PROJECT REPORT

ON

“BLIND MOBILITY AID”

 A PROJECT REPORT ON
“5D For Blinds Blind Mobility Aid”
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

For the award of the degree

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

____________ ( _______ )

____________ ( _______ )

____________ ( _______ )

____________ ( _______ )

DEPARTMENT OF ______________ ENGINEERING

________ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled “Blind Mobility

Aid” is the work done by
_________________________________________________________
submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of ‘BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING (B.E)’ in ____________________________
Engineering from ___________ College of Engineering affiliated to
_________ University, Hyderabad .

___________________ _____________
(Head of the department, ECE/EEE) (Assistant Professor)

EXTERNAL EXAMINER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of

any task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose
constant guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in
presenting before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both
research and knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

___________, Department of ECE/EEE, our project guide, for his constant
support, encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation
and his valuable suggestions.
 DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled “Blind Mobility Aid”,
being submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of
Engineering Degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering,
affiliated to __________ University, is the work carried out by us.

___________ ___________ __________

___________ ___________ __________

6
 CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Abstract

Chapter 2: Introduction

Chapter 3: Motivation

Chapter 4: Block Diagram

Chapter 5: Block Diagram Explanation

Chapter 6: Methodology

Chapter 7: Circuit Diagram & Explanation

Chapter 8: Applications & Future Enhancement

8.1: Applications

8.2: Future Enhancement

Chapter 9: Advantages & Disadvantages

9.1: Advantages

9.2: Disadvantages

Chapter 10: Result/Conclusion

Chapter 11: General Components

Chapter 12: PCB Designing & Soldering Techniques

12.1: PCB Designing

12.2: Soldering Techniques

Chapter 13: References

7
Chapter 1:

ABSTRACT

This project helps the blind people to walk towards their destiny, they desired, without
any obstacles. Usually Blind people walk on the path, which is accustomed for them, to
avoid any physical damages or injuries done by obstacles coming on the way. So this
Blind Aid helps such people to choose any new road and reach their destiny without any
tension.

8
Chapter 2:

INTRODUCTION

This project helps the blind people to walk towards their destiny, they desired, without
any obstacles. Usually Blind people walk on the path, which is accustomed for them, to
avoid any physical damages or injuries done by obstacles coming on the way. So this
Blind Aid helps such people to choose any new road and reach their destiny without any
tension. Until well into the twentieth century, most of devices developed for measuring
distance/movements worked on the same principle; comparison of the measured distance
with the standard unit of length. Other advanced means are available now. One of these is
the measurement of time taken by an electromagnetic / sound wave to cover a certain
distance. This sound normally lies beyond human hearing and known as Ultra-sonic
waves.The novel Ultrasonic Movement Detector presented here is suitable for detecting
any moving objects within the range between 25 cm and about 6 meters. The detected
action in intimated by alarm sound. Hence this feature is used to help the Blind people to
reach their destiny in safe way.It is built around a matched pair of ceramic transducers,
which convert movement energy to electrical energy and vice versa. The operating
frequency of the pair is 40kHz. Any movement in the area scanned by the pair of
transducers will be detected and a 6V pulse produced. In this Ultrasonic Movement
Detector system the pulse turns on a LED. Pads are provided to take this pulse to add on
circuits where it may be used to switch between an automatic reset after the detector has
been triggered or to stay triggered. The unit will work reliably up to three meters after
calibration.

9
Chapter 3

MOTIVATION

In the present scenario if we consider the handicap people face lots of simple problems in
their daily life. So with respect to that the aim of this project Traffic signal monitoring
with voice announcement and Fire detection and water detection with voice
announcement.

10
 BUFFE DRIVER RELAY
CHAPTER 4: BLOCK DIAGRAM R
OUTPUT
DEVICES
IR TRANSMITTER
VOICE
BANK

IR RECEIVER AMPLIFIER
MICROCONTROLLER

INTERFACING
IR RECEIVER STAGE
SPEAK
ER

IR RECEIVER

WATER MONOSTABLE
SENSOR MULTIVIBRATOR
LCD
DISPLAY

TEMPERATURE MONOSTABLE +12 Volts

SENSOR MULTIVIBRATOR

+5 Volts

230 V, AC
Supply

TRANSFORME RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR

R

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS: MICROCONTROLLER(89C51), LCD, Relay Driver, Relays, Resistors, Capacitors, LEDs, Crystal, Diodes,
Transformer, Voltage Regulator, Push Button.
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS:Keil compiler uVision 3, Language: Embedded C or Assembly, WLPRO Programmer
 CHAPTER 5:

BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

 Power supply unit

This section needs two voltages viz., +12 V & +5 V, as working voltages. Hence specially
designed power supply is constructed to get regulated power supplies.

 IR transmitter and Receiver:

Infrared (IR) transmitters and receivers are present in many different devices, though they
are most commonly found in consumer electronics. The way this technology works is that
one component flashes an infrared light in a particular pattern, which another component
can pick up and translate into an instruction. These transmitters and receivers are found in
remote controls and all different types of devices, such as televisions and DVD players.
Peripheral devices that include this technology can also allow a computer to control
various other consumer electronics. Since infrared remotes are limited to line of sight
operation.

 Temperature sensor:

Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors whose prime function is to exhibit a large,
predictable and precise change in electrical resistance when subjected to a corresponding
change in body temperature. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor exhibit
a decrease in electrical resistance when subjected to an increase in body temperature and
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistor exhibit an increase in electrical
resistance when subjected to an increase in body temperature.

 Monostable Multivibrator:
A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state
systems such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. Monostable, in which one of the states
is stable, but the other state is unstable (transient). A trigger pulse causes the circuit to
enter the unstable state. After entering the unstable state, the circuit will return to the
stable state after a set time. Such a circuit is useful for creating a timing period of fixed
duration in response to some external event. This circuit is also known as a one shot.

 Water sensor:

The Water Sensor indicates the presence of water near the module.
 Microcontroller:

The Atmel AT89 series is an Intel 8051-compatible family of 8

bit microcontrollers (µCs) manufactured by the Atmel Corporation. Based on the Intel
8051 core, the AT89 series remains very popular as general purpose microcontrollers, due
to their industry standard instruction set, and low unit cost. This allows a great amount of
legacy code to be reused without modification in new applications. While considerably
less powerful than the newer AT90 series of AVR RISC microcontrollers, new product
development has continued with the AT89 series for the aforementioned advantages.

 Buffers

Buffers do not affect the logical state of a digital signal (i.e. a logic 1 input results in a logic 1
output whereas logic 0 input results in a logic 0 output). Buffers are normally used to provide
extra current drive at the output but can also be used to regularize the logic present at an interface

 Drivers

This section is used to drive the relay where the output is complement of input which is
applied to the drive but current will be amplified

 Relays

It is a electromagnetic device which is used to drive the load connected across the
relay and the o/p of relay can be connected to controller or load for further processing.

 Voice bank:

Voice bank is the recording of one's natural voice for the possible eventuality of losing one's
voice.

13
CHAPTER 6:
METHODOLOGY

In the present scenario if we consider the handicap people face lots of simple problems in
their daily life. So with respect to that we have designed this project which consists of
different stages which are listed below:
1. Traffic signal monitoring system
2. Fire detection and water detection with voice announcement.
Further this project can be enhanced for other applications also.
In case of traffic signal monitoring system the blind person faces the problem that which
path of the circle in traffic area is free to go ahead so in order to overcome this the
transmitters which are placed in the traffic signals will starts transmitting the signals
whichever is green. Then the receiver module or sensor will start receiving the signal
from the respective direction and he or she will come to know that which part of the
traffic area is clear with the help of voice announcement so that they can take an easy
move. This module has fire sensor and water sensor to provide voice announcement in
case of fire or water detection near to the blind person who has this module with his.
 CHAPTER 7:
CIRCIUT DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

The circuit needs two different voltages, +5V & +12V, to work. These dual voltages are
supplied by this specially designed power supply.

The power supply, unsung hero of every electronic circuit, plays very important role in
smooth running of the connected circuit. The main object of this ‘power supply’ is, as the
name itself implies, to deliver the required amount of stabilized and pure power to the
circuit. Every typical power supply contains the following sections:
1. Step-down Transformer: The conventional supply, which is generally available to the
user, is 230V AC. It is necessary to step down the mains supply to the desired level. This
is achieved by using suitably rated step-down transformer. While designing the power
supply, it is necessary to go for little higher rating transformer than the required one. The
reason for this is, for proper working of the regulator IC (say KIA 7805) it needs at least
2.5V more than the expected output voltage

2. Rectifier stage: Then the step-downed Alternating Current is converted into Direct
Current. This rectification is achieved by using passive components such as diodes. If the
power supply is designed for low voltage/current drawing loads/circuits (say +5V), it is
sufficient to employ full-wave rectifier with centre-tap transformer as a power source.
While choosing the diodes the PIV rating is taken into consideration.

3. Filter stage: But this rectified output contains some percentage of superimposed a.c.
ripples. So to filter these a.c. components filter stage is built around the rectifier stage.
The cheap, reliable, simple and effective filtering for low current drawing loads (say upto
50 mA) is done by using shunt capacitors. This electrolytic capacitor has polarities, take
care while connecting the circuit.

4. Voltage Regulation: The filtered d.c. output is not stable. It varies in accordance with
the fluctuations in mains supply or varying load current. This variation of load current is
observed due to voltage drop in transformer windings, rectifier and filter circuit. These
variations in d.c. output voltage may cause inaccurate or erratic operation or even
malfunctioning of many electronic circuits. For example, the circuit boards which are
implanted by CMOS or TTL ICs.
15
 KIA 78xx
Series

The stabilization of d.c. 1 2 3 output is achieved by using the three

terminal voltage regulator IC. This regulator IC comes in two flavors: 78xx for positive
voltage output and 79xx for negative voltage output. For example 7805 gives +5V output
and 7905 gives -5V stabilized output. These regulator ICs have in-built short-circuit
protection and auto-thermal cutout provisions. If the load current is very high the IC
needs ‘heat sink’ to dissipate the internally generated power.

Circuit Description: A d.c. power supply which maintains the output voltage constant
irrespective of a.c. mains fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated d.c. power
supply. It is also referred as full-wave regulated power supply as it uses four diodes in
bridge fashion with the transformer. This laboratory power supply offers excellent line
and load regulation and output voltages of +5V & +12 V at output currents up to one
amp.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF +5V & +12V FULL WAVE REGULATED POWER
SUPPLY

IC1 IC1 +12V

7812 780
D 555
11 5 9V
+5V

230AC
C1 C2 C
C4
3

D
21

X
1
16
Parts List:

SEMICONDUCTORS
IC1 7812 Regulator IC 1
IC2 7805 Regulator IC 1
D1& D2 1N4007 Rectifier Diodes 2

CAPACITORS
C1 1000 µf/25V Electrolytic 1
C2 to C4 0.1µF Ceramic Disc type 3

MISCELLANEOUS
X1 230V AC Pri,14-0-14 1Amp Sec 1
Transformer

1. Step-down Transformer: The transformer rating is 230V AC at Primary and 12-0-12V,

1Ampers across secondary winding. This transformer has a capability to deliver a current
of 1Ampere, which is more than enough to drive any electronic circuit or varying load.
The 12VAC appearing across the secondary is the RMS value of the waveform and the
peak value would be 12 x 1.414 = 16.8 volts. This value limits our choice of rectifier
diode as 1N4007, which is having PIV rating more than 16Volts.

2. Rectifier Stage: The two diodes D1 & D2 are connected across the secondary winding
of the transformer as a full-wave rectifier. During the positive half-cycle of secondary
voltage, the end A of the secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. This
makes the diode D1 forward biased and diode D2 reverse biased. Therefore diode D1
conducts while diode D2 does not. During the negative half-cycle, end A of the secondary
winding becomes negative and end B positive. Therefore diode D2 conducts while diode
D1 does not. Note that current across the centre tap terminal is in the same direction for
both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage. Therefore, pulsating d.c. is obtained at point ‘C’
with respect to Ground.

3. Filter Stage: Here Capacitor C1 is used for filtering purpose and connected across the
rectifier output. It filters the a.c. components present in the rectified d.c. and gives steady
d.c. voltage. As the rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies
current to the load. When capacitor is charged to the peak value of the rectifier voltage,
rectifier voltage starts to decrease. As the next voltage peak immediately recharges the
capacitor, the discharge period is of very small duration. Due to this continuous charge-
discharge-recharge cycle very little ripple is observed in the filtered output. Moreover,

17
output voltage is higher as it remains substantially near the peak value of rectifier output
voltage. This phenomenon is also explained in other form as: the shunt capacitor offers a
low reactance path to the a.c. components of current and open circuit to d.c. component.
During positive half cycle the capacitor stores energy in the form of electrostatic field.
During negative half cycle, the filter capacitor releases stored energy to the load.

4. Voltage Regulation Stage: Across the point ‘D’ and Ground there is rectified and
filtered d.c. In the present circuit KIA 7812 three terminal voltage regulator IC is used to
get +12V and KIA 7805 voltage regulator IC is used to get +5V regulated d.c. output. In
the three terminals, pin 1 is input i.e., rectified & filtered d.c. is connected to this pin. Pin
2 is common pin and is grounded. The pin 3 gives the stabilized d.c. output to the load.
The circuit shows two more decoupling capacitors C2 & C3, which provides ground path
to the high frequency noise signals. Across the point ‘E’ and ‘F’ with respect to ground
+5V & +12V stabilized or regulated d.c output is measured, which can be connected to
the required circuit.

Note: While connecting the diodes and electrolytic capacitors the polarities must be taken
into consideration. The transformer’s primary winding deals with 230V mains, care
should be taken with it.

 BUFFER&DRIVER

When the user programs the schedule for the automation using GUI [Graphical User
Interface] software, it actually sends 5-bit control signals to the circuit. The present
circuit provides interfacing with the Microcontroller and the controlling circuitry. This
circuit takes the 5-bit control signal, isolates the CONTROLLER from this circuitry,
boosts control signals for required level and finally fed to the driver section to actuate
relay. These five relays in turn sends RC5 coded commands with respect to their relay
position.

First the components used in this Module are discussed and then the actual circuit is
described in detail.

HEX BUFFER / CONVERTER [NON-INVERTER] IC 4050: Buffers does not affect the
logical state of a digital signal (i.e. logic 1 input results into logic 1 output where as logic
0 input results into logic 0 output). Buffers are normally used to provide extra current
drive at the output, but can also be used to regularise the logic present at an interface. And

18
Inverters are used to complement the logical state (i.e. logic 1 input results into logic 0
output and vice versa). Also Inverters are used to provide extra current drive and, like
buffers, are used in interfacing applications. This 16-pin DIL packaged IC 4050 acts as
Buffer as-well-as a Converter. The input signals may be of 2.5 to 5V digital TTL
compatible or DC analogue the IC gives 5V constant signal output. The IC acts as buffer
and provides isolation to the main circuit from varying input signals. The working
voltage of IC is 4 to 16 Volts and propagation delay is 30 nanoseconds. It consumes 0.01
mill Watt power with noise immunity of 3.7 V and toggle speed of 3 Megahertz.

1 IC 4050 16
Vcc

2 15

3 14

4 13

5 12

6 11

7 10

8 Vss 9

ULN 2003: Since the digital outputs of the some circuits cannot sink much current, they
are not capable of driving relays directly. So, high-voltage high-current Darlington arrays
are designed for interfacing low-level logic circuitry and multiple peripheral power loads.
The series ULN2000A/L ICs drive seven relays with continuous load current ratings to
600mA for each input. At an appropriate duty cycle depending on ambient temperature
and number of drivers turned ON simultaneously, typical power loads totalling over
260W [400mA x 7, 95V] can be controlled. Typical loads include relays, solenoids,
stepping motors, magnetic print hammers, multiplexed LED and incandescent displays,
and heaters. These Darlington arrays are furnished in 16-pin dual in-line plastic packages
(suffix A) and 16-lead surface-mountable SOICs (suffix L). All devices are pinned with
outputs opposite inputs to facilitate ease of circuit board layout.

19
The input of ULN 2003 is TTL-compatible open-collector outputs. As each of these
outputs can sink a maximum collector current of 500 mA, miniature Controller relays can
be easily driven. No additional free-wheeling clamp diode is required to be connected
across the relay since each of the outputs has inbuilt free-wheeling diodes. The Series
ULN20x4A/L features series input resistors for operation directly from 6 to 15V CMOS
or PMOS logic outputs.

1N4148 signal diode: Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in
circuits, so they are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA. General purpose
signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop
of 0.7V.

IC ULN 2003

1 16

2 15

3 14

4 13

5 12

6 11

7 10

8 9 Vcc

20
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF BUFFER & DRIVER

+12 V
Output Output Output Output Output
R6-R10
IC2
D6-D10
+5V IC1 9

1 16 N/C N/C N/C N/C N/C

1
3 2 15
2

5 4 3 14 RL1 RL2 RL3 RL4 RL5

7 6 4 13

9 10 12
5

11 12 6 11

15 10
Input 14 7
D1 TO D5
8
8

R1 TO R5
 Parts List:
SEMICONDUCTORS
IC1 4050 HEX BUFFER/CONVERTER(NON-INVERTER) 1
IC2 2003 DARLINGTON ARRY 1
RESISTORS
R1 to R5 220 Ohm ¼ Watt Carbon Resistors 5
R6 to R10 2.2 K Ohm ¼ Watt Carbon Resistors 5

DIODES
D1to D5 1N4148 SIGNAL Diodes 5
D6 to D10 Red Indicator LEDs 5

MISCELLANEOUS
RL1-RL5 12 V, 700 Ohm DPDT Reed Relays 5

Circuit Description:
The Hex Buffer/Inverter IC1’s working voltage of +5V is applied at pin-1 and five
control signals are applied at input pins 3, 5, 7, 9 & 11. Thus the signal supplying circuit
[i.e. CONTROLLER] is isolated from this Buffer & Driver circuit. Further the grounding
resistors R1 to R5 prevents the abnormal voltage levels passing inside the IC1. The
buffered outputs are acquired at pins 2, 4, 6, 10, & 12. Thus the varying input is further
stabilized and fed to signal diodes [D1 to D5]. As the load is inductive, there is a chance
of producing back e.m.f. So to cope with this back e.m.f, signal diodes are used. But this
signal level is not strong enough to drive the low impedance relay. So, IC2 Darlington
driver is used. Its working voltage is +12 V and only five input/output pins are used. The
output signal from the Darlington driver IC is strong enough to actuate five relays.

These relays with +12V working voltage can be used to produce five command signals
with RC5 format. The N/O [Normally Open] contact of each relay produces one
command signal with the help of RC5 Transmitter Circuit. The five relays activation with
their corresponding command signal production is tabulated as below:
 COMMAND COMMAND
RELAY
NUMBER SIGNAL
RL1 Output-1 TURN LEFT
RL2 Output-2 TURN RIGHT
MOVE
RL3 Output-3
BACKWARD
MOVE
RL4 Output-4
FORWARD
SWITCH
ON/OFF THE
RL5 Output-5
SUCKING
DEVICE

 Temperature Sensor: Thermistor

The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of

the words THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a special type of resistor
which changes its physical resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.

Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel,
manganese or cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main
advantage over snap-action types is their speed of response to any changes in
temperature, accuracy and repeatability.

Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance

or (NTC), that is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature,
and of course there are some which have a Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in
that their resistance value goes UP with an increase in temperature.

23
Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal
oxide technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor material
is generally formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to give
a relatively fast response to any changes in temperature.

Thermistors are rated by their resistive value at room temperature (usually at 25 oC), their
time constant (the time to react to the temperature change) and their power rating with
respect to the current flowing through them. Like resistors, thermistors are available with
resistance values at room temperature from 10’s of MΩ down to just a few Ohms, but for
sensing purposes those types with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.

Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through
it to produce a measurable voltage output. Then thermistors are generally connected in
series with a suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider network and the choice
of resistor gives a voltage output at some pre-determined temperature point or value for
example:

Temperature Sensors Example No1

The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10KΩ at 25oC and a resistance value of
100Ω at 100oC. Calculate the voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output
voltage (Vout) for both temperatures when connected in series with a 1kΩ resistor across
a 12v power supply.

At 25oC

24
 At 100oC

By changing the fixed resistor value of R2 (in our example 1kΩ) to a potentiometer or
preset, a voltage output can be obtained at a predetermined temperature set point for
example, 5v output at 60oC and by varying the potentiometer a particular output voltage
level can be obtained over a wider temperature range.

It needs to be noted however, that thermistor’s are non-linear devices and their standard
resistance values at room temperature is different between different thermistor’s, which is
due mainly to the semiconductor materials they are made from. The Thermistor, have an
exponential change with temperature and therefore have a Beta temperature constant ( β )
which can be used to calculate its resistance for any given temperature point.

However, when used with a series resistor such as in a voltage divider network or
Whetstone Bridge type arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage applied
to the divider/bridge network is linear with temperature. Then, the output voltage across
the resistor becomes linear with temperature.

 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS

INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT OF 555 TIMER IC

The timer comprises two operational amplifiers (used as comparators) together with an
RS Bistable element. In addition, an inverting output buffer is incorporated so that a
considerable current can be sourced or sunk to/from a load. A single transistor switch,
TR1, is also provided as a means of rapidly discharging the external timing capacitor.

The standard 555 timer is housed in an 8-pin DIL package and operates from supply rail
voltages of between 4.5V and 15V. This encompasses the normal range for TTL devices
and thus the device is ideally suited for use in conjunction with TTL circuitry.

25
PIN OUT DIAGRAM OF TIMER IC 555

GROUND 1 8 VCC

TRIGGER 2 7
555 DISCHARGE

OUTPUT 3 6 THRESHOLD

RESET 5 CONTROL
4

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS 555 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS

+Vcc
R1 R3
4 8
R2 6 Output To
Relay
2 IC1
7
3
1 5
D1
input C1
C3
C2 R4
470

GND
The
circuit diagram shows how the timer IC 555 can be used as a Rising Light Level Switch.
In Monostable pulse generator mode, pin 4 is connected to pin 8 and that to +Vcc. The
threshold pin 6 and the discharge pin 7 are connected together to +Vcc by a resistance
R3. The control pin 5 is connected to ground via capacitor C2. The trigger input pin 2 is
connected to +Vcc using a pull-up resistor R1.Here the Light Detector, R2 & C1 gives
the triggering pulse needed for Multivibrator.

26
 Parts List:

SEMICONDUCTORS
IC1 555 Timer IC 1
R1 33 K Ohm ¼ Watt 1
R2 1K Ohm ¼ Watt 1
R3 10K Ohm ¼ Watt 1
R4 470 Ohm ¼ Watt 1
D1 Red Light Emitting Diode 1

CAPACITORS
C1 & C3 10 µf / 25V Electrolytic 1
C2 0.1µF Ceramic Disc type 1

MISCELLENOUS

SENSOR LDR Sensor 1

The current through Monostable Multivibrator will depend upon the light intensity falling
on LDR sensor. In full fall the reverse current flowing through Light Detector will be
very small. When the LDR has no light source falling on it, the capacitor C2 is uncharged
and the trigger input is low and that switching transistor TR1 (at pin-7) is in the non-
conducting state. Thus the output (at pin-3) is high. The capacitor C1 will begin to charge
toward +Vcc with current supplied by means of the series resistors R1 and R2.When
LDR senses light on its surface, the reverse current flowing through Light Detector
increases markedly. Thus Monostable timing period is initiated by a falling edge (i.e.
‘High’ to ‘Low’ transition) applied to the trigger input (at pin 2). When such an edge is
received and the ‘trigger’ input voltage falls below ⅓ of Vcc, the output of the lower
comparator goes ‘high’ and the Bistable is placed in the ‘set’ state. The Q output of the
Bistable then goes low, switching transistor TR1 is placed in the ‘OFF’ (non-conducting)
state and the final ‘output’ (at pin-3) goes High. The circuit can be readily adapted to
drive a load with operating current less than about 150mA. So, the indicator LED (D1)
goes ‘ON’ stating the relay is in ON position.

27
 IR TX&RX

IR TRANS-RECEIVER MODULE
These IR Transmitter and two IR Receivers are fitted on front side of vehicle and are
continuously switched ON for obstacle detection purpose.

IR TRANSMITTER
The circuit components are explained as:
IR LED: The IR LED or Infra Red Light Emitting Diode is an electronic device which
gives off or emits light when current is passed through it. Like general diode, this IR LED
passes current only in one direction and requires forward operation voltage of about 2V
and forward operation current in 10 to 20 mA range. Maximum reverse voltage that the
IR LED can withstand is typically 3 to 5V, more than this could damage the component.
It does not have any current control function, so, when the IR LED is used in a circuit, a
resistor must be used in series to limit the current flow through it. If greater range is
required, this resistor may be reduced to a minimum value with a consequent adverse
effect on current consumption. Do not reduce the value of resistor unless you do require
the greater range, otherwise the relay may not trip reliably close in due to reflections
caused by the high light output. For a good range, the current through the LEDs must be
large. Since, however, currents, the pulses must be short, and this is why PDM is used (In
this type of modulation, the time of occurrence of the first and last transition edge, is
varied from its unmodulated position).

When the IR LED is used in an application such as the remote controlling transmitter,
where the battery is the main source of current, providing continuous high current to keep
the IR LED ON will consume too much of power. So when the power is applied to the IR
LED, the supply is provided as pulses. If the pulse repetition frequency is rapid enough
(more than 50 Hz) then to the receiver eye the IR LED will appear as continuously ON.
For example, instead of supplying 25 mA current continuously, one can provided 50 mA
current as pulse to get brighter light output with the same power consumption. The
Infrared diode used is of plastic pack and is similar in appearance to the familiar Red
LED, except that the plastic encapsulation is deep violet colour.

As stated earlier, the IR Remote Controlling system consists of a set of an IR transmitter

and an IR receiver. Whenever the IR transmitter is activated, it generates a invisible Infra-
red light beam signal and transmits an it towards the IR receiver. The transmitters and
receivers are positioned facing each other.

28
 The source of light in the transmitter is an Infrared LED and rather than merely providing
a continuous source of light, it is flashed on and off at about 10Khz.This is done so that
the receiver can selectively amplify the signal from the transmitter and completely reject
ambient light.

PCM IR TRANSMITTER IC M708/708A The information is passed

from the IR Transmitter and
Receiver in the form of
1 TM VDD 20
combinational digital pulse
P P
2 OSC 19
OUT signals. These pulses are
C C
P P
3 OSC 18 transmitted to the receiver by
M VSS M
C OUT C
P P modulating a carrier frequency
4
IR 17
IR
M M
C H X C using Pulse Code Modulation
P
Tr P
Tr
5
IR 16
IR
M M [PCM] method. That means it
C
an G Z C
an
P
Tr P
Tr
6
IR 15
IR uses pulse-duration (pulse-
M
s M
s
C
an TEST C
an
P
Tr E P
Tr width) modulation. The
7
IR
mi 14
IR
mi
M
s M
s
C
an Q C
an modulated signal is produced
P
Tr
tte C P
Tr
tte
8
IR
mi 13
IR
mi
M
s M
s in the traditional manner of
C
an
rP P C
an
rP
Tr
tte
9 A Tr
tte
12
IR
mi IR
mi having the audio signal set
M
s
IC M
s
IC
C
an
rP C
an
rP
Tr
tte O Tr
tte against a pure high-frequency
10
IR
mi
:M I 11
IR
mi
:M
s
IC
C s
IC
C
an
rTr
P N an
rTr
11 triangular signal generator can
tte
IR M tte
IR
mi
:M mi
:M
s
IC
C s
IC
1P be found on 55. If another
an
rTr an
rTr
tte
IR tte
IR
mi
:M mi
:C generator is used, make sure
s
IC s
IC
an
rTr an
rTr
tte
IR tte
M that its off-set is equal to half
mi
:s mi
:s
IC
an IC
an
rTr rIR the supply voltage of 5 V and
tte tte
mi
:s mi
:s
IC
an IC
Tr its peak value is 2.5 Vpp.
r r
tte tte
mi
:s mi
:an
IC IC
r r PCM IR Transmitter IC: This
tte tte
mi
: s
:
IC IC 20 pin DIL packaged IC has
r r
tte mi
: : integrated all the necessary
IC IC
r tte
: : stages to transmit the IR pulse
IC r
beams to the receiver. As the
: IC
pin-out diagram of the IC
:
shows, pin-20 is supply pin and pin-18 is ground pin. Since the IC has in-built Oscillator
circuit, whose frequency can be adjusted between 445 K Hz and 510 K Hz, it needs outer
components to oscillate with transmitter circuit needs. SO to get the calculated frequency
range, specific value crystal and capacitors are connected to the pin-2 [OSC IN] and

29
 output is taken on pin-3 [OSC OUT]. This frequency is used by the IC as a reference
frequency to oscillate. The pin-19 is the out pin, which is fed to the transmitter circuit.

Ad A
dre d The IC can be used in two modes:
ss Transmitte d Flash Mode, where pin-1
Inp d r [Transmission Mode pin] is
ut Code e connected with Supply pin and
Co s the average current consumption
de s is 6.5 mA; Carrier Mode, where
pin-1 is connected to ground and
A A A A N average current consumption is
x y
1 2 3 4 o around 13 mA.
.
L L 0 0 0 0 1 The address information send in
H L 1 0 0 0 2 the control word depends on the
L H 0 0 0 1 9 value of these two pins. Different
1 combination of Low and High (L
H H 1 0 0 1
0 & H) value on these two pins will
transmit different address codes as shown in the table.

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF IR TRANSMITTER

30
 R1
S1 +Vcc
Infra-Red
20 1 LEDs
R2
T1
19 C1
T2

Signal
IC1 Diodes R3
15
18
C
2 2

X1
3
C3

 Circuit Description:

IC1 M708/708A PCM Remote Control Transmitter IC 1

T1 BC377 NPN Transistor 1
T2 BC237 NPN Transistor 1
D1& D2 1N4148 Diode 3
D3 & INFRARED LEDs 2
D4
R1 33 Ohm, ¼ Watt 1
R2 820 Ohm, ¼ Watt 1
R3 0.39 Ohm, ¼ Watt 1
C1 220F/25V Electrolytic Capacitors 1
C2,C3 0.1F Ceramic Disc Capacitors 2
X1 Crystal 1
RL1 12 V, 200 Ohm DPDT Relay 1
S1 Switch 1
The Infra Red Transmitter is made very simple by employing the dedicated &
commercially available IC1. Here the IC1 is used in flash mode by connecting
31
 Parts List:

Transmission Mode Pin 1 to +Vcc, and thus reduces average current consumption to 6.5
mA. In this mode minimum and maximum transmission times are 2.1 milliseconds and
3.6 milliseconds respectively and the duty cycle is 0.7%.

Since the Circuit is intended to send only one signal code, IC1 is configured for address
one by making all the Address Input pins, Code pins to zero or ground. As soon the
switch S1 is switched ON, the circuit gets its working voltage of 9 Volts through pin-20.
Inside the IC, it creates the address 1 as a command code and sent to the output pin-19.
This command signal output from the IC1 is given through a resistor R1 to the base of the
Transistor T1. The output from this transistor T1 is fed to the base of another Transistor
T2. These two transistors amplify the command signal to the sufficient level and then
drive the IR LEDs. The Collector of both the transistors is connected to the pair of Infra
Red LEDs. When the transistor T2 goes to saturation region, that means starts
conducting, the current will flow through the two series IR LEDs. Thus they illuminate
for that period and gets off. This process continues as per the switch S1 is pushed ON and
the pulses will be sent through IR LEDs continues. Thus the command signal is
transmitted to IR receiver successfully.

 IR Receiver, Driver & Circuit Breaker

The ‘packets’ of infra-red light transmitted from the IR Transmitter of the user remote
control are received on a sensor module which is sensitive to infra-red light. Next, the
signal is converted back into electrical pulses by a 36 KHz receiver and an associated
detector. And that electrical pulse is fed to driver circuit, which in result supply trigger
pulse to Schmitt Trigger circuit. The circuit components are explained as:
IR RECEIVER EYE: An IR Receiver Eye is a module, which is encapsulated with
Photo Transistor whose semiconductor junction is mounted beneath an optical lens. It is
normally used in its open base configuration and act as a light-to-voltage converter. The
base is open; the value of the reverse current across collector and emitter will depend on
the amount of illumination on the base face. In dark conditions it is near zero and under
bright light it is tens or hundreds of mA.

 Circuit Description:
This circuit activates the relay whenever there is a presence of Infra Red Rays. The
working principle of this module is very simple:
32
Power Supply: The mains voltage is step-down to 6V using a transformer. This secondary
6V is rectified using full-wave rectifier, which is composed by D1 & D2 diodes. This is
further filtered using electrolytic capacitor C2 and fed to regulator IC1. This three-
terminal IC stabilizes the input and gives out the constant +5V as working voltage for the
circuit.

IR Receiver: The IR Sensor Module has 3 terminals: signal input, supply pin and the
ground pin. This module works on regulated +5Votls, and exceeding this limit may cause
the damage of it. So, this Sensor is given Vcc through a biasing resistor R1 and grounded
pin is given to negative terminal of the supply. Whenever the Infra Red rays falls on this
Sensors eye [that black mole on Sensor] it produces varying signal voltages at output pin.
This is given to amplifier stage built by an PNP transistor TR1 through an current
limiting resistor R2. The output of this amplifier is fed to a buffer situated in IC2. This
buffer or converter enhances the current capacity of the signal and send to driver stage.
The signal output is monitored by observing the glowing indicator LED D4.

Driver & Circuit Breaker: The driver is built around TR1 and a low-impedance relay.
The signal diode D3 is there to prevent the back e.m.f produced by the switching action
of the relay. When user doesnot press any key, the receiver does not receive any IR rays
from the opposite end, and hence No signals to TR2 base.
As this E-Power Supply unit’s Receiver senses interrupt of IR Rays from the opposite IR
Transmitter, it alerts driver section. The IR signal from the buffer enters the base of TR2,
it undergoes saturation and activates the relay RL1. Since, relay RL1’s N/O [Normally
Open] pins are connected to Schmitt Trigger Circuit.

Note: The circuit is fully stabilized from the false triggering and other interferences.
This is achieved by using capacitors at proper places. As this is an Unlatch Circuit the
relay actuates only when the IR beams are present at the ‘eye’ of the sensor module. And
releases the switching as-soon-as there are no IR radiations.

33
 Power Supply Section IR Receiver Section Driver Section

RL1
D1
IN IC1 OUT
1 3 N/C
230 V D3
2
AC N/O
C4 C5
R1 Vcc
To Train’s
1 Engine Motor
D2

3 2 T2
IC2 R5
1
X1
C1 Infra Red R2
SENSOR 2 8
MODULE
T1
C2 GND

3
R3 R6

C3
D1

R4
C
6

Gnd
PARTS LIST OF IR RECEIVER

SEMICONDUCT
ORS
IC1 7805 Voltage Regulator IC 1
IC2 4050 1
T1 BC557 Transistor 1
T2 BC548 Transistor 1
D1TO D3 1N4007 Diode 3
RESISTORS
R1 100 Ohm, ¼ Watt 1
R2,R6 10 Kilo-ohm, ¼ Watt 2
R3 4.7 Kilo-ohm, ¼ Watt 1
R4 470 Kilo-ohm, ¼ Watt 1
R7 1 Kilo-ohm, ¼ Watt 1

CAPACITORS
C1,C4 1000F/25V Electrolytic Capacitors 2
C2,C5 0.1F Ceramic Disc Capacitors 2
C3 47F/16V Electrolytic Capacitor 1
C6 1F/16V Electrolytic Capacitor 1

MISCELLANEO
US
SENSOR INFRARED SENSOR MODULE 1
D1 Red Indicator LED 1
RL1 12 V, 200 Ohm DPDT Relay 1
X1 6-0-6 Volts Step-down Transformer 1
 CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES FOR INFRA RED TRANS-RECEIVER

The IR remote control circuit is very simple in design. Basically it consists of a pair of IR
transmitter and receiver. To use it as a ‘remote controlling’ device, the transmitter and the
receiver must be positioned facing each other with the maximum tolerance of 60˚. When the
light beam which is being transmitted by IR transmitter towards the IR receiver falls on the
Infra-Red sensor of the receiving unit, IR light sensor senses this special invisible light, and
this variation in the intensity of IR light beam is immediately sensed by the IR sensor located
at the IR receiver unit, and in turn it activates a electromechanical relay.

The range of the unit, i.e. the maximum distance between transmitter and receiver is almost
about 5 to 7 feet. No lenses are used and no adjustment of sensitivity is required just point
the transmitter in the general direction of the receiver and you are in business. If greater
range is desired, the transmitter current can be increased.

When the unit is fully assembled the photo transistor must be kept about 20mm from the
light beam entry hole of the box. This does not reduce the range of the unit, but is intended to
prevent direct light from falling on the photo transistor & thus reducing the sensitivity. We
still found that when used outdoors, strong sunlight reduces the range of the unit, but this can
be readily cured by fitting a smalt tube of non-reflective material 20-30mm in diameter of
about 50mm long in front of the receiver.

It was practical observed that light from flourescent lamps working with electronics ballasts
slightly interferes with the circuit. This is because the electronic ballasts working on high
frequency produce a lot of harmonics while lie within the range of signal frequency of the
receiver circuit and act as a source of sustained noise. In that case the sensor module should
be properly oriented to minimise the effect.

Alternatively the sensor should be covered with a dark red glass plate. This will slightly
reduce the range light from other sources like flourescent lamps working on ordinary chokes;
incandescent lamps and sunlight do not have any effect on the circuit.

ADJUSTMENTS: Keep the receiver about 3 meters away from the transmitter and press S1.
If led on receiver section, does not glow adjust the sensors line-of-sight alignment and

36
 increase the range. The transmitter need supply 9V battery. The current consumption of
transmitter is moderate.

TESTING

When the transmitter & the receiver are completely assembled, the combination can then be
tested as follows:
1. Switch the Receiver ON.
2. When the transmitter is OFF the Relay should turnON.
3. Now switch the transmitter ON & aim it at the receiver the Relay should turn off. Finally,
check that the Relay is activated whenever the beam is interrupted.

Note :
1. The IR LED & photo transistor both of them have their sensitive area on their tip and
their anode lead is longer than the cathode.
2. Because the information is passed as light beam, if any opaque object comes in the path
between the remote control transmitter and the receiver, the signal will not be able to
reach the receiver. But this doesn’t intended that the transmitter and receiver need to be
pointed directly at each other. The receiver can be anywhere in the active area of the
transmitter IR beam, only requirement is there should not be any opaque object in the line
of sight t create a blind area.
3. Battery supplied with this kit is only for general use. For using this unit regularly a 9V
DC Adaptor is suggested with a battery backup for full protection, even in case of power
failure.

 VOICE CHIP

PRE-RECORDED VOICE CHIP:

The IC APR 33 – V2 is a 28-pin single voice recording & play back chip, which can store
the message of length 20 to 30 seconds.

37
 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
SP
VccD VccA VssD VssA
SP

Osc
R Internal
Powersupplies
oscillator

Anai Sample & hold

n
Switched
Am capacitor filter
p
circuit
Anao
ut

Analog write Switched

Mic in Pre and read circuits capacitor filter
amp
.

Mic
ref

Non-volatile Am
Analog storage p
memory array

AG Automatic
C gain control
(AGC)
Device
control

/ / /LED
RecL play
E

38
 FEATURES of V/C

Single chip, high quality voice recording and play back solution.

 No external IC is required.
 Minimum external components.
 Non volatile flash memory technology.
 No battery back up required.
 100k record cycles[typical]
 100 year message retention[typical].
Single message of 20 to 30 sec, with external resistor selection.
User friendly, easy to use operation.
 Programming and development systems not required.
 Level activated recrding & edge activated playback switches.
Low power consumption.
 Operating current : 25mA [ typical, no load ]
 Standby current : 1uA [ typical, no-load ]
Automatic power down feature for longer battery life .
Chip enable pin for simple message expansion.
Single 5v power supply.

 GENERAL DISCRIPTION

The APR 33 device offers true single chip solid state storage capability and requires no
software or microcontroller support. It provides high quality recording and playback with
a single 20 to 30 sec message. It is deal for portable voice recorders, toys, and many other
consumer and industrial applications.

Invox proprietary analog/multilevel storage technology is implemented in advanced flash

non volatile memory cells, each of which can typically store more than 256 voltage
levels. The APR 33 device stores and reproduces voice signals in their natural forms,
eliminating the distortion that is often introduced by encoding and compression. The
device combines a small size with low power consumption, non volatility, and ease of use
for cost effective solution to voice recording and playback.

39
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION; When pins are connected as shown in this ex. the operating
modes are as follows:

Record mode [level activated]

The LED pin will go low during the actual recording process to provide a visual
indication if an LED light is connected to this pin. A single voice message of up to 20 sec
can be recorded. The chip is record mode as long as the / RecL pin stays low [level
activated]. If the message lasts longer than 20 sec than the recording will automatically
terminate after the last available memory cell is written. If the message is shorter than 20
sec the recording operation will stop when the RecL pin goes high. The speaker driver is
automatically tristated during the recording operation. Message of up to 30 sec can be
recorded by using different OscR resistor values.

40
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF VOICE RECORDING CHIP

NC VCCD
1 28
NC /RECL
2 27
N NU 2
C 3 26
N /LED R6
4 25
C VC
N 24 NC C
5
C SWZ
/ /PLAY E
6 23
CE
OSC NC
7 APR 33 22 R5
R
NC C6
6.4 KHz – 52K 8 21 ANA
C7
5.5 KHz – 67K OUT
NC ANAIN
4.0 KHz – 89K 9 20
C5
NC 19 AGC
10
R3 R4
NU MICREF C4
11 18 M
1
VSS C3 .PHONE
12 17 MICIN
D R
SP VCCA 2
S 13 16
+
P SP 14 15
K - VSSA

C1 C2 6V
BA
 PARTS LIST:

RESISTORS CAPACITORS SEMICONDUCTORS

R1 - 56K C1 - 47/16V IC1 - APR 33 V2

R2,3 - 4K-7 C2,3,4,6 - .1/16Vdisc IC2 - 7806
R5 - 220K C5 - 22/50V 28 Pin IC socket
R4,6 - 1K C7 - 4.7/25V 5mm red LED
2 pin cond. Micswitch (2 pcs) –push to on (k8)

Playback mode [edge activated]

Playback always starts from the beginning of the message. The chip is in playback mode
after the/play E pin pulses low [edge activated]. Playback will stop immediately when the
play E pin pulses low for the second time. If the newly recorded message is shorter than
the previously recorded will be played after the new message is played back. The i/p
preamplifier AGC, and main amp. circuits are disabled during playback.

Standby mode [ /CE = “0” ]

The chip will automatically return to the standby state after recording or playback
operation is completed.

Power down mode [ /CE = “1” ]

The chip is always in standby state. No recording or playback is allowed. Current
consumption is typically less than 1uA.

NOTES NC = No connect [ must be floating ]

NU = not used [ must be grounded ]
Pin 23 & 27 have internal pull up resistors.
The typical sampling freq is 6.4 KHz with OscR = 52KE.

Table 1 shows the typical dependence of the sampling freq and total voice duration on the
OscR resistor value.
Table 1. typical dependence of sampling freq and total voice duration on OscR resistor
value.

(VccA – VccD – 5V; VssA – OV ; TA – 25C )

Typical total voice

Pin OscR Typical sampling Duration.
Frequency
52 KE 6.4KHz 20 S
67 KE 5.3KHz 24 S
89 KE 4.0KHz 30 S

43
 MICROCONTROLLER

MICROCONTROLLER BASICS
The field parameters are monitored by this Microcontroller chip with the help of user
written program and generates alert message for LCD display and fault code for remote
monitoring end transmission. The Microcontroller Chip has input port for getting fault
condition of field parameters and ‘Stop’ signal through RF Receiver and output port for
sending fault code to DTMF Encoder and switching Relay [MCB] for isolating power
line from load.

INTRODUCTION OF MICRO-CONTROLLER
What is a microcontroller?
The general definition of a microcontroller is a single chip computer, which refers to the
fact that they contain all of the functional sections (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, ports and
timers) of a traditionally defined computer on a single integrated circuit. Some experts
even describe them as special purpose computers with several qualifying distinctions that
separate them from other computers.

Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a consumer product) so
that they can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a
microcontroller, therefore, is "embedded controller."

Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is
stored in ROM (read-only memory) and generally does not change. Microcontrollers are
often low-power devices. A desktop computer is almost always plugged into a wall socket
and might consume 50 watts of electricity. A battery-operated microcontroller might
consume 50 mill watts.

A microcontroller has a dedicated input device and often (but not always) has a small
LED or LCD display for output. A microcontroller also takes input from the device it is
controlling and controls the device by sending signals to different components in the
device. A microcontroller is often small and low cost. The components are chosen to
minimize size and to be as inexpensive as possible. A microcontroller is often, but not
always, ruggedized in some way. The microcontroller controlling a car's engine, for
example, has to work in temperature extremes that a normal computer generally cannot
handle. A car's microcontroller in Kashmir regions has to work fine in -30 degree F (-34
C) weather, while the same microcontroller in Gujarat region might be operating at 120
44
 degrees F (49 C). When you add the heat naturally generated by the engine, the
temperature can go as high as 150 or 180 degrees F (65-80 C) in the engine
compartment. On the other hand, a microcontroller embedded inside a VCR hasn't been
ruggedized at all.
Clearly, the distinction between a computer and a microcontroller is sometimes blurred.
Applying these guidelines will, in most cases, clarify the role of a particular device.

ATMEL 89C51 Technical Description

The ATmel 89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with

4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The ATmel
89C51 device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and
pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or
by a conventional non-volatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU
with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which
provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control
applications.

The ATmel 89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K Bytes of Flash, 128 bytes
of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt
architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition,
the 89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports
two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue
functioning. The AT89C51 Power-down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the
oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

 Compatible with MCS-51 Products

 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
 Three-level Program Memory Lock
 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32
 Programmable I/O Lines
 Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
 Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel
 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes 40-pin DIP

45
 COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM [MOTHER BOARD] OF 89C51
D1 & D2 IC1
40 X1 +VCC
30 pF
19
+Vcc
XTAL1 P0.7 AD7
VCC 230 AC
32 AD6 R1
12 MHz P0.6 AD5 C1 C2 C3
18 XTAL2 AD4
33 D3
P0.5 AD3
30 pF
34 AD2
P0.4 AD1
35 AD0
29
P0.3 PORT 0 8 x 2.2 KΩ
PSEN 36
P1.7
+VCC
P0.2
8
30 ALE 37
P1.6
10 MFD/63V
P0.1
7
31 EA
38
P1.5
20KΩ RESET 89C51
9 P0.0
6
RST
SWITCH 39
P1.4
5

RD 17 P1.3 PORT 1
WR 4P2.7
P3.7 A15
T1 P1.2
28
16 A14
3P2.6
T0 A13
P3.6 P1.1
27 A12
INT1 15 2P2.5
A11
INT0 P3.5 P1.0
26 A10
TXD 14 1P2.4
1
A9
RXD P3.4 25 A8
VSS
P2.3 PORT 2
PORT 3 13
24
P3.3 20
P2.2
12
23
P3.2 P2.1
 11 22
P2.0
P3.1
21 1
10
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
P3.0
The mother board of 89C51 has following sections: Power Supply, 89C51 IC, Oscillator,
Reset Switch & I/O ports. Let us see these sections in detail.

POWER SUPPLY:
This section provides the clean and harmonic free power to IC to function properly. The
output of the full wave rectifier section, which is built using two rectifier diodes, is given
to filter capacitor. The electrolytic capacitor C1 filters the pulsating dc into pure dc and
given to Vin pin-1 of regulator IC 7805.This three terminal IC regulates the rectified
pulsating dc to constant +5 volts. C2 & C3 provides ground path to harmonic signals
present in the inputted voltage. The Vout pin-3 gives constant, regulated and spikes free
+5 volts to the mother board.
The allocation of the pins of the 89C51 follows a U-shape distribution. The top left hand
corner is Pin 1 and down to bottom left hand corner is Pin 20. And the bottom right hand
corner is Pin 21 and up to the top right hand corner is Pin 40. The Supply Voltage pin Vcc
is 40 and ground pin Vss is 20.

OSCILLATOR:
If the CPU is the brain of the system then the oscillator, or clock, is the heartbeat. It
provides the critical timing functions for the rest of the chip. The greatest timing accuracy
is achieved with a crystal or ceramic resonator. For crystals of 2.0 to 12.0 MHz, the
recommended capacitor values should be in the range of 15 to 33pf2.
Across the oscillator input pins 18 & 19 a crystal x1 of 4.7 MHz to 20 MHz value can be
connected. The two ceramic disc type capacitors of value 30pF are connected across
crystal and ground, stabilizes the oscillation frequency generated by crystal.

I/O PORTS:
There are a total of 32 i/o pins available on this chip. The amazing part about these ports
is that they can be programmed to be either input or output ports, even "on the fly" during
operation! Each pin can source 20 mA (max) so it can directly drive an LED. They can
also sink a maximum of 25 Ma current.
Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral
features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used
as a general purpose I/O pin. The alternate function of each pin is not discussed here, as
port accessing circuit takes care of that.
This 89C51 IC has four I/O ports and is discussed in detail: P0.0 TO P0.7
PORT0 is an 8-bit [pins 32 to 39] open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port,
each pin can sink eight TTL inputs and configured to be multiplexed low order
address/data bus then has internal pull ups. External pull ups are required during program
verification.

P1.0 TO P1.7
PORT1 is an 8-bit wide [pins 1 to 8], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. P1.0 and
P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input and the
timer/counter 2 trigger input respectively.

P2.0 TO P2.7
PORT2 is an 8-bit wide [pins 21 to 28], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. The
PORT2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. It receives the high-order address
bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.

P3.0 TO P3.7
PORT3 is an 8-bit wide [pins 10 to 17], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. The
Port3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. It also receives some control
signals for Flash programming and verification.

PSEN
Program Store Enable [Pin 29] is the read strobe to external program memory.

ALE
Address Latch Enable [Pin 30] is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address
during accesses to external memory.

EA
External Access Enable [Pin 31] must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device
to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H upto FFFFH.

RST
Reset input [Pin 9] must be made high for two machine cycles to resets the device’s
oscillator. The potential difference is created using 10MFD/63V electrolytic capacitor and
20KOhm resistor with a reset switch.

48
LCD MODULE
LCDs can add a lot to any application in terms of providing an useful interface for the
user, debugging an application or just giving it a "professional" look. The most common
type of LCD controller is the Hitachi 44780 which provides a relatively simple interface
between a processor and an LCD. Using this interface is often not attempted by
inexperienced designers and programmers because it is difficult to find good
documentation on the interface, initializing the interface can be a problem and the
displays themselves are expensive.
The most common connector used for the 44780 based LCDs is 14 pins in a row, with pin
centers 0.100" apart. The pins are wired as:

LCD DATA WRITE WAVEFORM

DATA

R/_S

R/_W

E
450
nSec

Pins Description
1 Ground
2 Vcc
3 Contrast Voltage
4 "R/S"
_Instruction/Register
Select
5 "R/W" _Read/Write
LCD Registers
6 "E" Clock
7 - Data I/O Pins
14

49
 The interface is a parallel bus, allowing simple and fast reading/writing of data to and
from the LCD.
The LCD Data Write Waveform will write an ASCII Byte out to the LCD's screen. The
ASCII code to be displayed is eight bits long and is sent to the LCD either four or eight
bits at a time. If four bit mode is used, two "nibbles" of data (Sent high four bits and then
low four bits with an "E" Clock pulse with each nibble) are sent to make up a full eight
bit transfer. The "E" Clock is used to initiate the data transfer within the LCD.
Sending parallel data as either four or eight bits are the two primary modes of operation.
While there are secondary considerations and modes, deciding how to send the data to the
LCD is most critical decision to be made for an LCD interface application.

The different instructions available for use with the 44780 are shown in the table below:
R/S R/W D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Instruction/Description
4 5 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 Pins
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Clear Display
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 * Return Cursor and LCD to Home Position
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ID S Set Cursor Move Direction
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D C B Enable Display/Cursor
0 0 0 0 0 1 SC RL * * Move Cursor/Shift Display
0 0 0 0 1 DL N F * * Set Interface Length
0 0 0 1 A A A A A A Move Cursor into CGRAM
0 0 1 A A A A A A A Move Cursor to Display
0 1 BF * * * * * * * Poll the "Busy Flag"
1 0 D D D D D D D D Write a Character to the Display at the
Current Cursor Position
1 1 D D D D D D D D Read the Character on the Display at the
Current Cursor Position
The bit descriptions for the different commands are:
"*" - Not Used/Ignored. This bit can be either "1" or "0"

Most LCD displays have a 44780 and support chip to control the operation of the LCD.
The 44780 is responsible for the external interface and provides sufficient control lines
for sixteen characters on the LCD. The support chip enhances the I/O of the 44780 to
support up to 128 characters on an LCD. From the table above, it should be noted that the
first two entries ("8x1", "16x1") only have the 44780 and not the support chip. This is
why the ninth character in the 16x1 does not "appear" at address 8 and shows up at the
address that is common for a two line LCD.

The Character Set available in the 44780 is basically ASCII. It is "basically" because
some characters do not follow the ASCII convention fully (probably the most significant
difference is 0x05B or "\" is not available). The ASCII Control Characters (0x008 to
0x01F) do not respond as control characters and may display funny (Japanese) characters.

50
 The last aspect of the LCD to discuss is how to specify a contrast voltage to the

Shift Register LCD Data Write

+Vcc

Data R6
D0
Data S/R D1
Pin-3 Contrast
0
Clock
Process 0
Dn 10K pot
or LCD
E Clock
E

LCD

LCD Contrast Circuit

Display. Experts typically use a potentiometer wired as a voltage divider. This will
provide an easily variable voltage between Ground and Vcc, which will be used to
specify the contrast (or "darkness") of the characters on the LCD screen. You may find
that different LCDs work differently with lower voltages providing darker characters in
some and higher voltages do the same thing in others.

Liquid crystal panel service life 100,000 hours minimum at 25 oC -10 oC

3.3 definition of panel service life
 Contrast becomes 30% of initial value
 Current consumption becomes three times higher than initial value
 Remarkable alignment deterioration occurs in LCK cell layer
Unusual operation occurs in display functions
Safety
If the LCD panel breaks, be careful not to get the liquid crystal in your mouth. If the
liquid crystal touches your skin or clothes, wash it off immediately using soap and plenty
of water.

CHAPTER 8:
APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

8.1 APPLICATIONS
51
 1. Transmission of signals to concern person in times of emergency.
2. Used in those departments where the number of specialized person are limited.
3. This project can be used as an security tool for detecting any possible conditions etc.
4. The project can be used in industrial units, Nuclear Plants, Hospitals etc

8.2 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

Several directions for future work are immediately obvious. In particular, before
conducting another round of user studies, we plan to implement all suggestions given by
research participants in the first round; In addition, we would like to implement some of
the features originally planned in the conceptual design of the ETA. In particular, we
would like to port the software from C# to Java. Currently, only the “smart phones” with
more extensive computing power runs Windows Mobile, whereas Java runs on nearly
every modern cell phone. Thus using Java would allow us to reach a wider audience. Cell
phones are not only an inexpensive platform, but they are also a very common
convenience (especially among the blind population) and largely homogeneous in terms
of capabilities. The next goal is hands-free operation of the Blind Aid system. The cell
phone’s Bluetooth connection can be used for the RFID reader and a Bluetooth headset.
The RFID reader may be embedded inside the handle of the cane. Finally, we plan to
implement voice recognition using Sphinx [16] for interacting with the system. Together,
these advancements should allow the user to interact with the ETA entirely through a
Bluetooth headset.

CHAPTER 9:

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

9.1ADVANTAGES

1. Low power consumption, and compact size,

52
 2. Remote signaling lights can be monitored using only one Receiver.
3. High reliability, due to the usage of power semiconductor devices,
4. Economical in nature, simple in design & operation.
5. Highly flexible in nature. The system can be used as a stand-alone unit.
6. Due to the digital & analogue circuits, the system is highly accurate & automatic in
nature.
7. As it automatically switches off after one minute, user can feel hands-free operation.

9.2 DISADVANTAGES

1. One time investment cost.

2. As of now in this project pits cannot be added.

CHAPTER 10:

RESULT/CONCLUSION
As this project is based on micro-controller (89C51) and IR Transmitter and Receiver
technology is used to transmit data this can be of great use for blinds and provides voice
information to the blinds about the traffic and alert the blinds against fire and water.

53
CHAPTER 11:
GENERAL COMPONENTS

 RESISTORS :

54
 In many electronic circuit applications the resistance forms the basic part of the circuit.
The reason for inserting the resistance is to reduce current or to produce the desired
voltage drop. These components which offer value of resistance are known as resistors.
Resistors may have fixed value i.e., whose value cannot be changed and are known as
fixed resistors. Such of those resistors whose value can be changed or varied are known
as variable resistors.

There are two types of resistors available. They are :

 Carbon resistors.
 Wire wound resistors.
Carbon resistors are used when the power dissipation is less than 2W because they are
smaller and cost less. Wire wound resistors are used where the power dissipation is more
than 5W. In electronic equipments carbon resistors are widely used because of their
smaller size .
All resistors have three main characteristics:
 Its resistance R in ohms (from 1 ohm to many mega ohms ).
 Power rating (from several 0.1W to 10 W ) .
 Tolerance (in percentage) .

 RESISTOR COLOUR CODING

The carbon resistors are small in size and are color coded to indicate their resistance
value in ohms. Different colors are used to indicate the numeric values. The dark colors
represent lower values and the lighter colors represent the higher values. The color code
has been standardized by the electronic industries association.

55
The color bands are printed at one end of the resistors and are read from the left to right.
The first color band closed to the edge indicates the first digit in the value of resistance
.The second band gives the second digit. The third band gives the number of zero’s after
two digits. The resulting number is the resistance in ohms. A fourth band indicates the
tolerance i.e., to indicate how accurate the resistance value is , the bands are shown in the
figure 1.

Fig. 1: Colour code for Resistor

 PRESET

There are two general categories of variable resistors:

 General purpose resistors.
 Precision resistors.

The general purpose type can again be wire wound type and carbon type .These follows
either linear or logarithmic law. The precision type are always wire wound and follow a
linear law .The variable resistors can be broadly classified as potentiometer , rheostats ,
presets and decade resistance boxes.

The general purpose wire wound potentiometers are available in 1, 2, 3 and 4 watts. The
usual tolerances ratings 10 % and 20% are available. The widely used potentiometers are

56
 of the standard diameters 19mm, 31mm, and 44mm. The temperature coefficient depends
on the wire used and on the resistors values. The resolution of these wire wound resistors
is proper than carbon resistors because the wiper has to move from one winding to the
other, where as in carbon potentiometers it is continuous. These resistors are highly
linear, the linearity falling with 1%.

 CAPACITORS:

Devices which can store electronic charge are called capacitors. Capacitance can be
understood as the ability of a dielectric to store electric charges. Its unit is Farad, named
after the Michael Faraday. The capacitors are named according to the dielectric used.
Most common ones are air, paper, and mica, ceramic and electrolytic capacitors.

Physically a capacitor has conducting plates separated by an insulator or the dielectric.

The plates of the capacitor have opposite charge, this gives rise to an electric field .In
capacitor the electric field is concentrated in the dielectric between the plates.
Like resistors, capacitors are also crucial to the correct working of nearly every
electronic circuit and provide us with a means of storing electrical energy in the form of
an electric field. Capacitors have numerous applications including storage capacitors in
power supplies, coupling of A.C. signals between the stages of an amplifier, and
decoupling power supply rails so that, As far as A.C. signal components are concerned,
the supply rails are indistinguishable from zero volts.

 TYPES OF CAPACITORS:

 DISC CAPACITORS :

In the disk form, silver is fired on to both sides of the ceramic to form the conductor
plates. The sheets are then baked and cut to the appropriate shape and size & attached by
pressure contact and soldering. These have high capacitance per unit volume and are very
economical. The disks are lacquered or encapsulated in plastic or Phenolic molding.
Round disk are used at high voltages the capacitance of values upto 0.01F can be

57
 obtained. They have tolerance of +20% or –20%. In general these capacitors have voltage
ratings upto 750 V d.c.

 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS :

These capacitors derive the name from electrolyte which is used as a medium to produce
high dielectric constants. These capacitors have low value for large capacitances at low
working voltages.

There are two types of Electrolytic capacitors:

 Aluminum Electrolytic capacitors .
 Tantalum electrolytic capacitors .

Electrolytic capacitors are used in circuits that have combination of D.C. voltage and
A.C. The D.C. voltage maintains the polarity . They are used as ‘ripple filter ‘ where
large capacitance are required at low cost in small space . They are also used as ‘biased
capacitors ‘ and ‘decoupling capacitors ‘ and even as ‘coupling capacitors ‘ in R- C
amplifier.

 COLOUR CODING :

Mica and tubular ceramic capacitors are color coded to indicate a capacitance value . As
coding is necessary only for very small sizes, color coded capacitors value is also in the
pF . The colors are the same as for the resistor coding from black for ‘0’ upto white for
‘9’. Mica capacitors use ‘ six dot code system’.

 SIX DOT CODE :

Here the top row is read from the left to right and the bottom from right to left .The dot
indicates the following:
(1). White. (2). Digit. (3). Digit. (4). Multiplier. (5). Tolerance. (6). Class.

58
 White for the first dot indicates the coding. The capacitance value is read from the next
three dots. If the first dot is silver it indicates paper capacitor. The white colored band
indicates the left and specifies the temperature coefficient . The next three colors indicate
the value of capacitance . For example Brown, Black, Brown = 100 pF.
DIODES:

To ensure unidirectional flow of liquid we use mechanical valves in its path. By properly
arranging these valves in a system we get useful devices such as pumps and locomotives.
In the field of electronics too we have a valve called semiconductor diode (a counterpart
of thermionic valve) for controlling the flow of electric current in one direction. But we
use these diodes in circuits for limited purposes like converting AC to DC, by passing
EMF etc. a diode allows current to pass through it provided it is forward biased and the
biasing voltage is more than potential barrier (forward voltage drop) of the diode

 AUTOMATIC SWITCHOVER TO BATTERY

An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) is necessary for a main operated clock. This
facility is very useful in transistors and two in ones for recording or listening to news
programs. A relay can do this job with a battery backup. But the relay takes several
milliseconds before it makes contact. Moreover, it is costly and occupies space.

The same task can be achieved with a single diode. Just connect a germanium diode
DR50 (D1) as shown in fig 1.when the power is available form the eliminator or the
external power source, the gadget will use the
A
power from it. As points A and B are at
same potential, the external power is remove, point B will be at higher potential that point
A i.e. D1 is forward biased and current flows from the battery. In no case the voltage
+ of
+
the eliminator or the external power source should be lessD1than the voltage of the battery.
DR50
Otherwise, the current will flow from the battery during mains operation also and the
FROM BATTERY
TO REST OF THE B ELIMINATOR
battery will be drained quickly.
CIRCUIT OF THE
GADGET
BATTERY

59
 FIG 1: AUTOMATIC SWITCHOVER TO BATTERY

 TRANSISTOR:

The transistor an entirely new type of electronic device is capable of achieving

amplification of weak signals in a fashion comparable and often superior to that realized
by vacuum tubes. Transistors are far smaller than vacuum tube, have no filaments and
hence need no heating power and may be operates in any position. They are mechanically
strong, hence practically unlimited life and can do some jobs better than vacuum tubes.

Invented in 1948 by J. Bardeen and W.H.Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories, a

transistor has now become the heart of most electronic appliance. Though transistor is
only slightly more the 45 years old, yet it is fast replacing vacuum tubes in almost all
applications.

A transistor consists of two pn junction formed by sand witching either p-type or n-type
semiconductor between a pair of opposite type. Accordingly, there are two types of
transistors namely:
 n-p-n transistor
 p-n-p transistor

60
 An n-p-n is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated a by thin section of p-type.
However, a p-n-p is formed by two p-section separated by a thin section of n-type.

 These are two pn junctions. Therefore, a transistor may be regarded as a

combination of two diodes connected back to back.
 There are 3 terminals, taken from each type of semiconductor.
 The middle section is very thin layer. This is the most important factor in the
functioning of a transistor.

Origin of the name “transistor “: When new devices are invented, scientists often try to
device a name that will appropriately describe the device. A transistor has two pn
junctions. As the discussed later one junction is forward biased and the other is reversed
biased. The forward biased junction has low resistance path whereas the reverse biased
junction has low resistance path whereas the reverse biased junction has a high resistance
path. The weak signal is introduced in the low resistance circuit and output is taken from
the high resistance circuit. Therefore, a transistor transfers a signal from a low resistance
to high resistance. The prefix ‘tans’ means the signal transfer property of the device while
‘istor’ classifies it as a solid element in the same general family with resistors.

 NAMING THE TRANSISTOR TERMINALS:

A transistor (PnP or NPN) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on
one side is the emitter and the section on the opposite side is the collector. The middle
section is called the base and forms two junctions between the emitter and collector.

 Emitter: - The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes)
is called the emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t base so that it can
supply a large number of majority carriers.
 Collector: - The section on the other side that collects the charge is called the
collector. The collector is always reversing biased. Its function is to remove
charges from its junction with the base.
 Base: - The middle section, which forms to pn junctions between the emitter and
collector, is called base. The base emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low
resistance for the emitter circuit. The base-collector junction is reversed biased
and provides high resistance in the collector circuit.

61
 CHARCTERISTICS OF TRANSISTORS
Whenever we have to decide about the applications of a transistor certain question arises.
Some of these are – how much amplification gets from it? What is the highest frequency
upto which it can be used? How much power output could we get from it? And what
should be the values of different components used in the circuits? The answers to these
entire questions lie in the electrical properties of the transistor. These properties depend
on the size, manufacturing techniques and materials used in the

manufacturer of transistor and are know as characteristics. Transistor manufacturers give

these characteristics in the data sheets published by them.

 Current gain factor ‘alpha’ ()

 Current gain factor ‘beta’ ()

 Input resistance (Rin)

 Output resistance (Rout)

 Cut-off frequency (F  and F)

 Leakage current (I ‘co)

 Maximum collector voltage (Vceo)

 Maximum emitter current (IC Max)

 Maximum Power dissipation (P max)

 RELAY:

62
 A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays
are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete
electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another.
Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform
logical operations.A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly
drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with
no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with
calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to
protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

 BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATION:

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an
iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron
armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving
contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an
air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the
relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer
sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire
connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB)
via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes
or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of
contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the
contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are

63
 manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a
high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the
surge. If the coil is designed to be energized

with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of
the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum pull on
the armature during the AC cycle.[1]

A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a
light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control
and controlled circuits.

 DC MOTOR:

The direct current (DC) motor is one of the first machines devised to convert electrical
power into mechanical power. Permanent magnet (PM) direct current convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy through the interaction of two magnetic fields. One field is
produced by a permanent magnet assembly, the other field is produced by an electrical
current flowing in the motor windings. These two fields result in a torque which tends to
rotate the rotor. As the rotor turns, the current in the windings is commutated to produce a
continuous torque output Permanent magnet (PM) motors are propably the most
commonly used DC motors, but there are also some other type of DC motors (types
which use coils to make the permanent magentic field also).

64
 DC motors operate from a direct current power source. Movement of the magnetic field is
achieved by switching current between coils within the motor. This action is called
"commutation". Very many DC motors (brush-type) have built-in commutation, meaning
that as the motor rotates, mechanical brushes automatically commutate coils on the rotor.
Motor speed control of DC motor is nothing new. A simplest method to control the
rotation speed of a DC motor is to control it's driving voltage. The higher the voltage is,
the higher speed the motor tries to reach. In many applications a simple votlage
regulation would cause lots of power loss on control circuit, so a pulse width modulation
method (PWM) is used in many DC motor controlling applications. In the basic Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) method, the operating power to the motors is

turned on and off to modulate the current to the motor. The ratio of "on" time to "off"
time is what determines the speed of the motor.
Sometimes the rotation direction needs to be changed. In normal prmanent magnet
motors, this rotation is changed by changing the polarity of operating power (for example
by switching from negative power supply topositive or by interchanging the power
terminals going to power supply). This directrion chanign is typicaly implemented using
relay or a circuit called an H bridge.
Besides "brush-type" DC motors, there is another DC motor type: brushless DC motor.
Brushless DC motors rely on the external power drive to perform the commutation of
stationary copper winding on the stator. This changing stator field makes the permanent
magnet rotor to rotate. A brushless permanent magnet motor is the highest performing
motor in terms of torque / vs. weight or efficiency. Brushless motors are usually the most
expensive type of motor. Electronically commutated, brush-less DC motor systems are
widely used as drives for blowers and fans used in electronics, telecommunications and
industrial equipment applications. There is wide variety of different brush-less motors for
various applications. Some are designed to to rotate at constant speed (those used in disk
drives) and the speed of some can be controlled by varying the voltage applid to them
(usually the motors used in fans). Some brushless DC motors have a built-in tachometer
which gives out pulses as the motor rotates (this applies to both disk drive motors and
some computer fans).
In general, users select brush-type DC motors when low system cost is a priority, and
brushless motors to fulfil other requirements (such as maintenance-free operation, high
speeds, and explosive environments where sparking could be hazardous). Brush type DC
motors are used in very many battery powered appliances. Brushless DC motors are
commonly used in applications like DC powered fans and disk drive rotation motors.

 INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

65
 All modern digital systems rely on the use of integrated circuits in which hundreds of
thousands of components are fabricated on a single chip of silicon. A relative measure of
the number of individual semiconductor devices within the chip is given by referring to
its ‘scale of integration’. The following terminology is commonly applied.

Scale of integration Abbreviation Number of logic gates

Small SSI 1 to 10
Medium MSI 10 to 100
Large LSI 100 to 1000
Very large VLSI 1000 to 10,000
Super large SLSI 10,000to 100,000

 ENCAPSULATION

The most common package used to encapsulate an integrated circuit, and that with which
most reader will be familiar, is the plastic dual-in-line (DIL) type. These are available
with a differing number of pins depending upon the complexity of the integrated circuit
in question and, in particular, the need to provide external connections to the device.
Conventional logic gates, for example, are often supplied in 14-pin or 16-pin DIL
packages, whilst microprocessors (and their more complex support devices) often require
40-pins or more.

 IDENTIFICATION

When delving into an unfamiliar piece of equipment, one of the most common problems
is that of identifying the integrated circuit devices. To aid us in this task, manufacturers
provide some coding on the upper surface of each chip. Such a coding generally includes

66
 the type number of the chip (including some of the generic coding), the manufacturer’s
name (usually in the form of prefix letters), and the classification of the device (in the
form of a prefix, infix or suffix).
In many cases the coding is further extended to indicate such things as encapsulation,
date of manufacture, and any special characteristics of the device. Unfortunately, all of
this potentially useful information often leads to some considerable confusion due to
inconsistencies in marking from one manufacturer to the next!

 LOGIC FAMILIES
The integrated circuit device on which modern digital circuitry depends belongs to one or
other of several ‘logic families’. The term simply describes the type of semiconductor
technology employed in the fabrication of the integrated circuit. This technology is
instrumental in determining the characteristics of a particular device. This, however, is
quite different from its characteristics, and encompasses such important criteria as supply
voltage, power dissipation, switching speed and immunity to noise.
The most popular logic families, at least as far as the more basic general purpose devices
are concerned, are complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) and transistor
transistor logic (TTL). TTL also has a number of sub-families including the popular low
power Schottky (LS-TTL) variants.
The most common range of conventional TTL logic devices is known as the ‘74’ series.
These devices are, not surprisingly, distinguished by the prefix number 74 in their coding.
Thus devices coded with the numbers 7400, 7408, 7432 and 74121 are all members of
this family which is often referred to as ‘Standard TTL’. Low power Schottky variants of
these devices are distinguished by an LS infix. The coding would then be 74LS00,
74LS08, 74LS32 and 74LS121.
Popular CMOS devices from part of the ‘4000’ series and are coded with an initial prefix
of 4. Thus 4001, 4174, 4501 and 4574 are all CMOS devices. CMOS devices are
sometimes also given a suffix letter; A to denote the ‘original’ (now obsolete) unbuffered
series, and B to denote the improved (buffered) series. A UB suffix denotes an unbuffered
B-series device.

Infix letters Meaning

C CMOS version of a corresponding TTL device

F ‘Fast’ – a high speed version of the device
H High speed version
S Schottky (a name resulting from the input circuit Configuration)
HC High speed CMOS version (with CMOS compatible inputs)

67
HCT High speed CMOS version (with TTL compatible inputs)

68
CHAPTER 12:

PCB DESIGING AND SOLDERING DESIGNING

12.1 PCB DESIGNING:

 Design your circuit board. Use PCB computer-aided design (CAD) software to
draw your circuit board. You can also use a perforated board that has pre-drilled
holes in it to help you see how your circuit board's components would be placed
and work in reality.
 Buy a plain board that is coated with a fine layer of copper on one side from a
retailer.
 Scrub the board with a scouring pad and water to make sure the copper is clean.
Let the board dry.
 Print your circuit board's design onto the dull side of a sheet of blue transfer
paper. Make sure the design is oriented correctly for transfer.
 Place the blue transfer paper on the board with the circuit board's printed design
against the copper.
 Lay a sheet of ordinary white paper over the blue paper. Following the transfer
paper's instructions, iron over the white and blue paper to transfer the design onto
the copper board. Iron every design detail that appears near an edge or corner of
the board with the tip of the iron.
 Let the board and blue paper cool. Peel the blue paper slowly away from the
board to see the transferred design.

 Examine the transfer paper to check for any black toner from the printed design
that failed to transfer to the copper board. Make sure the board's design is oriented
correctly.

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  Replace any missing toner on the board with ink from a black permanent marker.
Allow the ink to dry for a few hours.
 Remove exposed parts of the copper from the board using ferric chloride in a
process called etching.
 Put on old clothes, gloves and safety goggles.
 Warm the ferric chloride, stored in a non-corrosive jar and sealed with a non-
corrosive lid, in a bucket of warm water. Do not heat it above 115 F (46 C) to
prevent toxic fumes from being released.
 Pour only enough ferric chloride to fill a plastic tray that has plastic risers in it to
rest the circuit board on. Be sure to do this in a well-ventilated space.
 Use plastic tongs to lay the circuit board face down on the risers in the tray. Allow
5 to 20 minutes, depending on the size of your circuit board, for the exposed
copper to drop off the board as it etches away. Use the plastic tongs to agitate the
board and tray to allow for faster etching if necessary.
 Wash all the etching equipment and the circuit board thoroughly with plenty of
running water.
 Drill 0.03 inch (0.8 mm) lead component holes into your circuit board with high-
speed steel or carbide drill bits. Wear safety goggles and a protective mask to
protect your eyes and lungs while you drill.
 Scrub the board clean with a scouring pad and running water. Add your board's
electrical components and solder them into place.

12.2 SOLDERING TECHNIQUES

So Soldering is the only permanent way to ‘fix’ components to a circuit. However,

soldering requires a lot of practice as it is easy to ‘destroy’ many hours preparation and
Design work by poor soldering. If you follow the guidelines below you have a good
Chance of success.

Use a soldering iron in good condition. Inspect the tip

to make sure that it is not past good operation. If it
looks in bad condition it will not help you solder a
good joint. The shape of the tip may vary from one
soldering iron to the next but generally they should
look clean and not burnt.

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 A PCB eraser is used to remove any film from the tracks. This must be done carefully
Because the film will prevent good soldering of the components to the PCB. The tracks can
be checked using a magnifying glass. If there are gaps in the tracks, sometimes they can be
repaired using wire but usually a new PCB has to be etched.

The heated soldering iron should then be placed in contact with the track and the
component and allowed to heat them up. Once they are heated the solder can be applied.
The solder should flow through and around the component and the track

Having completed soldering the circuit the extended legs on the components need to be
trimmed using wire clippers. The circuit is now ready for testing.

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CHAPTER 13:

REFERENCES
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travel aid for navigation of visually impaired Communication Systems and Networks
(COMSNETS), 2011 Third International conference on 4-8 jan 2011.
2.Shamsi, M.A.; Al-Qutayri, M.; Jeedella, J.; Blind assistant navigation system Biomedical
Engineering (MECBME), 2011 1st Middle East Conference on 21-24 Feb. 2011
3.Calder, David J.; Curtin .An obstacle signaling system for the blind ,Digital Ecosystems and
Technologies Conference (DEST), 2011 Proceedings of the 5th IEEE International Conference on
30 June 2011
4.Dunai, L.; Fajarnes, G.P.; Praderas, V.S.; Garcia, B.D.; Lengua,I.L.; Real-time Assistance
prototype- a new Navigation Aid for Blind people, IECON 2010 - 36th Annual Conference on IEEE
Industrial Electronics Society
5.Shang Wenqin; Jiang Wei; Chu Jian; A machine vision based navigation system for the blind
China Computer Science and Automation Engineering (CSAE), 2011 IEEE International
Conference on 10-12 June 2011
6.Hashino, S.; Ghurchian, R.; A blind guidance system for street crossings based on ultrasonic
sensors. Information and Automation (ICIA), 2010 IEEE International Conference on June 2010
Baranski, P.; Polanczyk, M.; Strumillo, P.; A remote guidance system for the blind. e-Health
Networking Applications and Services (Healthcom), 2010 12th IEEE International Conference .

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