to the instrument.

When a transducer is connected, it is in the signal path between the pulser and the receiver and its output is
therefore displayed. Such output includes transducer ringing, resulting from reaction of the transducer to the
initial pulse received from the pulser. The duration of crystal ringing determines the length of the dead zone,
the depth of material immediately beneath the front surface from which no echoes can be displayed. In contact

testing the dead zone is generally defined by the displayed width of the initial pulse. In immersion testing the
dead zone is shorter, defined by the displayed width of the front surface echo, a narrower signal than the
initial pulse.

The pulser may include one or more controls, typically called DAMPING and/or PULSE ENERGY for
adjusting the initial pulse and for matching the pulser output to a given transducer.

These controls provide a higher amplitude initial pulse and longer ringing period when adjusted in one
direction, versus a lower amplitude initial pulse accompanied by shorter ringing when adjusted in the opposite

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direction. Higher pulse amplitude normally increases sensitivity and penetration, while a shorter duration pulse
will improve resolution.

Receiver
The receiver circuit cosmeticaily processes and amplifies signals prior to passing them through to the display.
Cosmetic processing is provided by detector (rectification) and filter sub-circuits in the receiver.

Depending on the flexibility of the instrument, the detector can provide a choice of signals to pass through the
receiver, including radio frequency (RF), and three types of video frequency (VF): full wave, half -wave
positive video and half-wave negative video.

In RF, the transducer output passes "as is" through the detector and is displayed with a horizontal baseline at
mid-screen height, showing signals with both upward and downward deflection, corresponding to the direction
of transducer crystal deformation. When video display is selected, the detector circuit "rectifies" the receiver
signal, resulting in a horizontal baseline at the bottom of the screen, with only an upward deflection of the
signal.

In the full wave video, the upward and downward deflections of the video signal are combined into a
composite upward signal. In half wave positive, the positive portion only of the RF signal is displayed, by a
positive signal display. In half wave negative, the downward portion only of the RF signal is displayed as an
upward signal display. Detector adjustments are provided for different applications. As a general rule, when
detector selection is provided, use the position which provides the clearest or most useful signals.

Filtering is a cosmetic change to the signal that removes test information. The type and degree of available
filtering varies from one instrument design to another.

Video filters smooth out pulse cycle information to varying degrees.

Frequency filters permit selection of either narrow band display of certain frequencies or broad band display.
Narrow band display provides an improved signal to noise ratio at the selected frequency, thus improving test
sensitivity. Broad band display is preferred for high resolution testing, particularly with the highly damped,
broad band transducers designed for that purpose.

Amplifier: The amplifier multiplies the voltage of signals passing through it in order to provide adequate
signal amplitude. The amount of voltage multiplication, or amplification, is controlled by GAIN controls.

Calibrated gain controls are adjustable in discrete units of decibels (dB), the unit of measure for gain
multiplication. Calibrated gain controls are intended for making decibel amplitude comparisons between
reference signal amplitudes and the amplitudes of signals returning from the test material.

The REJECT control adjusts the amplifier's input sensitivity. That is, it sets the signal threshold, in volts that
the transducer must supply to the receiver in order for the signal to be displayed at a given setting of the gain
controls. The REJECT control is intended for preventing the display of undesired low amplitude signals, called
grass or hash, caused by metal noise such as echoes from material grain boundaries or inherent fine porosity.
Two types of REJECT controls have been used: non-linear REJECT on older, analog instruments, which
causes a loss of vertical instrument linearity; and linear REJECT controls on newer digital instruments, which
they do not disturb the vertical linearity of the display. Most inspection codes do not allow the use of reject
during examination, due to the fact that the reject does not discriminate between noise signals and relevant

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signals from small discontinuities; all signals below the reject setting are prevented from passing through to the
display, regardless of origin.

Display
The display provides a visual readout of test information. Cathode ray tube displays were the standard for
many years. These displays used an electron beam, controlled by horizontal deflection plates, to individually
trace test signals on a phosphorescent screen. Newer, microprocessor-based instruments provide a digitized
display of test information. Digitization allows ultrasonic test instruments to communicate with, and be
controlled by, computers, which leads to automated scanning and computer data acquisition of the
discontinuity signals, improving both efficiency and signal analysis.

TEST VALIDITY
The validity of ultrasonic test results depends on several factors, particularly the test operator, the reference
standards, and the test instrument.

Ultrasonic test operators require a general knowledge of ultrasonic theory, as well as specific knowledge of the
equipment they are using and the application being performed. In addition, ultrasonic tests must be set up,
executed, interpreted, and reported with precision.

Ultrasonic standards should be acoustically identical to the test material and should contain reflectors that
assure valid, repeatable comparison with material reflectors. It is especially important to understand the
difference in ultrasonic behavior between fabricated reference reflectors and actual material discontinuities.

Instrument performance should be periodically checked to verify that test instruments are within acceptable
tolerances. Typical instrument characteristics verified at these intervals are horizontal linearity, vertical
linearity, gain control linearity, dynamic range, and numerous other features, dependent on the instrument used
and the governing code or specification.

REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION

Sound Beam Geometry
The sound beam radiated by the transducer consists of a converging (narrowing) near field beginning at the
crystal surface, followed by a diverging (spreading) far field.

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Sound originates on the ciystal surface as a number of individual point sources radiating spherical waves. As
the wave's progress outward, they interfere with each other. Constructive interference occurs where waves
arriving at a point in phase reinforce each other. Destructive interference occurs where waves arriving at a
point out of phase cancel each other. The varying phase relationships cause varying wave amplitudes. Because
of these amplitude variations it is difficult to approximate reflector size in the near field. Eventually, through
multiple occurrences of constructive and destructive interference, the waves combine into a single spherical
wave front. This occurs at the so-called Yo point, which is the end of the near field (a.k.a. Fresnel zone) and
the beginning of the far field (a.k.a. Fraunhofer zone).

The length of the near field can be approximated by the following formula:

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The diverging far field is characterized by a predictable decrease in sound pressure per unit area as distance
from the transducer increases. Because the near field contains numerous variations in sound pressure while the
far field produces predictable sound pressure, it is preferable to make sound amplitude measurements in the far
field for the purpose of discontinuity severity evaluation. The half-angle of beam divergence (or beam spread)
in the far field can be calculated by the following formula:

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Note that both the Near Field length and Beam Divergence half angle formulas are influenced by the same
variables: transducer diameter, test frequency, and material velocity, although with opposite effects on the two
formulas. As the formulas indicate, an increase in diameter and/or frequency increases near field length and
reduces beam divergence. Transducer diameter and test frequency, therefore, have a major effect on test
performance.

Laws of Distance
By comparing reflectors in the far field with reference reflectors, and by applying distance laws and correcting
for material loss attenuation you can approximate the reflecting-area of reflectors in the far field. The
narrowness of the sound beam at the beginning of the far field applies more sound pressure per unit area to
reflectors, thus optimizing sensitivity. Using laws of distance, you can calculate loss of echo amplitude as a
flat, disc-shaped reflector is moved outward along the sound beam axis in the far field. There are two laws of
distance, one for infinite reflectors and one for small reflectors.

An infinite reflector intercepts the entire sound beam. The echo amplitude of an infinite reflector is inversely
proportional to distance, expressed in terms of decibels. As the distance to an infinite reflector is doubled, echo
amplitude decreases six decibels.

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A small reflector intercepts only a portion of the sound beam. The echo amplitude of a small reflector is
inversely proportional to the square of distance, expressed in terms of decibels. As the distance to the small
reflector is doubled, echo amplitude decreases 12 decibels.

Therefore, when you compare the amplitude of a back reflection from a three-inch thick block to the
amplitude of a back reflection from a six-inch thick block, the amplitude of the back reflection from the six-
inch thick block will be six decibels lower. That is, the echo height of the back reflection from the six-inch
thick block will be 50 percent of the echo height of the back reflection from the three-inch thick block.

When you compare the amplitude of a small disc shaped reflector at three inches of depth to an echo from the
same size reflector at six inches of depth, the echo returning from six inches of depth will be twelve decibels
lower. That is, the echo from six inches of depth will have 25 percent of the echo height of the echo from three
inches of depth.

In addition to amplitude losses or attenuation resulting from beam spread, there are also amplitude losses
caused by the structure of the test material. This form of attenuation results from scattering of sound by coarse
grain structure or fine porosity or from conversion of sound into heat by absorption. Material loss attenuation
tends to occur at a linear rate. That is, material losses occur at a rate of a certain number of decibels per linear
unit of measure, e.g., a rate of 1 decibel per inch of sound path.

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Thus, if there are two small disc-shaped reflectors of the same size, one at three inches of depth, the other at
six inches of depth, and the rate of material loss is one decibel per inch, the echo from six inches of depth will
be 18 decibels weaker than the echo from three inches of depth. Of the 18 decibels of sound loss, 12 decibels
are lost because of beam spread and 6 decibels are lost because of material losses, due to the increased travel
distance.

In order to estimate reflector severity, some correction must be made for echo amplitude variations caused by
distance factors. One method is to construct a Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) curve on the display
screen. This is done by marking on the display the echo peaks from a given size reflector at a series of depths.
The reflector used for this procedure is normally one that represents the "critical defect size", the maximum
acceptable reflector amplitude. Another solution is to use electronic distance amplitude compensation,
sometimes called Time Varied Gain (TVG) or Time Corrected Gain (TCG), whereby the test instrument can
be adjusted to correct echo amplitudes for distance variations.

TEST PERFORMANCE VARIABLES

Detectability is the likelihood of detection of a given size and type of discontinuity, or the ability of a sound
wave to reflect from a material interface of a given size. Detectability improves as wavelength decreases.
Wavelength is decreased by increasing test frequency.

Penetration, the ability to penetrate through a material interface of a given size (e.g., grain boundaries and
inherent porosity) and is inversely related to detectability. Penetration improves as wavelength increases.
Wavelength is increased by decreasing test frequency.

Sensitivity, the ability of the test system to display a given size reflector of a given distance along the sound
beam axis. Also, described as the ability to detect and display echoes from small reflectors. Sensitivity
depends primarily on five factors:

1. Beam Spread: As beam spread is decreased by increasing frequency, more sound pressure per unit
area strikes a reflector, thus increasing echo amplitude.

2. Near Field Length: As near field length varies, the position of a reflector relative to the Yo point
likewise varies. Sensitivity is optimized when the reflector is positioned near the beginning of the far
field.

3. Frequency Bandwidth: As bandwidth is decreased, sensitivity increases. Bandwidth is decreased by

decreasing transducer damping.

4. Transducer Crystal Material: piezoelectric crystal materials vary in their efficiency as both
transmitters and receivers of sound.

5. Test System Signal to Noise Ratio: Signal to Noise Ratio depends on a number of factors such as
penetration and test instrument design.

Resolution is the ability of the test system to individually display reflectors located at slightly different depths
along the sound beam. Resolution depends primarily on Frequency Bandwidth. As bandwidth is increased,

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resolution increases. Bandwidth is increased by increasing transducer damping. Mechanical Q is the reciprocal
of bandwidth, expressed as a percentage. For a given Q value, resolution increases as frequency is increased.

• Detectability is expressed as a probability, or pair of probabilities, (e.g.; 80/90; 90/95)

• Sensitivity is expressed numerically. (.060" at 5" sound travel)

• Resolution and Penetration are expressed either qualitatively or comparatively.

(do we meet the minimum requirements, or does one setup provide better than another)

ANGLE BEAM THEORY

In order for a reflector to be displayed, the axis of the sound beam must be perpendicular to the reflector.
Straight beam transducers are effective only for reflectors that are parallel to the test surface. When the largest
face of the discontinuity is expected to be at an orientation other than parallel to the surface, angle beam
transducers are used to aim the axis of the beam perpendicular to such discontinuities.

There are different ways of introducing angle beams into the test material, depending on the coupling
technique used. In order for angle beams to be produced in the test material, the transducer's beam axis must
be aimed toward the test surface at an angle. Contact testing employs angled wedges, immersion testing
permits continuously variable angulations of the transducer by means of an adjustable manipulator assembly.

Angle beams are produced in the test material using the principle of refraction. Refraction is the change in
angular direction of a sound beam when it passes through an interface between two materials of different
acoustic velocity. The transducer is aimed so as to direct the beam toward the test material interface at an
angle.

Consider a sound beam aimed perpendicular to an interface. The sound beam approaching the interface is
called the incident beam and may thus be identified as being incident to the interface. The angle of incidence

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(or incident angle) is the angle between the axis of the incident beam and a line drawn perpendicular to the
interface at the point of sonic impact.

The sound beam reflected from the interface is called the reflected beam. The angle of reflection (or reflected
angle) is the angle between the axis of the reflected beam and a line drawn perpendicular to the interface at the
point of sonic impact. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

When a sound beam is incident to an interface at an angle other than 90 degrees, a phenomenon called mode
conversion occurs. That is, in addition to the simple reflection described in the previous paragraph, a portion
of the incident beam's energy converts at the interface to a beam of a different wave mode and reflects at an

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angle other than the angle of incidence. The angle at which the mode converted beam reflects depends on
Snell's Law, stated below.

When a sound beam passes at an angle other than perpendicular, through an interface between materials of
different acoustic velocity, a change in beam direction called refraction occurs. The degree of refraction is
dependent on the difference in material velocities, or velocity mismatch, of the two materials at the acoustic
interface.

Moreover, just as mode conversion occurs when sound reflects at an angle other than perpendicular, it also
occurs when sound refracts. Thus, there may be two refracted sound beams: one that is only a refraction of the
incident beam, and is the same wave mode as the incident beam, and another that is both refraction and mode
conversion of the incident beam, producing a refracted beam of a different wave mode.

Relationships among incident, reflected, and refracted angles depend upon the velocity relationships of the
materials in question, and are determined by Snell's Law:

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Critical Angles

The angle of refraction depends upon both the incident angle and the ratio of acoustic velocities for the
materials through which the incident and refracted beams are traveling. As the angle of the incident beam
increases, the angles of the refracted beams also increase. At respective critical angles of the incident beam,
the refracted beams are refracted 90 degrees and are, in effect, fully reflected within the first material. The first
critical angle is the incident angle that causes the refracted longitudinal beam to be refracted 90 degrees. The
second critical angle is the incident angle that causes the refracted shear beam to be refracted 90 degrees. For
example, with a plastic wedge producing angle beams in carbon steel, the first critical angle is 28 degrees and
the second critical angle is 55.8 degrees.

Note that if the incident angle is below the first critical angle, there will be two refracted beams in the second
material, there will both a longitudinal beam and a shear beam. If the incident angle is between the first and
second critical angles, there will be only one refracted beam in the second material, a shear beam.

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At the second critical angle, the transverse waves will go through another occurrence of mode conversion, and
surface waves will be generated. If the incident angle is above the second critical angle, there will not be any
refracted beams penetrating into the second material. The maximum amplitude of surface waves, however, will
occur in the test material at an incident angle somewhat higher than the second critical angle, due to their
slightly lower velocity than the transverse waves.

ULTRASONIC REFERENCE BLOCKS

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Calibration Blocks
Specially designed calibration blocks are used in contact testing to check the operation of ultrasonic
instruments and transducers and to make certain adjustments to the instruments to best suit the testing
conditions. "Calibration blocks" are often referred to as "standard reference blocks", but in the sense of
providing artificial discontinuities of known size and depth for comparison to discontinuities found in parts
being tested, they are not reference blocks. They are reference blocks in the sense that adjustments to
ultrasonic instruments are repeatable when made to the fixed dimensions of these
blocks.

SPECIAL BLOCKS

The HW (International Institute of Welding) Type I calibration block is illustrated in Figure 6-8.

The HW calibration block provides the known distances and angular relationships required for adjusting
(calibrating) the CRT screen presentation to best represent the thickness of the test specimen, to verify the
angle of angle-beam transducers, to verify the beam exit point of angle beam-transducers, to adjust the
instrument for maximum resolution, and to determine relative, sensitivity of (he instrument and transducer.

The IIW block is made from mild steel and all its dimensions were carefully calculated based on the sound
velocity (5940 m/sec) of the steel. Similar blocks of other materials would have slightly different dimensions
depending upon die sound velocity through the material. As is true with the Alcoa and Hitt reference blocks,
die material of the calibration block whould be of the same material as the specimen being tested. For
example, the angle of refraction of any angle transducer would be quite different in aluminum than in steel.

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The miniature angle-beam block shown in Figure 6-9 is similar to the UW calibration block, but is limited to
instrument range calibration, and transducer beam exit point and refracted angle verification. It is intended for
use away from the testing laboratory.

The reference plate shown in Figure 6-10 is another type of direct comparison reference for evaluating the
size and depth of discontinuities found in a test specimen.

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Calibrations Using the IIW Type 1 Block

STRAIGHT BEAM (Longitudinal Wave)

Calibration for a 5" Distance

With the probe in position P-l obtain five back reflections. Adjust range to position the first back reflection at
the second horizontal scale division and the fifth back reflection at the tenth horizontal scale division.

With the probe in position P-2 the back reflection should appear at the eight horizontal scale division.

Resolution

With the probe in position P-3 maximize the signal from the 3 reflecting surfaces. Note the resolution
(separation) of the three signals.

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Sensitivity

Position the probe as shown and maximize the signal from the .060" (1.5 mm) diameter hole. Adjust the gain
control to display a signal amplitude of 80% FSH.

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ANGLE BEAM (Shear Wave)

Sound Exit Point Determination

Position the probe as shown and maximize the signal from the 4" (100 mm) radius.

The sound exit point of the probe will coincide with the "0" mark on the block.

Refracted Angle Determination

With probe in position P-l maximize the signal from 2" (50 mm) diameter hole.

Read refracted angle on the block at the point where the sound exit point intersects the scale.

Distance Calibration

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Position probe with sound exit point directly above the "0" on the block.

Obtain two signals and adjust range so they appear at the 4th and 9th horizontal scale divisions on the CRT

Sensitivity

Position probe as shown and maximize the signal from the 0.060" (1.5mm) diameter hole.

Adjust gain control to display a signal amplitude of 80% FSH.

Standard Reference Blocks

In ultrasonic testing, all discontinuity indications are compared to indications received from testing a
reference standard. The reference standard may be any one of many reference blocks, or sets of blocks,

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specified for a given test. The ideal reference standard would be a specimen identical to the part being tested
except that the standard would have known discontinuities.

Ultrasonic standard reference blocks, often called test blocks, are used in ultrasonic testing to standardize the
ultrasonic equipment and to evaluate die discontinuity indication received from the test part. Standardizing
does two things: it verifies that the instrument/transducer combination is performing as required; it
established a sensitivity, or gain, setting at which all discontinuities of the size specified, or larger, will be
detected. Evaluation of discontinuities within the test specimen is accomplished by comparing their
indications with the indication received from an artificial discontinuity of known size, and at the same depth
in a standard reference block of the same material.

Standard reference blocks are made from carefully selected, ultrasonically tested stock that meets
predetermined standards of attenuation, grain size, and heat treat and that are free from natural
discontinuities. They are made from either square or cylindrical stock with ends cut parallel. An artificial
discontinuity, in the form of a precisely drilled flat-bottomed hole, is then added at the center of one end of
the block. A cross section of a standard reference block is illustrated in Figure 6-2. Dimensions A, B and C
must be precise and the bottom of the flat-bottomed hole must be parallel to the test surface of the block and
be absolutely flat.

The three most familiar sets of standard reference blocks are the Alcoa-Series A, area/amplitude blocks; the
Alcoa-Series B, or Hitt, distance/amplitude blocks; and the ASTM basic set of blocks that combine
area/amplitude and distance/amplitude blocks in one set. The area amplitude blocks provide a standard
reference for discontinuities of several sizes, at a given depth, in a given material, and the distance amplitude
blocks provide a standard reference for a given size discontinuity at vaiying depths, in a given material.

Area-Amplitude Reference Blocks

The Alcoa, Series A, area amplitude blocks shown in Figure 6-3 consists of eight blocks 3-3/4 inches long and
1-15/16 inches square. Each block has a 3/4 inch deep, flat-bottomed hole drilled in the center of the bottom
surface. The hole diameters vary from 1/64" to 8/64". The blocks are numbered to correspond with the
diameterof the holes. That is, the No. 1 block has the 1/64" diameter hole, the No. 2 block has the 2/64"
diameter hole, and so on through the No. 8 block which has die 8/64" diameter hole. All of the holes are 3/4"

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deep and all of the area amplitude blocks have a three-inch metal distance. Similar area amplitude blocks are
made from 2-inch diameter stock.

Metal distance is the distance from the top surface of the block to the surface of the flat-bottomed hole
(artificial discontinuity). The metal distance is the same for all the blocks in an area amplitude set. Only the
size (diameter) of the artificial discontinuities (flat bottomed holes) is different. Area amplitude blocks provide
a means of checking the linearity of the test system, that is, they are used to confirm that the amplitude
(height) of the pip on the CRT screen increases in proportion to the increase in size of the discontinuity.

Hie relationship of the discontinuity indication and its amplitude is determined by comparison with a range of
test block flat-bottomed hole reflections, as shown in Figure 6-4.

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Distance-Amplitude Reference Blocks

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The Alcoa series B, or Hilt, distance amplitude block set, shown in Figure 6-5, consists of 19, 2-inch diameter
blocks. All the blocks have a 3/4" deep flat-bottomed hole drilled in the center of the bottom surface. The hole
diameter is the same in all the blocks of a set. Sets are available with, hole diameters of 3/64", 5/64" or 8/64".
The blocks vary in length to provide metal distances of 1/16" to 5-3/4" from the test surface to the top of the
flat-bottomed hole. The metal distances are 1/16", 1/8" through 1" in eighth inch increments, and 1-1/4"
through .5-3/4" in half inch increments. Distance amplitude blocks serve as a reference to evaluate the size of
discontinuities found at varying depths within the test material.

Distance/amplitude blocks serve as a reference by which the size of discontinuities at varying depths within the
test material may be evaluated. They also serve as a reference for setting or standardizing the sensitivity, or
gain, of the test system so that the system will display readable indications on the CRT screen for all
discontinuities of a given size and over, but will not flood the screen with indications of smaller discontinuities
that are of no interest. On instruments so equipped, these blocks are used to set the STC (sensitivity time
control) or DAC (distance amplitude correction) so that a discontinuity of a given size will produce an
indication of the same amplitude on the CRT screen regardless of its distance from the front surface.

Distance/Area-amplitude reference blocks provide, in one set, the functions of the separate distance- amplitude
and area-amplitude sets.

A commonly used set of distance/area-amplitude blocks is the set specified by the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The configuration is shown in Figure 6-6.

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The ASTM basic reference block set shown in Figure 6-7 is a combination of area and distance amplitude
blocks. The ASTM set of reference blocks consists of ten 2-inch diameter blocks. Again each block has a 3/4
inch deep hole drilled in the center of the bottom surface. One block has a 3/64 inch diameter hole and a metal
distance of 3 inches from test surface to flat-bottomed hole. Seven blocks have 5/64" diameter holes and metal
distances of 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1-1/2", 3" and 6". The remaining two blocks have 8/64" diameter holes and
metal distances of 3 inches and 6 inches. In this basic set, the three, 3" metal distance blocks, with the 3/64",
5/64" and 8/64" diameter holes, provide the area amplitude relationship and the seven blocks with the 5/64"
holes at varying metal distance provide the distance amplitude relationship.

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The main advantage of the basic set of ASTM reference blocks is that they provide area amplitude
and distance amplitude references in one small set. The full set of ASTM reference blocks consists of
46 blocks.

Although the specific material of the standard reference blocks has not been mentioned it is most important
that the test block material be the same or similar to that of the part being tested. Alloy content, heat treatment,
amount of hot and cold working from forging, rolling, etc. - all affect the acoustical properties of the material.

If test blocks of identical material are not available, test blocks that are similar in sound attenuation, sound
velocity and acoustic impedance may be used. Standard reference blocks should be available for all materials
regularly tested.

Standard reference blocks do not, by any means, provide all the answers to discontinuity evaluation.

For irregularly shaped parts it if often necessary to make one of the parts into a reference standard by adding
artificial discontinuities to it in the form of flat-bottomed holes, saw cuts, notches, etc. In some cases these
artificial discontinuities can be so placed that they will be removed by subsequent machining of the part

In other cases, special individual techniques may have to be developed by careful study of a part
ultrasonically, and then verifying the discontinuities detected by destructive investigation. The results of the
study then become the basis for the testing standard.

Pipe and tubing reference standards are usually made by cutting nothces or slots in both the inside diameter
and outside diameter walls of a representative sample.

CALIBRATION PROCEDURES
Introduction and Guidelines
1. The horizontal scale of an ultrasonic flaw detector indicates relative sound travel time through the
test object. Since sound velocity is expected to be constant in a given test material, sound travel time
is used to indicate distance.

2. Thickness measurements are measurements of the duration of one round trip of sound travel
through the test material, reading from one pulse cycle on an echo to the identical pulse cycle on the
next echo. Therefore, calibration echoes should be set so that their left edges break the horizontal base
with the same number of pulse cycles exposed on each echo. During actual testing.a thickness reading
is then taken so that the left edge of its echo breaks the horizontal base with the same number of pulse
cycles exposed as were exposed on the calibration echoes.

3. Excluding the mark at zero, there are fifty marks along the horizontal scale. Counting the spaces
between these marks, there are one hundred positions along the horizontal scale where echo position
can be observed. "Reading resolution" for thickness/distance measurement is therefore considered to
be 1% of full horizontal scale.

4. Before calibrating the instrument- for thickness/distance measurement the test operator should
establish the following information:

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What is the value of full horizontal scale?

What is the value of each major division (1/10 of full scale)

What is the value of each reading position (1/100 of full scale)

5. Distance/thickness calibration is based on positioning two echoes from the test material on the
horizontal base line so that a specific length of base line represents a specific length of test material.

Electric zero is the point in time when the pulser emits the initial pulse, represented on ihe display by
the left edge of the initial pulse.

Acoustic zero is the point in time when sound passing through the couplant first strikes the front
surface of the test material. Acoustic zero is represented on the display by the left edge of the front
interface signal when doing immersion or contact delay line testing. Calibration for immersion or
contact delay line transducers may be accomplished using the acoustic zero echo and the first back
reflection.

When testing with non-delay type single element transducers acoustic zero occurs during the ringing
of the initial pulse, thus causing its echo signal to be obscured. When testing with dual element
transducers, there is no acoustic zero signal because the front surface echo is reflected back into the
transmitting side of the transducer assembly. Therefore, calibration for non-delay type single element
transducers and dual element transducers requires calibration to be based on proper positioning of two
back reflections.

Time Base Calibration

Standard Method

1. Couple the probe to the reference block. Using the DELAY Control, set the leading edge of the first
back reflection to a position on the horizontal sweep scale that represents the thickness of the
reference block.

2. Using the FINE RANGE Control set the second back reflection to a position on the horizontal
sweep scale that represents twice the thickness of the reference block.

3. Repeat steps (1) and (2) until, without further adjustment of the controls, the first back reflection
appears at the position on the horizontal sweep scale that represents the thickness of the reference
block and the second back reflection appears at the position on the horizontal sweep scale that
represents twice the thickness of the reference block.

4. Remove the probe from the reference block to verify that the initial pulse is displayed at the left
side of the horizontal scale (to ensure that acoustic zero, rather than a back reflection, is positioned at
the zero mark on the horizontal sweep scale).

Delay Shift Method

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1. Couple the probe to the reference block and using the DELAY Control set the leading edge of the
first back reflection to "0" on the horizontal sweep scale.

2. Using the FINE RANGE control, adjust the second back reflection to a horizontal position
representing the thickness of the reference block.

3. Repeat steps (1) and (2) until, without further adjustment of the controls, the first back reflection
appears at "0" and the second back reflection appears at the position on the horizontal sweep scale that
represents the thickness of the reference block.

4. Using the DELAY Control, adjust the first back reflection to appear at the thickness of the
reference block on the horizontal sweep scale. This adjustment will also cause acoustic zero to be
positioned at "0" on the horizontal sweep scale.

5. Remove the probe from the reference block to verify that the initial pulse is displayed at the left
side of the horizontal scale (to ensure that acoustic zero, rather than a back reflection, is positioned at
the zero mark on the horizontal sweep scale).

DUAL ELEMENT PROBE

NOTE: Dual element transducers have a limited effective range. If the test material is too thin the echo
will reflect back into the transmitting side of the transducer assembly; if the test material is too thick the
echo will reflect back to the test surface beyond the receiving side of the transducer assembly.

1. Set the Probe Mode Selector Switch to the DUAL/THRU position.

2. Connect the cable connectors from the Dual Element Probe to the TRANSMIT and RECEIVE connectors
on the instrument.

3. Using the DELAY Control, move the initial pulse slightly off the left side of the CRT horizontal sweep
scale.

4. Obtain two reference blocks whose thicknesses bracket the thickness range of the materials to be measured.

5. Couple the probe to the thicker of the two blocks and adjust the FINE RANGE Control so that the back
reflection appears at the thickness of that block on the horizontal sweep scale.

6. Couple the probe to the thinner of the two blocks and adjust the DELAY Control so that the reflection
appears at the thickness of that block on the horizontal sweep scale.

7. Repeat steps (5) and (6) until the respective echoes from each reference block appear at their correct
position on the horizontal sweep scale.

NOTE: This procedure can he shortened hv adjusting the FINE RANGE and DELAY Controls
separately as follows:

a. Couple the probe to the thicker of the two blocks and adjust the FINE RANGE control until the back
reflection appears at the correct position on the horizontal sweep scale.

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b. Couple the probe to the thinner of the two blocks. Now adjust the FINE RANGE control until the back
reflection appears at a position which is equal to the value displayed in step (a), minus the difference in
thickness between the two blocks.

c. Repeat steps (a) and (b) until the difference between the two displayed values is exactly equal to the
difference in thickness between the two blocks.

d. Couple the probe to the thinner of the two blocks and adjust the DELAY control until the back reflection
appears at its proper position on the horizontal sweep scale.

Couple the probe to the thicker of the two blocks and confirm that its back reflection appears at the proper
position on the horizontal sweep scale. If the value is not being displayed, return to step (a).

Delay Line Probe Calibration Procedure

1. Couple the probe to the reference block and, using the DELAY Control, set the Delay Line/Test Surface
Interface echo at "0" on the horizontal sweep scale. This will cause the initial pulse to move off the left side of
the CRT screen.

2. Using the HNE RANGE Control, adjust the first back reflection to appear at the thickness of the reference
block on the horizontal sweep scale.

3. Repeat steps (1) and (2) until, without further adjustment of the controls, the Interface signal appears at "0"
and the first back reflection appears at the thickness of the reference block on the horizontal sweep scale.

NOTE: Be careful that all multiple echoes from the plastic/test material interface appear after the first
backwall echo.

Sensitivity Calibration Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) Curve

Introduction: DAC curves provide a means of compensating for distance losses for a given size
reflector.

1. Calibrate the instrument sweep range for position (surface distance) calibration on the basic
calibration block.

2. Scan the block to determine which of the three holes will produce the highest amplitude echo signal
and then obtain a maximum amplitude echo from that hole.

3. Adjust the gain to produce an 80% screen height indication from the hole. Using the transparency
marking pen, mark the peak of the indication on the CRT screen.

4. Position the probe to obtain maximum amplitude echoes from each of the other two holes and mark
their respective peaks on the screen.

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Position the probe so as to obtain an echo from the 3/4 T hole after the beam has bounced from the opposite
surface. That is, intercept the 3/4 T hole with the second leg of the sound beam. Mark the peak of that
indication on the screen. If you have done everything correctly up to this point, including the Sweep Range
Calibration, the indication should appear at the 10 mark on the horizontal sweep scale.

Calibration: Angle Beam Probes

Four preliminary steps are required to set up the instrument for angle beam inspection:

1. Location of the transducer beam index (sound exirt point).

2. Checking of the refracted beam angle in the test material.

3. Calibration of the instrument sweep for distance.

4. Calibration of the instrument gain for reference sensitivity.

The first three steps are normally performed with an IIW Block. Numerous methods, however, are currently in
use for sensitivity calibration. The techniques described here are primarily intended to illustrate the potentials
of the instrument as an angle beam inspection tool. More specific information may be obtained by consulting
A.W.S., A.S.M.E. and A.S.T.M. publications.

Location of the Transducer Beam Index Point

Couple the transducer to the IIW Block.. The first high amplitude echo appearing on the CRT screen after the
initial pulse is a reflection from the large arc on the IIW Block. Move the probe forward "and backward until
the echo is brought to its maximum possible amplitude. Hold the probe in place and place a mark on the side
of the probe directly in line with the scribe line on the IIW Block. Make marks on masking tape only. Do not
mark the school probes themselves.

Checking the Refracted Beam Anple

There are different positions on the IIW Block for checking the different beam angles. As with beam index
location above, move the probe forward and backward, keeping the side of the probe parallel with the side of
the block, until a maximum amplitude echo from the circle is obtained.

Now hold the probe in place and note the point on the scale that the transducer beam index mark has become
aligned with. This is the refracted angle of the probe in the test material.

Distance Calibration

Couple the transducer to the IIW Block and adjust the fine range and delay controls so as to place the echoes at
4 and 9 on the CRT Screen for the Type 1 block or at 2 and 4 on the CRT Screen for the Type 2 block. The
instrument sweep is now calibrated to a 10" range for angle beam shear waves.

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Sensitivity Calibration

Obtain or fabricate a test block which contains a reference reflector whose reflecting amplitude is equivalent to
that which would be obtained from the maximum size discontinuity that is considered acceptable for the
material to be tested.

Identify the reflector which produces the highest amplitude echo and adjust its peak with the gain controls to
75 - 80% CRT screen height Then mark its peak with a grease pencil or china marking pen. Without changing
the gain, obtain maximum amplitude echoes from the other reflectors and mark their peaks on the CRT screen
also. Connect the marks with a smooth line. You have now constructed a Distance Amplitude Correction
Curve, a curve which shows the true amplitude of the reference reflector at various distances.

Test Procedure

Increase the gain from reference level to an appropriate scanning level. Then, scan the test material with the
probe and obtain maximum amplitude echoes from any reflectors that are found. Reflectors whose peak
amplitude exceed the DAC line have a reflecting amplitude greater than the reference reflector and have the
potential to be considered rejectable. However, other factors such as type and length of reflector are frequently
considered before a reflector is deemed rejectable.

ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FAMILIARIZATION
OBJECTIVES

To familiarize the student with:

the instrument & control functions

basic instrument calibration (range and amplitude)

basic manual scanning

interpretation of A-scan display indications

EQUIPMENT

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Ultrasonic Flaw Detector

Transducer - 0.5" diameter x 5.0 MHz and coax cable 1" x 3" x 4" Aluminum Biock (Sperry Block)

Couplant

PRELIMINARY INSTRUMENT SET-UP

To change any instrument settings you must first press the function key associated with the variable you want
to adjust. The current setting will be highlighted on the screen. Adjust the setting using the arrow (adjusting)
keys, or rotating knob(s).

SET THE CONTROLS FOR INITIAL CALIBRATION AS FOLLOWS MAIN KEY

BOARD FUNCTION

1. Power up the instrument. Press ON/OFF key. The manufacturer's logo will appear onscreen while
the instrument performs a self-test. The split screen display appears at the end of the test. DO NOT
connect coaxial cable or transducer to the instrument yet.

Basic Setup.

2. Set initial gain. Press the dB, or GAIN, key and adjust to 40.0 dB

3. Turn reject off. Press REJECT and adjust to read 0% or OFF

4. Set material velocity for compression wave modes. Press VEL key and adjust to .250 in/jas.

5. Set material thickness. Press THICK key and adjust thickness to 4.00 in

6. Synchronize display to start at zero time. Press ZERO OFFSET, or DELAY key and adjust to
0.000 jjs. The initial pulse should just be visible on the left edge of the screen.

7. Set sound beam angle. Press ANGLE key and adjust angle to 00.0°

8. Set screen display range. Press RANGE key and adjust range to 5.000 in.

PROCEDURE

1. Connect coax cable to BNC connector on UT instrument.

2. Connect 5.0 MHz transducer to the coax cable.

3. Couple the transducer on the "Sperry Block" as shown (Position A).

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4. Press dB, or GAIN, and adjust first 1st back reflection amplitude, to 80% full screen height (FSH).

5. Press ZERO OFFSET, or DELAY and adjust the 1st back reflection to the position where the
indication's leading edge is aligned with the 2nd major scale division (1 inch) at the baseline.

6. Repeat step 4 until the 5th back reflection amplitude is at 80% FSH.

7. Press RANGE and adjust the 5th back reflection to align it's leading edge with the 10th major scale
division (5 inches) on the baseline.

8. Repeat steps 4, 5, 6, & 7 until the 1st back reflection is located precisely with the 2nd major scale
division and the 5th back reflection is aligned precisely with the 10th major scale division.

9. Repeat step 4 to:

a. Set the 2nd back reflection amplitude at 80% FSH and note its position on the horizontal
sweep. (It should be on the 4th major scale division or 2 inches).

b. Set the 3rd back reflection amplitude at 80% FSH and note its position on the horizontal
sweep. (It should be on the 6th major scale division or 3 inches).

c. 4tfl back reflection amplitude at 80% FSH and note its position on the horizontal sweep, (It
should be on the eighth major scale division or 4 inches).

10. With the 1st back reflection amplitude set at 80% FSH, the CRT display should be similar to the
sketch below. Your actual indication amplitudes may vary slightly due to differences from individual
transducers and material attenuation.

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The instrument is now calibrated for a five-inch sweep range.

10 major scale divisions (50 minor divisions) = 5 inches 1 major scale division = 0.5 inches 1 minor scale
division = 0.100"

11. Position the transducer in position B as shown below and maximize the signal amplitude from the
side drilled hole (SDH).

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12. Press dB, or GAIN, and adjust up to produce an 80% FSH signal amplitude. The CRT display
should be similar to that shown below.

The instrument is now calibrated for a 5" sweep range and a reference level of 80% FSH indication from the
SDH at a depth of 1".

From this point on do not change any of the instrument controls!

COMPLETE THE INFORMATION ON THE ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT FAMILIARIZATION
WORKSHEET

13. With the transducer at position B, sketch the CRT display on the first screen illustration.

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14. Position the transducer in position C as shown on attached worksheet and maximize the signal
from the SDH. Sketch the CRT display on the adjacent screen illustration.

15. Position the transducer in position D as shown on worksheet and maximize the signal from the
SDH. Again, sketch the CRT display on the adjacent screen illustration.

15. Position the transducer in position C and maximize the signal from the SDH. It should be the same
amplitude as you achieved in step 13. Scan slowly across the entire surface from position C to the left
side of the block and perform an Inspection of the test sample for additional indications. If any
indications are found, then sketch each one separately on the CRT blanks, beginning with the sketch
label Indication 1, Sketch the position of the transducer and include location, gain, and amplitude data
appropriate in order to document the test. Use a separate sketch for each reflector detected.

SEE THE INSTRUCTOR FOR YOUR NEXT EXERCISE

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Glossary of Terms, Part 1
A-scan, Display, Presentation:

A display in which the received pulse amplitude is represented as a displacement along one axis (usually the y-
axis) and the travel time of the ultrasonic pulse is represented as a displacement along the other axis (usually
the x-axis). In a linear amplification system the vertical excursion is proportional to the amplitude of the signal.
With the use of logarithmic scale amplifiers the y-axis presents a logarithmic scale.

There are different kinds of single presentations possible:

1. Both half waves unrectified (RF),

2. Positive half wave,
3. Negative half wave
4. Rectified and unfiltered,
5. Rectified and filtered (smoothing).

An RF display is necessary for investigation of the signal phase shift (e.g., boundaries). Other presentations are
useful for simplifying the result and its interpretation. A-scan displays are more complex because it is the
principles that are displayed, so multiplied signals ( skips of back wall, waterpath) and wave conversion need
careful interpretation.

With digital instruments the A-scan evaluation is supported by functions like maximum hold, averaging, echo
filtering and frozen A-scan.

Absorption

The component of ultrasonic wave attenuation resulting from conversion of ultrasonic energy into heat energy.

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Coefficient, Linear: The fractional decrease in transmitted intensity per unit of absorber thickness. It is usually
designated by the symbol µ or beta or alpha and is expressed in dB/m. It is sometimes referred to as
attenuation. In literature, the absorption coefficient for longitudinal (compression) waves is usually listed.
However the coefficient differs for transversal (shear) waves and is higher for these, especially in plastics.

Acceptance level

A condition of echo amplitude, position and number of indicators that the part is defective in the presence of a
given condition. It is sometimes referred to as reject level.

Acceptance standard

1. A controlled specimen containing natural or artificial discontinuities that are well defined and, in size
or extent, similar to the maximum acceptable in the product.
2. Also may refer to the document defining acceptable discontinuity size limits.

For automated testing the test part speed is an essential factor, hence the acceptance standard has to be tested
dynamically. A test that will not accept and deviation in size will reject many perfectly good parts. In order to
prevent this, the test itself must be tested.

Acoustic Axis
Beam Axis

The locus of points of maximum energy intensity in the far field in a beam of ultrasonic waves, and its
projection back into the near zone.

Acoustic Discontinuity

Any interface between two media of different acoustic impedance which will cause some or all of the acoustic
energy incident upon them to be reflected.

Acoustic Frequency

Number of cycles per unit of time, normally stated as:

 1 Hz= 1 cycle per second,

 1 kHz = 1000 cycles per second
 1 MHz = 1 000 000 cycles per second. f = [1/s]

Spectrum: Distribution of amplitude in relation to frequency (i>FFT).

Test: The nominal ultrasonic wave frequency used in test.

Fundamental: In resonance testing, the frequency at which the wavelength is twice the thickness of the
workpiece.

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Acoustic Impedance

Often used as the equivalent of characteristic acoustic impedance, a material property defined as the product of
sound velocity and density of the material. The relative transmission and reflection at an interface are governed
in part by the acoustic impedances of the materials on each side of the interface. The letter Z is used for the
impedance and is expressed in [kg/s m²] = 1 Rayl. For water Z = 1.49 MRayls.

Acoustic Impedance Matching

The coupling of two media using layers of material with suitable impedances so as to provide optimum
transference of acoustic energy between them, e.g. a transducer delay line requires optimum matching.

Acoustic Microscopy

A general term referring to the use of high resolution, high frequency ultrasonic techniques to produce images
of features beneath the surface of a test object.

Acoustic power density

J (intensity) is directly proportional to the acoustic impedance Z and the square of the sound pressure p (p is
proportional to the frequency and particle deviation). J= p²/2 Z

Acoustic properties

These are sound velocity and sound attenuation, which are used for determing material properties (material
characterization). One of the common used method for determining material properties is the measurement of
ultrasonic velocity. The method enable to determine material properties, including elastic moduli, without
harming the materials being tested, an advantage some over mechanical methods. Ultrasonic modulus
determination has other advantages as well: 1.) relative ease and low cost of material preparation, and, 2.)

comparative analysis to physical testing as a function of material loading rate dependence. In addition,
ultrasonic measurement provides clues to determine grain size and orientation, and provides a relative
indication of material anisotropy with respect to the material geometry. We usually perform ultrasonic
measurements on materials in ambient atmospheric conditions, and in a relatively free-free condition.

Acoustic Pulse, Initial pulse, Indication Main Bang

The pulse applied to exite the transducer. It is the first indication on the screen if the sweep is undelayed.
Sometimes called main bang.

Acoustic Shadow

A region in a medium which cannot be reached by ultrasonic energy travelling in a given direction. Shadows
are caused by geometry or the presence of intervening large discontinuities.

Acoustooptics

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Incoherent monochromatic light produced by sources such as filtered discharged tubes which are not
practicable for ultrasonic transmitteres but can be used to detect and visualize optical changes in a transparent
object as a result of the passage of ultrasound through it and to relate them to acoustic characteristics at
different points.

ADC: Analog digital conversion through a so-called ADC.

Converter Device: An electronic device that converts the analog echo signal to digital after passing it through
an amplifier to reach the appropriate signal amplitude. An ADC typically uses 8 bit conversion thereby
providing 2 exp.8 or 256 levels of vertical resolution. However through cascading techniques equipment
providing a higher resolution is available too. (2 exp.9 or 512 levels, 2 exp.10 or 1024 levels). A high
resolution is essential for a achieving a high dynamic range. The sampling rate of the ADC will dictate the
number of times the A-scan is captured and digitized. The ratio between echo frequency and sample frequency
determines the accuracy of the A-scan display, hence quality of the equipment is important. The ratio should
be minimal about 4 (Niquist criteria), but usually a ratio of between 5 to 10 is used to comply with accuracy
standards. The sampling error can be improved due to special sampling techniques, e.g., averaging, phased
shift; however errors can still occur under dynamic test conditions - (part, or transducer speed) needs to be
watched carefully.

Adept

ADEPT means Advanced Dual Elememt Probe Technology and is a transmitter-reciever technique. In
difference to the normal TR-technique, where transmitter and receiver are arranged in parallel with the same
angle of incidence, the ADEPT elements are arranged in one row and transmitter and receiver have different
angles of incidence.

Adjusting Block Calibration Block

A piece of material of specified composition, heat treatment, geometrical form and surface finished in such a
way that the equipment can be assessed and calibrated. For contact transducers the calibration block should
have properties and specifications as in calibration block EN 27963. The block contains side drilled holes and
hemispheric holes of 3mm. For specific tests, methods such as Calibration block No.2 are available for
ultrasonic examination of welds.

Aerospace Industry

This is one of the most advanced and important fields of UT applications. Classic nondestructive inspection for
structural defects is a vital component of maintaining operational aircraft and aeropropulsion systems.
Nondestructive evaluation, encompassing UT along with characterization of changes in properties, is opening
the door to participation in the full production spectrum of new systems, including interaction with the
materials and process developers. UT is used for manufacturing and in-service, as a part of NDE, a full
spectrum technology.

With aging aircraft the increase in corrosion detection is an important and difficult task. Also new is the issue
of crack growth management. New laser-ultrasonic testing can be set to inspect large-area and complex
structures and surfaces by pulse-echo at a distance of more than 1 m without the use of couplant. Also by use
of air coupling Ultrasound is preferred for composite testing because conventional coupling with water can

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sometimes penetrate into the material making defect recognition impossible. The commonly used lamb wave
method has several advantages including no need for scanning, easier application to hard-to-reach parts,
sometimes even without disassembly.

UT techniques are applied under extremely difficult conditions, e.g., composites, large curved surfaces,
complex structures (blades). Medium to large sized immersion and squirter scanning systems are widely
applied. Technological highlights include full contour following, high speed gantry systems with 9 to 16-axis
of coordinated motion, and novel multifunction automated crawling systems carrying miniature
instrumentation to perform a wide variety of inspection tasks while attached to the surface of the structure of
interest.

Examples of other typical applications: Titanium and Ni alloy aircraft engine forgings, adhesively bonded
joints, fiber-reinforced composites (polymeric, metallic, ceramic matrix), material degradation (corrosion,
aging, fatigue), in-service testing of fatigue cracks in bolts. UT manufacturers can look optimistically in future,
since the air traffic `boom' already requiring 15.000 new aircraft within the next 15 years.

Agriculture (Food Products, Biomaterials)

UT is applied for this smaller NDT industry and unique applications are always in development. Difficulties of
the tasks are more related to the medicine area since the material tested has often similar ultrasound conditions
as the human body. That means more lower-frequency testing. High-value fresh agricultural products must be
sorted in order to meet the quality standards demanded by the customer. High quality standards and the
necessity of determining shelf-life have heightened the need for a reliable evaluation of the internal properties
of each individual fruit. UT is available for quality detection and sorting according to fruit properties. Quality
control of meat (marbling) on live animals and oil are other examples of applications and use methods similar

to those applied to engineering materials characterization with no need for defectoscopy. Typical evaluated
data are ultrasound attenuation and velocity, correlated to the properties of the parts.

Airborne, Coupling

Ultrasound waves travelling through air or gas - former was limited to many applications for measurement and
control of production sites, robotics (ranging). Transducers that can produce and sense very high frequency
pressure waves in the air. With increasing frequency the sound wave traveling through air is highly attenuated.
Most UT applications need 1- 10 MHz frequency. Hence the use of air coupled ultrasound is difficult to apply.
In 1996 was demonstrated air-coupled ultrasonic C-scans and materials characterization of composites at
frequencies of 0.5 to 1.2 MHz. Its use for NDT is increasing, however, through new transducer designs (1-3
composite) and new materials presently being tested, such as composites. Volumetric (internal) inspections
cannot presently be done on metals due to the large acoustic impedance differences. An application for
delaminations in plywood would typically use a through transmission setup and monitor for loss of signal.
Further applications are for surfaces that cannot be wetted for testing. collaborators have demonstrated air-
coupled ultrasonic C-scans and materials characterization of composites at frequencies of 0.5 to 1.2 MHz
Other coupling techniques that work without liquids are dry-coupling methods, EMATs (electromagnetic
acoustic transducers) and lasers.

Alok

Is a method, the German term for Amplituden Laufzeit Orts-Kurven, for fast data-acquisition and
preprocessing (essential data reduction) achive noise and ghost elimination as well as defect imaging and

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reconstruction. The data acquisition by ALOK works independent of time gates, that means, each maximum
within the RF-signal, satisfying a probe dependend filter function, is recorded. C-scans of these raw data are
used to detect welding defects; the defect characteristics result from further signal processing of the same data
by a geometric or iterative reconstruction method. A variation of ALOK is the so-called SAFT (synthetic
aperture focusing technique).

Amplitude, Eecho

The vertical height of a received signal on an A-scan, measured from base to peak for an A-scan (rectified)
presentation or from peak to peak for an RF presentation.

Amplifier, Amplification

Also referred to as gain, an electronic device that amplifies and filters the signal received and transformed by
the probe. The gain is usually linear; some applications use a logarithmic scale. Important characteristics are
described by: noise level, input impedance, maximum gain, dynamic range, filters and bandwidth, linearity,
and recovery time after saturation. The capability for different signal presentations ( A-scan) is usually
integrated too.

Amplifier threshold: Minimum required signal amplitude to be displayed.

Angle beam

An ultrasound beam travelling at an acute angle into a medium. The angle of entry angle of refraction is
measured from the source to the entry surface.

Angle Beam Probe, Transducer

A contact probe by means of which ultrasonic waves can be transmitted from or received into a test object so
that the beam angle impacts at an angle other than 90 degrees (right angle) to the surface of workpiece. Special
for contact testing are techniques applied using a variable adjustment of incidence (buffers).

Beam Spread

The divergence of the sound beam as it travels through a medium. Specifically, the solid angle which contains
the main lobe of the beam in the far field.

Angle of Impingement

The included angle between the beam axis of the incident wave and the angle to the surface at the point of
impingement on the reflector.

Angle of Incidence

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The included angle between the beam axis of the incident wave and the angle to the surface at the point of
incidence.

Angle of Reflection

The included angle between the beam axis of the reflected wave and the angle to the reflection surface at the
point of reflection.

Angle of Refraction

The angle between the bearn axis of a refracted wave and the angle to the refracting interface. The refraction
when passing through the interface changes the direction of propagation of the sound wave according to Snell's
reflection law.

Angle of Squint

The angle by which the ultrasonic beam axis deviates from the probe axis. Manufacturers try to guarantee a
value of less then 2°. Offset should be less than 1 mm from the center point of the probe. These tolerances
make precisely adjustable holders necessary. Precise alignment of the transducer to a point of incidence is
essential to the test result. Thus the part is guided to remain in the desired position, or the transducer is
mounted in a cardan joint fixture and guided via a prism on the part surface.

Angle Testing

A method of ultrasonic testing in which transmission of ultrasound is at an acute angle to the entry surface.
Usually called angle beam testing. This may be done to achieve special effects such as setting up transverse or
surface waves by mode conversion at an interface. Most angle beam testing, however, utilizes the transverse
wave only. This requires the incident angle to be greater than the first critical angle. Basicly the angle testing is
done to achieve detection of defects. These are only detectable under a certain angle incidence. Techniques
that are applied using a variable adjustment of incidence (buffers) are specifically for contact testing.

Anisotropy

A condition in which properties of a medium (velocity, absorption, for example) depend on direction in the
medium. Testing of anisotropic materials, e.g., austenitic steel, presents a challenge for ultrasonics.

Array, Transducer

A transducer made up of several piezo- electric elements individually connected so that the signals they
transmit or receive may be treated separately or combined as desired. Multiple piezoelectric elements are
sometimes arranged in patterns in a commom housing, these are usually linear, matrix or annular in shape. The
elements can be pulsed simultaneous ( as with "paintbrush" probes), or the elements are pulsed in a certain
pattern to each other. With the last, some sophisticated methods are applied, e.g., angle of incidence
controllable by electronics, phased array focusing (beam steering, dynamic focusing). UT needs often several
transducers for the detailed inspection of a part. In order to reduce the duration of such a test, electronically
driven array transducers generating ultrasounds propagating in various directions are more and more often
used. The inspected sample can thus be quickly scanned.

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Artificial Discontinuity Standard

Acceptance standard

1. A controlled specimen containing natural or artificial discontinuities that are well defined and, in size
or extent, similar to the maximum acceptable in the product.
2. Also may refer to the document defining acceptable discontinuity size limits.

For automated testing the test part speed is an essential factor, hence the acceptance standard has to be tested
dynamically. A test that will not accept and deviation in size will reject many perfectly good parts. In order to
prevent this, the test itself must be tested.

ASME Holes

Cross-drilled holes with diameter and position as required by the ASME pressure vessel code.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Attenuation

1. The loss in acoustic energy that occurs between any two points of travel. This loss may be caused by
absorption, scattering or other material characteristics. Basically the sound attenuation increases with
an increase in the frequency. If it is a matter of pure absorption this occurs at the square of the
frequency f, or at a higher exponent if attenuation is due to scatter. The European standard EN 1330-4
defines an attenuation coefficient and is usually expressed in dB/m.
2. The change in signal strength caused by an electronic device such as an attenuator.

Attenuation Coefficient

A factor which is determined by the degree of determination in sound wave energy per unit of distance
traveled. It is composed of two parts, one (absorption) proportional to frequency, the other (scattering)
dependent on the ratio of grain or particle size to wavelength. Attenuation of metals have mostly up to 10
dB/m, plastics up to 100dB/m and rubber or wood over 100dB/m. Since the attenuation is frequency
dependent, a single attenuation coefficient only applies to a single frequency.

Attenuator

A device for causing or measuring attenuation, usually calibrated in decibels.

Austenitic Components

Austenitic welds and castings contain large columnar grains, elongated in the direction of solification. This
hinders ultrasonic inspection: The large grain size leads to a high attenuation and the bulk anisotropy results in
skewing and distorting of the beam. The effects can be minimised when beam is propageted at certain angle.

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Another method to overcome these problems is the use of horizontally polarized shear waves and for its
generation are especially EMAT transducers best suitable.

Automatic gain control AGC

The means of automatically controlling the gain of receiver amplifier in order to maintain a constant test
sensitivity over a limited range. This technique is often used with thickness gauges, thus simplifying the
operation. False flaw indication can occur with their use, so they are not recommended for flaw detection.

Automatic scanning, Testing

Systematic relative displacement of the ultrasonic beam and the material being tested by other than manual
means. Also the required evaluation is automated. For example, the echo signals recorded or outputs
controlling a reject device are within gates.

Automotive Industry

This field demands UT for safety and economical quality control reasons. As in all industrial areas, the change
from traditional to new advanced materials means new challenges for the UT market. For instance, where
metal based parts like cast motor blocks or engine pistons were tested, today the target is likely to be ceramic
or Metal Matrix Composites (MCs). Spot welding is widely used in the automotive industries and UT can be
applied as a production-oriented technique for evaluation of spot-weld quality. The automotive industry
requires direct testing of the extension of depth of hardened surfaces in metallic workpieces. Hardness, surface
hardening, and hardness depth are demanded often in this field. These can be monitored either by the pulse-
echo or ultrasonic contact impedance method (UCI), thus enabling the manufacturer to guarantee the safety
and wear resistance of mechanical components with hardened surfaces. Suppliers, e.g., of steel sheet have to
use UT according to car manufacturers' demands for extensive quality control. Cars are using plastic
extensively. This requires wall thickness measurement of critical parts like fuel tanks and tubes. However,
even simple parts need testing in order to avoid production (robotics) or quality problems.

Averaging

A technique that improves the accuracy of digitalization techniques. The general equation is: [Sn1 + Sn2 + Sn3
+ Sn+1 .../N]. It is applied for wall thickness measurement and ADC (analog digital conversion) where S =
time of flight or S = Signal amplitude.

AVG Diagram
DGS-method, Distance-Gain-Size

A method using the DGS-Diagram for expressing the high echo from a reflector in terms of the equivalent
height of a disc shaped reflector. This technique is one of several methods used for the sizing of effects.
Sometimes referred to as DAC or AVG-method (German term).

B-scan, Display

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A two dimensional graphical presentation, in rectangular coordinates, in which the travel time of an ultrasonic
pulse is represented as a displacement along one axis, and transducer movement is represented as a
displacement along the other axis. In the presentation, reflected pulses are shown as an event. The event marks
represent the echo by different evaluations:

1. if the echo signal amplitude exceeds a preset threshold within a gate, thus drawing a mark (0/1
method).
2. the echo exceeds a preset threshold within a gate and the drawn color palette (or grayscale) is
proportional to the amplitude of the signal.

Back, Reflection, Wall Echo, Bottom Echo

A pulse of ultrasonic energy reflected from the boundary of a body directly opposite the surface on which the
transducer is positioned and returned to that surface by the shortest possible path. (The term is general

restricted to compressional waves.) This pulse makes many functions possible and is the most important factor
for UT.

Some of these functions are:

1. Wall thickness measurement

2. Coupling control
3. Indirect flaw detection
4. Material characterization (sound velocity, attenuation coefficient).

Back Scatter

Scattered signals that are directed back to the transmitter/receiver. A related term is 'forward scatter,' scattered
signals are received by an additional transducer; usually it is applied in the double probe technique (pitch and
catch).

Background Noise, Electronic Noise, Noise Indication, Grass, Hash

Background indications in an A-scan display arising from material characteristics and /or equipment noise -
sometimes also referred as grass, or hash. The widespread use of these terms makes it necessary to clarify the
actual meaning. The equipment amplifier consists of electronic noise produced mainly from the first amplifier
stage, or "white noise." Today's computerized systems with their digital noise indicators, are more predictable
in terms of the real noise source. This is the reason why analog functions are usually located in separate boxes.
Ambient noise is very often the real source, and is especially likely to occur in automated testing installations.
In terms of materials it is known as the spatially random signals arising from the reflection of ultrasonic waves
from grain boundaries and /or microscopic reflectors in a material. Noise reduction methods include filtering,
averaging, and initial pulse shape. Shieldings and groundings can help prevent noise caused by EMV
(electromagnetic environment).

Bar wave

A particular type of wave which is generated in bars, with thickness of not much more then one wavelength.

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Bandwidth

Describes a frequency spectrum of pulses, and receivers capable of amplifying them. Particular descriptions
are broad banded, having a relatively wide frequency bandwidth, as opposed to narrow banded or tuned. With
the fourier transformation method a pulse or amplifier can be subscribed with its bandwidth. It is usually
expressed with a 6dB drop of maximum amplitude, subscribing the bandwidth between the edges of the curve.
It is sometimes referred to as 3dB or 20 dB drop. The selection of bandwidth is essential for achieving certain
test results - narrow bandwidth for highly sensitive testing, or broad banded for high resolution testing. All
elements of the test influence the total test bandwidth, and are described in series: Transmitter pulse -- Cable --
Transducer -- Coupling -- Material -- Cable -- Amplifier -- (Digitalization). Besides the commonly used echo
amplitude evaluation method there are other methods that use the capability of the echo frequency/bandwidth
information, such as Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT).

Baseline

The horizontal trace across the A-scan presentation. It represents time and is generally related to material
distance or thickness. Usually it is calibrated in distance, so results are simplified for reading. For angle testing
the calibration is carried out accordingly, achieving the baseline result as the projected distance along the
surface.

Basic Calibration

The procedure of standardizing an instrument using calibration reflectors described in an application

document.

Beam Angle
Angle of Refraction

The angle between the bearn axis of a refracted wave and the angle to the refracting interface. The refraction
when passing through the interface changes the direction of propagation of the sound wave according to Snell's
reflection law.

Beam Axis
Acoustic Aaxis

The locus of points of maximum energy intensity in the far field in a beam of ultrasonic waves, and its
projection back into the near zone.

Beam Access Point

Probe

Any device inserted into an environment for measuring, testing, etc., in order to get information about the
environment, physical properties, etc.. The term is often used for an ultrasonic transducer.

Array: An array of probes which may comprise: (a) probes in a mechanical holder which scan together and are
used secqentially, individually and/or in pairs; (b) a single unit comprising probes used as in (a).

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Face: The part of a probe through which ultrasonic waves are transmitted and received.

Index: Denotes the point at which the center of the sound beam leaves the plastic wedge of an angle beam
transducer and enters the test object. Also called point of incidence.

Shoe: A shaped piece of solid material (usually Perspex) which is interposed between the probe and the object
of examination for the purpose of improving the coupling and/or protecting the probe. Other specific reasons
are: to shorten the dead zone (by virtue of its shape), e.g. twin crystal probes, or refracting the beam, e.g. shear
wave probes, or acoustic impedance matching.

Delay: The time taken for the transmitted ultrasonic wave to traverse the probe shoe and be reflected back to
the ultrasonic crystal.

Beam Path Length

Any distance measured along the beam axis.

Beam Profile

The plot of the sound pressure distribution within the beam. For providing optimum test results, knowledge of
the individual transducer with its beam plot is essential. Many presentations consider the beam propagation
with water as the coupling medium; however, the plot within the workpiece must be considered. The material's
sound velocity changes the propagation of the beam spread, as the sound transmission changes strength
through curved interfaces. Interferences occur in the near field of the transducer, so many simplified equations
or simulation programs are limited to application at this zone.

Beam Spread, Angle of Beam, Spread, Divergence

The divergence of the sound beam as it travels through a medium. Specifically, the solid angle which contains
the main lobe of the beam in the far field.

Broad Banded Bandwidth

Describes a frequency spectrum of pulses, and receivers capable of amplifying them. Particular descriptions
are broad banded, having a relatively wide frequency bandwidth, as opposed to narrow banded or tuned. With
the fourier transformation method a pulse or amplifier can be subscribed with its bandwidth. It is usually
expressed with a 6dB drop of maximum amplitude, subscribing the bandwidth between the edges of the curve.
It is sometimes referred to as 3dB or 20 dB drop. The selection of bandwidth is essential for achieving certain
test results - narrow bandwidth for highly sensitive testing, or broad banded for high resolution testing. All
elements of the test influence the total test bandwidth, and are described in series: Transmitter pulse -- Cable --
Transducer -- Coupling -- Material -- Cable -- Amplifier -- (Digitalization). Besides the commonly used echo
amplitude evaluation method there are other methods that use the capability of the echo frequency/bandwidth
information, such as Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT).

Bubbler Water

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Water is a coupling medium which is mostly used in automatic testing. The properties of the water are an
essential precondition for obtaining reliable test results. A minimum particle size is required as well as absence
of air bubbles.

Column: A tube is filled with water and attached to the front of a transducer to couple an ultrasonic beam to a
test object which serves as a delay line between the initial pulse and the front surface signal. Also referred to as
water path.

Jet: A laminar stream of water carrying ultrasonic signals between the transducer and the test object surface. Its
function is similar to the water column but it is especially used where there is a need for noncontact coupling.
Usually applied for scanning large objects in the aircraft industry. The free jet can reach a length of about one
meter. Because small turbulences can appear, the signal to noise ratio is often less than in the immersion
technique. Also referred to as squirter. Applied with a short length it is called a bubbler.

C-scan, Display, Ppresentation

A two dimensional graphical presentation, in which the discontinuity echoes are displayed in a top view on the
test surface. In the presentation, reflected pulses are shown as events. The event marks represent the echo by
different evaluations:

1. Echo exceeding a preset threshold within a gate, the drawn a mark (0/1 method).
2. Echo exceeding a preset threshold within a gate and the drawn color palette (or grayscale) is
proportional to the amplitude of the signal. This method is applied to pulse echo and transmission
techniques. Usually no indication of depth is given unless the complete scan represents the time of
flight evaluation (D-scan). Hence in computerized and more sophisticated systems, due to
digitalization and storaging, post processing is available for displaying various kinds of presentations.
The scan is reviewed by different evaluation methods.

Calibration Block, Adjusting Block

A piece of material of specified composition, heat treatment, geometrical form and surface finished in such a
way that the equipment can be assessed and calibrated. For contact transducers the calibration block should
have properties and specifications as in calibration block EN 27963. The block contains side drilled holes and
hemispheric holes of 3mm. For specific tests, methods such as Calibration block No.2 are available for
ultrasonic examination of welds.

Calibration Reflector

A reflector with a known dimension surface established to provide an accurately reproducible reference echo
amplitude such as a drilled hole, a machined slot or the end face of a spicement. This is used to adjust the
amplification of the ultrasonic equipment in order to operate the test under a defined test sensitivity. Usually
the setup level of the equipment threshold is defined with a certain dB value in relation to this reference. An
artificial calibration reflector is an ideal sound reflector, so the results are not equal to the natural flaw sizes.
Sometimes referred to as artificial reflector, artificial flaw.

Cathode Ray Tube; CRT

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A vacuum tube containing a screen on which ultrasonic scans may be displayed

Ceramic

Technical Ceramics testing is a major field for UT and many specific applications have been established. High
frequency ultrasound is necessary for micro crack testing and new automotive engine components will increase

this need. As manufacturing costs increase with each production step, testing in an early stage at Green-Bodies
is required. Other examples are in-situ measurement of ultrasonic sound wave velocity during sintering of
ceramic powders or in-situ testing with high-temperature ultrasonic sensors. A thickness-independent
measurement and imaging of the ultrasonic velocity is applied for quantitative characterization of ceramic
materials. The analysis of ceramic composites is also a challenge for Nondestructive Testing Methods.

Chemicals and Petrochemicals

UT technologies are applied in the chemical and petroleum industries and are affecting quality control in these
industries. UT plays a great role in reducing maintenance costs and increasing equipment reliability through
on-line monitoring, inspection and evaluation, preventive maintenance and risk-based inspection. Portable on-
site testing is the domain request in this market and determines the specific needs of UT equipment, such as
long battery operation time, small size with light weight, and good visible displays even outdoors on sunny
days. Portable wall thickness instruments are widely used for testing corroded walls and pittings. Nowadays
standards have contributed to this need for on-site data logging and further data acquisition in the lab.

Civil Engineering (Infrastructure)

Property and condition assessment are key ingredients in the process of evaluating and monitoring the integrity
of existing structures for continued use, change of use, or as a basis for safety evaluation, retrofit, or
replacement. As the infrastructure ages, condition assessment for safety considerations becomes increasingly
important. NDT is widely applied in civil structures and UT is applied here as well. However, UT is not
applicable to all tasks in that field, so other NDT methods like AE and Radar are used as well as acoustic
methods like Impact Echo method or the Resonance Technique. A major emphasis in concrete NDT is the
evaluation of concrete integrity and the detection of defects such as voids, honeycomb, cracking, and
delamination in concrete. One of the major problems is the insufficient ultrasound wave propagation through
high grain sized materials. First it was only applied with lower frequency and in through transmission
techniques; nowadays the pulse echo technique is also used. Advanced DSP methods have improved
applicability. Corroded wall thickness inspection is used on steel and corten steel bridges. Examples of other
UT applications: bridge foundations, in-service testing of fatigue cracks in bolts, fillet welds, highway
pavements, concrete hardening, reinforced concrete.

Cluster, probe fixture

A method combined various probes and test techniques in the same fixture. All probes transmitting to the same
entry point. The method is mostly used in automated testing and gaining a higher speed or a better detection
capability.

Collimator

A device for limiting the effect of beam spread.

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Analysis: Amplitude and phase of frequency components of the received ultrasonic signal have been used for
showing images instead of conventionally used peak amplitude and time of flight. Cluster analysis has been
employed to group the data units either individually or in combinations of them in a systematic way. Dat could

be , e.g, amplitude, phase, frequency or any so-called F-scan. Multi dimensional clustering technique as a
powerful tool for effective classification.

Combined Double Probe, Send/Receiver Transducer, Twin (Crystal) Probe

Double Transducer Probe

A single transducer containing two piezoelectric elements, one for transmitting and one for receiving. The
crystal assemblies are separated by some form of an acoustic barrier (usually cork) in order to prevent cross
noise. Sometimes refered to as twin cristal probe, combined double probe or dual transducer.

Compensator

An electrical matching device to compensate for electrical impedance differences.

Compressional, Wave, Longitudinal Wave

A form of wave motion in which the particle displacement is parallel to the direction of propagation. A
synonymous term is longitudinal wave.

Transducer: A transducer for generating and/or receiving compressional waves.

Concrete Testing

Ultrasonic technique is suitable for testing of concrete. However, often it is only suitability in conjunction with
advanced DSP techniques, e.g., Frequency spectrum analysis, SAFT, Fuzzy cluster analysis.

Contact, Method, Scanning

Testing carried out in which the transducer face makes direct contact with the test object through a thin film of
couplant.

Transducer: A transducer used in contact methods. The transducer provides a delay line or a wear resistant
surface, so-called hard-face transducers. Modified contact techniques are using dry-coupling.

Continuous Wave

A wave that continues without interruption; such waves are generated by the resonance principle

Contracted Sweep

A misnomer that refers to extending the duration of the sweep to permit viewing echo signals from deeper in
the test object. Sometimes referred to as delay sweep.

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Control Echo

A reference signal from a constant reflector, such as the back reflection from the specimen. Usually used for
coupling control.

Convergence Point

The point of intersection of the transmitting and receiving sound fields in a double crystal probe.
Corner, Effect, Reflector

The reflection of ultrasonic waves back to their point of origin, or very close to it, after reflecting successively
on two surfaces at right angles to each other. With 60° transducers corner-reflection is accompanied by
appreciable attenuation.

Couplant

A liquid, grease, paste or pliable solid interposed between the transducer and the surface of the workpiece to
permit transmission of ultrasonic energy between them. Referred to as coupling medium or coupling film.

Coupling Losses

Loss of ultrasonic energy across the interface between a transducer and an object under examination.

Coupling, Medium, Film

Coupling Methods

Essentially three options exist; immersion, contact or Gap. Dry coupling and non-contacting methods can be
used as well but applications are usually very specialized and require non-standard instrumentation.

Coupling Monitor

An evaluation of the equipment providing a control of the coupling condition.

Many methods are used, such as:

1. a transducer which is testing the workpiece receives an echo signal, usually from the back face of the
workpiece in addition to the flaw examination.
2. a transducer operating in the receive mode and positioned so that it detects ultrasonic energy
originating from one or more additional transducer(s) thereby monitoring that successful coupling has
taken place between the second probe and the body
3. an interface echo is generated between the coupling couplant and the workpiece which changes its
amplitude condition in relation to the coupling, and is monitored by the equipment. Usually the
interface echo's response to the coupling condition is limited in its interpretation. Method 1 is

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commonly used; however discontinuities within the workpiece change the monitored signal too.
Related control methods are function control of the equipment/transducer itself.

Critical Angle

The maximum angle of incidence at an interface between two dissimilar materials which will permit the
existence of a refracted wave of a given mode and finite amplitude. This formal mode can be restated thus. A
critical angle is an angle of incidence at an interface between two dissimilar materials beyond which a new
mode appears in the refracted beam and the existing one vanishes.

Example: For Perspex on steel: angle of incidence 27-1/2 ° compressional wave mode vanishes and is replaced
by shear wave. Transition from shear waves to surface waves, angle of incidence 58° approx. (depending on
characteristics of Perspex).

Cross Drilled Holes

Cylindrical holes drilled parallel to the test surface and at right-angles to the vertical plane of the transducer,
the cylindrical surfaces of which form the ultrasonic reflectors.

Cross talk

The unwanted signal leakage (acoustical or electrical) across an intended barrier, such as leakage between the
transmitting and receiving elements of dual transducer/ transducer arrays. These are very complex occurrences,
e.g. a transmitted pulse is generated due to electrical cross talk - a transmission pulse at the receiving element
and the acoustical cross talk generates it too. This can be prevented electrically by shieldings, acoustically by
use of high absorption material. Cross talk is not limited within transducers; inside the equipment cross talk
occurs very often. Nor is it limited to analog signals; today's computerized equipment often has cross talk
problems, however the signals are usually asynchronous to the test cycle (PRF) and occur similarly to
grass/noise.

Crystal Transducer Element

A piezo-electric element in the form of a wafer cut from a single (natural) crystal, e.g., quartz, or from a piezo
of polycrystalline (synthetic) material, e.g., barium titanate, used for the generation and/or detection of
ultrasonic waves.

Array: A single housing containing an orderly assembly of crystals which may be energized together in
groups, with or without time delay, to give directional effects, focused beams or variable angle beams.
Sometimes refered to as mosaic.

Crystal Backing

The material attached to the rear surface of a crystal to increase damping. Sometimes referred to as crystal
loading.

Crystal, X-cut

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A cut such that the cut face is perpendicular to the X-direction of the piezoelectric crystal. In a quartz slice so
cut, a thickness mode of vibration occurs when the slice is electrically stimulated in the X-direction.

Crystal, Y-Cut: The cut face of the piezoelectric crystal is perpendicular to the Y-direction. In quartz, a shear
mode of vibration is obtained when the slice is electrically stimulated in the Y-direction.

Curved, Crystal

A non-planar crystal generally used to improve flaw detection and provide more useful test applications.

Cut-Off Frequency

The upper or lower spectral response of a filter or amplifier, at which the response is a specified amount less
(usually 6 dB according to standard EN 1330, sometimes referred to as 3 dB) than the maximum response. In
EN 1330 it is referred to as upper frequency limit or lower frequency limit.

Cylindrical Reflector

A reflection surface in the form of a circular cylinder.

Cylindrical Wave

Waves with cylindrical wave fronts.

D, Scan, Display

A two dimensional graphical presentation, in which the time-of-flight values are displayed in a top view on the
test surface. This is a modified C-scan in which are amplitudes displayed.

Distance Amplitute Correction (DAC)

TCG, Depth, Compensation

Compensation of gain as a function of time for difference in amplitude of reflections from equal reflectors at
different sound travel distance. Refers also to comensation by electronic means such as sweept gain, time
corrected gain TCG, time variable gain and sensitivity time control.

Curve: A curve constructed from the peak amplitude responses from reflectors of equal area at different
distances in the same material. Such curves are plotted specifically for a flat-bottom hole target and engraved
on a transparent plastic sheet for attachment to the CRT screen. Disk-shaped reflectors, side drilled holes and
hemisperical bottom holes are used as equivalent reflectors when using contact probes. With immersion probes
usually a small-sized steel ball is used to measure a distance-amplitude curve. This techniques are importand
because of the amplitude of ultrasonic pulses varies witdh with distance from the probe, and this couses the

echo from a constant reflector to vary with distance. Therefore, to evaluate echos of reflectors, for all kind of
probes, distance-amplitude curves are needed. A diagram shall be available for each probe, attached to the
manufactores data sheet. There are DGS diagrams for standard probes stored in modern UT-instruments.
Sometimes referd too as DGS, TDG or AVG.

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Damped Train

An echo signal wave train in which the amplitudes of successive waves diminish. A specific damped train
could be based on a fixed transducer design, or be affected by the material or defect characteristics, or by the
equipment settings such as damping or amplifier.

Damping

Limiting the duration or decreasing the amplitude of vibrations, as when damping a transducer element.

Capacity: Measurement of the ability of a material to absorb mechanical energy.

Transducer: A material (damping element, ~material) bonded to the back of the piezoelectric element of a
transducer to limit the duration of vibration.

Ultrasonic: Decrease or decay of ultrasonic wave amplitude with respect to time or distance. Resistor, an
electronic device as part of UT equipment. This device can be a network of fixed resistor values or a variable
potentiometer (50 ....2000 Ohm). This device enables the operator to adjust an optimum damped train. The
result of this function is similar to the acoustic damping actions, but the principle is based on a mix of various
theories (e.g., FFT, Laplace). Even the parasiteur cable matching effects are used here to good effect.

Dead Zone

The interval following the surface of a test object to the nearest inspectable depth. Any interval following a
reflected signal where no direct echoes from discontinuties cannot be detected, due to characteristics of the
equipment.

After Echo and After Initial Ppulse, both are common phenomena. Actually the dead zone cannot be
determined as a single figure without additional parameters, hence the echo can be recognized, however, signal
quality is important. Useful parameters are linearity or signal in a nice ratio that can describe the
echoamplitude quality within a dead zone. For this reason standards such as GE specifications are needed to
check equipment capability. The appearance of inference effects, within the dead zone, has to be considered as
well.

Decay Technique

A technique of using ultrasonic waves to access the quality of a material or a bond by studying the amplitudes
of successive echoes.

Decibel (dB)

A logarithmic unit original originally applied to the comparison of levels of electrical power, and now also
used to compare sound pressures (echo heights). Two echo signals A1 and A2 are said to differ by n dB when
n = 20 lg ( A2/A1). The decibel doesn't mean anything other than 20 times the decadic logarithm (lg) of a
ration. The UT technique depends on relationships. The absolute values of many measuring values are not as

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interesting as are their relative relationships to a reference quantity. In the UT it is mostly the pressure
amplitudes which are compared P2/P1 or also electrical signal voltage U2/U1.

Defect

A discontinuity whose size, shape orientation, location or properties make it detrimental to the useful service
of the product in which it occures or which exeeds the accept/reject criteria for the given design.

Defect size assessment

Methods of assessing the dimenions of defects.

Delamination

A laminar discontinuity, generally an area of unbonded material. Various UT methods are applied for
detection. Due to new composite materials the demand for this is increasing. A similiar application field is
adhesives bond testing.

Delay, Line, Path

A material (liquid or solid) placed in front of a transducer to cause a time delay between the initial pulse and
the front surface reflection. Delay lines are necessary for several reasons, e.g.,

• Near surface resolution

• Multiplied back reflection
• Wear resistance
• Hot surfaces
• Impedance matching

A well known problem is the appearance of multiple back reflections caused by the delay line length. These
could interfere with the test zone; in that case the delay line needs to be longer.

Delay Time-Based Sweep

A time-base triggered with a given delay, fixed or adjustable, in relation to the emission pulse or a reference
echo. Sometimes refered to as delayed time base.

Delta Effect

Re-radiation of energy from a discontinuity. The reradiation energy may include waves of both the incident
mode and converted mode (longitudinal and shear).

Delta Technique

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This technique use the diffracted signals form the crack extremities which, rather than (conventionally) relying
on the amount of energy reflected by the extremities of discontinuities. Today it is not very often used since it
is replaced by the so-called TOFD technique which relies on the same principles.

Depth Compensation
Distance Amplitute Correction
DAC, TCG

Compensation of gain as a function of time for difference in amplitude of reflections from equal reflectors at
different sound travel distance. Refers also to comensation by electronic means such as sweept gain, time
corrected gain TCG, time variable gain and sensitivity time control.

Curve: A curve constructed from the peak amplitude responses from reflectors of equal area at different
distances in the same material. Such curves are plotted specifically for a flat-bottom hole target and engraved
on a transparent plastic sheet for attachment to the CRT screen. Disk-shaped reflectors, side drilled holes and
hemisperical bottom holes are used as equivalent reflectors when using contact probes. With immersion probes
usually a small-sized steel ball is used to measure a distance-amplitude curve. This techniques are importand
because of the amplitude of ultrasonic pulses varies witdh with distance from the probe, and this couses the
echo from a constant reflector to vary with distance. Therefore, to evaluate echos of reflectors, for all kind of
probes, distance-amplitude curves are needed. A diagram shall be available for each probe, attached to the
manufactores data sheet. There are DGS diagrams for standard probes stored in modern UT-instruments.
Sometimes referred too as DGS, TDG or AVG.

Depth Scan

The manipulation of an ultrasonic shear-wave probe over the surface of a body so as to couse an oblique beam
to make a traverse of a particular plane section of the body.

DGS-method, Distance-Gain-Size
AVG Diagram

A method using the DGS-Diagram for expressing the high echo from a reflector in terms of the equivalent
height of a disc shaped reflector. This technique is one of several methods used for the sizing of effects.
Sometimes referred to as DAC or AVG-method (German term).

Diameter Measurement

This method has been used for many years in the testing of tubes for nuclear reactors. The accuracy of this
method is about 1/100 and is independent on process condition and material properties. Just as the wall
thickness can be determined by measuring the transit time between two successive echo pulses, the distance
between the transducer and the surface of the pipe can also be measured. Furthermore the inner diameter.
ovalness can be determined too.

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Diffraction

The deflection of a wave front as it passes an ultrasonically opaque object and expands into the region that is
behind the object and hence not directly expopsed to the incomming waves. An extreme case arising from
obstructions having very small dimensions is that of scattering. When ultrasound is incident at linear
discontinuity such as a crack, diffraction takes place at its extremities. The study of this phenomenon has led to
the use of time of flight diffraction method of crack sizing.

Diffuse Reflection

A reflection of an ultrasonic wave from a rough surface in a manner such that the reflected energy is detectable
over a range of angles of either side of the theoretical angle of (specular) reflection, i.e. reflection in a non-
specular manner

Digital Signal Processing, DSP

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One of the added features of data acquisition systems is the ability to perform subsequent processing of the
stored signal. Since the advent of digital storage, several techniques have been derived to enhance the
information collected. This process is generally termed DSP.

Dilatational Wave

A type of wave form.

Diameter Measurement

This method has been used for many years in the testing of tubes for nuclear reactors. The accuracy of this
method is about 1/100 and is independent on process condition and material properties. Just as the wall
thickness can be determined by measuring the transit time between two successive echo pulses, the distance
between the transducer and the surface of the pipe can also be measured. Furthermore the inner diameter.
ovalness can be determined too.

Diffraction

The deflection of a wave front as it passes an ultrasonically opaque object and expands into the region that is
behind the object and hence not directly expopsed to the incomming waves. An extreme case arising from
obstructions having very small dimensions is that of scattering. When ultrasound is incident at linear
discontinuity such as a crack, diffraction takes place at its extremities. The study of this phenomenon has led to
the use of time of flight diffraction method of crack sizing.

Diffuse Reflection

A reflection of an ultrasonic wave from a rough surface in a manner such that the reflected energy is detectable
over a range of angles of either side of the theoretical angle of (specular) reflection, i.e. reflection in a non-
specular manner

Digital Signal Processing, DSP

One of the added features of data acquisition systems is the ability to perform subsequent processing of the
stored signal. Since the advent of digital storage, several techniques have been derived to enhance the
information collected. This process is generally termed DSP.

Dilatational Wave

A type of wave form.

Direct Scan
Single Traverse Technique

Technique in which a beam of ultrasonic waves is directed into a region of an object under examination
without intermedia reflection. Sometimes refered to as single traverse scan.

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Directional sensitivity

The relationship between the angle made with the normal to the surface of a reflector by a beam of ultrasonic
waves and the amplitude of the resultant echo. Shear wave probes are sharply directional and this should be
borne in mind when maximizing a flaw echo. Sometimes refered to as directional reflectivity

Disc Shaped Reflector

Plane circular disc reflector, usually in the form of a flat bottomed hole

Discontinuity

Any imperfection or interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a product, such as cracks,
laps, seams, inclusions, porosity or laminations. A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness of the
product.
Echo: Pulse of ultrasonic energy reflected by a discontinuity.

Dispersion

The variation of phase velocity (propagation velocity) with frequency.

Dispersive Medium

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A material in which the propagation velocity of an ultrasonic wave varies with the frequency.

Display

The form in which ultrasonic data is presented for presentation, generally on a cathode ray tube (CRT). Today
many kinds of display techniques are in the field. The cathode ray tube (CRT) was very popular, today are
LCD and TFT or electroluminescent types widely used. Nowadays the display incorporates also a user
operator interface. Part of it is the basic ultrasonic A-scan presentation which is generated in a separate
graticule area. The position and height of the gate threshold are also displayed in the A-scan area. Digital
display techniques may not course anymore linearity problems, however, the result of nonlinearity other
instrument elements can be measured on it. Since amplifiers are still analog devices the vertical linearity can
show an error rather than the timebase (horizontal graticule).

Distance Amplitude Correction

Compensation of gain as a function of time for difference in amplitude of reflections from equal reflectors at
different sound travel distance. Refers also to compensation by electronic means such as sweep gain, time
corrected gain TCG, time variable gain and sensitivity time control.

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DGS Curve

A curve constructed from the peak amplitude responses from reflectors of equal area at different distances in
the same material. Such curves are plotted specifically for a flat-bottom hole target and engraved on a
transparent plastic sheet for attachment to the CRT screen. Disk-shaped reflectors, side drilled holes and
hemispherical bottom holes are used as equivalent reflectors when using contact probes. With immersion
probes usually a small-sized steel ball is used to measure a distance-amplitude curve. This techniques are
important because of the amplitude of ultrasonic pulses varies width with distance from the probe, and this
causes the echo from a constant reflector to vary with distance. Therefore, to evaluate echoes of reflectors, for
all kind of probes, distance-amplitude curves are needed. A diagram shall be available for each probe, attached
to the manufactures data sheet. There are DGS diagrams for standard probes stored in modern UT-instruments.
Sometimes referred too as DGS, TDG or AVG

Divergence

A term used to describe the spreading of ultrasonic waves beyond the near field. It is a function of the
transducer diameter and wavelength in the medium. divergence angle, angle within the far field between the
beam axis and the beam edge at which the amplitude has fallen by a defined level.

Digital Signal processing (DSP)

One of the added features of data acquisition systems is the ability to perform subsequent processing of the
stored signal. Since the advent of digital storage, several techniques have been derived to enhance the
information collected. This process is generally termed DSP.

Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT)

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A device using the magneto effect to generate and receive acoustic signals for UT. With EMATs some specific
advantages are gained, such as dry coupling. Also improves the capability of horizontally polarized shear
waves (SH) for the inspection of austenitic welds. Furthermore the absence of couplant improves reliability of
the scanning process and hence reduces the risk of having to perform re-inspections in cases where coupling
has been lost. Normal beam shear wave, angle-beam shear wave, SH plate wave, Rayleigh wave and Lamb
wave EMATs are all available as standard items. The principle disadvantages that arise from using EMATs is
the relatively low transmitted ultrasonic energy which means that the dynamic range is determined by
electronic noise for many cases, also high frequencies can not be applied. Furthermore, they need to be located
at close proximity to the object being tested (1 mm). Sometimes the device is referred to as 'EMUS' (German
term).

Electronic Noise

Background indications in an A-scan display arising from material characteristics and /or equipment noise -
sometimes also referred as grass, or hash. The widespread use of these terms makes it necessary to clarify the
actual meaning. The equipment amplifier consists of electronic noise produced mainly from the first amplifier
stage, or "white noise." Today's computerized systems with their digital noise indicators, are more predictable
in terms of the real noise source. This is the reason why analog functions are usually located in separate boxes.
Ambient noise is very often the real source, and is especially likely to occur in automated testing installations.
In terms of materials it is known as the spatially random signals arising from the reflection of ultrasonic waves
from grain boundaries and /or microscopic reflectors in a material. Noise reduction methods include filtering,
averaging, and initial pulse shape. Shieldings and groundings can help prevent noise caused by EMV
(electromagnetic environment).

Equipment

Ultrasonic equipment generally consists of the ultrasonic instrument, probes, and cables.

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Glossary of Terms , Part 2

Far Field

The main lobe of an ultrasonic beam where the intensity of the sound field is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance of the transmitter. It is sometimes referred to as the far zone or the Fraunhofer-zone.

Focal Law

Strictly, a mathematical formula used for firing the phased array instrument. More generally, a file containing
the entire set of hardware and software parameters for phased array operation, which defines the elements to be
fired, time delays, voltages, for both the transmitter and receiver functions.

Frequency

Number of cycles per unit of time, normally stated as

- 1 Hz= 1 cycle per second,

- 1 kHz = 1000 cycles per second
- 1 MHz = 1 000 000 cycles per second. f = [1/s]
Spectrum: Distribution of amplitude in relation to frequency (i>FFT).
Test: The nominal ultrasonic wave frequency used in test.
Fundamental: In resonance testing, the frequency at which the wavelength is twice the thickness of the
workpiece.

Gain Adjustment: An instrument control, normally calibrated in dB with which a signal may be adjusted to a
certain height.

Gap Scanning

A form of scanning technique in which the probe carrier follows the contour of the material under
examination. However the probe, while not in direct contact with its surface, is coupled to it through a layer of
liquid which is maintained between the surfaces of the probe and the material, not more than a few
wavelengths thick.

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Gate

Electronic means of selecting a segment of the time base range for monitoring or further processing. Today's
digital signal processing techniques do this by evaluating a segment of the stored signal data within the
computer's memory.
Level: Defined amplitude level above or below which echoes in a gate are indicated. Sometimes called monitor
level.

Group Velocity

The rate at which the envelope of an ultrasonic pulse (many frequencies) propagates through the medium.

Hardness Testing

Ultrasound is used for the measuring of hardness or elastic material properties under loads by the ultrasonic
contact-impedance (UCI) method, in which a rod-shaped resonator, one end holding an indentation body, is
pressed against a test specimen with a given test force, so that the indentation body penetrates the specimen,
and the resulting change of DF in the frequency f of the resonator is measured. With a wide variety of UCI
probes, a large number of test problems can be solved, especially at hard-to-get-to locations. The probe usually
contains a Vickers diamond (136° pyramid) and due to conversion scales the reading can be performed in HV,
HB, HRC, HRB and HS.

Hardening Depth: This is another application for the use of ultrasonics in the field of hardness testing. The
hardening depth of induction hardening components can be measured with the Ultrasonic backscattering
method. Higher back scattered signals can be measured at the beginning of the base material, thus the applied
time of flight measurement gives a result for hardening depth.

Holography

An ultrasonic image from two transducers the beams of which are positioned to produce an interference
pattern, usually on a liquid surface, which when illuminated by laser light produces a visible indication of
ultrasonic wave intensity distribution.

Immersion Method

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A test method in which the test object and the transducer are submerged in a liquid (usually water) that acts as
the coupling medium. The probe is not usually in contact with the test specimen.

Tank: A device in which the test procedure is carried out, usually consisting of a multi axis control; either
some or all of them are automated with motors and encoders for reading the actual probe position. Positioning
accuracy and backlash are provided in a range of better than 0.1 mm.

Immersion Probe

These are probes used for noncontact scanning methods using water as contact medium. They are applied in
immersion tanks, so they must be waterproof. Many other scanning techniques use them as well, e.g., gap
scanning, probe fixtures acting with a water column or water jet. The probes, which are invariably of the
compression-wave type, are mostly in a range of 6 mm up to 25 mm in diameter and operate mostly over a
frequency range of 1 - 25 MHz. The beam from the probe can be focused to a point using a spherical lens and
to a line by means of a cylindrical lens. It is essential that the probe be guaranteed waterproof over a long
operating term, but the properties of the water must be considered. The most critical point is the layer in front
of the probe, so for acoustical reasons it must be very thin. Another critical point is the connector, which is
sometimes integrated into the case. Therefore some manufacturers prefer a design which integrates the cable
directly into the case.

Impact Echo Method

Impact-Echo is not strictly an ultrasonic method. It employs stress waves generated by the impacts of small
steel spheres on the surfaces of concrete structures. The frequencies of the resulting stress waves typically

extend from about 1 kHz to 70 kHz, and in most routine testing the important frequencies are less than about
30 kHz. A piezoelectric transducer monitors the generated waves. At wave speeds of about 4000 m/s, the
resulting wavelengths are around 10 cm or longer, and the stress waves travel through concrete as though it
were a homogeneous elastic medium. They are reflected by internal flaws and interfaces and by external
surfaces, but they are not reflected or scattered by the natural, small-scale inhomogenities in concrete. It is the

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patterns present in the waveforms and spectra (especially the latter) that provide information about the
existence and locations of flaws, or the dimensions of the cross-section of the structure where a test is
performed, such as the thickness of a pavement.

Indirect scan

The use of a surface (or surfaces) of the specimen to redirect an ultrasonic beam into the region of the
specimen under examination by means of reflection. Every scan in which the probe stand-off is greater than
the half skip distance, is an indirect scan.

Interference

The addition or combination of particle displacements. If the maximum of one displacement coincides with the
negative maximum of another equal amplitude, the wave motion is destroyed at that point; conversely, the
superposition of two maxima results with the same polarity in increased amplitude.

Kerf

The space formed by the saw-cut between adjacent elements in a phased array probe.

Laser Ultrasound

Is the name given to techniques in which laser beam interaction with the surface of a test sample is substituted
for piezoelectric transducers for launching and probing elastic waves. Since they do not require any
mechanical contact, these techniques are very attractive. For example, in the field of NDT, the association of
laser generation with optical detection provides a completely remote ultrasonic system. Other fields of
application are: material evaluation, acoustic emission, photothermal microscopy and acoustic field imaging.
According to the intensity of the laser the impact generation method may be classed in two main categories:
thermoelastic regime and ablation regime. In the field of NDT surface damage is avoided by means of specific
techniques. In concrete testing the structure can tolerate some surface imperfection. There are different
methods applied; for example, one uses shock waves which are generated by laser impact on the sample and
optical detection (interferometrics or noninterferometrics) which monitors the induced surface. Other methods
are used incorporating contact ultrasonic probes working as receivers or transmitters. Hence, this method needs
no contact medium and the source can be some meters away; it is used especially for applications such as NDT
for very hot materials. Lasers will produce broadband ultrasound vibrations up to frequencies of about 100
MHz. Picosecond-pulse lasers can produce much higher frequencies. These vibrations act as sources of
compression, shear and Rayleigh surface waves in the test object. However, optical detection is much less
sensitive than the piezoelectric method, thus the signal-to-noise ratio of about 40 dB is achieved.

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Lateral Array Wedge

A phased array wedge used with the array mounted 90 degrees to the normal array wedge mounting. The
resulting beam is fixed in the incident plane while it is steered as to skew the beam.

Loop Gain Sensitivity

The normalized relative efficiency of the transmitting and receiving capabilities of a piezoelectric material; S
(dB) = 20 log Vx/ V0 where Vx is the amplitude of the received signal in volts, and where V0 is the amplitude
of transducer excitation in volts.

Manual Testing

Manual displacement of the probe on the scanning surface. It usually offers the widest choice of direction and
angle of approach and for this reason is often used for the final assessment of a borderline flaw even in
automated systems. Scanning is carried out by specific transducer movements - orbital, swivel, lateral,
traversing.

Mode of Vibration

The manner in which an acoustic wave is propagated, as characterized by the particle motion in the wave.
(shear, Lamb, surface or longitudinal).
Conversion (transformation):The process by which a wave of a given mode of propagation is caused to
generate waves of other modes of propagation by refraction or reflection. Mode change due to reflection at a
boundary or an internal surface of separation, e.g. a fissure, can hinder interpretation.

Multiple Echo (back) - Reflection

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Repetitive echoes from two or more interfaces or discontinuities.

Multiple-Echo Technique: Technique in which repeated echoes from either the opposite surface or a
discontinuity are used for evaluation. The technique is used as follows:

 Amplitude evaluation; In order to evaluate the quality of a material or a bonding the amplitude of
successive echoes are used.
 Path length evaluation; in order to increase the accuracy of a wall thickness measurement, a multiple-
echo of highest possible number is used. However, since triggering could be done on a wrong echo,
plausibility must be watched carefully.

Narrow Banded

Describes a frequency spectrum of pulses, and receivers capable of amplifying them. Particular descriptions
are broad banded, having a relatively wide frequency bandwidth, as opposed to narrow banded or tuned. With
the fourier transformation method a pulse or amplifier can be subscribed with its bandwidth. It is usually
expressed with a 6dB drop of maximum amplitude, subscribing the bandwidth between the edges of the curve.
It is sometimes referred to as 3dB or 20 dB drop. The selection of bandwidth is essential for achieving certain
test results - narrow bandwidth for highly sensitive testing, or broad banded for high resolution testing. All
elements of the test influence the total test bandwidth, and are described in series: Transmitter pulse -- Cable --
Transducer -- Coupling -- Material -- Cable -- Amplifier -- (Digitalization). Besides the commonly used echo
amplitude evaluation method there are other methods that use the capability of the echo frequency/bandwidth
information, such as Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT).

Natural Refracted Angle

Refers to the refracted beam into a given material that would result from a phased array probe when the beam
is unsteered (i.e. no delays applied to the elements).

Nominal Angle

Stated nominal value of a probe for a given material and temperature.

Opacity Technique

An ultrasonic shear wave technique for the examination of thin plate which makes use of the principle that if
the plate thickness is less than a minimum value, ultrasound at a fixed angle and frequency are unable to
propagate.

Oscillation

The term is applied where the frequency of displacement is dictated by the nature of the element displaced,
e.g., the natural frequency of a pendulum, and the amplitude of displacement built up by the application of

minimum force at the instant of arrival at each extreme. This is the working principle of ultrasonic equipment
used for the measurement of wall thickness.

Oscilloscope

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A type of instrument that visually displays an electrical wave on a cathode-ray tube.

P-Scan

Projection Imaging Scanning is a projection of a B-scan result, which is performed in top view of the testpiece,
to any side view of the testpiece. It is used for 3-D visualization of defects or corrosion. Ultrasonic weld
inspection using P-scan imaging is mainly used for weld inspection with either a manual or a mechanized
scanner. Corrosion mapping technique is applicable to pipes, vessels, storage tanks, ships and many other
structures.

Passive Aperture

The dimension of an element’s length in a linear phased array probe.

Penetration

Propagation of ultrasonic energy into a material.

Phantom Echo

It can occur during ultrasonic testing and is recognized as an additional echo indication which cannot be
coordinated and/or an increase in the noise level. These mainly appear with straight beam scanning and low
sound attenuation. However, they may also appear on small test objects and with low test frequency.
Countermeasures include decreasing the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). Similar effects are possible due to
mode conversion, however those do not rely on the PRF.

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Phased Array Transducer

A transducer made up of several piezo- electric elements individually connected so that the signals they
transmit or receive may be treated separately or combined as desired. Multiple piezoelectric elements are
sometimes arranged in patterns in a commom housing, these are usually linear, matrix or annular in shape. The
elements can be pulsed simultaneous ( as with "paintbrush" probes), or the elements are pulsed in a certain
pattern to each other. With the last, some sophisticated methods are applied, e.g., angle of incidence
controllable by electronics, phased array focusing (beam steering, dynamic focusing). UT needs often several
transducers for the detailed inspection of a part. In order to reduce the duration of such a test, electronically
driven array transducers generating ultrasounds propagating in various directions are more and more often
used. The inspected sample can thus be quickly scanned.

Plane Wave

A wave in which points of same phase lie on parallel plane surfaces.

Range

The maximum ultrasonic path length that is displayed acording to the setting of the instrument.
range resolution: The ability of an ultrasonic display to give a separate indication of discontinuities situated
close together in range and simultaneously within the sound beam.

Receiver

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(1) The device of an ultrasonic instrument that amplifies echoes returning from the test object. Sometimes
referred to as amplifier. (2) The transducer that picks up the echoes.

Reflected Pulse

An ultrasonic pulse arising from the reflection of an incidence pulse at an acoustical discontinuity. The
reflected waves will differ in shape from the incidence waves according to the size of the discontinuity, i.e.,
they will follow the ratio:
Sin /half-angle of beam spread)= 1/2 (wavelenght)/(dia. of discontinuity)
Thus, for small discontinuities the spread is very wide and the pulse is scattered.

Refraction

The change in direction of an acoustic wave as the ultrasonic beam passes from one medium into another
having a different acoustic impedance (sound velocity). A change in both direction and mode occurs at acute
angles of incident. At small angles of incidence, the original mode and a converted one may exist in the second
medium.

Refracted Beam:A beam that occurs in the second media when an ultrasonic beam is incident at an acute angle
on the interface between two media having different velocities (impedance).

Resolution

The ability of an ultrasonic flaw detection system to give separate indications of discontinuities having nearly
the same range and/or lateral position with respect to the beam axis. The term near surface resolution is one
example.

Rotational Scan

A shear wave scan used primarily in initial search for flaws, the first being pointed directly at the weld and
then made a pivot about the center lying on or near its emission point so that, as the probe follows a path
between full skip and half skip, the beam sweeps an arc of about 10° on either side of its normal position.

Scan Pitch

The ability of the smallest mechanical step which can be performed either by a manual or automatic scan
procedure.

Scanning

Systematic relative displacement between the sound beam and material being tested. It can be performed
manually or automatically. Scanning techniques are one of the most important subjects in ultrasonic testing.
Manual scanning is carried out by specific transducer movements - orbital, swivel, lateral, and transversal. This
requires an experienced operator. Automatic scanning is performed by means of a manipulator in which the
probe holders are driven by motors. The manipulator can be mounted on the specimen (on-site inspection) or
stand fixed and the specimen is placed in front of it. Today's demand for advanced defects imaging methods as
well as inspection record-keeping requires that manipulators incorporate incrementally encoded position
feedback. On-site scanning is commonly performed on pipes where probe holders are propelled around the

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pipe circumference. Scanning can also be performed with transducer array techniques that reduce or replace
the mechanical efforts. In that case the test section is covered by many elements of the array and the electronic
multiplex (scans) each element. Depending on the scanning technique a specific coupling technique is used
(contact, water gape, squirter, or immersion).

Scatter

The break-up of waves through reflection at a very uneven surface or small discontinuities, i.e., the extreme
case of diffuse reflection. Scatter also results from reflections from one or more point reflectors, e.g., a cluster
of inclusions. In this case the energy is lost, not by random reflection but by dispersal over a large, expanding
(almost spherical) wave front.

Shear Horizontal Wave

A shear wave (transverse wave) in which the particle vibration is parallel to the incidence surface. Abbreviated
SH wave.
shear vertical wave (SV): A shear wave (transverse wave) in which the particle vibration is normal to the
incidence surface. Abbreviated SV wave.

Signal-To-Noise Ratio

Ratio of the amplitude of an ultrasonic echo arising from the discontinuity in a material to the amplitude of the
average background noise signal (grass).

Snell's Law

(Willebord Snell of Leyden, 1591-1626). A law relating to the passage of light through successive media, e.g.,
air and glass, which also applies to sound waves. An ultrasonic wave passing obliquely from one medium to
another is bent or refracted at the interface between the two media. The angle through which the incident wave

is refracted bears the same relationship to the angle of incidence at the interface as the velocity in the second
medium to that in the first.

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Surface Noise

Indications produced by roughness or any other discontinuities on the surface.

Surface Preparation

The processing of a surface needed to provide adequate acoustical coupling. An unduly high surface finish
results in tight coupling with its associated noise and spurious echoes (a point to bear in mind when using or
designing calibration blocks).

Surface Wave

Any ultrasonic wave that propagates on the surface of a body. The surface wave of most importance is the
Rayleigh wave. The so-called Lamb wave is encountered only where the wavelength is of the same order of
magnitude as the thickness of the material being tested, i.e., about 4 mm, and less.

Probe: A probe, similar in appearance to a shear wave probe, designed to give an angle of refraction of 90°
(angle of incidence in the probe shoe is 50°-60°, varying from one type of plastic to another).

Velocity: Nine-tenths of the velocity of shear waves. (steel 0.92, aluminium 0.93).

Thickness Measurement

The method of measuring the thickness of a sample of known velocity, using the pulse echo method,
measuring the displacement of the first back-wall echo from the start of the transmission peak (direct contact).
If measurement uses delay line or immersion transducers the time of flight measurement is performed between

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the surface echo and the backwall echo. The thickness can then be calculated from the calibration of the time
base. It should be remembered that each reflected echo represents a return transit through the material so that
the acoustic path length is equal to twice the thickness of the sample. For greater accuracy measurements are
taken from the position of intersection of the leading edge of the pulse with the time base-line and not that of
the peak. Another method uses the measurement point when the signal crosses the time base-line and is called
the zero crossing method. The time base should be properly calibrated before any measurements are made.
Because just the times of the transit of the pulses need to be measured, the design of the equipment can be
simplified by using a digital timer instead of an A-scan display. The typical measurement range of steel is
between 0.3 mm and more than 100 mm. Accuracies as high as +/- 001mm are achievable in some
applications.

Threshold

An electronic equipment function which determines at what level a signal is recognized and proceeds to further
evaluation.

Transceiver

Probe with a single transducer for the transmission and/or reception of the ultrasonic waves.

Transducer

A device in which the application of an electric field across the active element produces mechanical
deformation of the active element thereby generating ultrasonic vibrations and vice versa. The transducer
forms the actual core in all non-destructive ultrasonic inspection procedures: The fact whether a workpiece can
be inspected or not depends upon them. In numerous cases ultrasonic inspection becomes only feasible by use

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of transducers, which have appropriate acoustic properties. In any case the choice of the correct transducer is
decisive for the quality and the reliability of inspection results.

Ultrasonic transducers may be classified as follows: Piezoelectric, Electromagnetic, Electrostatic,

Magnetostrictive, Laser and other optical, Miscellaneous. Today, ultrasonic transducers work almost
exclusively according to the piezoelectric effect.

There are four fundamental transducer types:

(1) straight beam -, (2) angle beam -, (3) delay line -, (4) twin crystal transducers.
Depending on the application, transducers also differ with respect to the size of the active piezoelectric
elements, their frequency, bandwidth and the basic design. The sound field characteristics of a transducer,
which are expected under normal inspection conditions, are generally derived from the diameter and the
frequency of the piezoelectric element.

Transverse Wave

Wave mode in which the particle motion at each point in a material is at right angles to the direction of the
propagation of the wave. A synonymous term is shear wave.

Trigger Level

The level at which the ultrasonic equipment is required to differentiate between acceptable and suspect
material. Note that this go/no-go technique is often supported by many other functions, such as noise
suppression functions, counters, peak detection, and averaging.

Ultrasonic

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A term referring to acoustic vibration frequencies greater than about 18,000 Hertz. Ultrasonic waves have a
wide variety of applications over an extended range of intensity, with cutting, cleaning, and the destruction of
tissue as one extreme and nondestructive testing (NDT) at the other end. The table of contents of the World
Congress on Ultrasonics shows the wide range of application: Physical Acoustics -
Acoustooptics/Photoacoustics - Saw Techniques - NDE/NDT - Materials Characterization - Acoustic Emission
- Underwater Acoustics - Caviation - Sonochemistry - Processing - Motors - Positioning/Levitation -
Macrosound/Atomization - Bio-Effect Research - Exposimetry/Testing - Sonography - Contrast Enhancement
- Tissue Characterization - Surgery and Therapy - Lithotripsy.

Ultrasonic Test Equipment

Instrument which together with the probe transmits and receives ultrasonic waves for non-destructive
examination purposes. The test equipment comprises test instrument, probes, cables and all devices connected
to the instrument during an examination. The first industrial equipment was invented by the physicist Floyd A.
Firestone and his US-Patent 2 280 226 "Flaw Detecting Device and Measuring Instrument" from 21st. April
1942. Almost at the same time, company founders J. Krautkrämer (Köln) demonstrated their first instruments
and played a key role in further development of the UT market. This can be seen as the birth of material
testing.
The instrument is often called Ultrasonic Flaw Detector in respect to its main purpose for detection of flaws,
however, it is usually used in a wide range of testing any material imperfection or material characterization.
Examples are inspection of stress, hardening depth or incorporates thickness measurement.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Nondestructive material testing with ultrasonics is more than 40 years old. From the very first examinations,
using ultrasonic oscillations for detection of flaws in different materials, it has become a classical test method
based on measurements with due regard to all the important influencing factors. Today it is expected that
ultrasonic testing, supported by great advances in instrument technology, give reproducible test results within
narrow tolerances. This assumes exact knowledge of the influencing factors and the ability to apply these in
testing technology. Not all influences have to be seriously regarded by the operator. In many cases some of the
influences can be neglected without exceeding the permitted measurement tolerances. Due to this, the test
sequence is simplified and the testing time reduced. Despite this, the future belongs to the qualified operator
who carries out his task responsibly and who continuously endeavours to keep his knowledge at the latest state
of the art.

At the beginning of the fifties the technician only knew radiography (x-ray or radioactive isotopes) as a method
for detection of internal flaws in addition to the methods for nondestructive testing of material surfaces, e.g.
the dye penetrant and magnetic particle method. After the Second World War the ultrasonic method, as

described by Sokolovin 1935 and applied by Firestonein 1940, was further developed so that very soon
instruments were available for ultrasonic testing of materials. The ultrasonic principle is based on the fact that
solid materials are good conductors of sound waves. Whereby the waves are not only reflected at the interfaces
but also by internal flaws (material separations, inclusions etc.). The interaction effect of sound waves with the
material is stronger the smaller the wave length, this means the higher the frequency of the wave.

This means that ultrasonic waves must be used in a frequency range between about 0.5 MHz and 25 MHz and
that the resulting wave length is in mm. With lower frequencies, the interaction effect of the waves with
internal flaws would be so small that detection becomes questionable. Both test methods, radiography and
ultrasonic testing, are the most frequently used methods of testing different test pieces for internal flaws, partly

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covering the application range and partly extending it. This means that today many volume tests are possible
with the more economical and non-risk ultrasonic test method, on the other hand special test problems are
solved, the same as before, using radiography. In cases where the highest safety requirements are demanded
(e.g. nuclear power plants, aerospace industry) both methods are used.

V-transmission

A technique in which a beam of ultrasonic waves is directed into a region of a body under examination after
having been reflected by a surface of the body. In this case there is one bounce, with the probe placed at full
skip position.

Variable Angle Probe

Probe in which the angle of incidence can be changed.

Velocity Testing

Sound velocity testing is one method for characterization of physical properties of materials. An application
for castings shows the dependence of sound velocity on the portion of nodular graphite in the structure. These
measurements allow rapid and reliable conclusions to the modulus of elasticity, rigidity modulus and Poisson's
ratio. The method is based on the time of flight measurement which is also used for thickness measurement.
One method is called a thickness based velocity technique and is relatively simple to implement. The
disadvantage is that the result shows the combination of thickness and velocity. However there are methods
available which can perform a thickness independent velocity measurement. These methods use the through
transmission or pulse echo mode. The prerequest for sound velocity measurement is that the workpiece has two
approximately parallel surfaces.

Velocity of Propagation

Where the thickness of the test material is much greater than the wavelength of the transmission, the effective
velocity is the group velocity, i.e., the velocity of the group of waves included in the pulse envelope. This can
be measured by timing the transit of a pulse using some feature of the envelope as a reference point, e.g., the
leading edge. The velocity is influenced by modulus of elasticity, rigidity modulus, material density,
temperature, structure, structural arrangement etc.

Visualization of Ultrasound Waves

Visualization may be considered a special form of modeling whereby the inspection field mechanism is made
to propagate through an actual or simulated test medium and “optical” methods are used to “see” the results of
beam movement and interactions. Ultrasonic testing has benefited most from visualization.

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Two main visualization options have been developed over the years:

Schlieren Techniques

Photo-Elastic Techniques
Some confusion seems to have arisen over the years as these two visualisation techniques have been used
interchangeably. They are significantly different one from the other.

Water

Water is a coupling medium which is mostly used in automatic testing. The properties of the water are an
essential precondition for obtaining reliable test results. A minimum particle size is required as well as absence
of air bubbles.

Column: A tube is filled with water and attached to the front of a transducer to couple an ultrasonic beam to a
test object which serves as a delay line between the initial pulse and the front surface signal. Also referred to as
water path.

Jet: A laminar stream of water carrying ultrasonic signals between the transducer and the test object surface. Its
function is similar to the water column but it is especially used where there is a need for noncontact coupling.
Usually applied for scanning large objects in the aircraft industry. The free jet can reach a length of about one
meter. Because small turbulences can appear, the signal to noise ratio is often less than in the immersion
technique. Also referred to as squirter. Applied with a short length it is called a bubbler.

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Wave

Energy transmission through an elastic medium by means of vibration.

Wave Front: A continuous surface drawn through all points in a wave disturbance which have the same phase.
Wave Length: The distance, measured along the line of propagation, between two wave surfaces in which the
phase differs by one complete period. Numerically, the wavelength is equal to the velocity of propagation
divided by the wave frequency.

Wedge Velocity

Usually the acoustic wave speed of the longitudinal mode in the refracting wedge material.

Weld Testing

One of the largest applications of ultrasonic testing in NDT is weld inspection. Techniques vary due to weld
material, weld thickness, weld process and even code requirements. An advance in ultrasonic weld inspection
was in the 1970's with the introduction of Time of Flight Diffraction. TOFD was a response to the demand for
better sizing of defects, however, the technique have its limitations if used for defect detection - it cannot
detect all defects. An ultrasonic technique for weld inspection should investigate the total weld volume plus a
region either side of the weld considered to be the heat affected zone. Since laminates can be present in the
base material, that means under the coupling surface, it is essential that a simple straight beam test is
performed for inspection of laminates. Usually shear waves angle probes are applied as single probe, douple
probe, tandem, pitch and catch techniques. Main discontinuities of welded joints are, e.g., nonfusion root,
sidewall nonfusion, porosity, centreline cracking. It is common practice to assess the types of flaws from the
probe movements. Procedures for UT of welds has been laid down by standards like European EN 1714.

Wheel Transducer

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A device that couples ultrasonic energy to a test object through the rolling contact area of a wheel (flexible
tire) containing a liquid (oil) and one or more transducers. The transducer is attached to the axle of the wheel.
They are applied in pulse echo and through transmission technique. Since the tire material shows high
attenuation they are mostly used in low frequency applications. Because the construction can not prevent some
spurious echoes, the achievable signal to noise ratio is worse than that of regular transducers.

Visual and Optical Testing (VT/OT)

Fiber Optic Sensors

Comprises of Fiber Bragg Gratings, Fibre Optic Polarimetric Sensor, OTDR based fiber sensor, EFPI and
other fiber sensor.

Holography

Optical Holographic techniques can be used for nondestructive testing of materials (HNDT). Non-optical
Holography techniques include Acoustical, Microwave, X-Ray and Electron beam Holography. HNDT
essentially measures deformations on the surface of the object. However, there is sufficient sensitivity to detect
sub- surface and internal defects in metallic and composite specimens.

In HNDT techniques, the test sample is interferometrically compared with the sample after it has been stressed
(loaded). A flaw can be detected if by stressing the object it creates an anomalous deformation of the surface
around the flaw.

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