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The engine knock analysis - An overview

Article in Applied Energy · April 2012

DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.11.079

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 Applied Energy 92 (2012) 628–636

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

The engine knock analysis – An overview

Xudong Zhen ⇑, Yang Wang, Shuaiqing Xu, Yongsheng Zhu, Chengjun Tao, Tao Xu, Mingzhi Song
State Key Laboratory of Engines, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Knocking combustion in spark-ignition (SI) engines is an abnormal combustion phenomenon which can
Received 25 August 2011 constrain the engine performance and thermal efficiency. It can also result in severe permanent engine
Received in revised form 28 November 2011 damage under certain operating conditions. This paper systematically reviews the engine knock phenom-
Accepted 28 November 2011
enon, including the mechanisms, influencing factors, consequences and detection methods etc. It intro-
Available online 20 December 2011
duces the visualization researches, simulations and some judging indexes of engine knock. Three
mathematical models which can predict the engine knock, and various kinds of methods of suppressing
Keywords:
knock are summarized. Finally, this paper puts forward some new suggestions on the weakness in the
Knock
Detection methods
researches of knocking combustion.
Visualization researches Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Simulations
Models
Suppressing methods

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
2. Knock detection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
2.1. Methods based on in-cylinder pressure analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
2.2. Methods based on engine block vibration analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
2.3. Methods based on exhaust gas temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
2.4. Methods based on intermediate radicals and species analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
2.5. Methods based on heat release analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
3. Knock visualization researches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
4. Knock indexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
4.1. The rate of heat release and cumulative heat release. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
4.2. MAPO, IMPG, IMPO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
4.3. Dimensionless Knock Indicator (DKI). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
4.4. Logarithmic Knock Intensity (LKI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
5. Knock simulation researches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
6. Knock models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
6.1. AnB Knock model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
6.2. Shell Knock model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
6.3. Empirical formulations based on an Arrhenius function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
7. Methods of suppressing knock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
8. Conclusions and recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635

1. Introduction days, researchers and engine manufacturers mainly focused on the

Spark-ignition (SI) engine has achieved a high level of success
since the invention of the first Otto cycle engine. During the early
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 22 27406842 8017; fax: +86 22 27383362.
E-mail address: xituwa@tju.edu.cn (X. Zhen).
study of how to increase the engine power and how to improve
the engine working reliability. However, in the recent years, due
to the limited fossil fuel reserves and more and more stringent
emission regulations, researchers have shifted their attentions to-
wards the development of more advanced combustion systems

0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.11.079
 X. Zhen et al. / Applied Energy 92 (2012) 628–636 629

[1]. Thus power generation with the lowest energy input from fos-
sil resources has become more and more important since then.
Due to the steady rise in oil prices and the increasing concerns
towards global environmental pollution, the optimization of en-
gine performance and emission has become the most pressing fac-
tor. However, the optimization potential is not well utilized as
there is a lack of knowledge about the detailed in-cylinder combus-
tion process and emission formation mechanisms. Future stringent
legislation on emissions in combination with an increase in engine
efficiency poses a great challenge to the designers and researchers.
However, engine design and operating parameters such as com-
pression ratio, inlet pressure and temperature, spark timing, equiv-
alence ratio and exhaust gas re-circulation must be optimized for
the best performance and efficiency. The essential task in the
development of SI engine today is to achieve a good balance be-
tween the reduction of fuel consumption and the improvement
of torque [2,3].
In SI engines, the combustion can proceed as a normal or abnor-
mal phenomenon depending on the certain operating conditions.
The normal one, which is initiated solely by a timed spark, gener-
ates a flame front moving across the cylinder volume in a uniform
manner at normal velocity. Depending mainly on the temperature
and pressure history of the end-gas as well as on the rate of devel-
opment of the flame, the abnormal combustion can cause an
important phenomenon: Knock. Knock is well known as a major
barrier obstructing further improvement of the SI engine thermal
efficiency. If knock occurs over a long period of time, it will bring
some unfavorable effects [4–6]:
of the unburned end-gas, so auto-ignition is seldom homogeneous,
it usually occurs randomly in localized centers. When it occurs,
pressure waves are generated, which can cause the formation of
detonation waves, which sounds like metallic ringing which is dis-
tinct from the mute sound of normal combustion. Sometimes auto-
ignition does not necessarily give rise to knock. There are three ba-
sic modes of propagation from the auto-ignition centers, depend-
ing on the temperature gradients [16]. These are:
 When the end-gas has low temperature and steep temperature
gradients, it will produce a weak pressure, which propagates
from the center and is attenuated, combustion undergoes a
gradual transition to knock. The cool flame, which travels with
average speeds of v = 50–200 m/s. In this phase, combustion is
non-knocking combustion.
 When the end-gas has high temperature and small temperature
gradients, it will generate simultaneous chemical reaction fol-
lows the occurrence of the auto-ignition. As the onset of the
main heat release, the average speed can be up to v = 500 m/s.
There is a clear correlation between the propagation velocity
and the knock intensity: the faster the reaction front of main
heat release propagates, the higher the knock intensity.
 When the end-gas has intermediate temperatures and temper-
ature gradients. When the gradient smaller than a critical value,
it will generate enough intensity to initiate chemical reaction.
Then the strong shock waves are created. Pressure waves are
generated by the fast-propagating reaction front. When the
pressure is strong and the end-gas is reactive enough, it will

 Breakage of piston rings.

 Cylinder head erosion.
 Piston crown and top land erosion.
 Piston melting.
 Limits engine compression ratio or vehicle acceleration
performance.
 Increase air pollution.
 Decrease in engine efficiency.
 Considerable rise in engine specific fuel consumption (SFC).
 Possibility of structural harms to engine in a long-term period.
 Knock may cause damage and it is a source of noise in engines.

Thus this must to be avoided. For more than a century,

researchers did many efforts to understand the causes of knock.
There are two generally accepted theories of knock, auto-ignition
and detonation. The theory of auto-ignition can be traced back to
the ignition of so-called hot spots in the unburned end gas. These
hot spots are formed due to non-uniformities in temperature or
concentrations. After spark ignition the unburned gas is com-
pressed by the expanding burned gas, compressed or expanded
by the moving piston, heated by radiation from the flame front,
and cooled or heated by the surrounding boundaries. At the point
where the temperature and pressure of the end gas exceed its
auto-ignition point, the end gas would ignite spontaneously, start-
ing at one or more points (velocities higher than 2000 m/s) [7]. A
violent explosion will occur in the end gas, causing pressure waves
to oscillate in the combustion chamber, causing the pinging sound.
Detonation theory, on the other hand, assumes that knock occurs
due to the propagation of the flame front that accelerates from
the spark plug to the other end of the detonation. The shock wave
would then reflect from one cylinder wall to another at the com-
bustion chamber. The impact pressures are short in duration but
high in magnitude, causing the occurrence of knock [8].
It is generally accepted that engine knock is the result of auto-
ignition in the end-gas before it is being reached by the flame front
emanating from the spark plug [9–15]. Because reaction propa-
gates depending on the compositional and thermal heterogeneity Fig. 1. Typical knocking and non-knocking cycles.
630 X. Zhen et al. / Applied Energy 92 (2012) 628–636
generate an intensely illuminating flame. The flame, which trav-
els opposite to the original temperature, its speeds up to
2000 m/s. In this phase, knocking combustion occurred.
These three basic modes can represent limiting conditions and
are associated with trace, moderate, severe and damaging knock,
respectively. Therefore, a complete understanding of knock can
be of great benefit to respect the future emission normative as well
as to reduce development costs.
Describing and even predicting knock is complex, it requires
deep understanding on the processes occurring within the com-
bustion chamber. Many decades of exhaustive researches indicated
that the combustion mechanisms associated with knock were not
fully understood because of the complexity of the phenomena in-
volved [17]. There have been many experimental and simulation
researches of the causes of engine knock. It would be beneficial
to develop a predictive technique for studying the causes of knock.
Knock prediction is a challenging task to designers and researchers
because of its complexity.
2. Knock detection methods
There are many methods to be used to detect knock, which can
be classified into two broad categories namely direct and indirect
methods. The former one is based on the direct measurement
and study of inside cylinder parameters, which can be influenced
by knock. Other methods are based on the indirect measurement
such as sound pressure or cylinder block vibration [18–20].
Knock detection can be performed based on several types of
methods, for instance, in-cylinder pressure analysis, cylinder block
vibration analysis, ion current analysis, light radiation and acoustic
emissions analysis, heat transfer analysis, temperature analysis etc.
Here are some major application methods to review.
2.1. Methods based on in-cylinder pressure analysis
This method is to analyze inside cylinder pressure signals to
study directly the inside combustion processes, which are influ-
enced by knock. It is often used as a reference for the calibration
of detection strategies based on some sensors. The typical high-
frequency knock signature is related to the combustion chamber
resonant frequencies, which are excited by the rapid pressure rise.
The typical pressure curves of a knocking and non-knocking cycle
are shown in Fig. 1.
This method requires pressure signal processing. The expected
resonant knock frequencies can first be estimated by using the ana-
lytical solution of the wave equation. The resonant frequency of
the m, n vibration mode can be written as [20]:
fm;n ¼ am;n cs =ðpBÞ
where am,n is the corresponding wave number (determined by
means of Bessel’s equations), m and n denote the numbers of radial
and circumferential pressures nodes respectively, cs is the speed of
sound inside the combustion chamber (estimated to be about
1000 m/s), B represents the cylinder bore.
The definition of knock intensity usually uses the maximum
amplitude of the filtered cylinder pressure, so the cylinder pressure
is band-pass filtered with a software filter. The lower cut-off fre-
quency is 4 kHz and the higher cut-off frequency is well above
the frequency of the in-cylinder oscillations.
The pressure wave amplitude can be used to define knock
indexes: the drawback of such indexes is that they are based on
observations referring to a narrow spatial domain. So the methods
based on in-cylinder pressure analysis have some major drawbacks:
 Firstly, the sensors are very expensive. Besides, if the sensors
are installed inside the cylinder chamber, it will direct contact
with hot and high pressure mixtures, so its lifetime expectancy
and accuracy will be reduced.
 During non-knocking combustion conditions, the sensor mea-
sured the value at the sensor location can be representative of
the whole combustion chamber pressure value, as knock occurs,
huge non-homogeneities take place preventing the extension of
the local data to the global domain. When knock occurs, it will
generate pressure wave, but it evolves throughout a non-homo-
geneous medium, interacting with the complex chamber
boundary. So, the measured pressure wave amplitude has a
local meaning, it cannot be considered as the maximum value
of the whole combustion chamber pressure wave.
 If one set for each cylinder, which not only increases cost, but
also requires the use of various hardwares and softwares.
Therefore, the method based on in-cylinder pressure analysis is
extensively used in experimental researches.
2.2. Methods based on engine block vibration analysis
This method is to determine the occurrence of knock by mea-
suring the vibration level of the engine. When knock occurs, it will
create extensive pressure waves (above about 2 bar, peak to peak)
within the combustion chamber. The pressure waves can radiate
sound within the audible frequency range directly, excite engine
block vibrations and produce the audible knock signal.
The frequencies of the oscillations highly depend on the size
and shape of the chamber, the resonant modes being created and
the local speed of sound, which in turn vary from one engine oper-
ating point to another during combustion.
Nonintrusive vibration sensors have a lot of advantages, for in-
stance, excellent durability and low-cost. Therefore, with the
development of nonintrusive pressure sensors, the knock detection
methods based on block vibration analysis become the most prac-
tical for mass-production car engines.
2.3. Methods based on exhaust gas temperature
Knock could be detected by monitoring exhaust gas temperature.
It is observed that there is clear correlation between engine knock
and exhaust gas temperature. In knocking combustion conditions,
exhaust gas temperature was shown to be reduced. This technique
for detecting knock could be efficient for the following reasons [21]:
 Because the signal will not be affected by engine noise, so the
knock detection can be pure.
ð1Þ  It is very quick and convenient.
 It can be applied for all types of engines.
2.4. Methods based on intermediate radicals and species analysis
Nowadays, chemical luminescence emissions of end-gas can be
used to analyze the chemical reactions caused by the end-gas auto-
ignition. Spectroscopic and chemiluminescence measurements
allow identifying CH, HCO, HCHO and OH radicals as markers of
different combustion phases. For instance, HCHO is built up in
the end gas before the flame front, hot spots can be detected by
its higher concentration, CH and OH radicals can be markers of nor-
mal combustion reaction and burned zone, respectively. Therefore,
we can detect knock based on intermediate radicals and species
analysis.
 X. Zhen et al. / Applied Energy 92 (2012) 628–636
Fig. 2. Series of high-speed direct images and related in-cylinder pressure histories for both knocking and non-knocking engine cycles [24]. (1) Non-knocking engine cycle.
(2) Knocking engine cycle.
2.5. Methods based on heat release analysis
It is well known, as knock occurs, heat transfer of the combus-
tion chamber will be increased. It was found that when knock
intensities above 0.2 Mpa, it will influence the heat flux, as knock
intensities above 0.6 Mpa, the peak heat flux can up to 2.5 times
higher than non-knocking combustion [22]. In general, knocking
combustion generates much higher wall heat fluxes than normal
combustion. It is found that the temperature variations can be fur-
ther enhanced when knock occurs [23]. This would favor the detec-
tion of knock occurrence from heat transfer analysis.
3. Knock visualization researches
With the progress of high-speed camera techniques, photo-
graphic observations of knocking combustion have been made
many decades. Because the combustion process leading to the
occurrence of knocking proceeds extremely rapidly, photographic
images have become important sources to find the insights of
knocking combustion. In the knock visualization researches, exper-
imental apparatus plays a very important role. The most com-
monly used experimental apparatus includes:
 ICCD camera.
 UV visible natural emission spectroscopy.
 Chemiluminescence of radical species measurements.
Fig. 3. Example of a LIF image pair of a knocking cycle [25].
631
 High-speed video camera.
 Rapid compression and expansion machine (RCEM).
 Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) imaging measurements.
Among the literature, many visualization researches have been
done and a lot of valuable results have been obtained. It was found
that the intensity increased as the gas temperature increased by
using a high-speed video camera in a compression-expansion en-
gine to study the auto-ignition of end-gas during knocking com-
bustion, some images corresponding to light emission from the
high temperature burned gases were obtained. Fig. 2 shows time
series images at a specific crank angle for non-knocking and knock-
ing engine cycles [24]. We can see clearly the normal flame front
propagation in non-knocking engine cycle. In knocking engine cy-
cle, frame F represents the normal flame front propagation. It
shows the location of the combustion flame with the dark cres-
cent-shaped end-gas region ahead of it, prior to any auto-ignition.
In frame G, the hot-spots arise at the upper left of the frame, which
generates the auto-ignition region in the end-gas, the auto-ignition
region moves upward, and it is brighter and hotter. As the propa-
gation of the auto-ignition region, the auto-ignition region has
shifted to the right, formed frame I and J, finally, the eng-gas is
burned completely.
Spatial temperature fluctuations in the unburned end-gas of a
spark-ignited engine were investigated by using laser-induced
fluorescence. Fig. 3 shows a typical LIF image of a knocking cycle
[25]. The absence of fluorescing intermediate species due to igni-
tion is seen in both the normal flame and auto-ignition centers.
While the normal flame hardly shows any changes, and the auto-
ignition centers expand considerably in this short time span.
Digital imaging measurements realized during knocking phase
showed that knocking light emissions were more intense than
non-knocking combustion. It had a strong gradient of emission
intensity characteristic during the onset of knock, which was due
to the sharp increase of pressure and flame propagation caused
by the auto-ignition phenomenon.
4. Knock indexes
Even thought there are a lot of methods to detect engine knock,
there is no commonly accepted, accurate and simple evaluation in-
dex to knock intensity. The following indexes are commonly used
[26–30].
632 X. Zhen et al. / Applied Energy 92 (2012) 628–636

4.1. The rate of heat release and cumulative heat release used to define the knock intensity of a running point. It should
be deeply researched.
When knock occurs, if neglect the heat exchanges, the heat
losses will increase and the net heat release should decrease. This 4.4. Logarithmic Knock Intensity (LKI)
approach is to look at the combustion characteristics in terms of
burning rate. The Rate of Heat Release (ROHR) is usually evaluated Many researches show that, as knock occurs, the useful pressure
based on the in-cylinder pressure signal, by applying the first law oscillation frequencies are between 6 and 25 kHz. When using
of thermodynamics [26]. higher sampling frequency, it has to handle more data, it requires
more memory and the computation time will be longer [30].
dV dP
ROHR ¼ ðc=ðc  1ÞÞP þ ð1=ðc  1ÞÞ ð2Þ The pressure oscillations are usually made up of several fre-
dh dh
quencies, an appropriate description of the knock intensity is the
The Cumulative Heat Release can be defined as: average energy. The equation of the average energy in terms of
Z   the spectral data is [30]:
dV dP
CHRNET ¼ ðc=ðc  1ÞÞP þ ð1=ðc  1ÞÞV ð3Þ
dh dh X
25 kHz
Average Energy ¼ X 2 ðkÞ ð8Þ
where h is the crank angle degree, c is ratio of specific heats, P is cyl- 6 kHz
inder combustion pressure, V is the cylinder volume.
The equation of the average energy in the time domain is:
The abrupt decrease in the net cumulative heat release is likely
to be associated to a strong increase in the heat losses. The CHRNET 1XN1

parameter is strongly related to knock intensity, while it is not re- Average Energy ¼ x2 ðkÞ ð9Þ
N n¼0
lated to the sensor position.
where x(n) is the filtered pressure data (band pass filter 6–25 kHz),
4.2. MAPO, IMPG, IMPO and X(k) is the spectral data in 6–25 kHz of the original pressure sig-
nal, i.e.
MAPO, IMPG and IMPO, which are three knock indicators, based
1XN 1
on a high frequency analysis of cylinder pressure data, commonly XðkÞ ¼ wðnÞ  xoriginal pressure ðnÞejð2p=NÞkn ð10Þ
N n¼0
used in the literature [27,28].
Maximum Amplitude of Pressure Oscillations (MAPOs) N is the number of samples used in both cases, w(n) is the Hamming
  window function.
h þf
^jh0
MAPO ¼ max jp ð4Þ The knock intensity is finally defined as the logarithmic knock
0

intensity (LKI) [30]:

Integral of Modulus of Pressure Gradient (IMPG)
LKI ¼ lnðC  Average EnergyÞ ð11Þ
N Z h0 þf  
1 X ^
dpdh
IMPG ¼ dh ð5Þ
N 1 h0

Integral of Modulus of Pressure Oscillations (IMPOs) 5. Knock simulation researches

N Z h0 þf
1 X
IMPO ¼ ^jdh
jp
N 1 h0
where N is the number of computed cycles, h0 is crank angle corre-
sponding to the beginning of the window of calculation, f is value of
the window of calculation, p ^ is the filtered in-cylinder pressure.
MAPO is related to the peak of the pressure oscillations due to
engine knock, IMPG is related to the modulus of pressure gradient
and IMPO represents the energy contained in the high frequency
oscillations of the cylinder pressure signal (including noise).
4.3. Dimensionless Knock Indicator (DKI)
DKI is a Dimensionless Knock Indicator built from existing
knock indices (IMPO and MAPO) [29],
DKI ¼ IMPO=ðMAPO  fÞ
DKI is the ratio between two values that can be interpreted as
two surfaces. Firstly, IMPO is the surface under the pressure signal
and secondly the quantity. MAPO  f is the surface of the computa-
tional window. DKI is an ‘‘image’’ of the knock intensity, which is
calculated taking into account the ‘‘noise’’ before the auto-ignition.
The DKI value will decrease with the increase of knock intensity
whatever the engine geometrical characteristics and settings are.
Its use enables to detect the start of knock and then to determine
the KLSA (Knock Limited Spark Advance).
At present, DKI has not been widely applied, because it is ques-
tionable that it could be considered better than others. Besides,
considering the cycle variation, more complex indexes have to be
Nowadays, computer simulation researches are more and more
ð6Þ
widely used by many researchers. In SI engine knock researches,
more and more people also use computer simulations. Knocking
simulation has a lot of methods including zero-dimensional
(0-D), one-dimensional (1-D), three-dimensional (3-D) etc. One-
dimensional models can model the entire engine cycle with
acceptable computational times; however, they need semi-empir-
ical correlations in order to model the flow field details and the
burning speed within each cylinder, so it cannot simulate the ac-
tual engine operating conditions, for instance, gas flow, in-cylinder
combustion and after-treatment etc. But 3-D simulation can solve
this problem. Recently, the development of integrated predictive
models for fuel auto-ignition remains as a challenge. Since the
knock propensity of fuels places an upper limit to engine perfor-
mance, a chemical-thermo fluid dynamic coupled model is a pow-
erful tool for optimizing engines and gasoline formulation. For
ð7Þ
instance, a transient knock prediction technique has been devel-
oped by coupling a zero-dimensional knocking simulation with
chemical kinetics and a one-dimensional gas exchange engine
model to study the occurrence of transient knock in SI engines [31].
For performance evaluation of a complicated energy system
such as the internal combustion engine, Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFDs) techniques are more and more utilized in the
development of new solutions for performance improvement of
engines. For instance CFD can significantly reduce the expensive
and time consuming experiments necessary in the development
process of new engines or new engine parts. CFD techniques are
able to provide detailed and sound information on engine phenom-
ena, but very often they are time consuming and hard to be imple-
 X. Zhen et al. / Applied Energy 92 (2012) 628–636 633

mented [26,32–38]. CFD analysis can be used in order to simulate
knock effects on the in-cylinder pressure trace. The CFD models are
able to predict the combustion evolution with respect to spark ad-
vance, from non-knocking to heavy knocking conditions. It can be
used to relate the actual combustion mode information to the mea-
sured signal characteristics. CFD simulations can help defining
knock indexes, the simulation results can be applied to assess the
reliability of a methodology proposed.
For these reasons, it is necessary to identify knock phenomena
by numerical calculation and by studying effective knock control-
ling methods. Knock modeling by means of 3D CFD simulation,
can be a powerful tool to understand and try to avoid this abnor-
mal combustion phenomenon. We can use a three-dimensional
model coupled with a one dimensional gas exchange model to pre-
dict transient knock phenomena of SI engines, and make a
3-dimensional CFD simulation coupled with detailed or reduced
where a is a constant equal to 1 s1, Y T Fu is the mass fraction of fuel
tracer. The criteria of knocking combustion is satisfied when the
precursor concentration locally reaches the fuel tracer mass fraction
value. Hence, when there is no combustion, the fuel mass fraction is
equal to the fuel tracer mass fraction. After auto-ignition, the
change in precursor is simply calculated by:
@yp
¼ bY T Fu eð3500=T gb Þ ðq=qgf ÞðY Fu =Y T Fu Þ ð16Þ
@t
where b is a constant equal to 1000 s1, Tgb is the local temperature
of burnt gas, q is the density in the gas and qgf is the density in fresh
gas.
The effect of air to fuel ratio on knocking tendency is accounted
for by correcting the IO number. The octane number IOeff, corrected
by the fuel/air ratio, is then:
2

chemical kinetic mechanisms to predict auto-ignition. IOeff ¼ IOeð0:1ð/1Þ Þ

ð17Þ
This very qualitative correction locates the minimum delay of
6. Knock models
the mixture at fuel/air ratio 1. The maximum actual octane number
considered is 140.
There are three most commonly used knock models, which are
It also can choose a correction to the pressure,
AnB Knock model, Shell Knock model and Empirical formulations
based on an Arrhenius function. Peff ¼ p=ð1 þ Y res Þ ð18Þ
where Yres is the mass fraction of residual gases present in the
6.1. AnB Knock model
cylinder.
The model is based on the knowledge of the auto-ignition delay
6.2. Shell Knock model
[26,39]. This model’s principle is first to calculate the appearance of
a pseudo precursor, and then, when the quantity of this precursor
In the Shell model, the auto-ignition chemistry is reduced to the
is sufficient (equal to the unburned fuel mass fraction), the chem-
eight-step chain branching reaction scheme incorporated into four
ical oxidation reaction of the fuel is triggered. The critical ‘‘concen-
processes [40–43]:
tration’’ is obtained from the knowledge of the delay. Once the
Initiation:
precursor concentration exceeds the pre-set auto-ignition require-
ment, the characteristic oxidation time of the fuel is assumed con- RH þ O2 ! 2R Rate coefficient kq
stant. It can be larger than the characteristic time of ‘‘normal
Propagation:
combustion’’, and in the range of the characteristic time of a lam-
inar flame. Thus when the precursor concentration exceeds the R ! R þ P

Rate coefficient kp
critical ‘‘concentration’’, the fuel consumption rate due to auto- R ! R þ B Rate coefficient f 1 kp
ignition becomes:
R ! R þ Q Rate coefficient f 4 kp
dY fu 3500 R þ Q ! R þ B Rate coefficient f 2 kp
¼ Y fu Ae T gb ð12Þ
dt
Branching:
where Yfu is the fuel concentration, Tgb is the local temperature of
burnt gas. As stated earlier, the model is based on the knowledge B ! 2R Rate coefficient kb
of the auto-ignition delay. As a starting point, it can be used the Termination:
reaction adapted to PRF (Primary Reference Fuel) fuel:
 3:4017 R ! out Rate coefficient f 3 kp
IO
h¼A Pn eB=T ð13Þ
100 2R ! out Rate coefficient kt
where IO is the fuel octane number, P is the pressure expressed in where RH represents the hydrocarbon fuel (CnH2m), R⁄ is the radical,
bar, and T is the temperature expressed in K. The temperature se- B is the branching agent, Q is the intermediate agent, and P is the
lected is not the mean local temperature but the local fresh gas tem- product.
perature. Parameters A, n and B are variables of the AnB model. The The time variation of species concentrations are described by:
first step is the connection between this delay and chemical kinetics
d½R 
of precursor formation.Because the chemical kinetics during auto- ¼ 2ðkq ½RH½O2  þ kB ½B  kt ½R 2 Þ  f3 kp ½R  ð19Þ
ignition delay is not linear, the model proposed by Lafossas et al. dt
calculates the appearance of the precursor with an exponential
d½B
form. Thus if Yp is the precursor concentration, it can be written that ¼ f1 kp ½R  þ f2 kp ½Q ½R   kB ½B ð20Þ
dt
before auto-ignition:
dY p d½Q
¼ Y T Fu FðhÞ ð14Þ ¼ f4 kp ½R   f2 kp ½Q½R  ð21Þ
dt dt
with d½O2 
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi, ¼ pkp ½R  ð22Þ
dt
Yp
FðhÞ ¼ a2 h2 þ 4ð1  ahÞ h ð15Þ
Y T Fu ½RH ¼ ð½O2   ½O2 ðt ¼ 0ÞÞ=pm þ ½RHðt ¼ 0Þ ð23Þ
634 X. Zhen et al. / Applied Energy 92 (2012) 628–636

with These are three most commonly used knock models, but there
x1 y1
are some differences in the use of approaches, for instance, both
f1 ¼ Af 1 expðEf 1 =RTÞ½O2  ½RH ; AnB and Shell model can be used with 0-D or 3-D approach, the
empirical approach described above can be used only in 0-D
f2 ¼ Af 2 expðEf 2 =RTÞ; approach.

f3 ¼ Af 3 expðEf 3 =RTÞ½O2 x3 ½RHy3 ; 7. Methods of suppressing knock

Suppressing knock has been one of the major challenges facing

f4 ¼ Af 4 expðEf 1 =RTÞ½O2 x4 ½RHy4 ;
ki ¼ Ai expðEi =RTÞ
where i is the stands for p1, p2, p3, q, B, and t, kp ¼ ½1=kp1 ½O2  þ
1=kp2 þ 1=kp3 ½RH1 , R is the universal gas constant. [M] corre-
sponds to the molar concentration of the various species, M is the
various species. The parameter p is obtained from the overall prod-
uct path:
Cn=m H2 þ pO2 ! qP ð24Þ
where
P ¼ ½ðn=mÞðcCO þ ð1  cÞCO2 Þ þ H2 O=q;
q ¼ n=m þ 1;
p ¼ ðnð2  cÞ þ mÞ=2m
The coefficient c determines the burned products mixture via
[CO/CO2] = c/(1 - c).
6.3. Empirical formulations based on an Arrhenius function
It is known that the chemical reactions eventually leading to
auto-ignition of a hydrocarbon-air mixture require a finite time.
The time taken to establish a critical concentration of intermediate
species leading to auto-ignition, for fixed conditions of pressure
and temperature represents the auto-ignition delay. This time is
calculated by matching an Arrhenius type function to measured
data,
s ¼ ApB expðC=BÞ ð25Þ
where A, B and C are constants which depend on given pressure and
temperature of the fuel properties. It has the specific conditions of
the end-gas with pressure and temperature continuously variable.
Livengood and Wu [44] have assumed the condition:
d
ðx=xc Þ ¼ f ðt=sÞ ð26Þ
dt
where x is the current concentration of species leading to auto-igni-
tion, xc is the critical concentration. Since the function f is unknown,
and under the assumption that the reaction rate does not change
with time during a fixed state process when auto-ignition occurs,
Z t1
dt=s ¼ 1 ð27Þ
t0
where t0 is the initial time when starts the reaction, t1 is the auto-
ignition time. Given the monotonically changing of pressure and
temperature, ignition delay correlations give a good approximation
of knock onset. In view of finding the knock onset time tk, equation
can be expressed as:
tk
X  Increase the inert gases. The effects of the addition of inert gases
Dt=ðApB expðC=TÞÞ ¼ 1 ð28Þ
t0
The parameters P and T of equation are coupled, A, B and C are
constants.
the development of the SI engine. Knock can be effectively sup-
pressed by various methods, and each has its own advantages
and weaknesses. There are some methods that have been summa-
rized as shown in the following:
 Increase turbulence. Turbulence has opposite effects on the ini-
tial and main stages of combustion. At the start of combustion,
increased turbulence requires a more energetic spark to initiate
combustion and may delay ignition of the flame front. These
changes are due to the motion of flame kernel and increased
heat transfer. Once combustion has started, it proceeds more
quickly with increased turbulence, reducing combustion dura-
tion and the tendency to knock [45].
 Reduce combustion time. There are two methods, one is
increasing combustion speed through a higher turbulence
intensity, another is reducing the flame propagation distance
through an optimal design of the combustion chamber geome-
try shape and an optimal spark plug location [45,46].
 Reduce the end-gas temperature. The end-gas temperature can
be most effectively reduced by retarding the spark timing. How-
ever it may deteriorate engine performance due to the decrease
in mean combustion chamber temperature and pressure. We
can reduce the end-gas temperature without a considerable
compromise in thermal efficiency by decreasing chamber wall
temperatures. The head gasket shape can be modified to change
the coolant flow and improve the distribution of wall tempera-
tures on the head side, which is more effective to suppress
knock [45,46].
 The temperature history of the end-gas has a strong effect on
knock as expected by the exponential term in the Arrhenius
equation. The initial condition for the temperature history of
the end-gas during a cycle is the intake air temperature
[45,46]. So we can suppress knock effectively by decreasing
the intake air temperature.
 Using the variable-geometry turbocharger (VGT) has an effect
on engine backpressure, which further influences the in-cylin-
der mixture temperature and the knock tendency.
 Decrease the compression ratio. This measure could be soundly
penalizing for the engine efficiency, but we can adopt variable
compression ratio technique.
 Develop alternative fuel engines. Developing all kinds of alter-
native fuel engines, for instance, natural gas SI engines, hydro-
gen engines, LPG engines, methanol engines, dual fuel engines
etc., which have very good antiknock performance [46–52].
 Increase the fuel octane number by introducing antiknock addi-
tives to the fuel, like different ethers, alcohols or even water
[53]. Ultrahigh molecular weight polymer permits a more uni-
form air/fuel mixture, which makes fuel to more efficient com-
bustion, reduces the overall temperatures, produces antiknock
performance. The addition of PIB to gasoline can produce a vis-
coelastic fuel which offers the benefit of an antiknock property
[54].
can increase the knock limited spark timing, which could be
very helpful to avoid knock. For instance, the additions of N2
and CO2 to the natural gas fuel have good knock prevention per-
formance [55].
 X. Zhen et al. / Applied Energy 92 (2012) 628–636
 It is found that the rapidity and severity of the onset of high
temperature ignition is probably associated with the transition
in these non-homogeneous regions to vigorous chain branching
through O atoms generation, the non-knocking reaction seems
to be restricted to conditions at which HO2 chemistry is able
to survive to late stages of the spontaneous ignition [56]. So fuel
design and blending may offer a route to a control of the knock.
 Use of cooled EGR (Exhaust Gas Re-circulation). It is well known
that residual gas has considerable suppressing effects on the
auto-ignition tendencies of air/fuel mixtures. In SI engines,
EGR can be utilized to suppress the end-gas auto-ignition. How-
ever, high temperature EGR may increase the intake charge
temperature, and consequently increase the auto-ignition ten-
dency of the unburned end-gas. Therefore, normally the recircu-
lated exhaust gas needs to be cooled before being introduced
into the cylinder to achieve knock mitigation effect. Cooled
EGR has great potential in knock mitigation without the loss
of output power [33,57–60]. Use direct fuel injection technol-
ogy. Direct fuel injection can lower the combustion temperature
due to the fuel vaporization cooling in the cylinder. Therefore it
can lower knock sensitivity and the compression ratio can be
increased [50,61–65]. Use multiple injections. Split-injection is
an effective method for mitigating the knock under high BMEP
operating conditions. However, the fuel-injection and combus-
tion systems for a specific engine need to be carefully optimized
to obtain the merits of this strategy and to avoid performance
deterioration. For instance, a ‘‘two-stage mixing’’ control strat-
egy for knock suppression was proposed [61]. The first mixing
is to prepare the very lean premixed mixture, the second mixing
is to prepare the distinctively stratified mixture. The premixed
mixture is too lean to lead to knock, the stratified mixture does
not have enough time to proceed the reaction for knock. Use
stratified stoichiometric mixture. Stratified stoichiometric mix-
ture can suppress knocking and knocking intensity is decreasing
with central zone richening. It is demonstrated that stratified
stoichiometric mixture by two-stage injection strategy in GDI
engine can suppress knocking effectively [66,67].
 It is found that the occurrence of auto-ignition in the end gas is
sensitive on the amount of nitric oxide in the rest gas of the SI
engine. The presence of NO in the initial gas has a strong influ-
ence on knock onset [68]. So knock can be suppressed by con-
trolling the concentrations of NO in the rest gas.
 The use of direct injection (DI) of a second fuel, ethanol or meth-
anol (or their concentrated blends), is a means of avoiding
knock in spark-ignited engines. For instance, the dynamics of
alcohol vaporization has substantial impact on the temperature
of the unburned gas in which knock occurs. The concept of
direct alcohol injection for knock control was an effective
method [69,70].
8. Conclusions and recommendations
This paper systematically reviews the engine knock phenome-
non, which includes the mechanisms, influencing factors and
detection methods etc. The visual experiment and simulation re-
searches have shown that knock phenomenon is the process of
one or more auto-ignition kernels formation and rapid propagation
with the speed up to 2000 m/s. In the knock prediction researches,
there are three most commonly used knock models, namely, AnB
Knock model, Shell Knock model and Empirical formulations based
on an Arrhenius function. There is a clear relation between the
propagation velocity and the knock intensity: the faster the reac-
tion front of main heat release propagates, the higher the knock
intensity and the tendency to the formation of knock as such be-
come. The spectrum analysis of knocking combustion phase has
shown that resonance frequency during knocking combustion
635
phase is generally within the range of 6–25 kHz. In the evaluation
of knock intensity, three knock indexes, such as MAPO, IMPG, IMPO
are adopted to evaluate the knock intensity. In the knock suppress-
ing methods, delaying spark ignition time, using Split-injection and
EGR technique etc. can effectively suppress the knock tendency.
Despite great efforts made by researches, knocking combustion
is still a crucial topic concerning engine design and development,
and it needs further improvement. Generally speaking, higher
flame temperature occurs closer to the flame front and it is more
likely for auto-ignition to occur, but a number of experimental re-
searches have shown that auto-ignition usually occurs in the end-
gas area away from the flame front. However the current knock
theories cannot explain this phenomenon because: (1) The inter-
mediate radicals and species analysis among knocking combustion
phase requires further research, what kind of intermediate radicals
and species are related to the occurrence, intensity and duration of
knocking combustion; (2) the detailed mechanisms of using EGR to
suppress knock have also not been studied sufficiently, the influ-
ences of NOX species on the knock researches are not clear; (3)
the current knock researches mainly focus on gasoline fuel, and
the knock mechanisms of alternative fuels such as methanol, eth-
anol and natural gas have not been fully substantiated; (4) there
are some differences between experiments and simulation models,
where the existing knock models should have made some certain
assumptions and some key factors analysis such as the impact of
gas flow may have been ignored. So the authors believe that future
researches should focus on these areas, which not only could help
explain the mechanisms of knocking combustion, but also have an
important contribution to the development of internal combustion
engine.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (Grant No. 51176137).
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