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20.1 INTRODUCTION
Babuska and Melenk, 1997; Melenk and Babuska, 1996; Belytschko and Black,
1997; Farhat et al., 2003) as well as enhancing an understanding of the method’s
convergence properties (Reddy, 1993; Langtangen, 2000).
It is ultimately the goal of the finite element method to idealize a continuous
system in a discrete form that preserves salient physical responses while at the
same time admitting insight into convergence properties and accuracy. With this in
mind, consider the statement of some homogeneous and continuous model problem
of the form
L (u(x )) = 0 ∀x ∈ (20.1)
u ≈ û = ui Ni (x ) (20.2)
subject to the Fourier requirement (Reddy, 1993; Kreyszig, 1978) that u − ûi →
0 as i → ∞. Given that û is an approximation, it is not reasonable to expect
that Eq. 20.1 will be satisfied by Eq. 20.2 In general L (û (x )) = 0, and thus it is
appropriate to define a residual for the model problem as
R = L (û (x )) (20.3)
In any discrete solution of the model problem, it can only be ensured that the
residual, R, is arbitrarily small, and it is desired that R → 0 ⇒ u − ûi → 0.
Considering now exclusively the residual , the goal is to minimize approximation
error. With Eq. 20.4 below as an alternate form of Eq. 20.3, an important observa-
tion can be made: because R varies in space, the requirement of a minimum can
only be imposed in an average or integral sense:
Because Eq. 20.5 describes a discrete system, the minimization may be obtained
using partial derivatives:
∂ ∂R
R d = 2R
2
d =0 (20.6)
∂ui ∂ui
It is actually instructive to recast the results of Eq. 20.6 into the slightly
different form
∂R
2 R d =0 (20.7)
∂ui
From Eq. 20.7, it is now more obvious that the least squares method is a type
of weighted residual method with a canonical form expressed as
wi R d = 0 (20.8)
Thus, in the case of the least squares method, Eq. 20.7 implies that
wi = 2 (∂R/∂ui ). In general, the weighting functions, wi , are somewhat arbitrary,
although they do need to satisfy certain requirements, including:
where Hom is the Sobolev space of order m, where 2m refers to the order of the
highest derivative present in the linear differential operator L.
b
P
P
L
dx x, u
FIGURE 20.1 Rod of length L loaded by end forces P and a distributed body force β.
936 STABILITY ANALYSIS BY THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
s
dA
s + ds
x, u
dx
dσ
A +β =0 (20.11)
dx
d 2 (û (x ))
L (û (x )) = EA +β =R (20.14)
dx 2
INTRODUCTION 937
Upon substituting Eq. 20.2 into Eq. 20.14, the following expression for the residual
per unit length is obtained:
R = (EA) ui Ni
(x ) + β (20.15)
(x ) = (2EA) Nj
(x ) (20.16)
∂uj ∂uj
Note that the multiplier of 2EA may be dropped, as it is merely a constant and
thus does not impact the linear independence or satisfaction of essential (Dirichlet)
boundary conditions.
Continuing with the discussion of the least squares method as a weighted integral
form, the goal is to minimize the residual, R, as
L
wi R d = (EA) ui Ni
(x ) + β Nj
(x ) dx = 0 (20.17)
0
The contents of Eq. 20.17 may be placed in slightly more familiar form as
L L
− EA Ni
(x ) Nj
(x ) d x ui = βNj
(x ) dx (20.18)
0 0
(x ) Nj
(x ) d x (20.20)
0
(x ) dx (20.21)
0
Galerkin Method A similar approach to the foregoing replaces the least squares
method with an approach known as the Galerkin method . This latter approach is
more common in the finite element analysis of solids and structures as a result of
938 STABILITY ANALYSIS BY THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
the usual positive definiteness and strong ellipticity (Naylor and Sell, 1982) of the
governing functionals in structural mechanics. One important benefit in using the
Galerkin method is that the required order for continuity in the shape functions,
Ni , is reduced, as will be seen below.
In the Galerkin method, the weighting functions, wi , are selected to be identical
to the shape functions, Ni , underpinning the approximate solution ûi , as outlined
in Eq. 20.2. It should be noted that the foregoing approach is sometimes referred
to as the Bubanov–Galerkin method , in contrast to the Petrov–Galerkin method ,
in which the weighting functions and shape functions are not of the same form.
This distinction is pointed out to avoid confusion when working with the finite
element literature. For the purposes of the current discussion, reference to the
Bubanov–Galerkin method will be made simply as the Galerkin method .
Reconsidering the above example problem in terms of the Galerkin method, the
following weighted integral statement (i.e., weak-form statement) is obtained:
L
d 2u
wi R d = Nj EA 2 + β dx = 0 (20.22)
0 dx
leading to
L L
du L dNj du
uv − v du = Nj EA − EA dx + Nj β dx = 0 (20.25)
dx 0 0 dx dx 0
Recognizing
that Nj (0) = 0 (because Nj ∈ H0m ), Nj (L) = 1, and
EA du(L)/dx = P, it is seen that the natural (Neumann) boundary conditions
INTRODUCTION 939
The approximation described by Eq. 20.2 may now be employed within Eq.
20.26 by replacing u by û, and rearranging terms yields
L L
dNj dNi
EA ui dx = P + Nj β dx (20.27)
0 dx dx 0
The left-hand terms in Eq. 20.27 lead to the stiffness matrix, expressing the
parameters associated with the response of the structural system under external
actions. The terms on the right lead directly to the generalized force vector, express-
ing the external actions on a structural system.
The benefit of using the Galerkin method is now apparent when comparing Eqs.
20.18 and 20.27. In Eq 20.18, the approach based on the least squares method
yielded an integral statement wherein the shape functions of the approximate
solution needed to be twice differentiable, and able to satisfy both the essential
(Dirichlet) and natural (Neumann) boundary conditions. In contrast, the outcome
of the Galerkin method is that the application of integration by parts results in a
shifting of the derivative from one term to another in Eq. 20.22, thus weakening the
continuity requirements on the shape functions used in forming the approximate
solution. Furthermore, it is observed (see Eq. 20.26) that the natural (Neumann)
boundary conditions are implied within the integral statement (Eq. 20.22) of the
example problem. As a result of their implied sense, the natural boundary condi-
tions did not require overt consideration during the selection of the shape functions
used in the approximate solution, û.
The foregoing consideration of the weighted integral approach to developing
a finite element representation of a structural problem may be brought into con-
sonance with other common formulation approaches (Bathe, 1996; Cook et al.,
2002; Zienkiewicz and Taylor, 2000a) through further consideration of the example
depicted in Fig. 20.1. When considering Eq. 20.27, the form of the so-called
strain–displacement matrix, commonly given as [B] in the finite element litera-
ture (Bathe, 1996; Belytschko et al., 2000; Cook et al., 2002; Crisfield, 1991a,b;
Hughes, 2000; Zienkiewicz and Taylor, 2000a), may be developed as
du d ûi dNi
ε= ≈ = ui → [B] {u} (20.28)
dx dx dx
Substituting the foregoing result into Eq. 20.27 yields (in matrix form)
L L
EA [B] [B] dx {u} = P +
T
{N }T β dx (20.29)
0 0
940 STABILITY ANALYSIS BY THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Equation 20.29 lends itself to being cast in the familiar general form of the
equilibrium statement
[K ] {u} = {F } (20.30)
where [K ] is the stiffness matrix formed through integration of the product of the
strain–displacements terms and {F } the force vector representation (in this case,
the aggregate effect of concentrated loads and distributed body forces).
Nonlinearities in structural analysis may arise from three primary sources: boundary
conditions that change during the problem solution (e.g., hard contact between
bodies); nonlinear material response (e.g., yielding of steel in a structural member);
and geometric nonlinearity (e.g., elastic column buckling). It is the last of these,
geometric nonlinearity, which is most closely aligned with the notion of quality
of equilibrium and thus is the focus of the present discussion. This is not to say
that the other two sources do not pertain to stability problems; each of these can
lead to manifestations of instability in their own right. The effects of nonlinear
material and boundary conditions, however, will not be treated herein due to space
limitations and instead reference is given to Simo and Hughes (1991), Wriggers
(2002), Bathe (1996), and Belytschko et al. (2000).
A convenient starting point to a discussion on ways of admitting geometric
nonlinearity into the finite element formulation is through a consideration of large
displacements as well as large strains. Since instability problems invariably require
the formulation of equilibrium on some deformed configuration of the structural
system being investigated, it appears as a truism that, at the very least, large dis-
placements must be admitted. In the case of the present discussion, large strains
are also included for completeness. With this in mind, a new strain measure that
is suitable for large displacement and large strain response is now introduced.
The Green–Lagrange strain is commonly encountered in treatments of the
nonlinear finite element method (Bathe, 1996; Belytschko et al., 2000; Crisfield,
1991; Zienkiewicz and Taylor, 2000b), but important foundation theory can be
found within relevant texts on continuum mechanics (Malvern, 1969; Fung, 1994;
Ogden, 1984; Novozhilov, 1953).
In general, the Green–Lagrange strain is a second-order tensor describing the
deformation of a body and whose tensorial components are
1 dui duj duk duk
Eij = + + (20.31)
2 dxj dxi dxi dxj
u2
u1
45°
Clearly, a strain measure that yields nonzero terms when a body merely rotates as
a rigid body (i.e., no deformation) would prove disastrous for applications involving
geometric nonlinearity. Such a rigid-body rotation condition is depicted in Fig. 20.3,
wherein a bar that is initially aligned with the x axis of a two-dimensional Cartesian
reference frame rotates 45◦ about its left end. The displacement components of the
right end may then be given as
√ √
2 2
u1 = − L − L and u2 = L
2 2
Clearly the strains obtained according to linear engineering strain theory (Eq.
20.32) are incorrect because there can be no deformation of the structural element
under a pure rigid-body rotation.
Consider now the Green–Lagrange strain of this problem. The components of
the tensor that measure deformation along the x axis yield
1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2
E11 = + + +
2 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
2 2
∂u1 1 ∂u1 1 ∂u2
= + +
∂x1 2 ∂x1 2 ∂x1
942 STABILITY ANALYSIS BY THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
√ √ 2 √ 2
2 1 2 2
= −1 + −1 +
2 2 2 2
√
2 1 1 √ 1
= −1 + − 2+1 + =0 (20.33)
2 2 2 4
Thus, the Green–Lagrange strain remains invariant (i.e., null) during the
rigid-body rotation depicted in Fig. 20.3.
In light of the foregoing discussion on the Green–Lagrange strain, an extension
of the equilibrium relation of Eq. 20.29 to include large deformations may now be
defined. Such an extension will permit the consideration of geometric nonlinearity,
a condition that is at the heart of essentially all structural stability problems.
Toward this end, consider an extension of the notion of a strain–displacement
matrix [B] to account for geometrically nonlinear effects. Recognizing that the
first two terms on the right-hand side of Eq. 20.31 correspond to the usual, linear
engineering strain, a matrix designation of [B L ] can be applied to this portion of the
strain tensor. The remaining terms, which are responsible for the consideration of
large deformations, can be included in a second strain–displacement relation, [BNL ].
Using this approach, the Green–Lagrange strain tensor now may be represented
(in matrix form) as
This result may now be used to extend the equilibrium relation (Eq. 20.29),
for the example problem of Fig 20.2, for applications that include geometrically
nonlinear behavior. This extension takes the straightforward form
L L
EA [BGNL ] [BGNL ] dx {u} = P +
T
{N }T β dx (20.35)
0 0
Evaluation of the left-hand side of Eq. 20.35 results in the tangent stiffness
matrix , a linear expansion of the equilibrium path about a particular point in the
configuration space of the particular problem. The right-hand side, in this case,
embodies the loading effects related to the specific example problem. In the incre-
mental nonlinear solution of Eq. 20.35, within a Lagrangian reference frame, the
treatment of the solution of an unknown equilibrium configuration, using a previ-
ously solved-for configuration, leads naturally to the identification of the system
internal force vector that arises in order to balance applied loadings from the
right-hand side. A more detailed treatment of these concepts is provided in Chapter
6 of Bathe (1996).
To facilitate the discussion to follow, the tangent stiffness matrix is repre-
sented as
framework, for instance. In all of the foregoing, there are finite structural defor-
mations prior to the onset of instability that are additive to the governing buckling
mode (as compared to a bifurcation instability where the pre- and postbuckling
deformations may be thought of as being orthogonal to one another). This fact
creates an inconsistency with regard to assumptions made in the formulation of the
linearized eigenvalue buckling procedure itself.
The present discussion examines the underlying assumptions within the for-
mulation of the eigenvalue buckling method in order to highlight the problem
types that most readily lend themselves to solution by this method. In addition,
problems presenting responses that violate these fundamental assumptions are also
examined. In this latter case, it becomes very important to understand the nature of
the implementation of eigenvalue buckling in the given software system (example
problems, solved by MASTAN2, ADINA, ANSYS, and ABAQUS, are included
in this discussion); certain implementations will make application of eigenvalue
buckling to other than bifurcation problems extremely problematic. The present
discussion related to the various finite element buckling formulations employs a
single, standardized notation to allow for a transparent comparison of underlying
assumptions.
The sum of the foregoing two stiffness matrices is typically what is referred to
as the tangent stiffness matrix , and associated with a specific equilibrium point in
configuration space. Some readers may be more familiar with the notion of the tan-
gent stiffness being associated with the linear terms of a Taylor series expansion of
the internal force vector about the current configuration during the solution; while
others may recognize it as emanating from the stationarity of the total potential
functional with an internal energy term that includes the influence of finite strains.
While other options exist for the population of the tangent stiffness matrix (Wood
and Schrefler, 1978; Holzer et al., 1990; Chang and Chen, 1986), the former def-
inition has emerged as the most popular to date. In particular, the instantaneous
stiffness of the structure arrived at by retaining only the linear terms in a Tay-
lor series expansion of the load–deflection response of the structure about the
point in configuration space may be defined according to the applied loading as
follows:
[Kbaseline ] ≡ instantaneous stiffness corresponding to the applied loading
{Pbaseline }
[Kcharacteristic ] ≡ instantaneous stiffness corresponding to the applied loading
{Pcharacteristic }
Classical Formulation The initial treatment of the finite element buckling anal-
ysis appeared in the literature prior to the formal naming of the finite element
946 STABILITY ANALYSIS BY THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
method (Gallagher et al., 1967); this earliest reference identified the approach as
being based on the discrete element procedure. In light of the foregoing, and based
on a survey of the literature, it appears that in the most commonly held defini-
tion of the classical formulation for finite element buckling analysis, the following
problem is solved (Cook et al., 2002; Holzer et al., 1990; Chang and Chen, 1986;
Brendel and Ramm, 1980):
Secant Formulation The present discussion adopts the name secant formula-
tion to describe the variation of the finite element buckling problem that is referred
to variously as the secant formulation (Bathe and Dvorkin, 1983; ADINA, 2007)
and the linear and nonlinear analysis (Holzer et al., 1990). This problem is posed as
where {u} are the incremental nodal displacements and {R} is the residual vector
representing the imbalance between the internal forces at time t and the desired
load levels associated with some set of external forces, {P}. It is pointed out that
this residual differs in context from the quantity sharing the same name and defined
LINEARIZED EIGENVALUE BUCKLING ANALYSIS 947
in Eq. 20.3. The standard form of the eigenvalue problem will be used to compute
eigenvalues, ωi , and eigenvectors, {φ}i , for the tangent stiffness matrix according to
where {P} is the externally applied load vector on the structure and ρi = {φ}Ti {P}.
The transformations embodied in Eqs. 20.45 and 20.46 effectively diagonalize Eq.
20.43 and result in the following transformation (Pecknold et al. 1985):
ωi αi = λρi (20.47)
In an elastic structure, the first critical point occurs when the equilibrium
equations become singular or, in other words, when the tangent stiffness matrix is
no longer positive definite. Well-ordered eigenpairs result from this being one case
of the Sturm–Liouville problem, and thus it can be recognized that loss of positive
definiteness of the stiffness occurs when ω1 = 0, at which point the condition
λρ1 = 0 occurs. Based on this fact, it can be recognized that a distinction between
bifurcation and limit point instability exists (Pecknold et al., 1985). If ρ1 = 0,
then it is clear that the eigenvector is not orthogonal to the externally applied
loading vector {P}, and thus λ will have to be zero in order for λρ1 = 0 to be
true. In this case, a limit point instability condition exists (this point will become
more clear subsequently). Conversely, ρ1 = 0 when the loading is orthogonal to
the eigenmode and buckling is occurring. This may be summarized as:
π 2 EI
Pcr = (20.48)
L2
which for the given problem results in a theoretically “exact” answer of Pcr = 238
kips. Clearly this agrees well with both linear eigenvalue buckling solutions (also
shown in Fig. 20.4), irrespective of baseline loading, Pbaseline .
The second bifurcation instability example is given in Fig. 20.5. This
plate-buckling problem also has a well-known solution, which is given by
√
π 2E n
σcr =k (20.49)
12 1 − ν 2 (b/t)2
Boundary Conditions:
Z, u3 b = 1" Free? u 1 u 2 u 3 ur 1 ur 2 ur 3
1"
L = 10"
1" I = 0.0833 roller N Y N Y N N
Y, u2 E = 29,000 ksi
pin N N N Y N N Pcr
10"
scr
rollerY
rollerY Y Y N Y N N
pinY Y N N Y N N
simplex N Y N N Y N
free Y Y Y Y Y N
Based on the two simple bifurcation buckling examples presented, it may seem
as though linearized eigenvalue buckling approaches satisfactorily predict critical
loads in this type of problem. This, however, is not always the case (Earls, 2007)
and caution should be taken against merely accepting the buckling loads from
finite element software, even under the favorable conditions of bifurcation buckling.
For example, it is noted here that in the case of the ADINA two-point buckling
formulation (known as the secant formulation in the ADINA literature), it is not
possible to know what the load level of Pcharacteristic is because the information
contained in the output files are incomplete in this regard. This is considered to be
a critical shortcoming in ADINA in terms of reliance on the secant formulation for
finite element buckling analysis. As will be seen subsequently, it is not possible to
take full advantage of the secant method when using ADINA, because sufficient
information regarding the underlying solution process is not available to the user,
and thus critical judgment related to the specification of Pbaseline , or even simply
the interpretation of results, is compromised.
Limit Point Instability The remaining cases for discussion all exhibit limit point
(snap-through) instability, and thus prebuckling deformations tend to be finite.
Strictly speaking, this may be viewed as a violation of the underlying assumptions
used in the formulations of Eqs. 20.39 and 20.42. Thus, it might be reasonably con-
cluded that finite element buckling analyses are, technically, not applicable to such
instances. Engineers, however, do employ this type of approach to cases that are
950 STABILITY ANALYSIS BY THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
not strictly in consonance with the underlying assumptions of the formulation, and
thus it is important to consider this class of problems within the present discussion.
In addition, it is not possible to escape the fact that, under certain circumstances,
accurate solutions are obtained when comparing finite element buckling results with
the results of more exact methods of analysis.
In the subsequent discussion, it will be useful to refer to a class of diagrams
known as eigenvalue plots (Brendel and Ramm, 1980; Holzer et al., 1990). As
shown in Fig. 20.6, such a plot depicts a graph of Pcritical versus Pbaseline (both
normalized by dividing by the “exact” critical load). The depiction of the eigenvlaue
plot in Fig. 20.6 is useful to consider in the case of limit point instabilities, because
it highlights the dependence of the finite element buckling solution on the selection
of a reasonable baseline loading, Pbaseline . The predicted critical loading from the
finite element buckling solution is arrived at by multiplying the eigenvalues by the
baseline loads, as described in Eqs. 20.40 and 20.42, respectively, for the classical
and secant approaches. The results presented in Fig. 20.6 are consistent with what
is expected, from the standpoint that the approximate finite element buckling loads
improve in accuracy as the magnitude of the baseline load increases.
Next, consider the truss arch shown in Fig. 20.7, with several height-to-span
ratios studied. In all cases, the span length is held constant at 20 in., and the height
is varied from 2 to 17 in. The truss arch is a particularly useful example, because
it affords the opportunity to easily obtain results using hand calculations. In the
case of the truss arch shown Fig. 20.7, with a height of 2 in. (i.e., shallow case), an
energy formulation involving the stationarity of the total potential yields a critical
load of 85.4 kips. For this particular truss arch geometry, finite element buckling
results were obtained using MASTAN2, ANSYS, and ADINA. In the case of the
first two software packages, only a very small axial force is considered in the
1.4
1.2
1
lsecant Pbaseline
0.8
0.6
0.2 Classical
Pbaseline Secant
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
q° X, u1
20"
formulation of the tangent stiffness matrix used in the classical approach from Eq.
20.39. These results, along with a hand calculation meant to parallel the classical
formulation, as presented in Eqs. 20.39 and 20.41, appear in Fig. 20.8. It is clear
that MASTAN2, ADINA, ANSYS, and the hand calculation all agree reasonably
well for small values of Pbaseline . As Pbaseline is increased, MASTAN2 and ANSYS
remain constant in their predictions, because their implementation of the classical
method does not admit the possibility of a varying Pbaseline . In addition, while the
hand calculations and ADINA both permit a variation in Pbaseline , their agreement at
high levels is less favorable than at low values of Pbaseline . This may be a result of
subtle differences in the way the classical formulation is implemented in ADINA;
but as an unfortunate byproduct of a lack of inclusion (within the output files of
ADINA) of intermediate values in the solution process, it is very difficult to test
any theories aimed at understanding the nature of the observed differences.
Base Load
3 ADINA - classical
ADINA - secant
Hand Calculation
MASTAN2
2 ANSYS
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
In the case of the 17-in. high truss arch (i.e., deep case), we see a difference
in the trend of the response observed in the eigenvalue plots of Fig. 20.9. While
the MASTAN2 and hand calculations agree well with each other at low loads
and produce a reasonable estimate for the critical load, the same is not true for
the ADINA results. The ADINA secant results are clearly diverging from the
correct solution (13,000 kips; obtained from an incremental nonlinear finite element
analysis) while the ADINA classical result begins at a point inexplicably far away
from the other two classical implementations.
The first example (case 1) is a steel I-beam that is loaded with a uniformly
distributed pressure on the top flange. Figure 20.11 shows that the resulting mode
shapes are very similar for both programs. The eigenvectors obtained from ADINA
and ABAQUS postprocessing have been normalized (scaled), to enable comparison,
using the relation
φi
φi = (20.50)
φmax
8
0.6
6
0.4
4
0.2 2
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Position (in) Frequency Content (1/ in) × 10−3
(a) (b)
FIGURE 20.12 Case 1 results: (a) eigenvector plots along web centerline; (b) discrete
Fourier transformation of these eigenvectors.
difference in peak frequency is only 1% between the ADINA classical and secant
formulation results. In the second mode the difference in Fourier peaks between
ABAQUS and ADINA results is 30%.
The second beam example (case 2, Fig. 20.10, with nominal dimensions listed in
Table 20.1) incorporates an extra stiffener plate at the center of the steel I-beam and
includes a midspan concentrated load, which is distributed linearly along the upper
edge of the center stiffener plates. The first buckling modes for this model, obtained
using ADINA and ABAQUS, are shown in Fig. 20.13. The results vary to such an
extent that the discrepancies are clearly not an artifact of magnification or scaling.
Normalized eigenvector values along the centerline nodes are plotted in Fig. 20.14.
The discrete Fourier transform of the minor axis (x -direction) component of the
eigenvector data, which is also presented in Fig. 20.14, indicates not only that
there is a difference in the peak height of the results but also that the peaks are
also located at different points along the member longitudinal axis. The secant
formulation solution has a much more pronounced harmonic displacement field
when compared to the classical formulation. In this case, the ABAQUS results are
nearly equivalent to those of the ADINA classical formulation. ADINA classical
and secant formulations differ significantly in that the major peaks do not coincide
in height or location.
ADINA Two-Point
FIGURE 20.14 Case 2 results: (a) eigenvector plots along web centerline; (b) discrete
Fourier transformation of these eigenvectors.
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