ninth edition TORTORA  FUNKE  CASE

Microbes in Our Lives Microbes in Our Lives

 These small organisms are usually associated with major diseases, or food
MICROBIOLOGY 

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
The overall theme of the Microbiology course is to study the relationship
spoilage.
 However, the majority of microorganisms make crucial contributions to the
an introduction between microbes and our lives.
to the welfare of the world’s inhabitants by maintaining balance of living
 Microorganisms (microbes) are organisms that are too small to be seen
organisms and chemicals in our environment.
with the unaided eye, and usually require a microscope to be seen.
 Therefore, Microorganisms are essential for life on earth.
 Microorganisms include:
 They have important beneficial biological functions:
1. Bacteria
1. Photosynthesis: Marine and freshwater MO (Algae and some bacteria)
The Microbial 2. Fungi (yeasts and molds)
capture energy from sunlight and convert it to food, forming the basis
3. Microscopic Algae
of the food chain in oceans, lakes, and rivers and generates oxygen
World and You 4. Protozoa
which is critical for life on Earth.
5. Viruses, Viroids, Prions
2. Decomposers: Soil microbes break down dead and decaying matter and
(Non-living infectious
recycle chemical elements that can be used by other organisms.
agents)
3. Nitrogen Fixation: Some bacteria can take nitrogen from air and
incorporate it into organic compounds in soil, water, and air.

Microbes in Our Lives Microbes in Our Lives Naming and Classifying Microorganisms
4. Digestion: Human and many other animals have microorganisms in their
8. Genetic engineering: recombinant microbes produce important  Linnaeus established the system of scientific nomenclature (naming)
digestive tract, that are essential for digestion and vitamin synthesis.
a. Medical and therapeutic products: human growth hormone, insuline, of organisms in 1735.
a. Cellulose digestion by ruminants (cows, rabbits, etc.)
blood clotting factor, recombinant vaccines, monoclonal antibodies,…etc.
b. Synthesis of Vitamin K (for blood clotting) and Vitamin B (for  Latin was the language traditionally used by scholars.
b. Commercial products: cellulose, digestive aids, and drain cleaner.
metabolism) in humans.
9. Medical Research: Microbes are well suited for biological and medical 1. Scientific nomenclature assigns each organism two names (Binomial):
5. Synthesis of chemical products: MOs have many commercial applications,
research for several reasons: a. The genus is the first name and is always capitalized.
such as the synthesis of acetone, organic acids, enzymes, alcohols.
a. Relatively simple and small structures, easy to study
6. Medicine: Many antibiotics and other drugs are naturally synthesized by b. The specific epithet (species name) follows and is not
b. Genetic material is easily manipulated.
microbes. capitalized.
c. Can grow a large number of cells very quickly and at low cost.
 Penicillin is made by a mold.
d. Short generation times make them very useful to study genetic 2. Are italicized or underlined.
7. Food industry: many important foods and beverages are made with microbes:
changes. 3. The genus is capitalized and the specific epithet is lower case.
vinegar, pickles, alcoholic beverages, green olives, soy sauce, buttermilk,
 Though only a minority of MOs are pathogenic (disease-producing), practical
cheese, yogurt, and bread. 4. Are “Latinized” and used worldwide.
knowledge of microbes is necessary for medicine and related heath sciences.
5. May be descriptive or honor a scientist.

Naming and Classifying Microorganisms
1. Staphylococcus aureus
 Describes the clustered arrangement of the cells (staphylo),
(coccus) indicates spherical shape, and the golden color of the
colonies (aur-).
2. Escherichia coli
 Honors the discoverer, Theodor Escherich, and describes the
bacterium’s habitat–the large intestine or colon.
3. After the first use, scientific names may be abbreviated with the
first letter of the genus and the specific epithet:
 Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli are found in the
human body. S. aureus is on skin and E. coli in the large intestine.
Types of Microorganisms
BACTERIA
1. Relatively Simple, single-celled (unicelluar) organisms.
2. Prokaryotic (their genetic material is not enclosed in nuclear membrane)
 Prokaryotes include the bacteria and archaea
3. Bacteria appear in one of several shapes:
a. Bacillus (rodlike), b. coccus (spherical),
c. spiral (corkscrew or curved),
d. some are star-shaped or square.
4. Individual bacteria may form pairs, chains, clusters, or other groupings.
5. Enclosed in cell walls largely composed of peptidoglycan (carbohydrate and
protein complex).
6. Reproduce by binary fission (division into two equal cells)
7. For nutrition, most bacteria use organic chemicals derived from dead or living
organisms.
8. Some bacteria produce their food by photosynthesis, and some can derive
nutrition from inorganic substances.
9. Many bacteria can swim by using flagella (moving appendages).

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 Types of Microorganisms Types of Microorganisms
ARCHAEA FUNGI
1. Eukaryotic (have a distinct nucleus containing the cell’s genetic material
1. Consists of prokaryotic cells
surrounded by a nuclear membrane)
2. If they have cell walls, they lack peptidoglycan
2. Organisms in kingdom Fungi may be Unicellular or multicellular
3. Archaea are not known to cause disease in humans.
3. Multicellular fungi, such as mushroom look like plants, but can not carry out
4. Live in extreme environments
photosynthesis.
4. True fungi have cell walls composed of chitin.
5. The unicellular fungi, yeasts, are oval MOs that are larger than bacteria.
6. The most typical fungi are molds, composed of visible masses of filaments
(hyphae) called mycelia.
5. Are divided into three main groups:
7. Use organic chemicals for energy, can not carry out photosynthesis.
a. Methanogens: produce methane as waste product from respiration.
8. Fungi can reproduce sexually and asexually
b. Extreme halophiles: Salt loving, live in extremely salty environments
9. They obtain nutrients by absorbing solutions of organic material from
such as the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea.
environment – soil, sea water, fresh water, or animal or plant host.
c. Extreme thermophiles: Heat loving, live in hot sulfurous water such as
10. Organisms called slime molds have characteristics of both fungi and
hot springs.
ameobas.

Types of Microorganisms
PROTOZOA
1. Unicellular, eukaryotes microbes.
2. Protozoa move by:
a. Pseudopods: extensions of the cytoplasm like Ameoba.,
b. Flagella: long appendages for locomotion like Trypanosoma.
c. Cilia: numerous shorter appendages for locomotion like Paramecium.
3. Protozoa have a variety of shapes.
4. Live as free entities or as parasites (organisms
that derive nutrients from living hosts).
5. Absorb or ingest organic compounds from their
environment)
6. Protozoa can reproduce sexually and asexually.

Figure 1.1c

Types of Microorganisms Types of Microorganisms

ALGAE VIRUSES
1. Photosynthetic eukaryotes 1. So small that can be seen only with electron microscope.
2. Have wide variety of shapes 2. Acellular (not cellular).
3. Reproduce sexually and asexually. 3. Structurally very simple, a virus particle contains
4. Unicellular and multicelluar. a. a core made only of one type of nucleic acid,
5. The cell walls of many algae, like those of plants, either DNA or RNA.consist of DNA or RNA core
are composed of cellulose (a carbohydrate). b. The core is surrounded by a protein coat.
6. Algae are abundant in fresh and salt water, in soil, and in association with c. Sometimes the coat is enclosed in a lipid envelope.
plants. 4. Viruses can reproduce only by using the cellular machinery of other
7. As photosynthesizers, algae need light, water, and carbon dioxide for food organisms.
production and growth. 5. Obligatory intracellular parasites (replicate only when they are in a living
8. Produce molecular oxygen and organic compounds (carbohydrates) that are host cell)
used by other organisms, including animals.
9. They play an important role in the balance of nature.

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 Classification of Microorganisms
 Before the existence of microbes was known, all organisms were
grouped into either the animal kingdom or the plant kingdom.
 In 1978, Carl Woese, devised a system of classification based on the
cellular organization of organisms.
 It groups all organisms in three domains as follows:
1. Bacteria (cell walls contain a protein-carbohydrate complex called
peptidoglycan)
2. Archaea (cell walls, if present, lack peptidoglycan)
3. Eukarya, which includes the following kingdoms:
a. Protists (slime molds, protozoa, and algae)
b. Fungi (unicellular yeasts, multicellular molds, and mushrooms)
c. Plants (includes mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants)
d. Animals (includes sponges, worms, insects, and vertebrates).

A Brief History of Microbiology The Debate Over Spontaneous Generation

 Ancestors of bacteria were the first living cells to appear on Earth.

 In 1665, Robert Hooke reported that living things were composed of little
 Not much more than 100 years ago, many scientists and philosophers
boxes or cells, with the help of a relatively crude
believed that some forms of life could arise spontaneously from
microscope
nonliving matter, they called this the hypothesis of spontaneous
 Cell theory: All living things are composed of cells and come from generation.
preexisting cells.  According to spontaneous generation, a “vital force” forms life.
 The first microbes (animalcules) were observed in 1673 by Leeuwenhoek.  The alternative hypothesis, that the living organisms arise from
 1673-1723: Antoni van Leeuwenhoek described live preexisting life, is called biogenesis.
microorganisms (animalcules) that he observed in
teeth scrapings, rain water.

Evidence PRO and CON Evidence Pro and Con The Controversy Over Spontaneous Generation
John Needham & Lazzaro Spallanzani
Redi’s Experiments Needham’s and Spallanzani’s Exp.
A. In 1668: A strong opponent of SG, Francisco Redi set out to demonstrate  However, many scientists still believed that small organisms such as van
Leeuwenhoek’s “animalcules” were simple enough to be generated from
The Question:
that maggots did not arise spontaneously from decaying meat.
What causes tiny living things to appear in decaying broth?
 Redi’s antagonists were not convinced; they claimed that fresh air was needed nonliving material.

for spontaneous generation. B. In 1745: John Needham performed an experiment which seemed to
strengthen the SG of MOs. Needham’s Hypothesis: Spontaneous generation.
 Redi set up a second experiment, in which
1. He heated nutrient fluids (chicken broth)
1. a jar was covered with a fine net instead of being sealed.
2. Poured them into covered flasks Spallazani’s Hypothesis: Microbes come from the air. Boiling will kill them.
2. No larvae appeared in the gauze-covered jar, even though air was present.
3. The cooled solution were soon teeming with microorganisms.
3. Maggots appeared only when flies were allowed to leave eggs on the meat.
4. Needham claimed that microbes developed spontaneously from the
 Redi’s results blowed the belief that large forms of life could arise from Needham >
fluids.
nonlife. C. 20 years later, Lazzaro Spallanzani, suggested that MOs from the air
1713 - 1781
probably had entered Needham’s solutions after they were boiled.
 Spallanzani showed that nutrients fluids heated after being sealed in a
flask did not develop microbial growth. Spallazani
 Needham responded by claiming the “vital force” was destroyed by heat > 1729 - 1799
Francesco Redi, Italian
physician, naturalist & poet,
1626 – 1697. and kept out of the flasks by the seals.

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 Evidence Pro and Con The Theory of Biogenesis Pasteur’s Findings
 The “ vital force” principle was strengthened when Anton Lavoisier showed the
1. Pasteur next placed broth in open-ended long-necked flasks and bent the 1. Pasteur showed that MOs can be present in nonliving matter- on
importance of oxygen to life.
necks into S-shaped curves. solids, in liquids, and in the air.
 Therefore, Spallanzani’s observations were criticized on the grounds that
2. The contents of these flasks were then boiled and cooled.
there was not enough oxygen in the sealed flasks to support microbial growth. 2. He demonstrated that microbial life can be destroyed by heat and
3. The broth of in the flasks did not decay and showed no signs of life.
D. In 1858, Rudolw Virchow challenged SG with the concept of Biogenesis, the devised methods to block access of airborne MOs to nutrients.
4. Pasteur’s S-shaped neck allowed air to pass into the flask, but trapped the
claim that living cells can arise only from preexisting living cells. 3. These discoveries forms the basis of aseptic techniques
airborne MOs that might contaminate the broth.
E. In 1861: Louis Pasteur demonstrated that microorganisms are present in the (techniques that prevent contamination by unwanted MOs.), which
air and can contaminate sterile solutions, but air itself does not create are now the standard practice in laboratory and many medical
microbes. procedures.
1. He filled several short-necked flasks with beef broth and boiled them.
2. Some were left open and allowed to cool.
3. In a few days, these flasks were found to be contaminated with microbes.
4. The sealed after-boiling flasks were free of microorganisms.
5. Pasteur reasoned that microbes in the air were the agents responsible for
contaminating nonliving matter. Figure 1.3

The Golden Age of Microbiology Fermentation and Pasteurization The Germ Theory of Disease
 At that time, many scientists believed that air converted the sugars in
 The period from 1857-1914, has been named the Golden Age of beverages into alcohols.
 Before the time of Pasteur, effective treatments for many diseases were
Microbiology.  Pasteur found instead that microbes called yeasts convert the sugars to
discovered by trial and error, but the causes of the diseases were unknown.
 During this period, rapid advances headed by Pasteur and Robert alcohols in the absence of air in a process called fermentation.
 The realization that yeasts play a crucial role in fermentation was the first
Koch, led to the establishment of microbiology as a science.  Fermentation is the conversion of sugar to alcohol to make beer and wine.
link between the activity of a MO and physical and chemical changes in
 Beginning with Pasteur’s work, discoveries included  Souring and spoilage are caused by different MOs called bacteria.
organic materials.
1. The agents of many diseases.  In the presence of air, bacteria change the alcohol in the beverage into
 This discovery alerted scientists that MOs might have similar relationships
vinegar (acetic acid).
2. The role of immunity in the prevention and cure of diseases. with plants and animals- specially, that MOs might cause diseases.
 Pasteur’s solution to the spoilage problem was to heat the beer and wine
3. The relationship between microbes and disease.  This idea was known as the germ theory of disease.
just enough to kill most of the bacteria that caused the spoilage in a
4. Antimicrobial drugs  Many people did not accept this theory at that time, because for centuries
process called pasteurization.
disease was believed to be punishment for individual’s crimes and misdeeds.
5. Improved the techniques for microscopy and culturing
 Pasteurization is now commonly used to reduce spoilage and kill potentially
microorganisms. harmful bacteria in milk as well as in some alcoholic drinks.
6. Development of vaccines and surgical techniques.  Showing the connection between spoilage of food and MOs was a major step
7. Studying the chemical activities of microorganisms. towards establishing the relationship between disease and microbes.

The Germ Theory of Disease Vaccination The Birth of Modern Chemotherapy

 1835: Agostino Bassi showed that a silkworm disease was caused by a  1796: Edward Jenner found a way to protect people from smallpox almost  Treatment of disease by using chemical substances is called chemotherapy.
fungus. 70 years before Koch established that microorganism causes anthrax.  Chemotherapeutic agents prepared from chemicals in the laboratory are

 1865: Pasteur found that another recent silkworm disease was caused by a  He inoculated a healthy 8-years-old volunteer with cowpox virus. The person called synthetic drugs.

protozoan. was then protected from cowpox and smallpox.  Chemotherapeutic agents produced naturally by bacteria and fungi to act
 The process was called Vaccination, derived from Latine word vacca for cow. against other MOs are called antibiotics.
 1840s: Ignaz Semmelwise advocated hand washing to prevent transmission
 The protection from disease provided by vaccination or by recovery from  The success of chemotherapy is based on the fact that some chemicals are
of childbirth fever from one obstetrical patient to another.
the disease itself is called immunity. more poisonous to MOs than to the hosts infected by the microbes.
 1860s: Joseph Lister used a chemical disinfectant (phenol) to prevent
 In about 1880, Pasteur discovered why vaccination work by working on  Quinine from tree bark was long used to treat malaria.
surgical wound infections after looking at Pasteur’s work showing microbes
cholera vaccination.  1910: Paul Ehrlich developed the first synthetic drug, Salvarsan (arsenic
are in the air, can spoil food, and cause animal diseases.
 Pasteur used the term vaccine for cultures of avirulent microorganisms used derivative), to treat syphilis. (the magic bullet!)
 1876: Robert Koch proved for the first time that a bacterium causes for preventive inoculation.  1930s: Several other synthetic drugs derived from dyes that could destroy
anthrax and provided the experimental steps, Koch’s postulates, to prove MOs were developed.
that a specific microbe causes a specific disease.  Sulfonamides (sulfa drugs) were synthesized at about the same time.

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The Birth of Modern Chemotherapy
 1928: Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic.
 On a contaminated plate, around the mold ( Penicillium) was a clear area
where bacterial growth had been inhibited.
 He observed that the Penicillium mold made an antibiotic, penicillin, that
killed S. aureus.
 1940s: Penicillin was tested clinically and mass produced.
 Since then, thousands of antibiotics have been discovered.
 Antibiotics and other chemotherapeutic drug faces many problem:
 Toxicity to humans in practical use, specially
antiviral drugs (why ?)
 The emergence and spread of new varieties
of MOs that are resistant to antibiotics.
(due to bacterial enzymes that inactivate antibiotics,
or prevention of Abt. From entering the microbe.)
Modern Developments in Microbiology
Branches of Microbiology
 Virology is the study of viruses.
 In 1892, Dimitri Iwanowski reported that the organism that
caused mosaic disease of tobacco was so small that is passed the
bacterial filters.
 In 1935, Wendell Stanely demonstrated that the organism ,
called tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), was different from other
microbes, so simple, and composed of only nucleic acid core and
protein core.
 In 1940s, the development of electron microscope enabled the
scientists to observe the structure and activity of viruses in
detail.
 Phycology is the study of algae
Microbes and Human Welfare
 SEWAGE TREATMENT: Using microbes to recycle water.
 Recycling water and prevent the pollution of rivers and oceans
 Bacteria degrade organic matter in sewage (99% water), producing such
by-products as carbon dioxide, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, ammonia,
hydrogen sulfide, and methane.
 BIOREMEDIATION: Using microbes to clean up pollutants.
 In 1988, microbes began used to clean up pollutants and
toxic wastes produced by various industrial processes.
 Bacteria degrade or detoxify pollutants such as oil and
mercury.
 In addition, bacterial enzymes are used in drain
cleaners to remove clogs
 Such bioremedial microbes are Pseudomonas and
Bacillus, their enzymes used in household detergents.
Modern Developments in Microbiology
Branches of Microbiology
 Immunology is the study of immunity.
 Bacteriology is the study of bacteria.
 Began with the van Leeuwenhoek’s first examination of tooth scrapings.
 New pathogenic bacteria are still discovered regularly.
 Many bacteriologists, look at the roles of bacteria in food and
environment.
 Mycology is the study of fungi.
 Includes medical, agricultural, and ecological branches.
 Fungal infections accounting for 10% of hospital acquired infections.
 Parasitology is the study of protozoa and parasitic worms.
 Recent advances in genomics, the study of all of an organism’s genes,
have provided new tools for classifying microorganisms.
 Previously these MOs were classified according to a limited number of
visible characteristics.
Figure 1.5
Modern Developments in Microbiology
Branches of Microbiology
 Recombinant DNA Technology:
 In the 1960s, Paul Berg inserted animal DNA into bacterial DNA and the
bacteria produced an animal protein.
 Recombinant DNA is DNA made from two different sources.
 Recombinant DNA technology, or genetic engineering, involves microbial
genetics and molecular biology.
 Using microbes
 Beadle and Tatum showed that genes encode a cell’s enzymes (1942).
 Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty showed that DNA was the hereditary
material (1944).
 Lederberg and Tatum discovered that genetic material could be
transferred from one bacterium to another by conjugation (1946).
 Watson and Crick proposed a model for the structure of DNA (1953).
 Jacob and Monod discovered the role of mRNA in protein synthesis (1961).
UN 2.1
Modern Developments in Microbiology
Branches of Microbiology
 Vaccines and interferons are being investigated to prevent and cure viral
diseases.
 Vaccines are now available for numerous diseases, including measles,
rubella (German measles), mumps, chickenpox, pneumococcal pneumonia,
tetanus, tuberculosis, whooping coughs, polio, and hepatitis B.
 Smallpox was eradicated due to effective vaccination and polio is
expected to.
 Interferons, substances produced by the body’s own
immune system, inhibit the replication of viruses and
are used to treat viral diseases and cancer.
 The use of immunology to identify and classify some
bacteria according to serotypes (variants within
a species) based on certain components in the cell
walls of the bacteria, was proposed by Rebecca Lancefield in 1933.
Microbes and Human Welfare
 Only minority of all MOs are pathogenic.
 Microbes that cause food spoilage are also a minority.
 The vast majority of microbes benefit humans, other animals, and plants in
many ways.
 RECYCLING VITAL ELEMENTS
 In 1880s, Beijerinck and Winogradsky showed how bacteria help recycle vital
elements between the soil and the atmosphere.
 Microbial ecology: the study of the relationship between microorganisms and
their environment.
 Microorganisms recycle carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and phosphorus into
forms that can be used by plants and animals.
 Bacteria and fungi, return CO2 to the atmosphere when decomposing organic
wastes and dead plants and animals.
 Algae, cyanobacteria, and plants use CO2 to produce carbohydrates.
Microbes and Human Welfare
 INSECT BEST CONTROL BY MOs
 Insect pest control is important for both agriculture and the prevention
of human diseases.
 Bacillus thuringiensis infections are fatal for many insects but harmless
to other animals, including humans, and to plants.
 The bacteria produce protein crystals that are toxic to the digestive
systems of the insects.
 The toxin gene has been inserted into some plants to make them insect
resistant.
 Microbes that are pathogenic to insects are alternatives to chemical
pesticides in preventing insect damage to agricultural crops, disease
transmission, and avoid harming the environment.
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 Microbes and Human Disease Microbes and Human Disease
Microbes and Human Welfare NORMAL MICROBIOTA INFECTIOUS DISEASES
 MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY AND RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
 We all live in a world filled with microbes, and we all have a variety of  An infectious disease is one in which pathogens invade a susceptible host,
 Biotechnology, the use of microbes to produce foods and chemicals, is
microorganisms on and in our bodies. such as a human or animal.
centuries old.
 Microbes normally present in and on the human body are called normal  The pathogen carries out at least part of its life cycle inside the host, and
 Genetic engineering is a new technique for biotechnology. Through genetic
microbiota, or flora. disease frequently results.
engineering, bacteria and fungi can produce a variety of proteins including
 Bacteria were once classified as plants giving rise to use of the term  When a pathogen overcomes the host’s resistance, disease results.
vaccines and enzymes.
 Recombinant DNA techniques have been used to produce a number of flora for microbes.  Many mistakenly believed that infectious diseases were under control

natural proteins, vaccines, and enzymes.  This term has been replaced by microbiota. a. Malaria would be eradicated by killing mosquitoes by DDT.

 The very exciting and important outcome of recombinant DNA techniques is
Gene Therapy: inserting a missing gene or replacing a defective one in
human cells by using a harmless virus to carry the missing or new gene into
certain host cells.
 Genetically modified bacteria are used to protect crops from insects, from
freezing, and to improve the appearance, flavor, and shelf life of fruits and
vegetables. (more: Drought resistance and temperature tolerance)
 The normal microbiota not only harmless, but also benefit us.
1. Some protect us against disease by preventing the over-growth of
harmful microbes.
2. Others produce useful substances such as vitamine K and B.
 Unfortunately, under some circumstances normal microbiota can make us
sick or infect people we contact.
b. A vaccine would prevent diphtheria.
c. Improved sanitation measures would help prevent cholera transmission.
 Recent outbreaks of such infectious diseases indicates that not only they
are not disappearing, but seem to be reemerging and increasing.
 In addition, a number of new diseases -Emerging infectious diseases (EID)-
have cropped up in recent years

Microbes and Human Disease

EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES Emerging Infectious Diseases Emerging Infectious Diseases
 Emerging infectious diseases (EID): are diseases that are new or changing and 3. Escherichia coli O57:H7 7. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
a. Toxin-producing strain of E. coli a. SARS-associated Coronavirus
are increasing or have the potential to increase in incidence in the near future.
b. First seen in 1982 b. Occurred in 2002-2003
 Some factors that have contributed to the emergence of EIDs:
c. Leading cause of diarrhea worldwide c. Person-to-person transmission
a. Evolutionary changes in existing organisms.
4. Ebola hemorrhagic fever 8. Cryptosporidiosis
b. The spread of known diseases to new geographic regions or populations by
a. Caused by Ebola virus a. Caused by Cryptosporidium protozoa
modern transportation.
b. Causes fever, hemorrhaging, and blood clotting b. First reported in 1976
c. Increased human exposure to new, unusual infectious agents. c. First identified near Ebola River, Congo c. Causes 30% of diarrheal illness in developing countries
1. West Nile encephalitis d. Outbreaks every few years. d. In the United States, transmitted via water
 Caused by West Nile virus 5. Invasive group A Streptococcus 9. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
 First diagnosed in the West Nile region of Uganda in 1937 a. Rapidly growing bacteria that cause extensive tissue damage a. Caused by Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
 Appeared in New York City in 1999 b. Increased incidence since 1995 b. First identified in 1981
2. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy 6. Avian influenza A (H5N1) c. Worldwide epidemic infecting 44 million people; 14,000 new infections daily
a. Caused by prion a. Caused by Influenza A virus (H5N1) d. Sexually transmitted disease affecting males and females
b. Also causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) b. Primarily in waterfowl and poultry e. In the United States, HIV/AIDS cases: 30% are female and 75% are
c. Sustained human-to-human transmission has not occurred yet African American
c. New variant CJD in humans is related to cattle feed from infected sheep.