EMT 124: FUNDAMENTAL OF

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Chapter 1: Transformer
 Electrical Machines & Engineering
What is Electrical Machines ??
A device that can convert either from mechanical energy to electrical energy
or vice versa through the action of magnetic field .

ELECTRIC MACHINE

Bearer Electric Circuit and magnetic field

STATIONARY / RIGID E.MACHINE ROTATING / FLEXIBLE E.MACHINE

 Working principle

1. Is a Transformer

2. Is a Motor 3. Is a generator
 Transformer- Introduction
• Introduction
• Construction
• Ideal Transformer & Working principles
• Transformer classifications
• Transformer polarity
• Impedance Transformation
• Non Ideal Transformer
• Transformer Equivalent Model Circuit
• Determination of equivalent circuit parameters
• Transformer Voltage regulation
• Transformer Efficiency
• Transformer Phasor Diagram
• 3 phase transformer

4
 CH1. TRANSFORMER
WHAT IS TRANSFORMER??

A Device that changes ac electric energy at one voltage level to another voltage
level through the action of magnetic field at same frequency.

Transformer is a static device working on

the principle of Faraday's law of induction.
 Transformer - Introduction

Symbol

Various of transformers
 Transformer - Introduction
Electrical Power Transmission System

Power loss can be greatly reduced if transmitted at high voltage

 Transformer - Introduction
WHY NEED TRANSFORMER ?

Power efficiency over a long distance

1. Power at high voltage is necessary to decrease the lines

losses.

2. Power at low voltage is necessary to be used at safe level

in home appliances and most equipments.

Principal purpose: convert ac power at one voltage

level to another voltage level of the same frequency
 Transformer Construction

LOAD

Single phase transformer construction

1. The primary winding -the input winding, connected to an ac power

source
2. The secondary winding is the output winding to load.
3. The windings are not directly connected. Magnetic flux present in
ferromagnetic core connects the windings.
 TYPES OF
TRANSFORMER

CORE SHELL

Windings wrapped around the Windings wrapped around the

two sides of a rectangular center leg of a three-legged
laminated piece of steel. laminated core.

A ) C o re ty pe B ) S h ell ty p e

** both core is built up of thin laminations, which are electrically isolated from each other to minimize
eddy currents.
 Ideal Transformer
• Primary and secondary windings has no resistance.
• All the flux produced by the primary links the secondary winding
i,e., there is no leakage flux.
• Permeability, μr of the core is infinitely large. In other words, to
establish flux in the core vanishingly small (or zero) current is
required.
• Core loss comprising of eddy current and hysteresis losses are
neglected.

11
 Ideal Transformer : Working Principle

• AC voltage is applied to the primary winding (N1), result an AC

current.

• The AC primary current i1 sets up a time-varying magnetic flux φ in

the core. The flux links the secondary winding (N2) of the
transformer.

• Flux in the core induce (electromotive force, emf) in N1 and N2 due

to rate of change of the magnetic flux, φM as stated by the
Faraday’s Law.
 Ideal Transformer : Working Principle
Faraday’s Law:
Shows that: The induced voltage (emf ) e in a coil is equal to the
rate of change of magnetic flux times with the number of turns in the
coil, thus
d
eN …………......…….(eq 1.1)
dt
Where,
e : induced voltage (emf) by magnetic flux
N : Number of turns in the coil
 : effective magnetic flux
 Ideal Transformer : Working Principle
The magnitude of magnetic flux, ϕ is assumed to be varying sinusoidally from input
AC voltage, and can be expressed as,
  max sin t …………......…….(1.2)

where ϕ max is the peak amplitude of the flux density. omega is the angular rate of
change with time.

Substituting equation 1.2 into equation 1.1

d d
eN  N (  max sin 2ft )…………......…….(1.3)
dt dt
Solving for this equation …then the RMS value of the induced voltage , Erms
is given as:

N max
Erms   4.44 fN max ………………….(1.4)
2
f = supply frequency in hertz
 Ideal Transformer : Working Principle

d
e1  N1
dt
At primary

d
e2  N2
dt
At secondary

Thus, the primary-to-secondary voltage ratio

e1 N 1 v1 i 2
   a Where;
e 2 N 2 v 2 i1 a = Turns ratio
 Ideal Transformer
Characteristics of an ideal transformer:
1. - Windings with zero impedance
2. - Lossless v1=e1 v2=e2
3. - Infinite permeability core
4. - 100% efficiency

• Zero resistance result in zero voltage drops between the terminal

voltages and induced voltages

N 1 v1 v p e1 i 2
a    
N 2 v 2 vs e 2 i1
Real, Reactance, Apparent Power
The power supplied to the transformer by the primary winding:

Pin = V1I1 cos 1

Where:
cos  = power factor
1 = the angle between the primary voltage and the primary current

The power supplied by the transformer secondary winding:

Pout = V2I2 cos 2
Where:
2 = the angle between the secondary voltage and the secondary current

For an ideal transformer, 1=2 ;same power factor,

then the Real Power (unit in Watt)

Pout = Pin
For an Non ideal transformer

Reactive power, Q and apparent (average) power, S :

The reactive power (Q)

The Power that absorbed and returned in load due to its reactive properties (eg
inductor or capacitor) is referred to as reactive power. Reactive power is a
function of a circuit’s reactance (X).
Qin = Qout = V1I1 sin  = V2I2 sin  it is measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-
Reactive (VAR).

The apparent (complex) power (S)

The total power in an AC circuit, both dissipated and absorbed/returned is
referred to as apparent power. Apparent power is a function of a circuit’s total
impedance (Z).
Sin = Sout = V1I1 = V2I2 It is measured in the unit called Volt-Amps (VA).
These three types of power —true, reactive, and apparent—relate to
one another in trigonometric form. We call this the power triangle:

THE POWER TRIANGLE

Transformer classifications

N 1 v1 e1 i 2
a   
N 2 v 2 e 2 i1

Turn ratio, a will classify the transformer :

If, a > 1  Step down transformer Two main

classification
a < 1  Step up transformer
a = 1  Isolation Transformer
TRANSFORMER CLASSIFICATIONS:

Step-up transformers
– Permit higher voltage at secondary windings
– connected between the generator and transmission line.
– Turn ratio, a < 1

Step-down transformers
– connected between the transmission line and various electrical loads.
– Permit low voltage at secondary windings
– Turn ratio, a > 1
 Transformer polarity
DOT CONVENTION:

• The dot convention appearing at one end of each winding, tell

the polarity of the voltage and current on the primary and
secondary side of the transformer.

• If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the winding

with respect to the undotted end, then the secondary voltage will
be positive at the dotted end also. Voltage polarities are the same
with respect to the doted on each side of the core.

• If the primary current of the transformer flow into the dotted end
of the primary winding, the secondary current will flow out of the
dotted end of the secondary winding. Refer fig 1.next slide
Transformer polarity

Fig1: Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer

 Example 1

1. A 250 kVA, 11000V/400V, 50Hz single phase transformer has

80 turns on the secondary. Assume the transformer is ideal.
Calculate:
i) Sketch and label the transformer
a)The values of the primary and secondary currents
b) The number of primary turns
c) The maximum value of flux, фm.
 Solution Example 1
SOLUTION:
a) I1 = S1/V1
= 250kVA/11kV = 22.73A

I2 = V1I1/V2
= (11kV)(22.73A) / 400V = 625 A

b) a = N1/N2 = I2/I1 = V1/V2

a = V1/V2 = 11000V/400V = 27.5
N1 = aN2 = (27.5)(80) = 2200 turns

c) E1 = 4.44 fN1 фmax

E1 = V1
Фmax = V1/4.44 fN1
= 11000V / (4.44)(50Hz)(2200) = 22.5mWb
 Ideal Transformer :
Impedance Transformation
Impedance - is the ratio of the phasor
voltage across it to the phasor current
flowing through it.
VL
ZL 
IL
V V s 2
Z  
L

I I s 2

Impedance of primary circuit,

Vp aVS 2 VS
Z'L   a
Ip IS / a IS
Figure: a) Definition of Impedance;
Z'  a Z
L
2
L b) Impedance through transformer
** With a transformer, it is possible to match the magnitude of a load impedance to a source/input/primary
impedance simply by picking the proper turns ratio.
 Example 2

A 100-kVA, 2400/240-V, 60-Hz of a single phase

transformer is used between a transmission line and a
distribution system.

a) Determine turns ratio.

b) Find secondary load impedance which cause the
transformer to be fully loaded, and what is the
corresponding primary current?
c) Find the apparent impedance of the primary.
 Solution to Example 2

a) Turns ratio, a = 2400 / 240 = 10

b) Is= 100,000/240 = 416.67 A

Ip = Is /a = 416.67 / 10 = 41.67 A
Magnitude of the load impedance
= Vs/Is = 240/416.7 = 0.576 ohm

c) the apparent impedance of the primary

= a2*0.576 = 57.6 ohm
 Non Ideal Transformer
(Real/Practical Transformer)
For a non-ideal/practical transformer, the output power is less
than the input power because of losses.

Practical transformer has :

a) Hysteresis (Magnetic Domain) losses
b) Eddy-current (or heating losses in core) losses
c) Leakage flux losses
d) Copper Resistive losses

Two components of flux exist:

1. Leakage flux ϕL- flux links only the primary or

secondary winding.

2. Mutual flux ϕM - links both primary and

secondary windings in the core
 Non Ideal Transformer
(Real/Practical Transformer)
4 LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER:

1. Copper losses – The resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary
windings, Resistance R1 & R2
2. Eddy Current Losses - The resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer,
resistance RC
3. Hysteresis losses - Associated with the re-arrangement of the magnetic domains
in the core during each half cycle. They are complex, nonlinear function of the
voltage applied to the transformer. Reactance Xm
4. Leakage flux – the fluxes at primary and secondary which escape the core and
pass through only one of the transformer windings. Reactance X1 & X2

These losses occurred in a real/practical transformer and the circuit can be

modeled as:
1. Exact Equivalent circuit
2. Approximate Equivalent circuit
 Non Ideal Transformer
(Real/Practical Transformer)
*** NO LOAD Model

No-
Load

Exact Equivalent Model Circuit

Characteristics:
Power out = 0 (no load at secondary )
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

Power in = power out + power loss

Power loss = core loss + Cu loss
Cu = 0 (no load)
Power in = core loss
=Ic2Rc Watt
Non Ideal Transformer
***UNDER LOAD MODEL

Symbol Description
a Turns ratio
E1 E2 Primary and secondary induced voltages
V1 V2 Primary and secondary terminal voltages
I1 I2 Primary and secondary currents
I I0 No load current
R1 x1 Primary winding resistance and reactance
R2 x2 Secondary winding resistance and reactance
Im Xm Magnetizing current and reactance
Ic Rc Core loss current and resistance
The previous figures are exact circuit model of a transformer, but to
analyze practical circuits containing transformer, it is necessary to
refer to its primary side or to its secondary side because it is
necessary to convert the entire circuit to an approximate circuit at a
single voltage level.
 Not the exact
equivalent
APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Referred to primary

Referred to secondary
** How to Check and Examine APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT**
1. See the Transformer symbol has been removed.
2. Calculation should be done at……………??
 Non Ideal Transformer
(Real/Practical Transformer)
APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT, AEC
Referred to primary

I2/a

Req_1 = R1 + a2R2
Further Simplified circuit.
Take note on notation jXeq_1 = X1 + a2X2
and equation
 Non Ideal Transformer
(Real/Practical Transformer)
APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Referred to secondary

Req_2 = R1/a2 + R2
jXeq_2 = X1/a2 + X2
 Non Ideal Transformer
(Real/Practical Transformer)
APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

In some applications, the excitation branch may be neglected entirely without

causing error. In this cases, the equivalent circuits in the previous slides reduces to
these simples circuits:

Referred to primary Referred to secondary

Reqp = R1 + a2R2
ReqS= R1/a2 + R2
jXeqp = X1 + a2X2
jXeqS= X1/a2 + X2
 Transformer Characteristics
Transformer characteristics can be defined by:-
• Efficiency
• Voltage regulation.

Good transformers has high efficiency and low voltage

regulation.
Through short circuit and open circuit test, parameter, power
loss, efficiency and voltage regulation can be determined
 Transformer Efficiency
Efficiency of an ideal transformer is defined as :

Pout
 X 100 %
Pin

In practice, the efficiency of a transformer is about 97% or better

For a non-ideal transformer, the output power is less than the input
power because of losses.
2 types of losses – Copper losses (winding or I2R losses)
- Iron Core losses (Hysteresis & eddy-current losses)

Pout
 X 100 %
Pout  Plosses
For Ideal Transformer,

Pout  Pin
For non-ideal transformer, losses are considered, therefore
P in  P out  P losses
and Plosses  PCopper  PCore

Then,

Pin  Plosses
Efficiency ,  X 100%
Pin
or
Pout
 X 100%
Pout  PCopper  PCore
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
• Voltage regulation - a measure of the change in the terminal voltage of
the transformer with respect to loading.
• Defined as
V2 noload  V2 fullload
VR  X 100%
V2 fullload

In calculation of voltage regulation, the equivalent circuit can be referred to

primary and secondary side.
Good practice to have a small voltage regulation as possible.
For an ideal transformer, V.R = 0 %
 Example 3

2. A single phase power system consists of a 480V-60Hz generator supplying

a load Zload= 4 + j3Ω through a transmission line of impedance Zline = 0.18 +
j0.24Ω. Answer the following question about the system. If the power is
exactly as described in the Figure1, what will the voltage at the load be? What
will the transmission line losses be?
 Solution Example 3
Solution:

IL = V/ (Zline + Zload)

Zline + Zload = (0.18 + j0.24Ω) + (4 + j3Ω)

= 4.18 + j3.24 = 5.29 < 37.8o
IL = 480 < 0o / (5.29< 37.8o) = 90.74 < -37.8o A

VLoad = IL x ZLoad
= (90.74 < -37.8o) (5 < 36.9o) = 4537 < - 0.9o V

Line Losses = ILine2 x RLine Power in Watt only consider Resistance

= (90.74) 2 (0.18) = 1482 W
 Determining The Parameters In
Transformer Model
The equivalent circuit model can be used to predict the
behavior of real transformer.

The parameters Rc, Xm, R1, X1, R2, X2 and N1/N2 must be
known so that the equivalent circuit model can be used.

These parameters can be directly and more easily

determined by performing tests:
• Open circuit test (No load test)
• Short circuit test
 Open Circuit Test
In open Circuit Test: Need to determine RcLV & XmLV

• one of the winding of transformer is open while the other one is excited by applying
full rated line voltage.

•Test (measurement) is conducted on the Low Voltage,(LV) side of the

transformer (to find power, voltage and current). And it does not matter
whether the LV region is at primary or at secondary side)

•Meaning, the line voltage is applied at the low voltage (LV) side of the
transformer while the high voltage, HV side is opened.

LV HV
 Open Circuit Test
Open circuit test : Need to determine RcLV & XmLV

V 2oc
RC LV 
Poc

Poc
Power Factor , Cos oc 
VocIoc
 Poc 
1
oc  Cos  
 VocIoc 

I m  I oc sin  oc
Voc
XmLV 
Im
 Short Circuit Test
This test is designed to determine the winding resistances and leakage
resistance

In short circuit test: Need to determine ReqHV and XeqHV

• one winding of the transformer is short circuited while another winding is excited
by applying full rated line voltage.

• test is conducted on high voltage, HV side while short circuit on the low
voltage, LV side.
 Short Circuit Test
Short circuit test : Need to determine ReqHV and XeqHV

PSC
Req 
HV I 2SC

Equivalent circuit for short circuit test

PSC
Power Factor,cos sc 
VSC I SC

 SC  cos 1
 PSC
VSC I SC

V SC
Z sc  I SC Simplified equivalent circuit

XeqHV  Zsc sin sc

 Simplified Circuit
Simplified Circuit referred to HV Simplified Circuit referred to LV
(primary) (secondary)
 Example 4
3. Test are performed on a single phase transformer rated 10 kVA,
2200/220V, 60 Hz and the following results are obtained.

Open Circuit test (HV Short Circuit test (LV side

side opened) shorted
VOC = 220V VSC = 150V
IOC = 2.5A ISC = 4.55A
POC = 100W PSC = 215 W

a)Calculate the parametes RcLV , XmLV , ReHV & XeHV and

approximate equivalent circuits referred to the low voltage and
high voltage side.
b)Express the excitation current as a percentage of the rated
current
c)Determine the power factor for the no load and short circuit test
 Solution Example 4
Solution a):

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST: HV side opened

(means calculate at LV side)

RCLV = VOC2 / POC Im = IOC sin θOC

= (220)2 / 100 = 484 Ω = 2.5 sin 79.52o = 2.458 A

XMLV = VOC / Im XMLV = VOC / Im

Im = IOC sin θOC = 220 / 2.458 = 89.5 Ω
POC = VOC IOC cos θOC
Cos θOC = POC / VOC IOC
= 100 / (220 x 2.5)
= 0.182
θOC = 79.52o
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST : LV side shorted (means calculate at HV side)

Cos θSC = PSC / VSC ISC

PSC 2
= ISC REHV = 215 / 150 (4.55) = 0.315
REHV = PSC / ISC2 θSC = 71.64°
= 215/ (4.55) 2 = 10.38 Ω
XEHV = Z SC Sin θSC
ZEHV = VSC / ISC = 32.97 * Sin 71.64°
= 150 / 4.55 = 32. 97 Ω = 31.29 Ω

OR
XEHV = √ (ZEHV) 2 – (REHV) 2
= √ (32.97) 2 – (10.38) 2 = 31.29 Ω
 From the calculation above, we get these calculated values:
RCLV = 484 Ω XMLV = 89.5 Ω
REHV = 10.38 Ω XEHV = 31.29 Ω

Equivalent circuit refer to HV (primary side)

Value for REHV and XEHV remain the same.
RCLV and XMLV need to convert to HV (primary side)
Refer to primary side : multiply a2

RCHV = a2 RCLV
= (V1/V2)2 RCLV
= (2200/220) 2 x 484 = 48.4 kΩ

XMHV = a2 XMLV
= (V1/V2)2 XMLV Equivalent Circuit (refer to primary side)
= (2200/220) 2 x 89.5 = 8.95 kΩ
Equivalent circuit refer to LV (secondary side)
Value RCLV and XMLV remain the same.
REHV and XEHV need to convert to LV (secondary side)
Refer to secondary side : multiply 1/a2

RELV = (1/a2) REHV

= (V2/V1)2 RELV
= (220/2200) 2 x 10.38
= 0.1038 Ω

XELV = (1/a2) XELV

= (V2/V1)2 XEHV
= (220/2200) 2 x 31.29
Equivalent Circuit (refer to secondary side)
= 0.3129 Ω
b) Excitation current as percentage of the rated current
IOC = IO + I1

I1 =0 because primary opened

Irated = S/V2
= 10k / 220 = 45.45 A

IOC = 2.5 A
Percentage = ( IOC / Irated ) x 100%
= (2.5 / 45.45) x 100%
= 5.50 %
c) Power factor for the no load and short circuit test

Power factor at no load : Power factor at no load (refer to open circuit test!!!)
PF = Cos θOC = POC / VOC IOC
= 100 / 220 (2.5) = 0.182

Power factor short circuit :

PF = Cos θSC = PSC / VSC ISC
= 215 / 150 (4.55) = 0.315
 Transformer Phasor Diagram
• What is phasor diagram?
– A sketch of phasor voltages and currents in the transformer.
• Why need it?
– Easiest way to determine the effect of the impedances and the current phase
angles on the transformer voltage regulation.

• Vs is assumed to be at an angle of 0 degree, and all other voltages and currents are
compared to that references.
• A transformer phasor diagram is presented by applying Kirchhoff's Voltage law to
the transformer equivalent circuit and an equation will be as follows.
 Transformer Phasor Diagram
Lagging Power Factor

Unity Power Factor

Leading Power Factor

 Transformer Application
1. Voltage level adjustment (step-up and step-down transformers).
2. Voltage and current measurement.
3. Isolation for safety (isolation transformers)
4. Impedance matching (for maximum power transfer from the source to
the load)

Review:
• Unit transformer – Connected the output of a generator and used to step the voltage up
to transmission levels (110kV)
• Substation transformer – Connected at the other end of the transmission line which
steps the voltage down from transmission level to distribution levels (2.3 to 34.5 kV).
• Distribution transformer – Takes the distribution voltage and steps it down to the final
voltage (110V, 208V,220V,etc)
• Special-purpose transformers :
» Potential transformer
» Current transformer
 Transformer Application

Elements of Power Transmission and Distribution System

 Three Phase Transformer
Almost all the major power generation and distribution systems in the world
today are three-phase ac system.

Two ways of constructing transformer of three-phase circuit;

(i) Three single phase transformers are connected in three-phase bank.
 Three Phase Transformer
(ii) Make a three-phased transformer consisting of three sets of windings
wrapped on a common core.

The three-phased transformer on a common core is preferred because it is

lighter, smaller, cheaper and slightly more efficient.
 Three Phase Transformer

Advantages three phase transformer

Less material for the same three phase power and voltage ratings
Smaller/lighter because all connection are made internally
Less cost to manufacture
Less external wiring
It has slightly better efficiency

Disadvantages three phase transformer

Failure of one phase puts the entire transformer out of service.
 Three Phase Transformer
The primary and secondary windings of the three phase transformer may be
independently connected in either a WYE (Y) or DELTA () connection. As a result,
four types of three phase transformers are commonly use.

Winding Connections Applications

Wye-Wye (Y-Y) Connection Seldom used because of possible voltage
unbalances and problems with third harmonic
voltages

Wye-Delta (Y-Δ) Connection Used in stepping down or as in distribution

transformer. Frequently used to interconnect high
voltage networks (240 kV/345 kV). The delta
winding filters the 3rd harmonic, equalizes the
unbalanced current and provides a path for ground
current

Delta-Wye (Δ-Y) Connections Step up transformer in generation station

Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ) Connection Used for medium voltage (15kV)

Thank You