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 Module 3: BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

*** BIODIVERSITY ***

 The variety of life on Earth, its biological diversity is commonly referred to as biodiversity.
 The number of species of plants, animals, and microorganisms, the enormous diversity of
genes in these species, the different ecosystems on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and
coral reefs are all part of a biologically diverse Earth.
 Appropriate conservation and sustainable development strategies attempt to recognize this as
being integral to any approach to preserving biodiversity. Almost all cultures have their roots
in our biological diversity in some way or form.
 Declining biodiversity is therefore a concern for many reasons.

*** IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY***

 Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have
an important role to play.
 For example,
 A larger number of plant species means a greater variety of crops
 Greater species diversity ensures natural sustainability for all life forms
 Healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover from a variety of disasters.
 And so, while we dominate this planet, we still need to preserve the diversity in wildlife.

**** THEORIES OF EVOLUTION ***

 Jean Baptiste de Lamarck –

was the first evolutionist to believe that organisms change overtime.

Lamarck Three Theories:

1.) The Theory of Need - which states that organisms change in response to their environment.

2.) The Theory of Use and Disuse - organs not in use will disappear while organs in use will
develop.

3.) The Theory of Acquired Characteristics -inherited by their off springs and propagated by the
next generation.
o Charles Darwin-
proposed the Darwinian Theory which is based on Natural Selection.
o Natural selection –
refers to the differential survival and reproduction of organisms.
o Adaptation-
is a set of genetically acquired traits that make the organism better suited to
its environment.
 *** EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION ***

1.) Evidence from Fossil Records

 Fossils are the remains or impression left by an animal or by plants preserved in the earth
crust.
 They were from the hard parts of the organism like woody stem, bones, or teeth.

 Types of Fossil: Imprints & Compression

 Imprints- are shallow external molds left by animal or plant tissues with little
or no organic materials present.
 Compression - is the other side with more organic material.

 Determining the Age of Fossils:
 Relative dating is a method used to determine the age of the rocks by
comparing them with the rocks in the other layer.
 Carbon-14 -Radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of
rocks using the decay of radioactive isotopes present in rocks.

 Geologic Time Scale:

 Era is the largest division of Geologic Time Scale. (Precambrian, Paleozoic,
Mesozoic , and Cenozoic)
 Each Era is further divided into Period.

2.) Evidence from Comparative Anatomy

 Homologous Structures -Similar structures in different species irrespective of their
functions.
 Analogous Structures - are structures, which are different in appearance but have the
same function.

3.) Evidence from Embryonic Development

 Embryo - is an early stage of development in organisms.

4.) DNA Evidence

 sequence DNA analysis
 Module 4:Ecosystem: Biodiversity

*** TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM ***

The Forest Ecosystem

Terrestrial
ecosystems These are the ecosystems where abundance of flora (plants) is seen and they have a
large number of organisms living in relatively small areas. Therefore, the density of
Terrestrial life in forest ecosystems is very high. Any small change in the ecosystem can affect
ecosystems are the whole balance and collapse the ecosystem. You can see wonderful diversity in the
found everywhere fauna of these ecosystems too. They are again divided into few types.
apart from water
bodies. They are  Tropical evergreen forest: Tropical forests which receive an average rainfall
broadly classified of 80 to 400 inches in a year. These forests are marked by dense vegetation
into: comprising of tall trees with different levels. Each level gives shelter to different
kinds of animals.
 Tropical deciduous forest: Dense bushes and shrubs rule here along with
broad levels of trees. This type of forests is found in many parts of the world and
large variety of flora and fauna are found here.
 Temperate evergreen forest: These have very few numbers of trees but
ferns and mosses make up for them. Trees have spiked leaves to minimize
transpiration.
 Temperate deciduous forest: This forest is found in the moist temperate
regions with sufficient rainfall. Winters and summers are well defined and with trees
shedding their leaves during winter.
 Taiga: Situated just south of the arctic regions, Taiga is distinguished by
evergreen conifers. While the temperature is subzero for almost six months, the rest
of the year it is buzzing with insects and migratory birds.

The Desert Ecosystem

Desert ecosystems are found in regions receiving an annual rainfall of less than
25cm. They occupy around 17 percent of all land on the planet. Due to very high
temperature, intense sunlight and low water availability, flora and fauna are very
poorly developed and scarce. Vegetation is mainly bushes, shrubs, few grasses and
rarely trees. Leaves and stems of these plants are modified to conserve water. The
best known desert plants are the succulents like spiny leaved cacti. Animal life
includes insects, reptiles, birds, camels all of whom are adapted to the xeric (desert)
conditions.

The Grassland Ecosystem

Grasslands are found in both temperate and tropical regions of the world but the
ecosystems are slightly varying. This area mainly comprises of grasses with very
 little amount of shrubs and trees. Main vegetation is grasses, legumes and plants
belonging to composite family. Many grazing animals, herbivores and insectivores
are found in grasslands. Two main types of grasslands ecosystems are:

1. Savanna: These tropical grasslands are seasonally dry with few individual trees.
They support large number of grazers and predators.
2. Prairies: This is temperate grassland. It is completely devoid of trees and large
shrubs. Prairies can be categorized as tall grass, mixed grass and short grass prairie.

The Mountain Ecosystem

Mountain lands provide a scattered but diverse array of habitats in which a large
range of plants and animals are found. At higher altitudes harsh environmental
conditions generally prevail, and only treeless alpine vegetation is found. The
animals living here have thick fur coats for prevention from cold and hibernate in
winter months. Lower slopes commonly are covered by coniferous forests.
The Marine Ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystems Marine ecosystems are the largest ecosystems with coverage of nearly 71% of the
Earth's surface and containing 97% of the planet's water. The water in Marine
An aquatic ecosystems has salts and minerals dissolved in them in high amounts. Different
ecosystem is an divisions of marine ecosystems are:
ecosystem located in  Oceanic: The relatively shallow part of the ocean that lies over the continental
a body of water. It shelf.
comprises aquatic  Profundal: Bottom or deep water.
fauna, flora and the  Benthic Bottom substrates.
properties of water  Inter-tidal: The area between high and low tides.
too. There are two  Estuaries
types of aquatic  Salt marshes
ecosystems, Marine
 Coral reefs
and freshwater.
 Hydrothermal vents-where chemosynthetic bacteria form the food base.
Many types of organisms are found in marine ecosystems including brown algae,
dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks.

The Freshwater Ecosystem

In contrast to the Marine ecosystem, freshwater ecosystems only cover 0.8% of the
Earth's surface and contain 0.009% of its total water. There are three basic types of
freshwater ecosystems:
 Lentic: Still or slow-moving water like pools, ponds, and lakes.
 Lotic: Fast-moving water like streams and rivers.
 Wetlands: Places where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least some time.
These ecosystems are home to amphibians, reptiles and almost 41% of world’s fish
species. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of
dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow moving water of
pools.
Types of Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem

Desert Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem

Mountain Ecosystem
 Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem
 *** RELATIONSHIP OF ORGANISMS IN A PARTICULAR ECOSYSYTEM ***

Predation: One Wins, One Loses

Predation includes any interaction between two species in which one species benefits by
obtaining resources from and to the detriment of the other. While it's most often associated with
the classic predator-prey interaction, in which one species kills and consumes another, not all
predation interactions result in the death of one organism. In the case of herbivory, a herbivore
often consumes only part of the plant. While this action may result in injury to the plant, it may
also result in seed dispersal. Many ecologists include parasitic interactions in discussions of
predation. In such relationships, the parasite causes harm to the host over time, possibly even
death. As an example, parasitic tapeworms attach themselves to the intestinal lining of dogs,
humans and other mammals, consuming partially digested food and depriving the host of
nutrients, thus lowering the host's fitness.

Competition: The Double Negative

Competition exists when multiple organisms vie for the same, limiting resource. Because the use
of a limited resource by one species decreases availability to the other, competition lowers the
fitness of both. Competition can be interspecific, between different species, or intraspecific,
between individuals of the same species. In the 1930s, Russian ecologist Georgy Gause proposed
that two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist in the same place at the
same time. As a consequence, one species may be driven to extinction, or evolution reduces the
competition.

Mutualism: Everyone Wins

Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in
the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photsynthesizing
alga supplies the fungus with nutrients, and gains protection in return. The relationship also
allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare case, mutualistic
partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services
in exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with
the reproductive structures.

Commensalism: A Positive/Zero Interaction

An interaction where one species benefits and the other remains unaffected is known as
commensalism. As an example, cattle egrets and brown-headed cowbirds forage in close
association with cattle and horses, feeding on insects flushed by the movement of the livestock.
The birds benefit from this relationship, but the livestock generally do not. Often it's difficult to
tease apart commensalism and mutualism. For example, if the egret or cowbird feeds on ticks or
other pests off of the animal's back, the relationship is more aptly described as mutualistic.
Amensalism: A Negative/Zero Interaction

Amensalism describes an interaction in which the presence of one species has a negative effect
on another, but the first species is unaffected. For example, a herd of elephants walking across a
landscape may crush fragile plants. Amensalistic interactions commonly result when one species
produces a chemical compound that is harmful to another species. The chemical juglone
produced in the roots of black walnut inhibit the growth of other trees and shrubs, but has no
effect on the walnut tree.