Society for Technical Communication

Typography, Color, and Information Structure

Author(s): Elizabeth Keyes
Source: Technical Communication, Vol. 40, No. 4, Special Issue: Visual Communication
(FOURTH QUARTER NOVEMBER 1993), pp. 638-654
Published by: Society for Technical Communication
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 Typography, Color, and
Information Structure

Elizabeth Keyes
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Typography and color significantly influence the communication effectiveness of technical

documents. However, most research and design guidelines address typography and color
separately without considering their spatial context or their function as complementary
content signals. A broader, integrated perspective increases our understanding of underlying
principles, simplifies guidelines, and enables us to make typography and color choices with
confidence and control over the result. This article focuses on
• How typography and color complement and differ from each other in signaling an underlying content
structure

• The synergism between typography, color, and page layout (use of white space) that aids audience
understanding and use
• The characteristics of typography and of color that are most important in these contexts

Typography and color play significant roles in the
overall communication effectiveness of technical
documents. They can work together to decrease the
time and effort required to access, comprehend, and
use information. However, typography and color are
seldom viewed as complementary, interactive tools,
but rather as separate design issues. Type is part of
the basic design. Color enhances and adds interest.
The usual approach is to do the design, choose the
color, then figure out where to put color.
Making color and type choices can be difficult. If
you think otherwise, glance through the literature.
Both color and type have acquired a long and rather
formidable list of rules and guidelines. For
typography, there are guidelines on text legibility,
highlighting techniques, and header hierarchies. One
must consider the choice of typeface(s), type size,
This article has been peer reviewed.
weight, width, slant, case, underlining, letter
spacing, word spacing, leading (line spacing),
column width, justified or ragged text - and more
(Williams and Spyridakis 1992; Glynn et al. 1985;
Hartley 1985; Rehe 1975; Tinker 1965 and 1963).
Color guidelines focus on creating easily
distinguished color coding schemes through color
choice and combination in relation to hue, value,
saturation, brightness, color wheel position, prior
associations, background, adjacent color, quantity,
area, surface, reproduction or distribution
mechanism, audience age and possible color-viewing
deficiencies (Horton 1991a and 1991b; Thorell and
Smith 1990; Durrett 1987; Murch 1987; Silverstein
1987; Smith 1987).
Then there is the question of how much. In the
research in color and typography, there is no
agreement about the thresholds of effectiveness.
How many colors can be used before distraction

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overtakes benefit (Brockmann 1991; Horton 1991a;
Krull and Rubens 1986)? What is the maximum
number of type features that a reader can effectively
use? Where is the limit that marks visual overload
(Williams and Spyridakis 1992; Garafolo 1988;
Rubens and Rubens 1988)?
Applying numerous separate guidelines can be
confusing and frustrating, and can yield uncertain
results. Separate guidelines encourage linear decision
making. They don't provide an integrated
understanding of the interaction of visual elements
on a page, of contextual factors such as the use of
white space, or their relation to content structure
and information use. The process is a bit like trying
to memorize French verbs without knowing the
principles of conjugation.
Are there any organizing principles that we can
use to simplify typography and color applications
and give us confidence in our choices? This article
suggests some initial steps towards that goal. We
need to look at typography and color together as
complementary, interactive elements within a visual field
and as elements which visually signal the structure and
organization of information. From this perspective, a
simpler set of principles and tools emerges.
This article examines both typography and color
by asking the following questions:
• How do typography and color function together
in the context of information design and
content structure? What are their differing roles
and limits?
• How do typography and color vary in
sensitivity to their spatial context - to
placement, surrounding white space, and
overall page layout?
• Which characteristics of typography and color
are key factors in creating effective content
signals?
A VISUAL INFORMATION STRUCTURE
Undifferentiated text - without any headers or
highlighting - requires more effort from the reader,
and the writer loses control over how the reader will
make his or her way through the text and interpret
and remember it. When we're confronted with a
page of solid, undifferentiated text, what do we do?
We use a colored highlighter. In highlighting, we
create visual landmarks. We mark key points that we
want to remember and refer to, that help us
mentally follow the structure of the information,
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increase our understanding, and make it easier to
recall later or to go back for reference.
Headers, type changes, and color can
communicate the structure and organization of the
content. This visual information structure in effect
pre-processes the content by revealing its underlying
organization. It provides a high-level framework that
supports reader tasks of orientation, navigation,
overview, comprehension, recall, and reference
(Rude 1988; Duchastel 1982; Waller 1982). A well-
designed visual organization uses consistent,
meaningful visual signals with sufficient visual
contrast to make useful distinctions in relation to the
specific use requirements. This visual organization is
perceived unconsciously (preattentively) by the
reader while scanning - before the effort of conscious
focus and reading. Furthermore, this initial visual
organization strongly influences how the reader will
read, understand, interpret, and remember the
content (Winn 1992).
When we're confronted with a page of
solid, undifferentiated text, what do we
do? We use a colored highlighter. In
highlighting, we create visual landmarks.
We mark key points that we want to
remember and refer to, that help us
mentally follow the structure of the
information.
A visual information structure is composed of
two different categories of elements: information
levels and information types. Information levels
define the sequential, hierarchical content structure;
for example, head level 1, head level 2, head level 3,
etc. Information types differentiate categories of
information that fall outside the content hierarchy,
but are critical to effectively utilizing the content; for
example, hints, asides, marginalia, numbered
procedures, bulleted lists, captions, etc.
While both typography and color can be effective
information structure signals, they have different
strengths and weaknesses. They are best used as
complementary rather than interchangeable tools. In
the next sections, we will examine first typography
and then color as information structure signals and
consider their dependency on spatial context. We
will also use these perspectives to simplify the list of
features, properties, and guidelines to focus on a few
characteristics we can use effectively with the
greatest benefit.
T YPOGRAPHY AND VISUAL
INFORMATION STRUCTURES

Using typographic features to reveal content

structure is called typographic cueing. Changes in
type weight, size, case, typeface, etc., can give the
reader cues to what the text contains. The header
hierarchy is the most common application, but
typographic cueing is also used to differentiate
information types such as notes, hints, and warnings
from basic text, or basic procedure steps from
detailed explanations.
We will focus on three aspects of typographic
cueing: Figure 1 . Chunking through changes in spacing only

• How are typographic features used to signal

content structure?
• How is the amount of typographic cueing that a
reader can absorb affected by the surrounding
white space and page layout?
• What typographic characteristics create the
most easily distinguished typographic cues?

To probe these questions, let's begin by looking

at examples of typographic cueing which build a
successively more complex information structure
through a sequential process of chunking, queuing,
and filtering undifferentiated text.
Figure 2. Chunking through changes in spacing and type
density
Chunking

Chunking is the first step in information

organization. At its simplest level, chunking divides
continuous text into manageable units according to
subject matter. Figure 1 shows chunking using only
changes in spacing. In Figure 2, the chunking uses
both spacing and contrast in type tonal density, such
as a bolded header.
Chunking has two dimensions: Chunking divides
by separation and it consolidates by grouping.
Consolidation of many elements into fewer
information chunks makes it easier for the reader to
scan a page and decide where to focus attention.
Figure 3 shows many elements consolidated into
fewer chunks through adjustments in spacing.
Figure 3 . Chunking consolidation through changes in
In Figures 1, 2, and 3, both type tonal density
spacing
and spacing are manipulated to signal division
(beginning and end points) and grouping (larger
chunks containing subchunks). However, Figures 1 Queuing
and 3 show that spacing alone is sufficient. In Figure
2, type variations and additional spacing make the Queuing orders the chunks in a visual hierarchy
chunk separations more visible. and prioritizes information. Queuing relates detailed,

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lower-level content chunks to the higher level
chunks as in an outline structure. In Figures 4 and 5,
different combinations of type features create a
visual hierarchy of information levels, such as page
head, head level 1, head level 2, and head level 3.
In Figure 4, type size, density, and position are
changed with primary emphasis on size changes.

• Page head - large and bold; aligned with text

column

• Head 1 - smaller and bold; aligned with text

column

• Head 2 - still smaller and bold; aligned with text

column Figure 4. Queuing through changes in type size (primary),
density , and position ( secondary )
• Head 3 - smallest size and less bold than head 2;
aligned with text column
• Vertical columns - one vertical column for both
headers and text

• Line spacing - line spacing between hierarchical

levels decreases moving down the hierarchy;
the greatest line space follows the page head
and the least line space precedes head 3

Queuing in Figure 5 relies primarily on changes

in spacing with fewer changes in size and density:

• Page head - larger and regular weight; aligned

with text column

• Head 1 - smaller and very bold; outdented left

of text column Figure 5. Queuing through changes in spacing (primary),
• Head 2 - same size and boldness as head 1; type size , and density (secondary)

aligned with text column

• Head 3 - smaller size and less bold than head 1;
aligned with text column; followed directly by
text with no line break
• Vertical columns - two vertical columns or
alignment positions defining a smaller
outdented head column and larger text column
• Line spacing - line spacing between hierarchical
levels decreases moving down the hierarchy;
the greatest line space follows the page head
and the least line space precedes head 3;
multiples of line spacing are in the proportion
4:3:2:1
as the text. The changes in line spacing are
ambiguous, hard to discern, and hard to interpret. In
Figure 5, the spatial changes provide clear contrasts.
There is more space following the nonbold page
head. The head 1 is significantly outdented, creating
a separate vertical cueing column. The line spacings
are visually distinct multiples. The heads are easier
to locate, scan, and interpret unambiguously. In
Figure 5, the greater reliance on changes in space
and position visually simplifies the typographic
cueing.

These two examples show that typographic
cueing is more effective when it uses large,
contrasting changes in position on the page and
surrounding white space - in addition to type
features such as boldness or change in size.
The header hierarchy in Figure 4 makes no
change in position; headers are in the same column
Filtering
Filtering creates layers of information within the
visual hierarchy. Filtering visually identifies and
differentiates various types of information, so that
readers can find what they need. Conversely, less
relevant information can be filtered out. For example,
if an expert user can visually distinguish between

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summary procedure steps and detailed explanation,
he or she can read the former and ignore the latter.
With filtering, we move from information levels
into information types. Typographic filtering
identifies information types that fall outside the
hierarchy, yet are of critical importance and utility.
Figures 6, 7, 8, and 9 illustrate typographic cueing
for a variety of filtered content elements.

• Summary procedure step - bold, change in

typeface; step numeral outdented from text
column (Figure 6)
- Note or hint - large indent from text margin, Figure 6 Figure 7

smaller column, smaller type size

• Warning - bold text, narrower column width Figure 6. Filtering (visually differentiating) summary
(indented from right rag margin); word procedures and hint text

"warning" outdents left of text column Figure 7. Filtering warning and caption text
(Figure 7)
• Caption text - change in typeface, bold lead-in;
smaller text column to left of text column
left-aligns with outdented head (Figure 7)
• Differentiation of overview versus detailed
content - marked by the change from one wide
column to two smaller columns of smaller type
size (Figure 8)
• User-entered information - bold, change in
typeface (Figure 9)
- Machine response information - italic, change in
typeface (Figure 9)

Filtering creates a richer, more complex visual

information structure. In these examples, filtering
cues also manipulate type tonal density and spacing Figure 8 Figure 9

to visually differentiate information types. Once

again, the spatial context is critical. It increases the
visibility, contrast, and differentiation of the hint
(indent), warning (outdent), caption text (outdented
column), and overview versus detail (one versus two
columns). However, filtering points to the limits of
typographic cueing. Too many typographic cues
become distracting (imagine all the above cues on
one page), and badly designed filtering cues can
dominate hierarchical cues.
From Information Framework to Visual Complexity
Typographic cueing creates a visual framework of
basic information relationships on the page. Through
chunking, queuing, and filtering text content,
typographic cues build a visual information structure
of increasing complexity using changes in type tonal
density, position, and surrounding white space.
Figure 8 . Filtering overview and detailed content
Figure 9. Filtering user-entered information (keystrokes) and
machine response in a procedure
These examples show that typographic cues are most
effective - clearly visible and easily differentiated
from the text - when both tonal density and space are
used.
The utility of this information structure depends
on keeping its visual complexity within the limits of
what can be absorbed by the reader. Research has
suggested that fewer type features are more effective
(Williams and Spyridakis 1992; Rubens and Rubens
1988), and that two features may be the maximum a
reader can attend to (Garafolo 1988). However, our
examples show that the effectiveness of a type
feature also depends on its spatial context - its

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position and the amount of adjacent white space in
relation to other elements on the page. The examples
are also focused on the collective term "tonal type
density" rather than on specific type features.
T YPOGRAPHY AND SPATIAL CONTEXT
Our examples show that typographic cueing is
highly dependent on its spatial context. We can go
further and say that typographic cueing cannot be
considered apart from its spatial context. Changes in
position or surrounding white space make bold type
more visible. Outdented heads (hung heads) are
easier to scan and separate from the text; major
heads are immediately distinguished from minor
heads. Outdented warnings and indented detail
information are clearly differentiated. More space
preceding a head level 1 than before a level 2 or 3
reinforces the header hierarchy. Less space between
bullet list items than between paragraphs groups
bullet points with the preceding text. Typographic
cues which incorporate spatial changes clarify
information relationships and decrease reader effort.
But how do various spacing strategies relate to
different elements of an information structure? And
how does the use of space affect the visual
complexity of typographic cueing?
James Hartley (1985) makes a useful distinction
between horizontal and vertical spacing. I find it
more intuitive to reverse his terms while keeping the
definitions. (See Figure 10.)
Figure 10. Vertical and horizontal spacing
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• Vertical spacing refers to the various vertical
alignments which create separate colums or
locations within columns; for example, the left
margin positions of hung (outdented) heads,
text columns, outdented and indented text.
• Horizontal spacing refers to the modular
increments of line spacing which create relative
proximity, separation, and chunking, where
larger multiples separate higher levels of a
content structure and smaller multiples separate
lower levels. According to Hartley's scheme,
the spatial separation between a head 1, head
2, paragraph, and bullet list element would be:
4:2:1:0.5.
Horizontal and vertical spacing define different
aspects of the information structure.
• Vertical spacing defines information zones on a
page (for example, hung head column, text
column, and running information) and highly
visible subdivisions within information zones (for
example, indents within a text column). See
Figure 11.
• Horizontal spacing defines hierarchical
information levels , topic chunks , and subchunks.
Vertical spacing identifies positions. Horizontal
spacing creates chunks - separation and proximic
grouping. Generally, we notice changes in vertical
position first (primary spatial cues) and changes in
horizontal chunking second (secondary spatial cues).
Unique vertical positions effectively identify key
elements of the information structure, such as the
Figure 11. Information zones
higher-level heads (head Is) and critical information
types (warnings, hints, procedure details, bullet
items). Horizontal space refines and clarifies the
information structure, reinforcing hierarchical
separations and grouping related text elements.
Together, horizontal and vertical spacing define the
basic framework of the page layout, page grid, and
information structure. (For a more detailed
explanation of the grid in relation to visual structure,
see Keyes and Krull 1992.) Therefore, dividing the
page spatially according to the information
requirements of content and audience is the first and
seminal design task.
These schematic spatial divisions also form the
framework for additional visual information signals,
whether typographic, color, pictorial, or other.
Careful use of space can simplify typographic cueing
in two important ways:
• Through contrast - Contrast simplifies. Large
spatial contrasts simplify the overall page
layout. It appears less busy. Typographic cues
are simplified by the layout. They are easier to
see and use.
• Through fewer typographic cues - Large spatial
contrasts decrease the number of type changes
that are needed. If the spatial signal is easily
seen (large outdent), then the type signal can
be less bold (bold or not bold versus extra
bold). This decreases the visual complexity and
perceived busy-ness.
Conversely, the absence of spatial changes - or
spatial change with insufficient contrast - increases
the visual complexity of the page and the
typographic cueing, which also increases the reader's
effort.
As noted above, the threshold of overload for
typographic cueing can be reached quickly. Complex
content seems to demand more typographic cueing -
more information levels and types for a wider range
of readers who want different pathways and
amounts of visual hand-holding. However, visual
complexity becomes perceptual overload and leads to
decreased performance. The eye jumps distractedly
over the page. The cues lose their distinctiveness. At
worst, there is a figure /ground reversal;
unhighlighted elements become prominent when
highlighted elements are so numerous that they
recede as an undifferentiated background.
Complexity and effort outweigh benefit, and the
cues are not used.
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Sufficient contrasts in horizontal and, especially,
vertical spacing can simplify the typographic cueing
and increase the number of typographic cues a
reader can absorb and utilize. Effective spacing
extends the limits of typographic cueing.
Consequently, guidelines which stipulate how many
types of typographic cues may be used are
misleading. The amount and kind of typographic
cueing depend on its spatial context.
T YPOGRAPHIC TONALITY
In addition to space, our examples use changes in
type size and weight to signal information levels and
types. However, we could have used caps, italics,
condensed, expanded, letter-spaced, or a different
typeface. Can we simplify this laundry list of type
features? What do all of these differentiations have
in common? Each creates a contrast in typographic
tonality or tonal density.
"Typographic tonal density" refers to the relative
blackness or shades of gray of type on the page. It
describes the way we perceptually group individual
character strokes, letters, words, or lines of type to
form an overall gray-tone varying from light to dark.
In the same way, we perceptually group the lines of
an engraving or the half-tone dots of a printed
photograph as areas of varying tonality which
identify the edges and contours of three-dimensional
objects.
The interplay between letterform and space is a
key factor in determining relative typographic
tonality. Changes in various type features can create
variations in typographic tonality; such type features
include
• Typeface (style of letterforms) - stroke width,
set width, counter size, x-height
• Caps, italic, bold, compressed, extended (and
all variations in weight and width)
• Type size
• Letter, word, and line spacing
• Line length
• Typeface combination
Typographic tonality can be thought of as the
relative amount of ink per square inch (or
centimeter, or pica). An area which has high
typographic tonal density has more ink per area, and
one which has low typographic density has less ink
per area. A few examples illustrate the variety of
features which affect typographic tonal density:
• Counter size (Figure 12): Typefaces with large
counters, such as Futura, Avant Garde, Lubalin,
and ITC Garamond, trap a larger amount of
white space in the enclosed spaces of letters
such as o, a, g, and p. The cumulative effect
decreases typographic tonal density.
• Stroke width (Figure 13): A thicker stroke width
creates more ink per area.
- Typeface : Old style typefaces such as Palatino,
Bembo, or Old Style Garamond have thicker
stroke widths and less contrast between thick
and thin strokes. Therefore, their density on the
page is darker than transitional faces such as
Baskerville (or ITC Garamond), which have a
thinner stroke and greater thick /thin contrast.
- Bold : Bolded typefaces have more ink per
area.
- Sans serif: Most sans serif typefaces are
optically mono-width, hence, more ink per
area.
• Letter spacing (Figure 14): Greater spacing
between letters creates a lighter gray and
lowers typographic tonal density. Letterspaced
headers (a currently in-vogue revival) depend
on this contrasting lightness to differentiate
headers from text.
Counter size: serif
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Figure 12. Type tonal density: Typeface counter size
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Typeface
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Bold
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Sans serif
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Figure 13. Type tonal density: Stroke width
Palatino 9/10
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Figure 14. Type tonal density : Letterspacing
 • Condensed (Figure 15): Condensed typefaces
decrease the white space between vertical letter
strokes and increase the ink per area.
Condensed bold type has a higher typographic
tonal density than regular bold type.
• Line spacing (Figure 16): Greater line spacing
lowers the typographic tonal density. It can
create lighter, more accessible overviews,
captions, or summaries.
As we saw in previous examples, variations in
typographic tonal density can signal content
differences. A series of focal points with greater or
lesser differentiation can visually signal hierarchical
order, create separate information layers, or identify
different information types.
The concept of type tonality simplifies the long,
bewildering list of type features. Tonality reminds us
of the interactive nature of type features - separating
decisions of serif, sans, size, position, case, etc. is
misleading. Tonality focuses our attention on the key
factor (tonality) and what we want to achieve (tonal
contrast) rather than on a variety of unrelated
means. The question becomes what levels of tonal
contrast are needed - not whether to use all caps or
italics.
Color
If typographical cues signal the overall
organization, color can be a loose cannon within that
visual information structure. Research and guidelines
have made us well aware of the power /peril
dichotomy of color. Color focuses attention, speeds
search, reveals organization and pattern. By
organizing and classifying information, color enables
readers to handle more information and process it
more efficiently (Horton 1991a and 1991b). However,
color can also be distracting and destructive. It can
diffuse attention, decrease performance, cause
confusion, increase difficulty and reader effort. Color
badly used is worse than none.
These characteristics of color raise specific issues
about using it as a content signal within a visual
information structure. In the next sections, we will
look at where color is valuable and what problems it
causes, concentrating on color's ability to create
information targets and to simplify complex visual
information. We will use this perspective to focus on
a few characteristics of color which help create
effective content signals with a footnote on one area
of type and color interaction - legibility.
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Univers Condensed Bold (67) 9/10 TPbom
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seing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh euismod
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erat volutpat wisi enim. Ut veniam, quis nostrud.
Figure 15. Type tonal density : Condensed type
Times Roman 9/10
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sed diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet wui
dolore magna aliquam erat volutpat wisi enim ad nam
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sed diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet wui
dolore magna aliquam erat volutpat wisi enim ad nam
minim. Ut veniam, quis nostrud exerci.
Figure 16. Type tonal density: Line spacing
We should remember that all color-application
strategies must take into account readers who are
color-deficient. Horton (1991b) and Murch (1985) list
several ways in which color choices can
accommodate these viewers. As a general guideline,
make all color cueing redundant. Combine changes
in chromatic color with changes in spatial position,
typography, shape (as in an icon or other graphic
element), or tone.
Color and information structures
We have noted that typographic cueing has limits
that are easily exceeded. People have a cognitive
limit to the amount of visual cueing they can
effectively absorb, process, and utilize, before the
cues become distracting visual overload (Berlyne
1971). Color can extend this limit by creating a visual
layer that we separate perceptually from
monochromatic typographic and spatial cues.
However, if there are too many colors or if color is
badly used, it will have the reverse effect and
actually lower the cognitive limit.
Color's effectiveness as an information cue
depends on several factors: where* color is used
within the information structure, what elements are
cued, how color cues are differentiated, and what
color characteristics are used.
Color-cued Information Targets target" finds its valuable niche in the visual
information structure.
Color can either strengthen or weaken a visual If red signals a warning, then it is appropriate that
information structure. Its usefulness depends not this information take precedence (Figure 18). If red
only on what color and how much, but on where it text identifies chapter overviews, then it provides a
is used.
separate access route through the document; the
Color focuses attention. Perceptually, it may be reader could literally follow the red brick road
more accurate to say that color grabs attention. It (Figure 19). The application question is not what
demands and commands primary attention. level of information should be cued (in potential
Color groups objects, taking precedence over collision with the typographic hierarchy), but what
other visual attributes. Research shows that we sort
type of information readers need to access independently of
by color before we sort by shape, tone or other its surrounding text.
visual attributes (Horton 1991a and 1991b; Winn A colored information target speeds search -
1991; Martinez and Block 1988; Treisman 1986). Color "increases velocity" in Jan White's apt phrase (1990,
takes precedence over typographical cues and spatial
context. Like-colored elements will be perceptually
grouped together regardless of their location on the
page.
Color creates specific focal points or "information
targets" which are perceived independently from the
spatial and typographic information structure.
Target, a common term in perceptual research,
accurately describes color's perceptual focus and the
way a reader responds to color elements in an
information structure. Easily differentiated from their
surroundings, color elements grab a reader's
attention first before the reader has understood the
surrounding information context - where it is in the
hierarchy, what type of information it is (procedure, Figure 17
note, warning, etc.), or its relation to other text. In
addition, colored targets group together and are Figure 17. Problems with color information targets: Colored
interpreted as being similar irrespective of their head level 3
spatial position, alignment, typeface, or position
within the information structure.
This independent function can cause severe
cueing problems. Color pulls the eye whether it
occurs at the first or fifth level of the hierarchy,
whether it identifies a note or a critical warning,
whether it's an informative icon or a decorative
border. For example, if a level 3 head is red, it will
have visual priority over a level 1 or level 2 head
(Figure 17). It takes effort for the reader to integrate
the level 3 head into the information structure.
One might be tempted to subscribe to
Brockmann's (1991) characterization of the
"unbearable distraction of color," and advise against
its use. (Brockmann's exception is color coding; Figure 18 Figure 19
another might be reader motivation.) However, if we
combine Brockmann's plea for function over Figure 18. Appropriate use of color information targets :
decoration with Horton' s observation that color is Warning
useful when "readers are impatient or must act in a Figure 19. Appropriate use of color information targets :
hurry" (1991a, p. 160), then the "color information Chapter overview

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p. 9). Why waste such a valuable tool on the header
hierarchy? (Unless the header hierarchy is indeed the
problem.) Save color for information types that are
difficult to signal typographically or spatially with
sufficient visual loudness. Examples include
warnings, hints, user-entered information, cross-
references, branch points, overviews, summaries,
chapter openers, and section dividers.
• Section dividers and chapter openers - These
are important document-chunking tools as well
as access targets. A large area of color that
extends to the page edge makes them visible to
a reader flipping through the book (Figure 20).
• Cross-references - A colored arrowhead makes
easily overlooked information visible -
information that can prevent errors, avoid
redundancy, and reduce document bulk (Figure
21).
• Keystrokes (user-entered information) - Colored
keycaps or words isolate these from the
surrounding text for quick review or scanning
by expert users (Figure 21).
• Hints - Colored text separates the hint from the
procedure step (Figure 22).
• Index - Indexes can be complex. The index to
the two volumes of The Art of French Cooking ,
(Child and Beck 1973) uses color effectively to
differentiate entries from volume 1 and volume
2 (Figure 23).
There are two final caveats about color
information targets:
Figure 20 Figure 21
Figure 20. Color on a section divider page
Figure 21. Colored cross-reference arrowhead and keystroke
information
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• What to color cue - In the decision of what to
color cue, the final arbiter is the specific
problem definition - the requirements of
audience, content, and use.
• The distraction of too much color - Research has
documented the problems of color over-use and
ill-conceived combinations. Krull and Rubens'
study of viewer responses to polychromatic
computer screens illustrates the performance
issues of too many colors. Two or more colors
decreased performance. Each color formed
separate groupings which competed for the
viewer's attention. Eye movements adopted a
more random "paint mode" of scanning (Krull
and Rubens 1986). With color, less is definitely
more. Since the grouping effect and distraction
of multiple colors is so intense, it is safer to use
one color and manipulate attributes other than
hue, as described in later sections.
To summarize, the potential liabilities of colored
information targets can be converted into reader
benefits. Color's ability to act outside the
typographic and spatial information structure can be
used to enhance the cueing system - signaling critical
types of information which can be accessed
independently and can enable readers to use the text
more efficiently.
Color Simplifies Complex Visual Information
Color's independence also makes it an effective
tool for simplifying complex information. Color
Figure 22. Colored hint versus procedure step
Figure 23. Index : Color differentiates volume 2 from
volume 1
creates a layer that perceptually exists on a separate
visual plane. Color both differentiates and
consolidates visual information. For example, a large
number of typographic cues are consolidated into
two super-groups - color and noncolor - with fewer
sub- variations in each group. This division makes
scanning easier. Once the color cues are learned, the
reader can navigate more efficiently and go directly
to either group. The two planes can be "read"
separately.
Let's look at some examples:

• Colored illustration leader lines and callouts Figure 25

Figure 24
(Figure 24) - Red illustration leader lines and
callouts separate the layer of information about Figure 24. Colored leader lines and callouts differentiate
the illustration from the illustration itself, descriptor from illustration
eliminating the ambiguity between the Figure 25. Colored illustrations set apart from black text
descriptor and the described. Adding a red
caption takes advantage of perceptual grouping
and creates an information module of
illustration-plus-text which the reader can use
separately as an alternative to longer prose
paragraphs.
• Colored illustration graphics (Figure 25) - A
page with many graphics (computer screens,
charts, line drawings, black-and-white photos,
etc.) can be over-busy and distracting. Sepia
line drawings or gray computer screens simplify
the page by clearly dividing the information
into two planes - text and illustration.
• Colored running information (Figure 26) -
Running information (title, chapter /section, Figure 26 Figure 27
folio) is accessed separately from the page
information. Its visibility is critical, yet it can Figure 26. Colored running information
clutter a complex page. Colored running Figure 27. Colored marginal text
information (for example, darker red or sepia),
forms a separate information zone that is easily
accessible and does not compete with the main
text, illustrations, etc.
• Colored marginal elements (Figure 27) - Some textbooks use the same technique with a
Whether the marginalia are footnotes, extended separate column of colored glossary entries or
captions, or interesting asides, they compete for running summaries alongside the main text. In an
attention with the text. The reader may be interesting article, Duchastel (1985) presents
continually torn between which to read first. examples of marginalia suggesting a wider
Gray or blue marginal text creates a clearer application of this technique to technical materials.
separation and diminishes the distraction. In the examples above, color simplifies by
Wurman's Information Anxiety (1989) applies this visually organizing and classifying information. It
technique. clarifies both differences and relationships. Since
color cues are perceived preattentively
Medieval Biblical manuscripts, such as codex (automatically), less effort is required and the reader
commentaries, used color extensively to separate can handle more information (Reising and Aretz
multiple levels of commentaries from Scripture. 1987, referenced in Horton 1991a).

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Color characteristics
Most guidelines focus on color choice and
combination as choices of hue: pure red, green, blue,
yellow, etc. In the most frequently discussed
application, color coding, each information category Figure 28. Color cues: 3-inch square , 6-point rule, caret
is differentiated by a separate hue. As noted in Krull triangle, 11-point Univers Condensed Bold
and Rubens' study (1986), there is a severe limit to
the number of colors that can be used without
sacrificing performance; even two or three colors can
cause problems.
There are many reasons to use color, yet the
numbers of colors must be limited to ensure efficient
information processing. Are there other dimensions
of color besides hue which can be used to help us
resolve this conflict? In the next two sections, we
will look at two groups of color characteristics: area
and shape, and value and saturation.

Color's Sensitivity to Area and Shape

People have notoriously bad color memories

because the perception of color is so sensitive to its
surroundings (adjacent color, quantity, surface
quality, lighting conditions, etc.). Therefore,
guidelines recommend a limited number of easily
distinguished hues that will not overtax our color
memory, such as red, green, yellow, and blue.
However, color cue differentiation and
interpretation are also sensitive to changes in area
(quantity) and shape when these changes are large
enough to be easily perceived (significant contrast
rather than subtle variations). We recognize this
Figure 29. Color cue sensitivity to area and shape: Left:
section divider; Right: head level 1 rule, cross reference,
keystroke information
a system of information cues that uses one color
while varying area and shape. The same caveats
apply: Greater contrast simplifies, and less is more.
A small number of contrasting color cues is more
effective than a large number with smaller
distinctions.

intuitively. For example: a red 3-inch square, a 6-

point rule, a triangle with a 9-point base, and 11-
point Univers Condensed Bold type are all perceived
as red (Figure 28), yet they are also identified as
visual cues to different types of information: a
section divider page, header rule, cross-reference
arrow, and keystroke information (Figure 29).
Although these interpretations are aided by the
location and information context, the differences in
area and shape are the primary factors. While the
section divider's red square is always in the same
upper right corner location, the red cross-reference
arrows and red keystrokes are found in a variety of
locations. (Color density, which is similar to
typographic tonal density, is also a factor. The red
type has a different color density relative to the red
triangle.)
As these examples illustrate, we can use our
sensitivity to the area and shape of color to develop
Color Attributes: Basic Terms and Concepts
Most color application guidelines discuss color
choice in terms of hue (red, green, yellow, etc.) and
color combination according to the color wheel.
However, understanding color value and saturation
is equally, and sometimes more, important.
• Hue is defined as the simple "color," as in red,
yellow, green, blue-green, etc. (Each color name
is an arbitrary division which our culture makes
in the continuous spectrum of light.)
• Value is the lightness or darkness, relative
"gray-value" of colors (as well as of black and
white). Value is lightened by adding more
white (a "tint") ánd darkened by adding more
black (a "shade").
• Saturation is also called intensity, purity, or

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 chroma. It is defined as the relative brilliance or
dullness of a color. A color of maximum
saturation is "pure"; it is composed of only one
wavelength. Saturation can be lowered by
adding the complement of a color (red is dulled
by adding green, etc.). As more of the
complement is added, the color reaches its
lowest saturation as gray (Horton 1991a; White
1990; Martinez and Block 1988; Murch 1985).
These categories are not exclusive, but highly
interactive.
Every hue also has a specific innate value. Pure,
highly saturated yellow is lighter (higher in value)
than pure blue. Red is darker (lower in value) than
pure yellow. The order of primary and secondary
colors from highest to lowest in value is: yellow,
orange, red, green, blue, violet. Therefore, against a
white background, red is a better choice for
highlighting than blue or violet. (Some further
implications are noted below in "Color and Legibility
Issues.")
Some colors retain their identity throughout
value changes; others do not. Light or dark green,
blue, and violet still retain their "hue-ness."
However, light red is pink, dark yellow is ochre,
dark orange is brown; as their value changes, they
are not recognizable as the same color. This affects
the overall color cue system: Blue and green provide
greater cohesion; red and orange permit greater
differentiation.
When our color thinking is limited to the
basic crayon-box colors (highly saturated
primary and secondary colors), we are
playing on only a small portion of the
color keyboard.
Hue is only one dimension of color. When our
color thinking is limited to the basic crayon-box
colors (highly saturated primary and secondary
colors), we are playing on only a small portion of the
color keyboard - and it is the portion most likely to
produce harsh , discordant , uncomfortable effects. Many
color recommendations are geared to the
requirements of maximum visibility rather than
prolonged viewing. For example, a combination of
highly saturated red and green in close proximity is
highly contrasting, visible, and memorable. It is also
extremely harsh, uncomfortably vibrant, and
fatiguing. However, if either red or green is
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Playing on the full scale of color ; we can
minimize color fatigue and retain the
benefits of differentiation. We can also
match color more closely to specific
content significance and use.
decreased in value or saturation, the effect is quite
different: red against pale green; red against dark,
unsaturated green; green against pink; green against
maroon. Contrast and visibility are maintained,
while the visual fatigue is considerably decreased.
Playing on the full scale of color, we can
minimize color fatigue and retain the benefits of
differentiation. We can also match color more closely
to specific content significance and use.
In Envisioning Information (1990), Edward Tufte
makes an effective case for the color strategies of
topographic maps: a small quantity of high-intensity
color used against a layered ground built from tints
of saturated and less-saturated colors. These color
choices create an effective hierarchy, separate
information layers, and differentiate within layers:
• Hierarchy - differentiated by saturation and
value, where the highest level is a small area of
a highly saturated, highly visible hue, such as
red.
• Information layers - differentiated by changes
in value (tints, varying amounts of white).
While each layer may contain several hues or
saturations, if they are the same value they will
be read as a single layer.
• Differentiation within layers - marked by
changes in hue and /or saturation within a
single layer of one value.
Let's also reconsider the color-cued information
target examples discussed earlier (Figures 20 and 21):
section dividers, hints, warnings, cross-references,
and keystrokes (user-entered information). These
information types are not equally important, nor are
they used in the same way by readers, nor are their
visual contexts the same. (Nor would they all be
color-cued within one system!) Their information
objectives are different. If we manipulate color value
and saturation as well as area and shape, we have a
color-cueing system more closely calibrated to the
particular importance and use of the information. For
example, using the hue red:
 • Section divider : 3-inch square block in a shade of
red (dark red)
A section divider is important, but it is
primarily recognized by area and position: a
large block of ink, in the top right corner,
extending to the page edge. A four-inch square
of pure, saturated red may compete with the
type below. A low-value shade of red
differentiates yet softens the contrast by being
nearer in value.
• Hints : type of low value, in a shade of red (dark
red)
Hints are "nice to know information."
Differentiation permits filtering by novices and
experts. Dark red differentiates, but is more
legible than red and less distracting for readers
who don't want to read hints.
• Warning : word "warning" in bold sans serif type
in highly saturated red
Warnings are critical. Using the word as the
"icon" avoids ambiguity. Increasing the stroke
width makes the red type advance rather than
recede in relation to surrounding black text.
Keeping the adjacent warning text black
maintains legibility - especially if the warning is
of any length.
• Cross reference : arrow in highly saturated red
Cross references are important information. The
arrow shape identifies the nature of the
information (go-to) without the legibility
sacrifice or increased distraction of color type.
The small size requires a highly saturated, high-
in-value hue for visibility.
• Keystrokes (user-entered information): Condensed
bold sans serif text in highly saturated red
Keystroke information provides an expert-user
shortcut and is also useful for review. The
wider, bold stroke width and higher
typographic color of condensed type
differentiates this information and makes it
advance, rather than recede, in relation to
surrounding text.
By understanding its multiple dimensions, we
can modulate color and use it more effectively.
• The harshness of saturated color combinations
can be decreased while maintaining visibility.
• Color choices can be calibrated to information
and use requirements.
• A single hue can be modulated to create a
system of color cues which has greater visual
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unity, less polychromatic distraction, and lower
printing cost.
Color and Type Legibility
Colored type does not always produce the effects
intended. We can group the factors involved under
the categories of visibility, legibility, and
differentiation.
Visibility. The usual assumption is that colored
type is more visible than uncolored type (black).
However, if all other aspects are constant, colored
type actually recedes in relation to black type. Black
on white has the maximum contrast and, hence, the
maximum visibility. Therefore, if colored type is to
hierarchically precede black type, it must have a
greater stroke thickness. The type must be colored
and bold - or colored and bold sans serif if
differentiating from serif type.
Legibility. Because colored type recedes, it is also
harder to read. Legibility suffers, unless the color is
very dark in value and barely distinguishable from
black. The hue /legibility scale follows the same hue/
value hierarchy discussed above: Type in hues of
higher innate value (yellow, orange and red) is less
legible than type in hues of lower innate value
(green, blue, violet). Less-saturated colors are easier
to read than highly saturated colors because they are
lower in value.
This is nicely illustrated in the switch in type
color between early and later editions of Wurman's
Access Guides (1983; 1989b). (The Guides use type of
different hues to distinguish information about
landmarks, restaurants, hotels, museums, etc.) In
the early editions, the type colors were highly
saturated: magenta, cyan, high-value green, and
violet (Wurman 1983). While effective differentiators,
they were difficult to read and very hard on the
eyes. Later editions, switched to a dark red, green,
blue and violet, that are much lower in value
(Wurman 1989a). Differentiation is maintained and
legibility is significantly increased.
Differentiation. Color is frequently used to
highlight type. Color value and area affect the
degree of contrast between colored and black type.
• Value - Hues which are low in value are
difficult to differentiate from black - violet is the
most difficult, then blue, then green. Therefore,
only a limited number of greens, blues, and
violets are effective as text-highlighting tools.
Violet and blue must have added white, which
 quickly affects legibility. Green is higher in
value and therefore more visible. Another
option is to increase the stroke width (see
above).
• Area - A small area of color appears darker
than a large area of the same color - no matter
what the hue, value, or saturation. This means
that a color chosen from a color chip (large
area) will have considerably less visibility when
printed as type (small area), and may be
indistinguishable from black type. The effect
can be seen by taking a color chip and covering
all but the area of a thick type stroke.
Conclusion
An integrated framework gives us a new
perspective on both typography and color - one
which enables us to use typography and color more
effectively in technical communication.
Typography and color are perceived and used
differently. We can use these differences to visually
signal complementary aspects of an information
structure.
• Typographic cueing signals hierarchy and
simple information types. Typographic cueing
creates a visual framework of information
relationships on the page.
• Color cueing creates information targets which
are largely independent of the typographic and
spatial framework. Color cueing signals critical
content (information type) and simplifies visual
information by creating separate visual planes.
The effectiveness of typographic cues is
significantly influenced by their spatial context
(position on the page and surrounding white space).
Contrasts in vertical and horizontal spacing make
typographic cues more visible. However, color draws
the eye regardless of location. For color cues, the
spatial context provides secondary information about
interpretation and content context.
A functional perspective helps us narrow our
focus to specific characteristics of typography and
color that make effective content cues within an
information structure.
• Typographic tonal density and space. Tonality
and spatial position are the chief factors in
creating visible typographic cues. "Tonal
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density" describes the relative blackness which
creates typographic focal points, or information
patterns, on the page. The effective, contrasting
use of space simplifies visual complexity and
extends the limits of typographic cueing.
• Color area, shape, value, and saturation. Color
variables of area and shape create an extended
system of color cues. Manipulating color
properties of value and saturation - in addition
to hue - can decrease color fatigue while
maintaining differentiation. The result is a
modulated system of color cues more closely
calibrated to information importance and use.
Together, typographic, color, and spatial cueing
visually reveal the underlying structure of
information content and use.
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• Ten proven ways to get along with people •

1 . Refuse to talk negatively about others; don't gos- 7. Forget about counting to ten. Count to one thou-
sip and don't listen to gossip. sand before doing or saying anything that could
2. Have a forgiving view of people. Believe that most make matters worse.
people are doing the very best they can. 8. Let your virtues speak for themselves.
3. If someone criticizes you, see if there is any truth 9. Keep an open mind; discuss, but don't argue,
to what s/he is saying; if so, make changes. If (It impossible to disagree without being dis-
there is no truth to the criticism, ignore it and live agreeable.)
so that no one will believe the negative remark. 10. Cultivate your sense of humor; laughter is the
4. Before you say anything to anyone, ask yourself shortest distance between two people,
three things: Is it true? Is it kind? Is it necessary?
5. Make promises sparingly and keep them faithfully.

6. Never miss the opportunity to compliment or to Reprinted from Active Voice, newsletter of the San Fran-
say something encouraging to someone. cisco ChaPter' °ctober 1991

654 Technical Communication, Fourth Quarter 1993

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