ADVANCED BRAKING SYSTEM FOR HILL

DRIVE VEHICLES
 ABSTRACT
The project deals with the braking system for hill drive. This brake can be used when the
vehicle runs in hill station. It mainly used in the hills area.

The brake system has the ratchet free wheel, a small gear, Free wheel lock, wheels, brake
lever, steering, etc.

The ratchet wheel rotates in only one direction. i.e., the wheel rotates only in the
clockwise direction. By the working of the free wheel is it not rotate in the anticlockwise
direction. So, the vehicle do not comes backward.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
WORKING DIAGRAM
LIST OF COMPONENTS:
 ENGINE
 CARBURATOR
 PISTON
 BEARINGS
 FRONT AXLE
 BREAK LEAVER
 RATCHET PAWL MECHANISM
 WHEEL
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION:

1. ENGINE:
A two-stroke (or two-cycle) engine is a type of internal combustion engine which
completes a power cycle with two strokes (up and down movements) of the piston during only
one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to a "four-stroke engine", which requires four
strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle during two crankshaft revolutions. In a two-
stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke
happen simultaneously, with the intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions occurring at the
same time.

Two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a
narrow range of rotational speeds called the "power band". Compared to four-stroke engines,
two-stroke engines have a greatly reduced number of moving parts, and so can be more compact
and significantly lighter.
 The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to
Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, who patented his design in 1881. However, unlike later two-
stroke engines, his had a separate charging cylinder.

The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a charging
pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day. The first truly practical two-stroke
engine is attributed to Yorkshire man Alfred Angus Scott, who started producing twin-cylinder
water-cooled motorcycles in 1908.

Gasoline (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight or portable

applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles.

However, when weight and size are not an issue, the cycle's potential for
high thermodynamic efficiency makes it ideal for diesel compression ignition engines operating
in large, weight-insensitive applications, such as marine propulsion, railway
locomotives and electricity generation. In a two-stroke engine, the heat transfer from the engine
to the cooling system is less than in a four-stroke, which means that two-stroke engines can be
more efficient.

EMISSIONS:

Crankcase-compression two-stroke engines, such as common small gasoline-powered

engines, create more exhaust emissions than four-stroke engines because their two-stroke oil
(petrol) lubrication mixture is also burned in the engine, due to the engine's total-loss oiling
system.
APPLICATIONS:

Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, and
high power-to-weight ratio are design priorities. With the traditional lubrication technique of
mixing oil into the fuel, they also have the advantage of working in any orientation, as there is
no oil reservoir dependent on gravity; this is an essential property for hand-held power tools such
as chainsaws.

A number of mainstream automobile manufacturers have used two-stroke engines in the

past, including the Swedish Saab and German manufacturers DKW, Auto-Union, VEB
Sachsenring Automobilwerke Zwickau, and VEB Automobilwerke Eisenach. The Japanese
manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s.

Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, due to increasingly
stringent regulation of air pollution.[3] Eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with
the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany.
 Two-stroke engines are still found in a variety of small propulsion applications, such
as outboard motors, high-performance, small-capacity motorcycles, mopeds, and dirt
bikes, underbones, scooters, tuk-tuks, snowmobiles, karts, ultralight airplanes, and model
airplanes and other model vehicles. They are also common in power tools used outdoors, such
as lawn mowers, chainsaws, and weed-wickers.

With direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine
produces air pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic
efficiency.

Therefore, the cycle has historically also been used in large diesel engines, mostly large
industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks and heavy machinery. There are several
experimental designs intended for automobile use: for instance, Lotus of Norfolk, UK, has a
prototype direct-injection two-stroke engine intended for alcohol fuels called the
Omnivore which it is demonstrating in a version of the Exide.

DIFFERENT TWO-STROKE DESIGN TYPES:

Although the principles remain the same, the mechanical details of various two-stroke
engines differ depending on the type.

The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder,
the method of scavenging the cylinder (exchanging burnt exhaust for fresh mixture) and the
method of exhausting the cylinder.

PISTON-CONTROLLED INLET PORT:

Piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke
engines. All functions are controlled solely by the piston covering and uncovering the ports as it
moves up and down in the cylinder. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some basic principles for
this system. They found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the
same amount as raising the port, but the power band does not narrow as it does when the port is
raised.

However, there is a mechanical limit to the width of a single exhaust port, at about 62%
of the bore diameter for reasonable ring life. Beyond this, the rings will bulge into the exhaust
port and wear quickly. A maximum 70% of bore width is possible in racing engines, where rings
are changed every few races. Intake duration is between 120 and 160 degrees. Transfer port time
is set at a minimum of 26 degrees.

The strong low pressure pulse of a racing two-stroke expansion chamber can drop the
pressure to -7 PSI when the piston is at bottom dead center, and the transfer ports nearly wide
open. One of the reasons for high fuel consumption in two-strokes is that some of the incoming
pressurized fuel-air mixture is forced across the top of the piston, where it has a cooling action,
and straight out the exhaust pipe. An expansion chamber with a strong reverse pulse will stop
this out-going flow. A fundamental difference from typical four-stroke engines is that the two-
stroke's crankcase is sealed and forms part of the induction process in gasoline and hot bulb
engines. Diesel two-strokes often add a Roots blower or piston pump for scavenging.

REED INLET VALVE:

The reed valve is a simple but highly effective form of check valve commonly fitted in
the intake tract of the piston-controlled port. They allow asymmetric intake of the fuel charge,
improving power and economy, while widening the power band. They are widely used in
motorcycle, ATV and marine outboard engines.

ROTARY INLET VALVE:

The intake pathway is opened and closed by a rotating member. A familiar type
sometimes seen on small motorcycles is a slotted disk attached to the crankshaft which covers
and uncovers an opening in the end of the crankcase, allowing charge to enter during one portion
of the cycle (aka disc valve).

Another form of rotary inlet valve used on two-stroke engines employs two cylindrical
members with suitable cutouts arranged to rotate one within the other - the inlet pipe having
passage to the crankcase only when the two cutouts coincide. The crankshaft itself may form one
of the members, as in most glow plug model engines. In another embodiment, the crank disc is
arranged to be a close-clearance fit in the crankcase, and is provided with a cutout which lines up
with an inlet passage in the crankcase wall at the appropriate time, as in vespa motor scooters.

The advantage of a rotary valve is that it enables the two-stroke engine's intake timing to
be asymmetrical, which is not possible with piston-port type engines. The piston-port type
engine's intake timing opens and closes before and after top dead center at the same crank angle,
making it symmetrical, whereas the rotary valve allows the opening to begin and close earlier.

Rotary valve engines can be tailored to deliver power over a wider speed range or higher
power over a narrower speed range than either piston port or reed valve engine. Where a portion
of the rotary valve is a portion of the crankcase itself, it is particularly important that no wear is
allowed to take place.

CROSS-FLOW-SCAVENGED:
In a cross-flow engine, the transfer and exhaust ports are on opposite sides of the
cylinder, and a deflector on the top of the piston directs the fresh intake charge into the upper
part of the cylinder, pushing the residual exhaust gas down the other side of the deflector and out
the exhaust port.[8] The deflector increases the piston's weight and exposed surface area, affecting
piston cooling and also making it difficult to achieve an efficient combustion chamber shape.
This design has been superseded since the 1960s by the loop scavenging method (below),
especially for motorbikes, although for smaller or slower engines, such as lawn mowers, the
cross-flow-scavenged design can be an acceptable approach.
LOOP-SCAVENGED:

This method of scavenging uses carefully shaped and positioned transfer ports to direct
the flow of fresh mixture toward the combustion chamber as it enters the cylinder. The fuel/air
mixture strikes the cylinder head, then follows the curvature of the combustion chamber, and
then is deflected downward.

This not only prevents the fuel/air mixture from traveling directly out the exhaust port,
but also creates a swirling turbulence which improves combustion efficiency, power and
economy. Usually, a piston deflector is not required, so this approach has a distinct advantage
over the cross-flow scheme (above).

Often referred to as "Schnuerle" (or "Schnürle") loop scavenging after Adolf Schnürle,
the German inventor of an early form in the mid-1920s, it became widely adopted in that country
during the 1930s and spread further afield after World War II.

Loop scavenging is the most common type of fuel/air mixture transfer used on modern
two-stroke engines. Suzuki was one of the first manufacturers outside of Europe to adopt loop-
scavenged two-stroke engines. This operational feature was used in conjunction with the
expansion chamber exhaust developed by German motorcycle manufacturer, MZ and Walter
Kaaden.

Loop scavenging, disc valves and expansion chambers worked in a highly coordinated
way to significantly increase the power output of two-stroke engines, particularly from the
Japanese manufacturers Suzuki, Yamaha and Kawasaki. Suzuki and Yamaha enjoyed success in
grand Prix motorcycle racing in the 1960s due in no small way to the increased power afforded
by loop scavenging.

An additional benefit of loop scavenging was the piston could be made nearly flat or
slightly dome shaped, which allowed the piston to be appreciably lighter and stronger, and
consequently to tolerate higher engine speeds. The "flat top" piston also has better thermal
properties and is less prone to uneven heating, expansion, piston seizures, dimensional changes
and compression losses.
 SAAB built 750 and 850 cc 3-cylinder engines based on a DKW design that proved
reasonably successful employing loop charging. The original SAAB 92 had a two-cylinder
engine of comparatively low efficiency. At cruising speed, reflected wave exhaust port blocking
occurred at too low a frequency. Using the asymmetric three-port exhaust manifold employed in
the identical DKW engine improved fuel economy.

The 750 cc standard engine produced 36 to 42 hp, depending on the model year. The
Monte Carlo Rally variant, 750 cc (with a filled crankshaft for higher base compression),
generated 65 hp. An 850 cc version was available in the 1966 SAAB Sport (a standard trim
model in comparison to the deluxe trim of the Monte Carlo). Base compression comprises a
portion of the overall compression ratio of a two-stroke engine. Work published at SAE in 2012
points that loop scavenging is under every circumstance more efficient than cross-flow
scavenging.

UN-IFLOW-SCAVENGED:
In a UN iflow engine, the mixture, or "charge air" in the case of a diesel, enters at one
end of the cylinder controlled by the piston and the exhaust exits at the other end controlled by
an exhaust valve or piston. The scavenging gas-flow is therefore in one direction only, hence the
name UN iflow.

The valve arrangement is common in on-road, off-road and stationary two-stroke engines
(Detroit Diesel), certain small marine two-stroke engines (Gray Marine), certain railroad two-
stroke diesel locomotives (Electro-Motive Diesel) and large marine two-stroke main propulsion
engines (Wärtsilä). Ported types are represented by the opposed piston design in which there are
two pistons in each cylinder, working in opposite directions such as the Junkers Jumo 205 and
Napier Deltic.

The once-popular split-single design falls into this class, being effectively a folded un
iflow. With advanced angle exhaust timing, un iflow engines can be supercharged with a
crankshaft-driven (piston or Roots) blower.
STEPPED PISTON ENGINE:

The piston of this engine is "top-hat" shaped; the upper section forms the regular
cylinder, and the lower section performs a scavenging function. The units run in pairs, with the
lower half of one piston charging an adjacent combustion chamber.

This system is still partially dependent on total loss lubrication (for the upper part of the
piston), the other parts being sump lubricated with cleanliness and reliability benefits. The piston
weight is only about 20% heavier than a loop-scavenged piston because skirt thicknesses can be
less. Bernard Hooper Engineering Ltd. (BHE) is one of the more recent engine developers using
this approach.

DIRECT INJECTION:

Direct injection has considerable advantages in two-stroke engines, eliminating some of the
waste and pollution caused by carbureted two-strokes where a proportion of the fuel/air mixture
entering the cylinder goes directly out, unburned, through the exhaust port. Two systems are in
use, low-pressure air-assisted injection, and high pressure injection.

Since the fuel does not pass through the crankcase, a separate source of lubrication is needed.

PETROL ENGINE:

A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in American English) is an internal

combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile
fuels.

In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually mixed after compression (although
some modern petrol engines now use cylinder-direct petrol injection). The pre-mixing was
formerly done in a carburetor, but now it is done by electronically controlled fuel injection,
except in small engines where the cost/complication of electronics does not justify the added
engine efficiency.
 The process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in
using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed
(and therefore heated), and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression
stroke, and self-ignites.

SPEED & EFFICIENCY:

Petrol engines run at higher rotation speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter
pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft (a design efficiency made possible by lower compression
ratios) and due to petrol burning more quickly than diesel.

Because pistons in petrol engines tend to have much shorter strokes than pistons in diesel
engines, typically it takes less time for a piston in a petrol engine to complete its stroke than a
piston in a diesel engine. However the lower compression ratios of petrol engines give petrol
engines lower efficiency than diesel engines.

Typically, most petrol engines have approximately 20%(avg.) thermal efficiency, which
is nearly half of diesel engines. However some newer engines are reported to be much more
efficient (thermal efficiency up to 38%) than previous spark-ignition engines.

APPLICATIONS:

CURRENT:

Petrol engines have many applications, including:

 Automobiles
 Motorcycles
 Aircraft
 Motorboats
 Small engines, such as lawn mowers, chainsaws and portable engine-generators
HISTORICAL:

Before the use of diesel engines became widespread, petrol engines were used in buses,
Lorries (trucks) and a few railway locomotives.

Examples:

 Bedford OB bus
 Bedford M series lorry
 GE 57-ton gas-electric box cab locomotive.
2. CARBURETOR:

A carburetor (American English) or carburetor (British English; see spelling

differences) is a device that mixes air and fuel for internal combustion engines in the proper ratio
for combustion. It is sometimes colloquially shortened to carb in the UK and North America
or carby in Australia.[1] To carburate or carburet(and thus carburation or carburetion,
respectively) means to mix the air and fuel or to equip (an engine) with a carburetor for that
purpose.

Carburetors have largely been supplanted in the automotive and, to a lesser extent,
aviation industries by fuel injection. They are still common on small engines for lawn
mowers, rototillers and other equipment.

The main function of a carburetor is to maintain a small reserve of petrol at a constant

level in float chamber which atomize the petrol and mix it with air and to supply air-fuel ratio
vapor mixture at correct ratio according to 110 cc engine equipment.
OPERATION:

FIXED-VENTURI
In which the varying air velocity in the Venturi alters the fuel flow; this architecture is
employed in most carburetors found on cars.
VARIABLE-VENTURI
In which the fuel jet opening is varied by the slide (which simultaneously alters air flow).
In "constant depression" carburetors, this is done by a vacuum operated piston connected to a
tapered needle which slides inside the fuel jet. A simpler version exists, most commonly found
on small motorcycles and dirt bikes, where the slide and needle is directly controlled by the
throttle position.
The most common variable Venturi (constant depression) type carburetor is the side
draft SU carburetor and similar models from Hitachi, Zenith-Stromberg and other makers. The
UK location of the SU and Zenith-Stromberg companies helped these carburetors rise to a
position of domination in the UK car market, though such carburetors were also very widely
used on Volvos and other non-UK makes. Other similar designs have been used on some
European and a few Japanese automobiles.
These carburetors are also referred to as "constant velocity" or "constant vacuum"
carburetors. An interesting variation was Ford's VV (Variable Venturi) carburetor, which was
essentially a fixed Venturi carburetor with one side of the Venturi hinged and movable to give a
narrow throat at low rpm and a wider throat at high rpm. This was designed to provide good
mixing and airflow over a range of engine speeds, though the VV carburetor proved problematic
in service.

BASICS:

A carburetor basically consists of an open pipe through which the air passes into the inlet
manifold of the engine. The pipe is in the form of a Venturi: it narrows in section and then
widens again, causing the airflow to increase in speed in the narrowest part. Below the Venturi is
a butterfly valve called the throttle valve — a rotating disc that can be turned end-on to the
airflow, so as to hardly restrict the flow at all, or can be rotated so that it (almost) completely
blocks the flow of air.
 This valve controls the flow of air through the carburetor throat and thus the quantity of
air/fuel mixture the system will deliver, thereby regulating engine power and speed. The throttle
is connected, usually through a cable or a mechanical linkage of rods and joints or rarely
by pneumatic link, to the accelerator pedal on a car, a throttle level in an aircraft or the
equivalent control on other vehicles or equipment.

Fuel is introduced into the air stream through small holes at the narrowest part of the
Venturi and at other places where pressure will be lowered when not running on full throttle.
Fuel flow is adjusted by means of precisely calibrated orifices, referred to as jets, in the fuel path.

MAIN OPEN-THROTTLE CIRCUIT:

As the throttle is progressively opened, the manifold vacuum is lessened since there is
less restriction on the airflow, reducing the flow through the idle and off-idle circuits. This is
where the Venturi shape of the carburetor throat comes into play, due to Bernoulli's
principle (i.e., as the velocity increases, pressure falls). The Venturi raises the air velocity, and
this high speed and thus low pressure sucks fuel into the airstream through a nozzle or nozzles
located in the center of the Venturi. Sometimes one or more additional booster Venturis is placed
coaxially within the primary Venturi to increase the effect.

As the throttle is closed, the airflow through the Venturi drops until the lowered pressure
is insufficient to maintain this fuel flow, and the idle circuit takes over again, as described above.

Bernoulli's principle, which is a function of the velocity of the fluid, is a dominant effect
for large openings and large flow rates, but since fluid flow at small scales and low speeds
(low Reynolds number) is dominated by viscosity, Bernoulli's principle is ineffective at idle or
slow running and in the very small carburetors of the smallest model engines. Small model
engines have flow restrictions ahead of the jets to reduce the pressure enough to suck the fuel
into the air flow. Similarly the idle and slow running jets of large carburetors are placed after the
throttle valve where the pressure is reduced partly by viscous drag, rather than by Bernoulli's
principle. The most common rich mixture device for starting cold engines was the choke, which
works on the same principle.
POWER VALVE:

For open throttle operation a richer mixture will produce more power, prevent pre-
ignition detonation, and keep the engine cooler. This is usually addressed with a spring-loaded
"power valve", which is held shut by engine vacuum. As the throttle opens up, the vacuum
decreases and the spring opens the valve to let more fuel into the main circuit. On two-stroke
engines, the operation of the power valve is the reverse of normal — it is normally "on" and at a
set rpm it is turned "off". It is activated at high rpm to extend the engine's rev range, capitalizing
on a two-stroke's tendency to rev higher momentarily when the mixture is lean.

Alternative to employing a power valve, the carburetor may utilize a metering

rod or step-up rod system to enrich the fuel mixture under high-demand conditions. Such
systems were originated by Carter Carburetor in the 1950s for the primary two Venturis of their
four barrel carburetors, and step-up rods were widely used on most 1-, 2-, and 4-barrel Carter
carburetors through the end of production in the 1980s. The step-up rods are tapered at the
bottom end, which extends into the main metering jets. The tops of the rods are connected to a
vacuum piston or a mechanical linkage which lifts the rods out of the main jets when the throttle
is opened (mechanical linkage) or when manifold vacuum drops (vacuum piston). When the
step-up rod is lowered into the main jet, it restricts the fuel flow. When the step-up rod is raised
out of the jet, more fuel can flow through it. In this manner, the amount of fuel delivered is
tailored to the transient demands of the engine. Some 4-barrel carburetors use metering rods only
on the primary two Venturis, but some use them on both primary and secondary circuits, as in
the Rochester Quadra jet.

FUEL SUPPLY:

To ensure a ready mixture, the carburetor has a "float chamber" (or "bowl") that contains
a quantity of fuel at near-atmospheric pressure, ready for use. This reservoir is constantly
replenished with fuel supplied by a fuel pump. The correct fuel level in the bowl is maintained
by means of a float controlling an inlet valve, in a manner very similar to that employed in
a cistern (e.g. a toilet tank). As fuel is used up, the float drops, opening the inlet valve and
admitting fuel.
 As the fuel level rises, the float rises and closes the inlet valve. The level of fuel
maintained in the float bowl can usually be adjusted, whether by a setscrew or by something
crude such as bending the arm to which the float is connected. This is usually a critical
adjustment, and the proper adjustment is indicated by lines inscribed into a window on the float
bowl, or a measurement of how far the float hangs below the top of the carburetor when
disassembled, or similar.

Floats can be made of different materials, such as sheet brass soldered into a hollow
shape, or of plastic; hollow floats can spring small leaks and plastic floats can eventually become
porous and lose their flotation; in either case the float will fail to float, fuel level will be too high,
and the engine will not run unless the float is replaced. The valve itself becomes worn on its
sides by its motion in its "seat" and will eventually try to close at an angle, and thus fails to shut
off the fuel completely; again, this will cause excessive fuel flow and poor engine operation.

Conversely, as the fuel evaporates from the float bowl, it leaves sediment, residue, and
varnishes behind, which clog the passages and can interfere with the float operation. This is
particularly a problem in automobiles operated for only part of the year and left to stand with full
float chambers for months at a time; commercial fuel stabilizer additives are available that
reduce this problem.

The fuel stored in the chamber (bowl) can be a problem in hot climates. If the engine is
shut off while hot, the temperature of the fuel will increase, sometimes boiling ("percolation").
This can result in flooding and difficult or impossible restarts while the engine is still warm, a
phenomenon known as "heat soak". Heat deflectors and insulating gaskets attempt to minimize
this effect. The Carter Thermo-Quad carburetor has float chambers manufactured of insulating
plastic (phenol), said to keep the fuel 20 degrees Fahrenheit (11 degrees Celsius) cooler.

Usually, special vent tubes allow atmospheric pressure to be maintained in the float
chamber as the fuel level changes; these tubes usually extend into the carburetor throat.
Placement of these vent tubes is critical to prevent fuel from sloshing out of them into the
carburetor, and sometimes they are modified with longer tubing.

Note that this leaves the fuel at atmospheric pressure, and therefore it cannot travel into a
throat which has been pressurized by a supercharger mounted upstream; in such cases, the entire
carburetor must be contained in an airtight pressurized box to operate.
 This is not necessary in installations where the carburetor is mounted upstream of the
supercharger, which is for this reason the more frequent system.

However, this results in the supercharger being filled with compressed fuel/air mixture,
with a strong tendency to explode should the engine backfire; this type of explosion is frequently
seen in drag races, which for safety reasons now incorporate pressure releasing blow-off plates
on the intake manifold, breakaway bolts holding the supercharger to the manifold, and shrapnel-
catching ballistic blankets made from nylon or Kevlar surrounding the superchargers.
PISTON

A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas

compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving
component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its
purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston
rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the
crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In
some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder.

.1 TYPES OF PISTONS:

.1.1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES:

An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the expanding

combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then
acts downwards through the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is
attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin (US: wrist pin). This pin is mounted within
the piston: unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead (except big two stroke
engines).

The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move in the
connecting rod. A few designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose in both components. All
pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder
wall, usually by circles.

Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of narrow iron
rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the crown. The rings are split at a point
in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of
ring are used: the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower rings have narrow
edges and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many proprietary and detail design
features associated with piston rings.
 Pistons are cast from aluminum alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing
pistons may be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits
for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used.

To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary
to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, specifically for use as pistons.

A few early gas engines[i] had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all
internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine
Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H.O.R. double-acting two-
stroke diesel engine. Although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine
was not repeated.

.1.1 Internal Combustion Engines

.1.2 TRUNK PISTONS:

Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter. They act both as a piston and
cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, there is also a side
force that reacts along the side of the piston against the cylinder wall. A longer piston helps to
support this.
 Trunk pistons have been a common design of piston since the early days of the
reciprocating internal combustion engine. They were used for both petrol and diesel engines,
although high speed engines have now adopted the lighter weight slipper piston.

A characteristic of most trunk pistons, particularly for diesel engines, is that they have a
groove for an oil ring below the gudgeon pin, in addition to the rings between the gudgeon pin
and crown.

The name 'trunk piston' derives from the 'trunk engine', an early design of marine steam
engine. To make these more compact, they avoided the steam engine's usual piston rod with
separate crosshead and were instead the first engine design to place the gudgeon pin directly
within the piston. Otherwise these trunk engine pistons bore little resemblance to the trunk
piston; they were extremely large diameter and double-acting. Their 'trunk' was a narrow
cylinder mounted in the centre of the piston.

.1.3 CROSSHEAD PISTONS:

Large slow-speed Diesel engines may require additional support for the side forces on the
piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The main piston has a large piston
rod extending downwards from the piston to what is effectively a second smaller-diameter
piston. The main piston is responsible for gas sealing and carries the piston rings. The smaller
piston is purely a mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide and also
carries the gudgeon pin.

Lubrication of the crosshead has advantages over the trunk piston as its lubricating oil is
not subject to the heat of combustion: the oil is not contaminated by combustion soot particles, it
does not break down owing to the heat and thinner, less viscous oil may be used. The friction of
both piston and crosshead may be only half of that for a trunk piston.

Because of the additional weight of these pistons, they are not used for high-speed engines.

.1.4 SLIPPER PISTONS:

A slipper piston is a piston for a petrol engine that has been reduced in size and weight
as much as possible.
 In the extreme case, they are reduced to the piston crown, support for the piston rings,
and just enough of the piston skirt remaining to leave two lands so as to stop the piston rocking
in the bore. The sides of the piston skirt around the gudgeon pin are reduced away from the
cylinder wall.

The purpose is mostly to reduce the reciprocating mass, thus making it easier to balance
the engine and so permit high speeds. Reduced inertia also improves mechanical efficiency of
the engine: the forces required to accelerate and decelerate the reciprocating parts cause more
piston friction with the cylinder wall than the fluid pressure on the piston head.

A secondary benefit may be some reduction in friction with the cylinder wall, since the
area of the skirt, which slides up and down in the cylinder is reduced by half. However, most
friction is due to the piston rings, which are the parts which actually fit the tightest in the bore
and the bearing surfaces of the wrist pin, and thus the benefit is reduced.

.1.4 Slipper Pistons

.1.5 DEFLECTOR PISTONS:

Deflector pistons are used in two-stroke engines with crankcase compression, where the
gas flow within the cylinder must be carefully directed in order to provide efficient scavenging.
With cross scavenging, the transfer (inlet to the cylinder) and exhaust ports are on directly facing
sides of the cylinder wall. To prevent the incoming mixture passing straight across from one port
to the other, the piston has a raised rib on its crown. This is intended to deflect the incoming
mixture upwards, around the combustion chamber.

Much effort, and many different designs of piston crown, went into developing improved
scavenging. The crowns developed from a simple rib to a large asymmetric bulge, usually with a
steep face on the inlet side and a gentle curve on the exhaust. Despite this, cross scavenging was
never as effective as hoped.

Most engines today use Schnuerle porting instead. This places a pair of transfer ports in
the sides of the cylinder and encourages gas flow to rotate around a vertical axis, rather than a
horizontal axis.

Deflector Pistons
STEAM ENGINES:

Steam engines are usually double-acting (i.e. steam pressure acts alternately on each side
of the piston) and the admission and release of steam is controlled by slide valves, piston
valves or poppet valves. Consequently, steam engine pistons are nearly always comparatively
thin discs: their diameter is several times their thickness. (One exception is the trunk
engine piston, shaped more like those in a modern internal-combustion engine.)

Another factor is that since almost all steam engines use crossheads to translate the force
to the drive rod, there are few lateral forces acting to try and "rock" the piston, so a cylinder-
shaped piston skirt isn't necessary.

Steam Engines
 BEARING

Bearings provide either a sliding or a rolling contact whenever relative motion exists between parts of a machine.
Sliding contact bearings are referred to as plain bearings and rolling contact bearings are often called antifriction
bearings.

Bearings that provide sliding contact fall into three general classes: radial bearings that support rotating shafts;
thrust bearings that support axial loads on rotating shafts; and linear bearings that guide moving parts in a straight
line. Radial bearings are also called sleeve bearings and they can either be full journal bearing or partial journal
bearing. The former has 360° contact with its mating surface where the latter has less than 180° contact. The
relative motions between the mating surfaces of a plain bearing may take place in the following ways:

1. As pure sliding with any lubricating medium between the moving surfaces.
2. With hydrodynamic lubrication where a film buildup of lubricating medium is produced.
3. With hydrostatic lubrication where a lubricating medium is introduced under pressure between the
moving surfaces.
4. With a combination of hydrodynamic and hydrostatic lubrication.

Antifriction bearings minimize friction by removing any possible sliding between bearing surfaces and
replacing all contacts with rolling interfaces. They substitute balls or rollers for a hydrodynamic or hydrostatic
fluid film to carry loads with reduced friction. They utilize a separator to space the hardened rolling elements
apart. The Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturers Association Standards (AFBMA) provides standardized
dimensions, tolerances and fits of ball and roller bearings.
Below is a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of plain bearings when compared with antifriction
bearings.

Advantage Disadvantage

Quieter in operation High friction between mating surfaces result in high power consumption.

Lower cost More susceptible to damage from impurities in lubrication system.

Require less space More susceptible to damage from impurities in lubrication system.

Bearing life is not limited by fatigue Have more stringent lubrication requirements.
Plain Bearings

Plain bearings can be classified into two types: hydrodynamic bearings and hydrostatic bearings. Hydrodynamic
bearings attained lift between the mating surfaces by wedging lubricant into the contact area with a relatively high
rotational speed. The disadvantage of this design is the lack of lubricant on the surfaces when the shaft begins to
rotate. Thus machineries that utilize this type of bearings should not be subjected to a high load during startup.
Hydrostatics bearings utilize an external source to force lubricant into the contact. They are used in heavily loaded
and slow moving machines where the rotation speed is not great enough to form full film lubrication. Below is a
summary of the most commonly used plain bearings; with the first three being hydrodynamic bearings and the last
one is hydrostatic bearing.

Circumferential Groove Bearings

This type of bearings has an oil groove extending circumferentially around the bearing. The oil is maintained
under pressure in the groove. The groove divides the bearing into two shorter bearings that tend to run at a slightly
greater eccentricity. This design is most commonly used in reciprocating load main and connecting rod bearings
because of the uniformity of oil distribution.

Pressure Bearings
Pressure bearings employ a groove over the top half of the bearing. The groove terminates at a sharp dam about
45° beyond the vertical in the direction of shaft rotation. Oil is pumped into this groove by shear action from the
rotation of the shaft and is then stopped by the dam.
In high speed operating, this situation creates a high oil pressure over the upper half of the bearing. The pressure
created in the oil groove and surrounding upper half of the bearing increases the load on the lower half of the
bearing. This self-generated load increases the shaft eccentricity. Stability under high speed and low-load
condition can be attained if the eccentricity is increased to 0.6 or greater. The primary disadvantage of this design
is dirt in the oil will tend to smooth out the sharp edge of the dam and impair the effectiveness to create high
pressures.

Multiple Groove Bearings

Multiple groove bearings are sometimes used to provide increased oil flow. The interruptions in oil flow film also
appear to give this bearing some merit as a stable design.

Hydrostatic Bearings
Hydrostatic bearings are used when operating conditions require full film lubrication that cannot be developed
hydro dynamically. The hydrostatically lubricated bearing is supplied with lubricant under pressure from an
external source.
Advantages of the hydrostatic bearing over bearings of other type are lower friction, higher load capacity, higher
reliability, and longer life.

Antifriction Bearings
Antifriction bearings can be categorized to two different configurations: axial ball and roller bearings. They are
more desirable than plain bearing due to their lower friction and reduced lubrication requirement. However, the
life of antifriction bearing is limited by the fatigue life of the material they are made of and the type of lubricant
being used. The types of antifriction bearing are group by the shape of the rolling element and they are ball
bearings, cylindrical roller bearings, tapered roller bearings, and needle roller bearings. There are variations within
each type of bearings and only the most commonly used ones are discussed below.
Single-Row Ball Bearing, Non-Filling Slot
This type of ball bearing is also known as the Conrad or Deep-groove type. It is a symmetrical unit capable of
taking combined radial and thrust loads. This type of bearing is not self-aligning therefore accurate alignment
between shaft and housing bore is required.

Cylindrical Roller
These bearings have solid or helically wound hollow cylindrical rollers. The free ring may have a restraining
flange to provide some restraint to endwise movement in one direction or maybe without a flange so that the
bearing rings may be displaced axially with respect to each other.
Tapered Roller
Tapered roller bearings are a variation on the cylindrical rollers. They are held in accurate alignment by a guide
flange on the inner ring. The shape of the roller is tapered rather than straight right cylindrical. This allows thrust
loads to be withstood in addition to the radial loads.
Needle Roller
Needle bearings are characterized by their relatively small size rollers. The diameter of needle roller is usually less
than ¼" in diameter. The length of needle roller can range from 3 to 10 times of its diameter. The loose-roller is
the most widely used needle roller and it has no integral races. The needle rollers are located directly between the
shaft and the outer bearing bore. This type of bearing is capable of high radial load capacity.

The invention of the rolling bearing, in the form of wooden rollers supporting, or bearing,
an object being moved is of great antiquity, and may predate the invention of the wheel.

Though it is often claimed that the Egyptians used roller bearings in the form of tree
trunks under sleds,[2] this is modern speculation.[3] They are depicted in their own drawings in the
tomb of Djehutihotep [4] as moving massive stone blocks on sledges with liquid-lubricated
runners which would constitute a plain bearing. There are also Egyptian drawings of bearings
used with hand drills.[5]

The earliest recovered example of a rolling element bearing is a wooden ball

bearing supporting a rotating table from the remains of the Roman Nemi ships in Lake
Nemi, Italy. The wrecks were dated to 40 BC.[6][7]
 Leonardo da Vinci incorporated drawings of ball bearings in his design for a helicopter
around the year 1500. This is the first recorded use of bearings in an aerospace design.
However, Agostino Ramelli is the first to have published sketches of roller and thrust
bearings.[2]

An issue with ball and roller bearings is that the balls or rollers rub against each other
causing additional friction which can be reduced by enclosing the balls or rollers within a cage.
The captured, or caged, ball bearing was originally described by Galileo in the 17th century.

MOTIONS:

Common motions permitted by bearings are:

 axial rotation e.g. shaft rotation

 linear motion e.g. drawer
 spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint
 hinge motion e.g. door, elbow, knee
FRICTION:

Reducing friction in bearings is often important for efficiency, to reduce wear and to
facilitate extended use at high speeds and to avoid overheating and premature failure of the
bearing. Essentially, a bearing can reduce friction by virtue of its shape, by its material, or by
introducing and containing a fluid between surfaces or by separating the surfaces with an
electromagnetic field.

 By shape, gains advantage usually by using spheres or rollers, or by forming flexure

bearings.
 By material, exploits the nature of the bearing material used. (An example would be
using plastics that have low surface friction.)
 By fluid, exploits the low viscosity of a layer of fluid, such as a lubricant or as a
pressurized medium to keep the two solid parts from touching, or by reducing the normal
force between them.
  By fields, exploits electromagnetic fields, such as magnetic fields, to keep solid parts
from touching.
 Air pressure exploits air pressure to keep solid parts from touching.

 Combinations of these can even be employed within the same bearing. An example of
this is where the cage is made of plastic, and it separates the rollers/balls, which reduce
friction by their shape and finish.

MAINTANANCE & LUBRICATIONS:

Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure, but many
others require little maintenance. The latter include various kinds of fluid and magnetic bearings,
as well as rolling-element bearings that are described with terms including sealed
bearing and sealed for life. These contain seals to keep the dirt out and the grease in. They work
successfully in many applications, providing maintenance-free operation. Some applications
cannot use them effectively.

Non sealed bearings often have a grease fitting, for periodic lubrication with a grease
gun, or an oil cup for periodic filling with oil. Before the 1970s, sealed bearings were not
encountered on most machinery, and oiling and greasing were a more common activity than they
are today. For example, automotive chassis used to require "lube jobs" nearly as often as engine
oil changes, but today's car chassis are mostly sealed for life. From the late 1700s through mid-
1900s, industry relied on many workers called oilers to lubricate machinery frequently with oil
cans.

Factory machines today usually have lube systems, in which a central pump serves
periodic charges of oil or grease from a reservoir through lube lines to the various lube points in
the machine's bearing surfaces, bearing journals, pillow blocks, and so on. The timing and
number of such lube cycles is controlled by the machine's computerized control, such
as PLC or CNC, as well as by manual override functions when occasionally needed. This
automated process is how all modern CNC machine tools and many other modern factory
machines are lubricated. Similar lube systems are also used on non-automated machines, in
which case there is a hand pump that a machine operator is supposed to pump once daily (for
machines in constant use) or once weekly. These are called one-shot systems from their chief
selling point: one pull on one handle to lube the whole machine, instead of a dozen pumps of an
ale mite gun or oil can in a dozen different positions around the machine.
 BREAK LEAVER
This next series of shop tips over the next several months will be all about creating a
basis for more in-depth knowledge. Whether you’re working on a bike you already own or
preparing to buy a new one, it’s very helpful to be familiar with all the different types of
components. Knowing their names, their uses and their limitations can help you be prepared to
ask the right questions and make well-informed decisions.

TYPES OF BREAKS

Road Calipers:

This type of brake bolts through holes which the manufacturer drills through a bicycle
frame. There are two different types of nuts which are used to bolt these brakes on- hex/regular
and recessed. It is important to get a road caliper with the correct type of nut for your frame. It
is also important to make sure that the caliper arms will be the correct length to line up brake
pads with the rim of your wheel. Some are quite short, and others are very long. These calipers
work with “short-pull” brake levers (see brake levers section below).

Cantilever Brakes:

This type of brake bolts on to “brake bosses” on either side of the wheel. Brake bosses
are threaded tubes which the manufacturer attaches to the frame. Cantilever brakes also work
with short pull brake levers. They require a “cable yoke” and “straddle cable” to operate.

V-Brakes:

This type of brake also attaches to brake bosses, but they require a “long-pull” brake
lever (see brake levers section below). They also need a special piece called a “noodle” for the
cable to work correctly.
Disc Brakes:

Disc brakes mount to special tabs which the manufacturer builds onto the frame. These
brakes operate at the center of the wheel (the hub), rather than on the rim like other kinds of
brakes. They can be either cable-actuated or hydraulic. Hydraulic brakes require specific levers
and hydraulic hoses to operate. Cable-actuated disc brakes work with long-pull brake levers.

Other Types of Brakes:

The brake calipers I’ve described above are the ones you’re most likely to find yourself
working with. If your brakes don’t look like those, they might be u-brakes, roller-cam brakes,
rod-brakes, drum brakes or another less common type of brake caliper.

TYPES OF BREAK LEAVERS:

There are two broad categories into which almost all brake levers fall: those which are
designed for use with drop handle bars, and those which are designed for flat or upright
handlebars. Both are pictured below.

Flat/Upright-Bar Brake Levers

 Long-pull brake levers have a greater distance between the point at which the lever pivots
(point “A” in the photo) and the end of the cable (point “B” in the photo). This means
that they pull more cable when you move the lever. They work for V-Brakes and Disc
Brakes.
 Short pull brake levers have less distance between the pivot and the end of the cable, so
they pull less cable when you move the lever. They work for Road Caliper Brakes and for
Cantilever Brakes.
 Flat-bar brake levers are sometimes joined on the same mounting bracket as a shifter.
 Flat/Upright-Bar Brake Levers

Drop-Bar Brake Levers

 Integrated levers are shifters and brake levers combined into one mechanism. If you pull
the lever towards the bar, it actuates the brake. If you push the lever or paddle to the side,
it actuates the derailleur. The integrated lever is pictured on the bottom right.
 Cross-top or Interrupter levers are levers which clamp onto drop-bars near the stem,
instead of “on the drops.” They can be used in conjunction with some standard drop-bar
brake levers and all integrated levers. They also work on their own, although that is
generally not recommended. The cross-top lever is pictured here mounted to a drop-bar
to illustrate how it should be positioned.
 Standard drop-bar brake levers, pictured here on the bottom left, come in many shapes
and styles. The set in the photo are older and without hoods, or the rubber covering that
some levers have. These levers are designed to be accessible when the riders hands are
either “in the drops” on the lower portion of the bars or “riding the hoods” on the top
portion of the bars.
 Drop-Bar Brake Levers

ADVANCE BREAK LEAVERS:

A brake lever is located on the handlebar of the bike, and is responsible for allowing the
rider to operate the brake remotely. Traditionally, each lever controls a separate brake, so if the
bike only has one brake, then it will also only have one lever.

In the UK, the standard format is to have the lever controlling the front brake on the right
hand side, and the rear brake on the left (unlike in the USA, for example, where the reverse is
true). However it is down to rider preference, and there is no difference to real performance. If
the bike only has one brake lever then it can be positioned on either side, depending on which is
most comfortable for the rider.

A standard bicycle brake lever is connected to the brake cable (see Section 2), and
operates by using a pivoting lever that pulls the inner brake cable, whilst fixing the outer cable in
a stationary position – resulting in the inner cable being pulled tight.
The key components of common a lever are:

 The pivot - The fixed point around which the lever blade rotates;

 The lever blade – The moving part of the lever that the rider operates;

 The clamp – The collar that is used to mount the lever body to the handlebar;

 The clamp – The collar that is used to mount the lever body to the handlebar;

 The barrel adjuster – The part where the cable is connected and allows adjustment;

 The lever body – This is the main section of the lever that houses the other components;

 The return spring – This is responsible for ensuring the lever blade returns to the ready
position.

There are many different lever types, which can be chosen depending on the rider’s
requirement, preferences or the application where it is needed. Many bikes and brake systems
only have one type of lever that is compatible, so it is partly down to choice, but also down to the
type of brake system that has been chosen.

The most common brake lever types are as follows:

The standard flat bar lever – This is the most common type of brake lever, as flat
handlebar bikes use it. The style, shape and material vary hugely depending on how specialized
the bike is, however, the most common design is an aluminum body with an aluminum lever
blade. The cable connects to the inner side of the lever (facing the centre of the bike), and the
lever is flat, with the lever blade facing outwards (away from the bike);

BMX lever, or Trigger lever – This is a specific type of flat bar lever, originally designed
for BMX bikes, and tends to have a much larger, stronger lever body with a shorter and thicker
lever blade.
 The reason is that on a BMX you need to generate a lot of stopping power, but the
construction has to be as compact as possible as to keep it out of the way when performing
tricks. BMX levers generally look like a much smaller, stouter version of a flat bar lever. BMX
levers are becoming popular with single-speed bikes and fixies too, as the lever design allows a
very minimal look, and keeps the handlebar cleaner than with a traditional flat lever;

Drop bar brake levers – Unsurprisingly these levers are designed to be used in
conjunction with drop handlebars. Using the same fundamental mechanics as a flat lever, the
design and shape allows them to be mounted towards the top of the bend of a bar. The lever
blade on a drop lever tends to be much longer, as well as being curved to ergonomically fit with
the curvature of the handlebar.

The lever blade is longer so that the brake can be used from more than one position on
the handlebar. In contrast to the outward pointing flat bar lever, the drop bar lever actually points
down with the lever blade facing the ground. Most drop bar levers today have the cable
connecting to the lever from the rear of the lever, so the cable actually runs along the handlebar
up into the lever body. In comparison the older style levers have the cable visibly connecting to
the lever body, the same way a flat bar lever does;

Aero levers

In contrast to the above types, these levers usually attach to the end of the handlebar
through the use of an expanding plug that slides into the handlebar, as opposed to a clamping
method. These levers are designed for aerodynamic handlebars - usually forward facing, for the
likes of time trials, triathlons or track racing. This is not to say you cannot use them on a regular
bike, and it is becoming increasingly popular, as bullhorn style bars are used more frequently.
Aero levers are a good solution where there is no room on the handlebar to clamp a regular lever;

Dual levers

This also called as suicide levers, as they are affectionately known, are designed to be
used on a drop bar bike, but also with a separate lever blade coming off the body that can be
accessed on the flat part of the bar. In theory, these levers are great, as they allow the rider to use
the brakes, whichever position they are in.
 However, in practice these levers are generally very unreliable. This is partly due to the
material they are made from (cast aluminum), which allows the levers to flex a lot, as well as the
design being flawed due to the top lever not being directly connected to the cable pull system.
So, overall, although they may work in some cases, they are not very reliable and often fail over
time. Since the cross-top lever has been introduced, the dual levers have mostly been consigned
to history;

Cross-top levers

These are essentially flat bar levers, but the way that the lever pulls the cable outer
housing allows the cable to run all the way through the lever – usually on the way to a drop bar
lever. This essentially means you can have a lever on the flat of the handlebar as well as a drop
bar lever, meaning you can ride in either position safely and confidently, knowing the brakes are
always accessible. Cross-top levers were originally designed for cyclo-cross bikes, where the
rider may be in any position on the bar depending on the terrain. Due to the minimal and simple
design, cross-top levers are becoming a popular replacement for flat bar levers.

As well as the different lever types and designs, one factor that is not obvious, or often
even distinguishable, is what’s called the pull ratio. This is often the forgotten variable in any
brake lever, but ultimately it can dictate which levers are compatible with which brake systems.
Although cable brakes all run the same method of pulling the inner cable, different lever systems
pull the cable by different amounts and with varying force. It is important to match up the pull
ratios when pairing up levers and brakes, as failure to do so can cause over-pulling (when the
lever can be pulled much too far before the brake applies), or under-pulling (when the brake
lever does not have enough movement before the brake is applied – making it very hard to brake
with force).

Generally, the lever is attached to the bar via a clamping method. The most common
forms of this include the hinge clamp (mostly BMX and cross-top levers use these) and a circular
collar clamp, where the lever is threaded onto the end of the bar and slid along, then tightened in
place. A wedge collar is common on drop bar levers, and involves the lever being attached to a
collar, then when tightened contracts and locks into place. The standard clamp diameter for brake
levers is 22.2mm.
 More modern brake levers are often coupled with gear shifters in the same unit. This is
the case for both flat bar and drop bar levers. The most common types of these are the Shimano
STI (or Shimano Total Integrated) shifter and the Campagnolo Ergo shifter. These all-in-one
units require just one clamp on the bar and result in a neat package whereby the brake lever and
gear shifter all operate independently but are grouped in the same package – making the bar
much less cluttered as well as freeing up more space for other accessories, (such as bells, lights,
speedos and GPS systems).
 RATCHET PAWL MECHANISM

In this chapter we discuss the ratchet and pawl, a very simple device which allows a shaft
to turn only one way. The possibility of having something turn only one way requires some
detailed and careful analysis, and there are some very interesting consequences.

The plan of the discussion came about in attempting to devise an elementary explanation,
from the molecular or kinetic point of view, for the fact that there is a maximum amount of work
which can be extracted from a heat engine. Of course we have seen the essence of Carnol's
argument, but it would be nice to find an explanation which is elementary in the sense that we
can see what is happening physically.

Now, there are complicated mathematical demonstrations which follow from Newton's
laws to demonstrate that we can get only a certain amount of work out when heat flows from one
place to another, but there is great difficulty in converting this into an elementary demonstration.
In short, we do not understand it, although we can follow the mathematics. In Carnol's argument,
the fact that more than a certain amount of work cannot be extracted in going from one
temperature to another is deduced from another axiom, which is that if everything is at the same
temperature, heat cannot be converted to work by means of a cyclic process.

First, let us back up and try to see, in at least one elementary example, why this simpler
statement is true. Let us try to invent a device which will violate the Second Law of
Thermodynamics, that is, a gadget which will generate work from a heat reservoir with
everything at the same temperature. Let us say we have a box of gas at a certain temperature, and
inside there is an axle with vanes in it. (See Fig. 46-1 but take T I = T:I = T, say.) Because of the
bombardments of gas molecules on the vane, the vane oscillates and jiggles.

All we have to do is to hook onto the other end of the axle a wheel which can turn only
one way-the ratchet and pawl. Then when the shaft tries to jiggle one way, it will not turn, and
when it jiggles the other, it will turn. Then the wheel will slowly turn, and perhaps we might
even tie a flea onto a string hanging from a drum on the shaft, and lift the flea! Now let us ask if
this is possible. According to Carnol's hypothesis, it is impossible.
 But if we just look at it, we see, primacy, that it seems quite possible. So we must look
more closely. Indeed, if we look at the ratchet and pawl, we see a number of complications.

Idealized ratchet is as simple as possible, but even so, there is a pawl, and there must be a
spring in the pawl. The pawl must return after coming off a tooth, so the spring is necessary.
Another feature of this ratchet and pawl, not shown in the figure, is quite essential. Suppose the
device were made of perfectly elastic parts. After the pawl is lifted off the end of the tooth and is
pushed back by the spring, it will bounce against the wheel and continue to bounce.

Then, when another fluctuation came, the wheel could turn the other way, because the
tooth could get underneath during the moment when the pawl was up! Therefore an essential part
of the irreversibility of our wheel is a damping or deadening mechanism which stops the
bouncing. When the damping happens, of course, the energy that was in the pawl goes into the
wheel and shows up as heat. So, as it turns, the wheel will get hotter and hotter. To make the
thing simpler, we can put a gas around the wheel to take up some of the heat. Anyway, let us say
the gas keeps rising in temperature, along with the wheel.
 T, also have Brownian motion. This motion is such that, every once in a while. by
accident, the pawl lifts itself up and over a tooth just at the moment when the Brownian motion
on the vanes is trying to turn the axle backwards. And as things get hotter, this happens more
often. So, this is the reason this device does not work in perpetual motion. When the vanes get
kicked, sometimes the pawl lifts up and goes over the end.

But sometimes, when it tries to turn the other way, the pawl has already lifted due to the
fluctuations of the motions on the wheel side, and the wheel goes back the other way! The net
result is nothing. It is not hard to demonstrate that when the temperature on both sides is equal,
there will be no net average motion of the wheel. Of course the wheel will do a lot of jiggling
this way and that way, but it will not do what we would like, which is to turn just one way. Let
us look at the reason.

It is necessary to do work against the spring in order to lift the pawl to the top of a tooth.
Let us call this energy E, and let 0 be the angle between the teeth. The chance that the system can
accumulate enough energy, E, to get the pawl over the top of the tooth, is e-E / kT• But the
probability that the pawl will accidentally be up is also e-E / kT. So the number of times that the
pawl is up and the wheel can turn backwards freely is equal to the number of times that we have
enough energy to turn it forward when the pawl is down. We thus get a "balance," and the wheel
will not go around.

The ratchet as an engine Let us now go further. Take the example where the temperature
of the vanes is T1 and the temperature of the wheel, or ratchet, is T2, and T 2 is less than T 1.
Because the wheel is cold and the fluctuations of the pawl are relatively infrequent, it will be
very hard for the pawl to attain an energy E.

Because of the high temperature T h the vanes will often attain the energy E, so our
gadget will go in one direction, as designed. We would now like to see if it can lift weights. Onto
the drum in the middle we tie a string, and put a weight, such as our flea, on the string. We let L
be the torque due to the weight. If L is not too great, our machine will lift the weight because the
Brownian fluctuations make it more likely to move in one direction than the other. We want to
find how much weight it can lift, how fast it goes around, and so on.
 First we consider a forward motion, the usual way one designs a ratchet to run. In order
to make one step forward, how much energy has to be borrowed from the vane end? We must
borrow an energy E to lift the pawl. The wheel turns through an angle 0 against a torque L, so we
also need the energy LO.

The total amount of energy that we have to borrow is thus E + LO. The probability that
we get this energy is proportional to e-(E+Ul/kTt • Actually, it is not only a question of getting
the energy, but we also would like to know the number of times per second it has this energy.
The probability per second is proportional to e-(HL8l/kTJ , and we shall call the proportionality
constant liT. It will cancel out in the end anyway. When a forward step happens, the work done
on the weight is LO.

The energy taken from the vane is E + LO. The spring gets wound up with energy E, then
it goes clatter, clatter, bang, and this energy goes into heat. All the energy taken out goes to lift
the weight and to drive the pawl, which then falls back and gives heat to the other side. Now we
look at the opposite case, which is backward motion. What happens here? To get the wheel to go
backwards all we have to do is supply the energy to lift the pawl high enough so that the ratchet
will slip. This is still energy E.

Our probability per second for the pawl to lift this high is now (lIT)e-E / kT2 . Our
proportionality constant is the same, but this time kT2 shows up because of the different
temperature. When this happens, the work is released because the wheel slips backward. It loses
one notch, so it releases work LO. The energy taken from the ratchet system is E, and the energy
given to the gas at T 1 on the vane side is LO + E. It takes a little thinking to see the reason for
that. Suppose the pawl has lifted itself up accidentally by a fluctuation.

Summary of operation of ratchet and pawl. Forward:

Need energy Takes from vane Does work Gives to ratchet E + LO from vane.. 0.Rate = !
e-(L6+t )/kT. "T LO + E LO Backward: Needs energy E Takes from ratchet E Releases work LO
Gives to vane LB + E 1 for pawl. 000 Rate = - e-t/kTz "T } ",m, " ,boY< with ,ign ,,,,,red. If 0
ObI I h E+ LO E system IS reversl e, rates are equa, ence --- = -. T1 Tz Heat to ratchet E Qz Tz -
---- = ---' Hence - = -. Heat from vane LB + • Q1 T 1 pushes it down against the tooth.
 There is a force trying to turn the wheel, because the tooth is pushing on an inclined
plane. This force is doing work, and so is the force due to the weights. So both together make up
the total force, and all the energy which is slowly released appears at the vane end as heat. (Of
course it must, by conservation of energy, but one must be careful to think the thing through!)
We notice that all these energies are exactly the same, but reversed.

So, depending upon which of these two rates is greater, the weight is either slowly lifted
or slowly released. Of course, it is constantly jiggling around, going up for a while and down for
a while, but we are talking about the average behavior. Suppose that for a particular weight the
rates happen to be equal. Then we add an infinitesimal weight to the string. The weight will
slowly go down, and work will be done on the machine.

Energy will be taken from the wheel and given to the vanes. If instead we take off a little
bit of weight, then the imbalance is the other way. The weight is lifted, and heat is taken from the
vane and put into the wheel. So we have the conditions of Carnot's reversible cycle, provided
that the weight is just such that these two are equal. This condition is evidently that (f + LO)/T1
= fiT2. Let us say that the machine is slowly lifting the weight.

Energy Q1 is taken from the vanes and energy Qz is delivered to the wheel, and these
energies are in the ratio (f + LO)/f. If we are lowering the weight, we also have QdQz = (E +
LB)/f. Thus (Table 46-1) we have QdQz = TdTz. Furthermore, the work we get out is to the
energy taken from the vane as LO is to LO + E, hence as (T1 - T z)/T1. We see that our device
cannot extract more work than this, operating reversibly. This is the result that we expected from
Carnot's argument, and the main result of this lecture.

However, we can use our device to understand a few other phenomena, even out of
equilibrium, and therefore beyond the range of thermodynamics. Let us now calculate howfast
our one-way device would turn if everything were at the same temperature and we hung a weight
on the drum. If we pull very, very hard, of course, there are all kinds of complications. The pawl
slips over the ratchet, or the spring breaks, or something. But suppose we pull gently enough that
everything works nicely.
 In those circumstances, the above analysis is right for the probability of the wheel going
forward and backward, if we remember 46-3 (46.1 ) l Fig. 46-2. Angular velocity of the ratchet
as a function of torque. that the two temperatures are equal.

In each step an angle 0 is obtained, so the angular velocity is 0 times the probability of
one of these jumps per second. It goes forward with probability (l/r)e-(t+L8)/kT and backward
with probability (l/r)e-t / kT, so that for the angular velocity we have w = (O/r)e-(E+L6)/kT _ e-
t/kT (O/r)e-E/kT(e-L6/ kT - I).

If we plot w against L, we get the curve shown in Fig. 46-2. We see that it makes a great
difference whether L is positive or negative. If L increases in the positive range, which happens
when we try to drive the wheel backward, the backward velocity approaches a constant. As L
becomes negative, w really "takes off" forward, since e to a tremendous power is very great! The
angular velocity that was obtained from different forces is thus very unsymmetrical. Going one
way it is easy: we get a lot of angular velocity for a little force. Going the other way, we can put
on a lot of force, and yet the wheel hardly goes around.

We find the same thing in an electrical rectifier. Instead of the force, we have the electric
field, and instead of the angular velocity, we have the electric current. In the case of a rectifier,
the voltage is not proportional to resistance, and the situation is unsymmetrical. The same
analysis that we made for the mechanical rectifier will also work for an electrical rectifier. In
fact, the kind of formula we obtained above is typical of the current-carrying capacities of
rectifiers as a function of their voltages.

Now let us take all the weights away, and look at the original machine. If T 2 were less
than T 1> the ratchet would go forward, as anybody would believe. But what is hard to believe,
at first sight, is the opposite. If T 2 is greater than T 1> the ratchet goes around the opposite way!
A dynamic ratchet with lots of heat in it runs itself backwards, because the ratchet pawl is
bouncing. If the pawl, for a moment, is on the incline somewhere, it pushes the inclined plane
sideways.

But it is always pushing on an inclined plane, because if it happens to lift up high enough
to get past the point of a tooth, then the inclined plane slides by, and it comes down again on an
inclined plane. So a hot ratchet and pawl is ideally built to go around in a direction exactly
opposite to that for which it was originally designed! In spite of all our cleverness of lopsided
design, if the two temperatures are exactly equal there is no more propensity to turn one way
than the other. The moment we look at it, it may be turning one way or the other, but in the long
run, it gets nowhere. The fact that it gets nowhere is really the fundamental deep principle on
which all of thermodynamics is based.

Reversibility in mechanics What deeper mechanical principle tells us that, in the long
run, if the temperature is kept the same everywhere, our gadget will turn neither to the right nor
to the left? We evidently have a fundamental proposition that there is no way to design a
machine which, left to itself, will be more likely to be turning one way than the other after a long
enough time. We must try to see how this follows from the laws of mechanics.

The laws of mechanics go something like this: the mass times the acceleration is the
force, and the force on each particle is some complicated function of the positions of all the other
particles. There are other situations in which forces depend on velocity, such as in magnetism,
but let us not consider that now. We take a simpler case, such as gravity, where forces depend
only on position. Now suppose that we have solved our set of equations and we have a certain
motion x(t) for each particle.

In a complicated enough system, the solutions are very complicated, and what happens
with time turns out to be very surprising. If we write down any arrangement we please for the
particles, we will see this arrangement actually occur if we wait long enough! If we follow our
solution for a long enough time, it tries everything that it can do, so to speak. This is not
absolutely necessary in the simplest devices, but when systems get complicated enough, with
enough atoms, it happens.

Now there is something else the solution can do. If we solve the equations of motion, we
may get certain functions such as t + 12 + 1:l . We claim that another solution would be -1 + 12 -
13. In other words, if we substitute - 1 everywhere for 1 throughout the entire solution, we will
once again get a solution of the same equation. This follows from the fact that if we substitute - 1
for 1 in the original differential equation, nothing is changed, since only second derivatives with
respect to 1 appear. This means that if we have a certain motion, then the exact opposite motion
is also possible.
 In the complete confusion which comes if we wait long enough, it finds itself going one
way sometimes, and it finds itself going the other way sometimes. There is nothing more
beautiful about one of the motions than about the other. So it is impossible to design a machine
which, in the long run, is more likely to be going one way than the other, if the machine is
sufficiently complicated.

One might think up an example for which this is obviously untrue. If we take a wheel, for
instance, and spin it in empty space, it will go the same way forever. So there are some
conditions, like the conservation of angular momentum, which violate the above argument. This
just requires that the argument be made with a little more care.

Perhaps the walls take up the angular momentum, or something like that, so that we have
no special conservation laws. Then, if the system is complicated enough, the argument is true. It
is based on the fact that the laws of mechanics are reversible. For historical interest, we would
like to remark on a device invented by Maxwell, who first worked out the dynamical theory of
gases. He supposed the following situation: We have two boxes of gas at the same temperature,
with a little hole between them.

At the hole sits a little demon (who may be a machine of course!). There is a door on the
hole, which can be opened or closed by the demon. He watches the molecules coming from the
left. Whenever he sees a fast molecule, he opens the door.

When he sees a slow one, he leaves it closed. If we want him to be an extra special
demon, he can have eyes at the back of his head, and do the opposite to the molecules from the
other side. He lets the slow ones through to the left, and the fast through to the right. Pretty soon
the left side will get cold and the right side hot. Then, are the ideas of thermodynamics violated
because we could have such a demon? It turns out, if we build a finite-sized demon, that the
demon himself gets so warm that he cannot see very well after a while.

The simplest possible demon, as an example, would be a trap door held over the hole by a
spring. A fast molecule comes through, because it is able to lift the trap door. The slow molecule
cannot get through, and bounces back. But this thing is nothing but our ratchet and pawl in
another form, and ultimately the mechanism will heat up. If we assume that the specific heat of
the demon is not infinite, it must heat up.
 WHEELS

A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle bearing. The wheel
is one of the key components of the wheel and axle which is one of the six simple machines.
Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily facilitating movement
or transportation while supporting a load, or performing labor in machines. Wheels are also used
for other purposes, such as a ship's wheel, steering wheel, potter's wheel and flywheel.

Common examples are found in transport applications. A wheel greatly

reduces friction by facilitating motion by rolling together with the use of axles. In order for
wheels to rotate, a moment needs to be applied to the wheel about its axis, either by way of
gravity or by the application of another external force or torque. Using the wheel, Sumerians
invented a contraption that spins clay as a potter shapes it into the desired object.

ETYMOLOGY:

The English word wheel comes from the Old English word hweol, hweogol, from Proto-
Germanic *hwehwlan, *hwegwlan, from Proto-Indo-European *kwekwlo-,[1]an extended form of
the root *kwel- "to revolve, move around". Cognates within Indo-European
include Icelandic hjól "wheel, tyre", Greek κύκλος kúklos, and Sanskrit chakra, the latter both
meaning "circle" or "wheel".

MACHINES AND FUNCTIONS:

The low resistance to motion (compared to dragging) is explained as follows (refer to friction):

 The normal force at the sliding interface is the same.

 The sliding distance is reduced for a given distance of travel.
 The coefficient of friction at the interface is usually lower.

Bearings are used to help reduce friction at the interface. In the simplest and oldest case the
bearing is just a round hole through which the axle passes (a "plain bearing").
Example:

 If a 100 kg object is dragged for 10 m along a surface with the coefficient of friction μ = 0.5,
the normal force is 981 N and the work done (required energy) is (work=force x distance)
981 × 0.5 × 10 = 4905 joules.
 Now give the object 4 wheels. The normal force between the 4 wheels and axles is the same
(in total) 981 N. Assume, for wood, μ = 0.25, and say the wheel diameter is 1000 mm and
axle diameter is 50 mm. So while the object still moves 10 m the sliding frictional surfaces
only slide over each other a distance of 0.5 m. The work done is 981 × 0.25 × 0.5 = 123
joules; the work done has reduced to 1/40 of that of dragging.

Additional energy is lost from the wheel-to-road interface. This is termed rolling
resistance which is predominantly a deformation loss. This energy is also lowered by the use of a
wheel (in comparison to dragging) because the net force on the contact point between the road
and the wheel is almost perpendicular to the ground, and hence, generates an almost zero
network. This depends on the nature of the ground, of the material of the wheel, its inflation in
the case of a tire, the net torque exerted by the eventual engine, and many other factors.

A wheel can also offer advantages in traversing irregular surfaces if the wheel radius is
sufficiently large compared to the irregularities.

The wheel alone is not a machine, but when attached to an axle in conjunction with bearing,
it forms the wheel and axle, one of the simple machines. A driven wheel is an example of a
wheel and axle. Note that wheels pre-date driven wheels by about 6000 years, themselves an
evolution of using round logs as rollers to move a heavy load—a practice going back in pre-
history so far, it has not been dated.

SYMBOLISM:

The wheel has also become a strong cultural and spiritual metaphor for a cycle or regular
repetition (see chakra, reincarnation, Yin and Yang among others). As such and because of the
difficult terrain, wheeled vehicles were forbidden in old Tibet.

The wheel in ancient China is seen as a symbol of health and strength and utilized by
some villages as a tool to predict future health and success. The diameter of the wheel is
indicator of one's future health.
 The winged wheel is a symbol of progress, seen in many contexts including the coat of
arms of Panama, the logo of the Ohio State Highway Patrol and the State Railway of Thailand.
The wheel is also the prominent figure on the flag of India. The wheel in this case represents law
(dharma). It also appears in the flag of the Romani people, hinting to their nomadic history and
their Indian origins.

The introduction of spoke (chariot) wheels in the Middle Bronze Age appears to have
carried somewhat of a prestige. The sun cross appears to have a significance in Bronze Age
religion, replacing the earlier concept of a Solar barge with the more 'modern' and
technologically advanced solar chariot. The wheel was also a solar symbol for the Ancient
Egyptians.
REFERENCE: