Type Z Organization: Stability in the Midst of Mobility

Author(s): William G. Ouchi and Alfred M. Jaeger

Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 3, No. 2 (Apr., 1978), pp. 305-314
Published by: Academy of Management
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 Type Z Organization: Stability in the
Midst of Mobility

WILLIAM G. OUCHI and ALFRED M. JAEGER

Stanford University

Aspects of the "ideal types" of American (Type A) and Japanese (Type

I) forms of organization are compared and related to their socio-cul-
tural roots. A hybrid organizational "ideal type" (Type Z), which is par-
ticularly appropriate for many situations in today's changing American
society, is presented.

Now all the evidence of psychiatry ......
shows that membership in a group sustains a
man, enables him to maintain his equilibrium
under the ordinary shocks of life, and helps
him to bring up children who will in turn be
happy and resilient. If his group is shattered
around him, if he leaves a group in which he
was a valued member, and if, above all, he
finds no new group to which he can relate
himself, he will under stress, develop disor-
ders of thought, feeling and behavior ......
The cycle is vicious; loss of group member-
William G. Ouchi (Ph.D. - University of Chicago) is Associate
Professor in the Graduate School of Business and (by courte-
sy) in the Department of Sociology, Stanford University.
Alfred M. Jaeger (M.B.A. - Stanford University) is a doctoral
candidate in Organizational Behavior in the Graduate School
of Business, Stanford University.
Received 10/8/76; Accepted 11/17/76; Revised 2/11/77.
ship in one generation may make men less
capable of group membership in the next.
The civilization that, by its very process of
growth, shatters small group life will leave
men and women lonely and unhappy ......
(11, p. 457).
Society traditionally has relied upon kinship,
neighborhood, church, and family networks to
provide the social support and normative an-
chors which made collective life possible. As
Mayo (16) pointed out, the advent of the factory
system of production and the rapid rate of tech-
1 The ideas expressed here were shaped through discussions
with many managers and academics. We are particularly in-
debted to Melvin B. Lane, L. W. Lane, Jr., Patricia James Ly-
man, Alan Wilkins, Alice Kaplan, Raymond Price and David
Gibson. This research was supported by grants from the Stan-
ford University Research Development Fund, the Alcoa Foun-
dation, and the E. 1. du Pont de Nemours and Company, for
which we are grateful.

305

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306
Type Z Organization: Stability in the Midst of Mobility

nological change produced high rates of urban- py, and productive lives. The ideology of inde-
ization, mobility, and division of labor. These pendence that is part of the basic fabric of the
forces, weakened the community, family, American persona recoils at the thought of indi-
church, and friendship ties of many Americans. vidual freedom subordinated to collective com-
Social observers point to this weakening of asso- mitment. American idols are the rough, tough
ciational ties as the basic cause of increasing individualists, the John Waynes, the Evel Knie-
rates of alcoholism, divorce, crime, and other vals, the Gloria Steinems. Our most pitiable fig-
symptoms of mental illness at a societal level (2, ures are those who lose their individuality in
3, 10). some larger, corporate entity and become "or-
While worrying over the disapperance of ganization men", faceless persons "in gray flan-
family, church, neighborhood, and the friend- nel suits".
ship network, predispositions can blind us to the We must discover that ideologically unique
most likely alternative source of associational ties American solution which allows individual free-
or cohesion: the work organization. The large dom while using the work organization to sup-
work organization which brought about urbani- port and encourage the stability of associational
zation and its consequent social ills can also pro- ties.
vide relief from them. Donham notes: The beginnings of this solution were found
Mayo shows us for the first time in the form of in a study by one of the authors (12). Interviews
specific instances that it is within the power of were conducted with employees of all level of
industrial administrators to create within in- Japanese and American firms which had opera-
dustry itself a partially effective substitute for tions in both the U.S. and Japan. In Japanese
the old stabilizing effect of the neighborhood.
Given stable employment, it might make of
companies in Japan were found the now famil-
industry (as of the small town during most of iar characteristics first reported by Abegglen (1):
our national life) a socially satisfying way of almost total inclusion of the employee into the
life as well as a way of making a living (16, work organization so that the superior concerns
Foreword).
himself or herself with the personal and family
Employment already defines many aspects life of each subordinate; a collective, non-indi-
of people's lives: socio-economic status, their vidual approach to work and responsibility; and
children's education, kinds and length of vaca- extremely high identification of the individual
tions, frequency and severity with which they with the company. These characteristics are
can afford to become ill, and even the way in largely the result of the lifetime employment
which pension benefits allow them to live their system which characterizes large companies in
retirement years. From childhood to the grave, Japan (1,7, 8, 9,10).
the work organization plays a central role in The surprising finding was that Japanese
identifying people and molding their lives. Ja- companies with operations in the U.S. are ap-
pan, (1), Poland (14), and China (28), provide plying a modified form of the pure Japanese
models of work systems which organize life and type with some success. While they do not pro-
society, but we have been unwilling to borrow vide company housing or large bonuses as in
these models, because they do not permit the Japan, they attempt to create the same sort of
individual freedom that is valued in American complete inclusion of the employee into the
life. company. Supervisors are taught to be aware of
With memories of the totalitarian paternal- all aspects of an employee's life; extra-work so-
ism of the mines and plantations still not healed cial life is often connected to other employees;
by time, Americans have been reluctant to even corporate values are adjusted to reflect employ-
consider the work organization as the social ee needs as well as profit needs, and high job se-
umbrella under which people can live free, hap- curity is protected above all else. The American

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Academy of Management Review - April 1978 307

employees expressed liking for this "atmos- ganizations also can become segmented and
phere" or "climate", with the managerial staff contractual as they grow. This is what Weber (27)
in particular noting the difference from their expected. He advocated development of a con-
previous employers. tractual Gesellschaft in work organizations to
The study gave evidence that, while Ameri- shield the meritocracy from outside ascriptive
cans probably do not want a return to old-style values and ties (24, 25). In a stable society, indi-
paternalism, they favor a work organization viduals can develop ties outside work to comple-
which provides associational ties, stability, andment the impersonal nature of participation in
job security. The Japanese-American mixed a contractual organization. But in a mobile and
form suggested the model which may simul- changing society, societal values and outside
taneously permit individual freedom and group ties are weaker, posing less threat to the effici-
cohesion. ency of the organization. More individuals are
Some American companies, by reputation, less likely to have developed personal ties out-
have many of the characteristics of this mixed side of work which satisfactorily complement
model. Best known are Kodak, Cummins Engine the impersonal interactions engaged in at work.
Company, IBM, Levi Strauss, National Cash Reg- Thus, organizations whose goals and philosophy
ister, Proctor and Gamble, and Utah Internation- are in tune with today's general societal values
al. Their historical rates of turnover are low; loy- can survive and even thrive by being more "per-
alty and morale are reputed to be very high, and sonal".
identification with the company is reputed to be
strong. In addition, each company has been The Ideal Types: Type A, Type J,
among the most successful of American com- and Type Z
panies for many decades, a record which strong- This section describes three ideal types of
ly suggests that something about the form of or- work organization. It is argued that each type is
ganization, rather than solely a particular prod- an integrated system and will yield either posi-
uct or market position, has kept the organization tive or negative outcomes for the society de-
vital and strong. It is widely believed that these pending on certain environmental conditions.
companies have been co-opted by their em- Type A represents the Western organization, es-
ployees; they do not express goals of short-term pecially the North American and Western Euro-
profitability but rather pay some cost in order to pean forms. Type J represents the Japanese and
maintain employment stability through difficult mainland Chinese forms, and Type Z is an emer-
times. These work organizations may have cre- gent form which is particularly suited to the
ated the alternative to village life to which Mayo United States of America today.
referred.
Each ideal type contains seven dimensions.
Compare persons associated with this mixed
Length of Employment refers to the average
model to the "ideal type" of bureaucrat de- number of years served within the corporation,
scribed by Toennies (23), Weber (27), and Mer- considering all employees. This is important in
ton (17) - a person involved in the limited, con- two respects. First, if mean number of years of
tractual, only partially inclusive relationships that tenure is high, employees will be more familiar
characterize traditional American organizations. with the workings of the organization and more
In a sense, the scheme being proposed here is likely to have developed friendship among their
an organizational analogue of Toennies' Geme- co-workers; second, if the new employee antici-
inschaft and Gesellschaft (23). Just as societies pates a long career within one organization, he
suffer from poor mental health as a result of size, or she will be willing to incur greater personal
density, and heterogeneity which lead to con- costs in order to become integrated into the cul-
tractualism and segmentalism in life, work or- tural of the organization.

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308
Type Z Organization: Stability in the Midst of Mobility

Table 1. Characteristics of Two Familiar Organizational Ideal

Types: A and I

Type A (American) Type J (Japanese)

Short-term employment Lifetime employment

Individual decision-making Consensual decision-making
Individual responsibility Collective responsibility
Rapid evaluation and promotion Slow evaluation and promotion
Explicit, formalized control Implicit, informal control
Specialized career path Nonspecialized career path
Segmented concern Holistic concern

The mode of decision-making refersThe tospeed

typ- of evaluation and promotion cat-
ical ways of dealing with nonroutine
egoryproblems.
is self-explanatory, but its effects are sub-
Individual decision-making is a mode
tle. If by which
promotion is slow, managers have time to
the manager may or may not solicitbecome
information
acquainted with the people and the cus-
or opinion from others, but he ortoms she expects
which surround their jobs. Workers will be
and is expected by others to arriveshaped
at aby decision
and utlimately assimilated into the
without obligation to consider the views of
corporate oth-For better or worse, the mav-
culture.
ers. Under consensual decision making, the erick will not be promoted until he or she has
manager will not decide until others who will be learned to abide by local customs. An organiza-
affected have had sufficient time to offer their tion with a history of rapid promotion will not
views, feel they have been fairly heard, and are have as unified a culture as an organization with
willing to support the decision even though they slower rates of upward mobility.
may not feel that it is the best one (21). Speed of evaluation also has significant ef-
Although responsibility is not easily distin- fects upon the character of interpersonal rela-
guished from decision making style in all cases, tionships. In an achievement-oriented organi-
it represents an important, independent dimen- zation, evaluations of performance must be free
sion. Individual responsibility as a value is a nec- of dimensions such as friendship or kinship. The
essary precondition to conferring rewards upon only solution open to an evaluator is an imper-
individuals in a meritocracy. A manager possibly sonal relationship. If evaluations occur rapidly,
could engage in consensual decision making for example once each six months, the subject of
while clearly retaining individual responsibility the evaluation will typically be known only to the
for the decision. Indeed, the Type Z organization direct supervisor, who will be charged with the
exhibits just this combination. In the J organ'iza- responsibility of rendering the evaluation. The
tion, responsibility for overseeing projects and supervisor is thus blocked from forming person-
for accepting rewards or punishments is borne al, friendship ties with the subordinate. But if
collectively by all members of a sub-unit. Amer- major evaluations occur only once every five or
ican companies in Japan which have attempted ten years (as is common in Japanese firms), the
to introduce the notion of individual responsi- evaluation is no longer explicitly rendered by
bility among managers and blue-collar workers one superior but emerges through a non-explic-
have found strong resistance from their em- it process of agreement between the many su-
ployees. But in the United States individual re- periors who know the subordinate. Being one
sponsibility is such a central part of the national among many judges, the direct superior is freed
culture that no organization can replace it with from the need to preserve an "objective" atti-
the collective value of the J type. tude toward the subordinates and thus can take

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Academy of Management Review - April 1978 309

a personal interest in him or her. tion between individuals and sub-units, whi
The dimension of control is represented in non-specialization eases the coordination pr
an oversimplified manner. In a sense, the whole lem. Career specialization also yields the sc
idea type represents a form of social control, and economies of task specialization and expert
each ideal type achieves this social control in a whereas non-specialized career paths often s
different manner. But we can identify in Type A rifice these benefits. A and J organizations m
organizations the use of explicit standards, rules be the same in formal structure - having eq
and regulations, and performance measures as divisional separation, for example - but indi
the primary technique of ensuring that actual uals will move through those sub-units in qu
performance meets desired performance. In different patterns.
Type Z, expectations of behavior or output are Concern refers to the holism with which
not explicitly stated but are to be deduced from employees view each other and especially to the
a more general understanding of the corporate concern with which the supervisor views the
philosophy. subordinate. In the A organization, the supervi-
For example, during one of the author's sor regards the subordinate in a purely task-ori-
visits to a Japanese bank in California, both the ented manner and may consider it improper to
Japanese president and the American vice-pres- inquire into her or his personal life. In compari-
idents of the bank accused the other of being son to this segmented view of people, the J or-
unable to formulate objectives. The Americans ganization manager considers it part of the man-
meant that the Japanese president could not or agerial role to be fully informed of the personal
would not give them explicit, quantified targets circumstances of each subordinate.
to attain over the next three or six months, while Each ideal type represents a set of intercon-
the Japanese meant that the Americans could nected parts, each dependent on at least one
not see that once they understood the com- other part. The systematic nature of each type is
pany's philosophy, they would be able to deduce best understood by putting it in an environmen-
for themselves the proper objective for any con- tal context.
ceivable situation. The type A has developed in a society char-
The degree to which a career path is typical- acterized by high rates of individual mobility, in
ly specialized according to function differs great- a culture which supports norms of independ-
ly between organizational types. In the A organ- ence, self-reliance, and individual responsibility.
ization, an upwardly mobile manager typically A work organization in such a setting must con-
remains within a functional specialty, for exam- tend with high rates of inter-firm mobility and a
ple going from bookkeeper to clerical supervi- short average tenure of employment. It reduces
sor to assistant department head of accounting interdependence between individuals, avoiding
to head of the accounting department. In the J the start-up costs of replacing one part of a team.
organization, the typical career path is not spe- Individual decision making and individual re-
cialized by function, but may go from book- sponsibility provide an adaptive response to
keeper to supervisor of the planning depart- rapid change of personnel. If inter-firm mobil-
ment.
ity is high, it becomes impossible to integrate new
A specialized career path yields profession-
members into the organization on a large num-
alization, decreases organizational loyalty,
berand
of dimensions. It is simpler to attend to only
facilitates movement of the individual fromthe
oneone or two necessary task dimensions of the
firm to another. A non-specialized careernew path
member and integrate those. Thus a seg-
yields localism, increases organizational loyalty,
mented concern evolves, because a concern for
and impedes inter-firm mobility. Careerthe spe-
whole person presents an impossible prob-
cialization also increases problems of coordina-
lem to an organization with high turnover. But as

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310
Type Z Organization: Stability in the Midst of Mobility

a result, the employee has only limited, contrac- ular set of skills and values is unique to one firm,
tual ties to the organization, has not internalized but that is not a cost to them or to the firm. Rath-
its values, and must be dealt with in a compliant er, their loyalty to the firm has increased and the
relationship, in which control is explicit and for- firm need not monitor them closely, thus saving
malized. managerial overhead.
The A type organization has a relatively Furthermore, coordination problems are
short time in which to realize productive bene- reduced, since employees have the information
fits from the necessary investment in an individ- and inclination to accommodate each other in
ual employee (costs of search and training). It jointly taking action. Since they are to spend a
can best realize these benefits by having the per- lifetime together, they have an interest in main-
son follow a highly specialized career path in taining harmonious relationships and engaging
which necessary learning can occur rapidly and in consensual decision making. The larger cul-
scale economies are soon achieved. Finally, rap- ture supports norms of collectivism which are
id turnover requires replacement of managers mirrored in the organization. No individudal can
and thus rapid promotion of those at lower lev- properly take credit or blame for actions, since
els. Because promotion must be preceeded by organizational action by its very nature is a joint
evaluation, to preserve the impression if not the product of many individuals. Given joint respon-
fact of a meritocracy, evaluation also will occur sibility, rapid evaluation would be difficut, since
rapidly. the task would be like that of performing a mul-
Ideal Type J organizations evolved in a so- tivariate analysis with a sample of one observa-
ciety in which individual mobility has been low tion. But since turnover and promotion occur
in a culture which supported norms of collectiv- slowly, evaluation need not proceed quickly.
ism. Through historical accidents which pre- Many observations of the individual are accum-
served a feudal society in Japan into the 19th ulated over a period of years before the first ma-
century and then, after the Meiji restoration, jor evaluation is made. This slow evaluation takes
rushed Japan into full-blown industrialism (19), the pressure off a single superior and frees him
feudal loyalties were transferred to major indus- or her to take a holistic concern for the em-
trial institutions, with owners and employees tak- ployee.
ing the appropriate historical roles of lord and The complex relationships between ele-
vassal. Because employees are expected to be in ments of the ideal types are not yet completely
the same firm for a lifetime, control can be im- specified; that is one task of the present re-
plicit and internalized rather than explicit and search, which will be aided through empirical
compliant (as in the A type). This form of control analysis. But clearly, the major driving force be-
evolves because it is more reliable and can ac- hind development of the ideal types is the rate
count for a wide variety of task and personally- of inter-firm mobility, which is closely related to
oriented actions, whereas no explicit system of the cultural values which aid or inhibit mobility.
rules and regulations could be sufficiently com- It can be argued that the A type is an adaptive
prehensive to encompass that range of behavior. response to high rates of social mobility while
Type J employees need not follow special-the J type is a response to low rates of social mo-
ized career paths, because the organization canbility, both forms fitting naturally with their en-
invest in them for a long period of time and be vironments. The work organization in this view
assured of repayment in later years. By followingrepresents just one way in which members of a
non-specialized career paths, they become ex-society are integrated; it is both influenced by
perts in the organization rather than experts in and influences the structure of its surrounding
some function. They are no longer interchange- society.
able with other organizations, since their partic- Having concluded that each ideal type rep-

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Academy of Management Review - April 1978 311

Table 2. Characteristics of Organizational Type Z vidual, who is held responsible for decisions
singly but must arrive at them collectively. These
Type Z (Modified American) strains are mitigated by the fact that evaluation
Long term employment
and promotion take place slowly and that the
Consensual decision-making basic control is implicit and subtle. Thus the
Individual responsibility complexities of collective decision making are
Slow evaluation and promotion taken into account in rendering personal eval-
Implicit, informal control with explicit,
formalized measures
uations, but there are explicit measures of per-
Moderately specialized career path
formance as in Type A. In the Z organization, al-
Holistic concern, including family though there are lots of formal accounting
measures of performance, the real evaluation is
subjective and highly personal. No one gets
resents a natural adaptation to a particular envi- rapidly promoted nor punished solely because
ronment, how is it that the J type apparently has their performance scores are good or bad. In an
succeeded in the United States (12)? The U.S. A organization, by contrast, people's careers of-
provided the social environment in which the A ten succeed or fail solely on explicit perform-
type evolved. Americans are highly urbanized, ance measures, as must be the case in any pure-
move about, lead segmented lives, and thus ly formalized system.
have created a situation in which a work organ- Career paths in the Z organization tend to
ization must be able to rely on people who are be moderatley specialized, but quite non-spe-
strangers to each other and still get coordinated cialized by comparison with the Type A organi-
effort out of them. The answer was the A type, zation. The slowness of evaluation and the sta-
which is contractual, formalized, and imper- bility of membership promote a holistic concern
sonal. How can a very different type, the J, flour- for people, particularly from superior to subor-
ish in this same social environment?
dinate. This holism includes the employee and
Interviews with managers from a large his or her family in an active manner. Family
number of companies over the past two years members regularly interact with other organiza-
were focused on companies which, by reputa- tion members and their families and feel an
tion, have many characteristics of Type J. Out of identification with the organization.
these interviews came a conception of a third
ideal type, which initially appeared to be the J Implications for Society at Large
but differs from it in some essential characteris-
tics.
Why is the Z type useful in thinking about
The ideal Type Z combines a basic cultural American organizations if the A type is the na-
commitment to individualistic values with a
tural adaptation to a society and culture? If a sec-
highly collective, non-individual pattern of in-
ond ideal type can be accommodated, social
teraction. It simultaneously satisfies old norms
conditions must have changed.
of independence and present needs for affilia- The critical aspect of the environment is its
tion. Employment is effectively (although not ability to provide stable affiliations for individ-
officially) for a lifetime, and turnover is low. De-
uals. Traditional sources of affiliation in Amer-
cision making is consensual, and there is often
ican society (family, church, neighborhood,
a highly self-conscious attempt to preserve the
voluntary association, and long-term friendship)
consensual mode.
have been weakened by urbanization and geo-
But the individual still is ultimately the de- graphical mobility. Figure 1 represents the com-
cision-maker, and responsibility remains indi-bination of societal and organizational sources
vidual. This procedure puts strains on the indi-of affiliation. It includes only ideal types A and

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312 Type Z Organization: Stability in the Midst of Mobility

Affiliation in Society
Affiliation in
the Organization
High Low

High I II
(Type Z) Overloaded Integrated

Low III IV

(Type A) Integrated Underloaded

FIGURE 1. Societal and Organizational Sources of Affiliation.

Z; ideal type J, the pure adaptation to person will respond differently to being in each
a Japanese
of the of
society, is not useful as a representation cells I through IV. According to Maslow
American organizations. (15), all people have a need for affiliation, be-
Throughout most of its history, this longingness,
nation or love, which can be satisfied
has been high in sources of affiliation through
outside feeling
of that they are part of a group or
company.
the work place. Under this condition, Type On the average, people in Cell IV
A or-
("Underloaded") will have unfulfilled needs for
ganizations evolved, creating a stable, integrated
state in which most people devoted affiliation.
most ofThey will experience "anomie", the
sensation
their energies to affiliative networks away that there are no anchors or standards,
from
the workplace and were only partially and included
thus a feeling of being lost.
in the work organization. Had the workAll these elements can be combined in one
organi-
zation been Type Z, each employee would model which
havedescribes how the organization in-
been torn between two mistresses and in an teracts with its social environment and with the
needs of its individual members to produce high
overloaded state (Cell I). In the past few decades,
much of American society has moved from the or low loyalty for the organization and high or
"High" to the "Low" affiliation state (13, 20, low22, mental health for the employees (See Figure
2).
26). High mobility has broken the traditional pat-
terns of interaction, but the values which sup- If American society is moving from high to
low affiliation, people who are employed in a
ported those patterns will change more slowly.
Type Z organization should be better able to deal
Those values support the notion of partial in-
with stress and should be happier than the popu-
clusion, of individuality, of the Type A organiza-
tion. Thus many find themselves largely in lation
the at large. Certainly the Type Z organization
Underloaded cell (Cell IV), with society unablewill be more appropriate for that segment of so-
ciety which lacks stable and strong affiliative
to provide affiliation and work organizations not
ties. That is not to suggest that the work organi-
organized to do so. To return to a balanced state,
affiliation will have to come mostly from the zation
or- will in any way replace or compete with
ganization and not from society at large. other national institutions. Quite the opposite:
Because not all people need the same level if the company provides a strong basic stability
in people's lives, then the family, church, and
of affiliation (or achievement or power), each

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Academy of Management Review - April 1978 313

Affiliation with
the Community

FIGURE 2. A Model of Organizational and Individual Affiliation Needs.

neighborhood can all flourish. tion of employees. In all three cases, one side-
Some may object that they will never sup- effect was that people had no immediate form
port a Type Z approach in their company or that of social contact available except through their
it would never work in their industry. They may employer. The extreme case is the military base,
be right. Society contains a range of people and which looks, feels, and smells the same whether
environments; some prefer an employer who it is in Hawaii, Illinois, or New York. To make life
leaves them alone, evaluates them purely on possible under conditions of high geographical
objective measures, and recognizes achieve- mobility, the military has developed a culture
ment through rapid promotion even over the which is immediately familiar and secure no
heads of others. There will always be organiza- matter where its employees go. These organiza-
tions for such people and such tastes. Stability of tions, public and private, created a social vac-
employment is not possible in some industries. uum for their employees and then had to de-
Aerospace is one example of an industry where velop internal sources of support to replace what
a Type Z organization would be harmful; if peo- had been taken away. Now the rest of the coun-
ple built rich ties with each other and a control try is "catching up" with them as stable sources
system based on personal knowledge, both of support disappear elsewhere. One can look
would be wrenched and destroyed when the to such models for ideas about how to cope with
contract came to an end and massive layoffs be- the new society.
came necessary. The Type Z form will not be for The future problem confronting the work
everyone. organization seems relatively clear. American
Due to chance, some models of the Type society,
Z which has been in a constant process of
organization are available to study and learn change during its turbulent 200 years, has
from. Until recently, the Type A organization reached a critical point. Church membership is
was the most successful form in American soci- declining; violent crimes increasingly involve a
ety. When people had relatives, neighbors, and victim who is completely unknown to the assail-
churches, they did not need Dr. Spock to tell ant; workers feel less commitment to employ-
them why the baby was purple, and they did not ers; all of us long for stability and structure in our
need a company that provided them with a rich lives. These changes signify a decline in belong-
network of social contacts. But in a few cases, ingness and suggest the fate assigned by Homans
companies grew up in small towns, or in places (11) to societies which lose the feeling of mem-
like California that were populated by emigrants, bership: we will become, ".. . a dust heap of in-
or in industries which required frequent re-loca- dividuals without links to one another."

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314 Type Z Organization: Stability in the Midst of Mobility

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