Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical,

technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The
most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical
compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular
usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in
glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from
a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium
oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor
additives.
Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their primary use
as window panes. Glass will transmit, reflect and refract light; these qualities can be enhanced by cutting
and polishing to make optical lenses, prisms, fine glassware, and optical fibers for high speed data
transmission by light. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed
with vitreous enamels. These qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art
objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and
many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures. Because glass can be formed or
moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels: bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking
glasses. In its most solid forms it has also been used for paperweights, marbles, and beads. When extruded
as glass fiber and matted as glass wool in a way to trap air, it becomes a thermal insulating material, and
when these glass fibers are embedded into an organic polymer plastic, they are a key structural
reinforcement part of the composite material fiberglass. Some objects historically were so commonly made
of silicate glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses and
eyeglasses.
Scientifically, the term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that possesses a
non-crystalline (that is, amorphous) structure at the atomic scale and that exhibits a glass transition when
heated towards the liquid state. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are
glasses. These sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica: metallic alloys,
ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass
bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter
alternative than traditional glass.
Ingredients
Silica (SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass.[1] In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs
when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurites.[2]
Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure silica. It has excellent resistance to thermal shock, being
able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting temperature (1723 °C) and
viscosity make it difficult to work with.[3] Normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One
is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, "soda"), which lowers the glass-transition temperature. The soda makes the
glass water-soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (CaO, calcium oxide, generally obtained
from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a
better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called
a soda-lime glass.[4] Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.[5][6]
Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is more
"brilliant" because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and
increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a
high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to
its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses.[7] Iron can be incorporated into
glass to absorb infrared radiation, for example in heat-absorbing filters for movie projectors,
while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs ultraviolet wavelengths.[8]
The following is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses and their ingredients, properties, and
applications:
 Fused quartz,[9] also called fused-silica glass,[10] vitreous-silica glass: silica (SiO2) in vitreous, or
glass, form (i.e., its molecules are disordered and random, without crystalline structure). It has very low
thermal expansion, is very hard, and resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C). It is also the most
resistant against weathering (caused in other glasses by alkali ions leaching out of the glass, while

1
 staining it). Fused quartz is used for high-temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting tubes,
melting crucibles, etc.[11]
 Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass:[12] silica + sodium oxide (Na2O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia
(MgO) + alumina (Al2O3).[13][14] Is transparent,[15] easily formed and most suitable for window glass
(see flat glass).[16] It has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat[15] (500–600 °C).[11] It is
used for windows, some low-temperature incandescent light bulbs, and tableware.[17] Container glass is a
soda-lime glass that is a slight variation on flat glass, which uses more alumina and calcium, and less
sodium and magnesium, which are more water-soluble. This makes it less susceptible to water erosion.
 Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica + boron trioxide (B2O3) + soda (Na2O) + alumina
(Al2O3).[18] Stands heat expansion much better than window glass.[10] Used for chemical glassware,
cooking glass, car head lamps, etc. Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex, Duran) have as main constituents
silica and boron trioxide. They have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE is
3.25×10−6/°C[19] as compared to about 9×10−6/°C for a typical soda-lime glass[20]), making them more
dimensionally stable. The lower coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) also makes them less subject
to stress caused by thermal expansion, thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock. They are
commonly used for reagent bottles, optical components and household cookware.
 Lead-oxide glass, crystal glass,[11] lead glass:[21] silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K2O) +
soda (Na2O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina. Because of its high density (resulting in a high electron
density), it has a high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant[22] (called "crystal",
though of course it is a glass and not a crystal). It also has a high elasticity, making glassware "ring". It
is also more workable in the factory, but cannot stand heating very well.[11] This kind of glass is also
more fragile than other glasses[23] and is easier to cut.[22]
 Aluminosilicate glass: silica + alumina + lime + magnesia[24] + barium oxide (BaO)[11] + boric oxide
(B2O3).[24] Extensively used for fiberglass,[24] used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing
rods, etc.) and for halogen bulb glass.[11] Aluminosilicate glasses are also resistant to weathering and
water erosion.[25]
 Germanium-oxide glass: alumina + germanium dioxide (GeO2). Extremely clear glass, used for fiber-
optic waveguides in communication networks.[26] Light loses only 5% of its intensity through 1 km of
glass fiber.[11]
Another common glass ingredient is crushed alkali glass or 'cullet' ready for recycled glass. The recycled
glass saves on raw materials and energy. Impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment failure.
Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide may be added to reduce the
number of air bubbles in the glass mixture.[4] Glass batch calculation is the method by which the correct raw
material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.

Gunpowder, also known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest
known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). The
sulfur and charcoal act as fuels while the saltpeter is an oxidizer.[1][2] Because of its incendiary properties
and the amount of heat and gas volume that it generates, gunpowder has been widely used as
a propellant in firearms, artillery, rockets, and fireworks and as a blasting powder in quarrying, mining,
and road building.
Gunpowder was invented in 9th-century China and spread throughout most parts of Eurasia by the end of
the 13th century.[3] Originally developed by alchemists for medicinal purposes, gunpowder was first used for
warfare about 1000 CE.[4]
Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and
consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate (i.e., burn) at subsonicspeeds, whereas high
explosives detonate, producing a supersonic wave.
Ignition of gunpowder packed behind a projectile generates enough pressure to force the shot from the
muzzle at high speed, but usually not enough force to rupture the gun barrel. Gunpowder thus makes a good
propellant, but is less suitable for shattering rock or fortifications with its low-yield explosive power.
However, by transferring enough energy (from the burning gunpowder to the mass of the cannonball, and
then from the cannonball to the opposing fortifications by way of the impacting ammunition) eventually
a bombardier may wear down an opponent's fortified defenses.
Gunpowder was widely used to fill fused artillery shells (and used in mining and civil engineering projects)
until the second half of the 19th century, when the first high explosiveswere put into use. Gunpowder is no

2
longer used in modern weapons nor is it used for industrial purposes due to its relatively inefficient cost
compared to newer alternatives such as dynamite and ammonium nitrate/fuel oil.[5][6] Today gunpowder
firearms are limited primarily to hunting, target shooting, and bulletless historical reenactments.

For the most powerful black powder, meal powder, a wood charcoal, is used. The best wood for the purpose
is Pacific willow,[79] but others such as alder or buckthorn can be used. In Great Britain between the 15th
and 19th centuries charcoal from alder buckthorn was greatly prized for gunpowder
manufacture; cottonwood was used by the American Confederate States.[80] The ingredients are reduced in
particle size and mixed as intimately as possible. Originally, this was with a mortar-and-pestle or a similarly
operating stamping-mill, using copper, bronze or other non-sparking materials, until supplanted by the
rotating ball mill principle with non-sparking bronze or lead. Historically, a marble or limestone edge runner
mill, running on a limestone bed, was used in Great Britain; however, by the mid 19th century this had
changed to either an iron-shod stone wheel or a cast iron wheel running on an iron bed.[81] The mix was
dampened with alcohol or water during grinding to prevent accidental ignition. This also helps the extremely
soluble saltpeter to mix into the microscopic nooks and crannies of the very high surface-area charcoal.
Around the late 14th century, European powdermakers first began adding liquid during grinding to improve
mixing, reduce dust, and with it the risk of explosion.[82] The powder-makers would then shape the resulting
paste of dampened gunpowder, known as mill cake, into corns, or grains, to dry. Not only did corned
powder keep better because of its reduced surface area, gunners also found that it was more powerful and
easier to load into guns. Before long, powder-makers standardized the process by forcing mill cake through
sieves instead of corning powder by hand.
The improvement was based on reducing the surface area of a higher density composition. At the beginning
of the 19th century, makers increased density further by static pressing. They shoveled damp mill cake into a
two-foot square box, placed this beneath a screw press and reduced it to 1⁄2 its volume. "Press cake" had the
hardness of slate. They broke the dried slabs with hammers or rollers, and sorted the granules with sieves
into different grades. In the United States, Eleuthere Irenee du Pont, who had learned the trade from
Lavoisier, tumbled the dried grains in rotating barrels to round the edges and increase durability during
shipping and handling. (Sharp grains rounded off in transport, producing fine "meal dust" that changed the
burning properties.)
Another advance was the manufacture of kiln charcoal by distilling wood in heated iron retorts instead of
burning it in earthen pits. Controlling the temperature influenced the power and consistency of the finished
gunpowder. In 1863, in response to high prices for Indian saltpeter, DuPont chemists developed a process
using potash or mined potassium chloride to convert plentiful Chilean sodium nitrate to potassium nitrate.[83]
The following year (1864) the Gatebeck Low Gunpowder Works in Cumbria (Great Britain) started a plant
to manufacture potassium nitrate by essentially the same chemical process.[84] This is nowadays called the
‘Wakefield Process’, after the owners of the company. It would have used potassium chloride from the
Staßfurt mines, near Magdeburg, Germany, which had recently become available in industrial quantities.[85]
During the 18th century, gunpowder factories became increasingly dependent on mechanical
energy.[86] Despite mechanization, production difficulties related to humidity control, especially during the
pressing, were still present in the late 19th century. A paper from 1885 laments that "Gunpowder is such a
nervous and sensitive spirit, that in almost every process of manufacture it changes under our hands as the
weather changes." Pressing times to the desired density could vary by a factor of three depending on the
atmospheric humidity.[87]
Composition and characteristics[edit]
The term black powder was coined in the late 19th century, primarily in the United States, to distinguish
prior gunpowder formulations from the new smokeless powders and semi-smokeless powders. Semi-
smokeless powders featured bulk volume properties that approximated black powder, but had significantly
reduced amounts of smoke and combustion products. Smokeless powder has different burning properties
(pressure vs. time) and can generate higher pressures and work per gram. This can rupture older weapons
designed for black powder. Smokeless powders ranged in color from brownish tan to yellow to white. Most
of the bulk semi-smokeless powders ceased to be manufactured in the 1920s.[88][89][90]
Black powder is a granular mixture of
 a nitrate, typically potassium nitrate (KNO3), which supplies oxygen for the reaction;
 charcoal, which provides carbon and other fuel for the reaction, simplified as carbon (C);

3
 sulfur (S), which, while also serving as a fuel, lowers the temperature required to ignite the mixture,
thereby increasing the rate of combustion.
Potassium nitrate is the most important ingredient in terms of both bulk and function because the
combustion process releases oxygen from the potassium nitrate, promoting the rapid burning of the other
ingredients.[91] To reduce the likelihood of accidental ignition by static electricity, the granules of modern
black powder are typically coated with graphite, which prevents the build-up of electrostatic charge.
Charcoal does not consist of pure carbon; rather, it consists of partially pyrolyzed cellulose, in which the
wood is not completely decomposed. Carbon differs from ordinary charcoal. Whereas charcoal's
autoignition temperature is relatively low, carbon's is much greater. Thus, a black powder composition
containing pure carbon would burn similarly to a match head, at best.[92]
The current standard composition for the black powders that are manufactured by pyrotechnicians was
adopted as long ago as 1780. Proportions by weight are 75% potassium nitrate (known as saltpeter or
saltpetre), 15% softwood charcoal, and 10% sulfur.[81] These ratios have varied over the centuries and by
country, and can be altered somewhat depending on the purpose of the powder. For instance, power grades
of black powder, unsuitable for use in firearms but adequate for blasting rock in quarrying operations, are
called blasting powder rather than gunpowder with standard proportions of 70% nitrate, 14% charcoal, and
16% sulfur; blasting powder may be made with the cheaper sodium nitrate substituted for potassium nitrate
and proportions may be as low as 40% nitrate, 30% charcoal, and 30% sulfur.[93] In 1857, Lammot du Pont
solved the main problem of using cheaper sodium nitrate formulations when he patented DuPont "B"
blasting powder. After manufacturing grains from press-cake in the usual way, his process tumbled the
powder with graphite dust for 12 hours. This formed a graphite coating on each grain that reduced its ability
to absorb moisture.[94]
Neither the use of graphite nor sodium nitrate was new. Glossing gunpowder corns with graphite was
already an accepted technique in 1839,[95] and sodium nitrate-based blasting powder had been made in Peru
for many years using the sodium nitrate mined at Tarapacá (now in Chile).[96] Also, in 1846, two plants were
built in south-west England to make blasting powder using this sodium nitrate.[97] The idea may well have
been brought from Peru by Cornish miners returning home after completing their contracts. Another
suggestion is that it was William Lobb, the planthunter, who recognised the possibilities of sodium nitrate
during his travels in South America. Lammot du Pont would have known about the use of graphite and
probably also knew about the plants in south-west England. In his patent he was careful to state that his
claim was for the combination of graphite with sodium nitrate-based powder, rather than for either of the
two individual technologies.
French war powder in 1879 used the ratio 75% saltpeter, 12.5% charcoal, 12.5% sulfur. English war powder
in 1879 used the ratio 75% saltpeter, 15% charcoal, 10% sulfur.[98] The British Congreve rockets used 62.4%
saltpeter, 23.2% charcoal and 14.4% sulfur, but the British Mark VII gunpowder was changed to 65%
saltpeter, 20% charcoal and 15% sulfur.[99] The explanation for the wide variety in formulation relates to
usage. Powder used for rocketry can use a slower burn rate since it accelerates the projectile for a much
longer time—whereas powders for weapons such as flintlocks, cap-locks, or matchlocks need a higher burn
rate to accelerate the projectile in a much shorter distance. Cannons usually used lower burn rate powders,
because most would burst with higher burn rate powders.
Serpentine[edit]
The original dry-compounded powder used in 15th-century Europe was known as "Serpentine", either a
reference to Satan[52] or to a common artillery piece that used it.[100] The ingredients were ground together
with a mortar and pestle, perhaps for 24 hours,[100] resulting in a fine flour. Vibration during transportation
could cause the components to separate again, requiring remixing in the field. Also if the quality of the
saltpeter was low (for instance if it was contaminated with highly hygroscopic calcium nitrate), or if the
powder was simply old (due to the mildly hygroscopic nature of potassium nitrate), in humid weather it
would need to be re-dried. The dust from "repairing" powder in the field was a major hazard.
Loading cannons or bombards before the powder-making advances of the Renaissance was a skilled art.
Fine powder loaded haphazardly or too tightly would burn incompletely or too slowly. Typically, the
breech-loading powder chamber in the rear of the piece was filled only about half full, the serpentine powder
neither too compressed nor too loose, a wooden bung pounded in to seal the chamber from the barrel when
assembled, and the projectile placed on. A carefully determined empty space was necessary for the charge to
burn effectively. When the cannon was fired through the touchhole, turbulence from the initial surface
combustion caused the rest of the powder to be rapidly exposed to the flame.[100]

4
The advent of much more powerful and easy to use corned powder changed this procedure, but serpentine
was used with older guns into the 17th century.[101]
Corning[edit]
For propellants to oxidize and burn rapidly and effectively, the combustible ingredients must be reduced to
the smallest possible particle sizes, and be as thoroughly mixed as possible. Once mixed, however, for better
results in a gun, makers discovered that the final product should be in the form of individual dense grains
that spread the fire quickly from grain to grain, much as straw or twigs catch fire more quickly than a pile
of sawdust.
Because the dry powdered ingredients must be mixed and bonded together for extrusion and cutting into
grains to maintain the blend, size reduction and mixing is done while the ingredients are damp, usually with
water. After 1800, instead of forming grains by hand or with sieves, the damp mill-cake was pressed in
molds to increase its density and extract the liquid, forming press-cake. The pressing took varying amounts
of time, depending on conditions such as atmospheric humidity. The hard, dense product was broken again
into tiny pieces, which were separated with sieves to produce a uniform product for each purpose: coarse
powders for cannons, finer grained powders for muskets, and the finest for small hand guns and
priming.[101] Inappropriately fine-grained powder often caused cannons to burst before the projectile could
move down the barrel, due to the high initial spike in pressure.[102] Mammoth powder with large grains,
made for Rodman's 15-inch cannon, reduced the pressure to only 20 percent as high as ordinary cannon
powder would have produced.[103]
In the mid-19th century, measurements were made determining that the burning rate within a grain of black
powder (or a tightly packed mass) is about 6 cm/s (0.20 feet/s), while the rate of ignition propagation from
grain to grain is around 9 m/s (30 feet/s), over two orders of magnitude faster.[101]
Modern types[edit]
Modern corning first compresses the fine black powder meal into blocks with a fixed density
(1.7 g/cm³).[104] In the United States, gunpowder grains were designated F (for fine) or C (for coarse). Grain
diameter decreased with a larger number of Fs and increased with a larger number of Cs, ranging from about
2 mm (0.08 in) for 7F to 15 mm (0.6 in) for 7C. Even larger grains were produced for artillery bore
diameters greater than about 17 cm (6.7 in). The standard DuPont Mammoth powder developed by Thomas
Rodman and Lammot du Pont for use during the American Civil War had grains averaging 0.6 inches
(15 mm) in diameter with edges rounded in a glazing barrel.[103] Other versions had grains the size of golf
and tennis balls for use in 20-inch (51 cm) Rodman guns.[105] In 1875 DuPont introduced Hexagonal powder
for large artillery, which was pressed using shaped plates with a small center core—about 1.5 inches
(3.8 cm) diameter, like a wagon wheel nut, the center hole widened as the grain burned.[106] By 1882
German makers also produced hexagonal grained powders of a similar size for artillery.[106]
By the late 19th century manufacturing focused on standard grades of black powder from Fg used in large
bore rifles and shotguns, through FFg (medium and small-bore arms such as muskets and fusils), FFFg
(small-bore rifles and pistols), and FFFFg (extreme small bore, short pistols and most commonly for
priming flintlocks).[107] A coarser grade for use in military artillery blanks was designated A-1. These grades
were sorted on a system of screens with oversize retained on a mesh of 6 wires per inch, A-1 retained on 10
wires per inch, Fg retained on 14, FFg on 24, FFFg on 46, and FFFFg on 60. Fines designated FFFFFg were
usually reprocessed to minimize explosive dust hazards.[108] In the United Kingdom, the main service
gunpowders were classified RFG (rifle grained fine) with diameter of one or two millimeters and RLG (rifle
grained large) for grain diameters between two and six millimeters.[105] Gunpowder grains can alternatively
be categorized by mesh size: the BSS sieve mesh size, being the smallest mesh size, which retains no grains.
Recognized grain sizes are Gunpowder G 7, G 20, G 40, and G 90.
Owing to the large market of antique and replica black-powder firearms in the US, modern gunpowder
substitutes like Pyrodex, Triple Seven and Black Mag3[109] pellets have been developed since the 1970s.
These products, which should not be confused with smokeless powders, aim to produce less fouling (solid
residue), while maintaining the traditional volumetric measurement system for charges. Claims of less
corrosiveness of these products have been controversial however. New cleaning products for black-powder
guns have also been developed for this market.[107]
Other types of gunpowder[edit]
Besides black powder, there are other historically important types of gunpowder. "Brown gunpowder" is
cited as composed of 79% nitre, 3% sulfur, and 18% charcoal per 100 of dry powder, with about 2%
moisture. Prismatic Brown Powder is a large-grained product the Rottweil Company introduced in 1884 in

5
Germany, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy shortly thereafter. The French navy adopted a fine,
3.1 millimeter, not prismatic grained product called Slow Burning Cocoa (SBC) or "cocoa powder". These
brown powders reduced burning rate even further by using as little as 2 percent sulfur and using charcoal
made from rye straw that had not been completely charred, hence the brown color.[106]
Lesmok powder was a product developed by DuPont in 1911,[110] one of several semi-smokeless products in
the industry containing a mixture of black and nitrocellulose powder. It was sold to Winchester and others
primarily for .22 and .32 small calibers. Its advantage was that it was believed at the time to be less
corrosive than smokeless powders then in use. It was not understood in the U.S. until the 1920s that the
actual source of corrosion was the potassium chloride residue from potassium chlorate sensitized primers.
The bulkier black powder fouling better disperses primer residue. Failure to mitigate primer corrosion by
dispersion caused the false impression that nitrocellulose-based powder caused corrosion.[111] Lesmok had
some of the bulk of black powder for dispersing primer residue, but somewhat less total bulk than straight
black powder, thus requiring less frequent bore cleaning.[112] It was last sold by Winchester in 1947.
The development of smokeless powders, such as cordite, in the late 19th century created the need for a
spark-sensitive priming charge, such as gunpowder. However, the sulfur content of traditional gunpowders
caused corrosion problems with Cordite Mk I and this led to the introduction of a range of sulfur-free
gunpowders, of varying grain sizes.[44] They typically contain 70.5 parts of saltpeter and 29.5 parts of
charcoal.[44] Like black powder, they were produced in different grain sizes. In the United Kingdom, the
finest grain was known as sulfur-free mealed powder (SMP). Coarser grains were numbered as sulfur-free
gunpowder (SFG n): 'SFG 12', 'SFG 20', 'SFG 40' and 'SFG 90', for example; where the number represents
the smallest BSS sieve mesh size, which retained no grains.
Sulfur's main role in gunpowder is to decrease the ignition temperature. A sample reaction for sulfur-free
gunpowder would be
6 KNO3 + C7H4O → 3 K2CO3 + 4 CO2 + 2 H2O + 3 N2
Combustion characteristics[edit]
Chemical reaction[edit]
Gunpowder does not burn as a single reaction, so the byproducts are not easily predicted. One study[citation
needed]
showed that it produced (in order of descending quantities) 55.91% solid products: potassium
carbonate, potassium sulfate, potassium sulfide, sulfur, potassium nitrate, potassium thiocyanate,
carbon, ammonium carbonate and 42.98% gaseous products: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, methane, 1.11% water.
However, simplified equations have been cited.
A simple, commonly cited, chemical equation for the combustion of black powder is
2 KNO3 + S + 3 C → K2S + N2 + 3 CO2.
A balanced, but still simplified, equation is[113]
10 KNO3 + 3 S + 8 C → 2 K2CO3 + 3 K2SO4 + 6 CO2 + 5 N2.
Both previous equation are based on the assumption that charcoal is pure carbon, while in real life charcoal's
chemical formula varies, but it can be summed up by its empirical formula: C7H4O [citation needed]. Therefore, a
more accurate equation of the decomposition of regular black powder with sulfur is:
6 KNO3 + C7H4O + 2 S → K2CO3 + K2SO4 + K2S + 4 CO2 + 2 CO + 2 H2O + 3 N2
Likewise, black powder without sulfur gives:
10 KNO3 + 2 C7H4O → 5 K2CO3 + 4 CO2 + 5 CO + 4 H2O + 5 N2
Black powder made with less-expensive and more plentiful sodium nitrate (in appropriate proportions)
works just as well, and previous equations apply, with sodium instead of potassium. However, it is more
hygroscopic than powders made from potassium nitrate—popularly known as saltpeter.
Because corned black powder grains made with saltpeter are less affected by moisture in the air, they can be
stored unsealed without degradation by humidity. Muzzleloaders have been known to fire after hanging on a
wall for decades in a loaded state, provided they remained dry. By contrast, black powder made with sodium
nitrate must be kept sealed to remain stable.
The matchlock musket or pistol (an early gun ignition system), as well as the flintlock would often be
unusable in wet weather, due to powder in the pan being exposed and dampened.
Energy[edit]
Gunpowder releases 3 megajoules per kilogram and contains its own oxidant. This is lower than TNT (
4.7 megajoules per kilogram), or gasoline (47.2 megajoules per kilogram, but gasoline requires an oxidant,
so an optimized gasoline and O2 mixture contains 10.4 megajoules per kilogram). Black powder also has a

6
low energy density compared to modern "smokeless" powders, and thus to achieve high energy loadings,
large amounts of black powder are needed with heavy projectiles.[citation needed]
Effects[edit]
Gunpowder is a low explosive, that is, it does not detonate but rather deflagrates (burns quickly). This is an
advantage in a propeller device, where you don't want a shock that would shatter the gun and potentially
harm the operator, however it is a drawback when some explosion is wanted. In that case, gunpowder (and
most importantly, gases produced by its burning) must be confined. Since it contains its own oxidizer and
additionally burns faster under pressure, its combustion is capable of bursting containers such as shell,
grenade, or improvised "pipe bomb" or "pressure cooker" casings to form shrapnel.
In quarrying, high explosives are generally preferred for shattering rock. However, because of its
low brisance, black powder causes fewer fractures and results in more usable stone compared to other
explosives, making black powder useful for blasting monumental stone such as granite and marble. Black
powder is well suited for blank rounds, signal flares, burst charges, and rescue-line launches. Black powder
is also used in fireworks for lifting shells, in rockets as fuel, and in certain special effects.
As seen above, combustion converts less than half the mass of black powder to gas, most of it turns into
particulate matter. Some of it is ejected, wasting propelling power, fouling the air, and generally being a
nuisance (giving off a soldier position, generating fog that hinders vision, etc.). Some of it ends up as a thick
layer of soot inside the barrel, where it also is a nuisance for subsequent shots, and a cause of jamming an
automatic weapon. Moreover, this residue is hygroscopic, and with the addition of moisture absorbed from
the air forms a corrosive substance. The soot contains potassium oxide or sodium oxide that turns
into potassium hydroxide, or sodium hydroxide, which corrodes wrought iron or steel gun barrels.[citation
needed]
Black powder arms must therefore be well cleaned after use, both inside and out, to remove the
residue.
Transportation regulations[edit]
The United Nations Model Regulations on the Transportation of Dangerous Goods and national
transportation authorities, such as United States Department of Transportation, have classified gunpowder
(black powder) as a Group A: Primary explosive substance for shipment because it ignites so easily.
Complete manufactured devices containing black powder are usually classified as Group D: Secondary
detonating substance, or black powder, or article containing secondary detonating substance, such as
firework, class D model rocket engine, etc., for shipment because they are harder to ignite than loose
powder. As explosives, they all fall into the category of Class 1.
Mining and industrial uses[edit]
Besides its use as a propellant in firearms and artillery, black powder's other main use has been as a blasting
powder in quarrying, mining, and road construction (including railroad construction). During the 19th
century, outside of war emergencies such as the Crimean War or the American Civil War, more black
powder was used in these industrial uses than in firearms and artillery. But dynamite gradually replaced it
for those uses. Today industrial explosives for such uses are still a huge market, but most of the market is in
newer explosives rather than black powder.
Beginning in the 1930s, gunpowder or smokeless powder was used in rivet guns, stun guns for animals,
cable splicers and other industrial construction tools.[114] The "stud gun" drove nails or screws into solid
concrete, a function not possible with hydraulic tools. Today powder-actuated tools are still an important
part of various industries, but the cartridges usually use smokeless powders. Industrial shotguns have been
used to eliminate persistent material rings in operating rotary kilns (such as those for cement, lime,
phosphate, etc.) and clinker in operating furnaces, and commercial tools make the method more reliable.[115]
Other uses[edit]
Gunpowder has occasionally been employed for other purposes besides weapons, mining, and construction:
 After the Battle of Aspern-Essling (1809), the surgeon of the Napoleonic Army Larrey, lacking salt,
seasoned a horse meat bouillon for the wounded under his care with gunpowder.[116][117] It was also used for
sterilization in ships when there was no alcohol.
 Jack Tars (British sailors) used gunpowder to create tattoos when ink wasn't available, by pricking
the skin and rubbing the powder into the wound in a method known as traumatic tattooing.[118]
 Christiaan Huygens experimented with gunpowder in 1673 in an early attempt to build an internal
combustion engine, but he did not succeed. Modern attempts to recreate his invention were similarly
unsuccessful.

7
 Near London in 1853, Captain Shrapnel demonstrated a mineral processing use of black powder in a
method for crushing gold-bearing ores by firing them from a cannon into an iron chamber, and "much
satisfaction was expressed by all present". He hoped it would be useful on
the goldfields of California and Australia. Nothing came of the invention, as continuously-operating
crushing machines that achieved more reliable comminution were already coming into use.[119]
 Fireworks use gunpowder as lifting and burst charges, although sometimes other more powerful
compositions are added to the burst charge to improve performance in small shells or provide a louder
report. Most modern firecrackers no longer contain black powder.

Introduction
"What is glass... is it a liquid or a solid?"
This question is a perennial staple of science-oriented online discussions among non-scientists. It is caused
by a widespread urban legend [1], which has wormed its way even in some high school textbooks, and has
managed to fool even apparently intelligent and well-informed laymen.
An Urban Legend
The legend usually appears in any of the following forms:
 Antique windowpanes are thicker at the bottom, because glass has flowed to the bottom over time.
 Glass has no crystalline structure, hence it is NOT a solid.
 Glass is a supercooled liquid.
 Glass is a liquid that flows very slowly.
 Glass is a liquid.
The prolonged survival of this legend, chiefly among English speakers (and particularly among North
Americans) is puzzling -- especially when one considers that glass and glassy materials are readily available,
and one can easily verify if one can pour a gallon of glass, or drain a pint of obsidian.
The Antique Windowpanes Story
The question of antique windowpanes has been addressed by Plumb, 1989[2]. He noted the following:
[...W]hy are the panes of antique window glass thicker on the bottom than the top? There really are
observable variations in thickness, although there seem to have been no statistical studies that document the
frequency and magnitudes of such variations. This author believes that the correct explanation lies in the
process by which window panes were manufactured at that time: the Crown glass process.
In other words, while some antique windowpanes are thicker at the bottom, there are no statistical studies to
show that all or most antique windowpanes are thicker at the bottom than at the top. The variations in
thickness of antique windowpanes has nothing to do with whether glass is a solid or a liquid; its cause lies in
the glass manufacturing process employed at the time, which made the production of glass panes of constant
thickness quite difficult.
What the Scientists Say
But is glass solid or liquid? For those who can't trust their own judgment or the evidence of their own
senses, this section contains a selection of quotes from distinguished scientists who specialize in the study of
amorphous solids in general and glassy materials in particular.
I selected them with three things in mind:
1. All of them were extracted from papers published in the past 5 years (1991 or later). They represent
essentially the current scientific consensus in this field.
2. None of them require in order to be understood more knowledge of physics than I would expect from
a high-school graduate. Materials science and thermodynamics are highly formalized disciplines and
have complex technical jargons. It would be all too easy to intimidate any layman or even scientists
trained in other fields by showing off something like the Debye-Scherrer equation or alluding to the
"nonergodicity of glass".
3. All quotes (except one) are from monographs dealing with the subject of glass or amorphous solids,
which, for those who wish to do a bit of reading on their own, should be more easy to find than
specialized journals.
And now, to our work alive.
Aristotle's teachings on the elements [...] have survived into our times in the form of the generally accepted
classification of substances by their state of aggregation. The solid, liquid, and gaseous states have been
supplemented by the addition of a fourth state of matter, plasma. [...] However, a new classification may

8
seem sensible against the background of results obtained from [modern] structural research, [which would]
differentiate between predominantly ordered crystalline solids and substances of disordered structure.
[Feltz, 1993, p. 1]
Note that some physicists do not accept plasma as a distinct fourth state of aggregation, while others propose
more than four states. It has been suggested that glasses form a distinct state of aggregation, the vitreous
state. This proposition has been generally ignored (see Gutzow and Schmelzer, 1995).
Glass is an amorphous solid. A material is amorphous when it has no long-range order, that is, when there is
no regularity in the arrangement of its molecular constituents on a scale larger than a few times the size of
these groups. [...] A solid is a rigid material; it does not flow when it is subjected to moderate forces [...].
[Doremus, 1994, p. 1]
Glass includes all materials which are structurally similar to a liquid. However, under ambient temperature
they react to the impact of force with elastic deformation and therefore have to be considered as solids.
[Pfaender, 1996, p. 17]
Amorphous substances, like crystalline solids, are usually characterized by certain areas of short-range
order [...] A long-range order, as in crystals, does not exist in amorphous substances. The designations
'amorphous' and 'noncrystalline' describe the same fact [...].
Glasses are noncrystalline or amorphous substances. Nevertheless, the term vitreous state is restricted to (i)
solids obtained from melts, or (ii) solids produced by other methods and obtained in a compact form or as
thin coherent films [...].
Glasses have numerous properties in common with crystalline solids, such as hardness and elasticity of
shape [...]. The term 'amorphous solid state' has a more comprehensive meaning broader than that of the
'vitreous state'. All glasses are amorphous, but not all amorphous substances are glasses.
[Feltz, 1993, pp. 7-8. Author's emphasis.]
An amorphous (or synonymously, non-crystalline) material can be defined as one which is topologically
disordered and which does not exhibit either the long-range translational order (periodicity) characteristic of
single crystals, or the long-range orientational order characteristic of quasicrystals. Within this definition,
such materials could be either solid or liquid, and this distinction is essentially simply one of timescale. A
material is a solid when there is no observable long-range translational diffusive motion during the duration
of the experiment; in other words, dynamic disorder is absent.
A glassy (or synonymously, vitreous) material is an amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition. (Thus,
by definition, all glasses are amorphous, but not all amorphous solids are necessarily glassy.) The glass
transition is marked (as a function of temperature) either by a change in slope of extensive thermodynamic
quantities (e.g., volume or entropy) or, equivalently, as a discontinuity in derivative quantities (e.g., specific
heat or thermal expansivity).
[Elliott, 1994, pp. 75-76]
Most liquids crystallize rapidly at a well-defined temperature Tf (melting point or liquidus temperature) with
a marked change in volume--usually a decrease. If the melt is completely free from crystal nuclei or foreign
particles, it can be supercooled to some extent [...]. Glass-forming melts can be supercooled to an unusually
high degree, even when nuclei are present. [...] The viscosity of the supercooled melt continues to increase
as the temperature is reduced until a range of temperatures [around a point called Tg] is reached, below
which the material is for most practical purposes a solid. This [range] is called the transformation range [...].
Only below this range is correct to refer to the material as glass. [...] Below Tg a glass, like a supercooled
liquid, has a higher free energy than a crystalline phase or a mixture of crystalline phases. However, because
structural rearrangements can occur only extremely slowly at temperatures well below Tg, the glass is stable
for all practical purposes.
[Rawson, 1991, pp. 1-2]
[...] glasses are frozen-in non-equilibrium systems. Non-equilibrium systems cannot be described in the
framework of classical thermodynamics [...].
[Gutzow and Schmelzer, 1995, p. 67]
As kinetically frozen forms of liquid, glasses are characterized by a complete lack of long-range crystalline
order and are the most structurally disordered types of solid known.
[Jeanloz & Williams, 1991, p. 659]
The structure of vitreous and amorphous solids is based on short-range order. This has now become
established beyond doubt. The bonding properties of atoms lead to the formation of defined subassemblies

9
with a certain symmetry. These are often identical to the short-range order units already known from the
structural analysis of crystalline forms of the corresponding compounds.
[Feltz, 1993, pp. 89-90]
The structural-chemical conditions for glass formation can be regarded as a combination of energetic
interactions and steric factors [...]. It has been found that a degree of covalent bonding is an essential feature
of all glass-forming substances.
[Feltz, 1993, pp. 95-96]
[...] Amorphous solids are characterized by a topological disorder, so there is no long-range order (or
periodicity) in their structure. However, this does not mean that amorphous solids are structurally
completely random (i.e., gas-like) at all length scales. In fact, covalent materials, in particular, exhibit a
rather high degree of structure organization at length scales corresponding to several atomic separations [...].
On the other hand, materials characterized by non-directional centro-symmetric interatomic interactions, e.g.
metals or completely ionic materials, are intrinsically much more disordered even at short length scales.
[Elliot, 1994, p. 79]
Origin of an Urban Legend?
How did the "glass is a supercooled liquid" urban legend originate? It is possible it began with an erroneous
reading of an influential book by Gustav Tammann (1861-1938), a German physicist who was among the
first to study glass as a thermodynamic system (Tammann, 1933). I was unable to locate a copy of
Tammann's book to verify this, so the following is speculation. One or two papers I consulted attributed to
Tammann the statement "Glass is a supercooled [or undercooled] liquid." But, from other papers, it appears
that what Tammann actually wrote was "Glass is a frozen supercooled liquid" [my emphasis]. My
speculation is that an author misquoted Tammann, and this misquotation was repeated by later authors who,
since copies of Tammann's book are rather rare, did not refer directly to Tammann.
Until about 20 years ago supercooling a glass melt was the only way to obtain glass, and the behaviour of
melts as they passed through the glass transition (i.e., solidified) was very different from crystallization. But
solid-state physics was almost entirely based on the study of crystalline solids, which made the behaviour of
glass melts appear paradoxal. To emphasize this a professor would state "Glass is a liquid which has lost the
ability to flow", and some undergraduate, with his mind more on the Friday night date than on the physics of
glass, would remember only "glass is a liquid"... Perhaps now we can finally put this legend to its well-
deserved rest.
Conclusion
Glasses are amorphous solids. There is a fundamental structural divide between amorphous solids (including
glasses) and crystalline solids. Structurally, glasses are similar to liquids, but that doesn't mean they are
liquid. It is possible that the "glass is a liquid" urban legend originated with a misreading of a German
treatise on glass thermodynamics.
Notes
1. See the alt.folklore.urban FAQ ('Frequently Asked Questions' document) on the World Wide Web or
by ftp.
2. Also available online, courtesy of Bryan Derksen.
References
Doremus, R. H. (1994) Glass Science, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 339 pp. ISBN
0471891746.
Elliott, S. R. (1994) Amorphous Solids: An Introduction. In: Catlow, C. R. A. (eds.), "Defects and Disorder
in Crystalline and Amorphous Solids", NATO Advanced Studies Institutes Series; Series C, Mathematical
and Physical Sciences, 418, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht: 73-86. ISBN 0792326105.
Feltz, A. (1993) Amorphous Inorganic Materials and Glasses. VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH,
Weinheim/VCH Publishers, New York, 446 pp. ISBN 3527284214/1560812125.
Gutzow, I. and Schmelzer, J. (1995) The Vitreous State: Thermodynamics, Structure, Rheology, and
Crystallization. Springer Verlag, Berlin, 468 pp. ISBN 0387590870.
Jeanloz, R. and Williams, Q. (1991) Solid-State Physics: Glasses Come to Order. Nature, 350: 659-60.
Pfaender, H. G. (1996) Schott Guide to Glass, 2nd Edition. Chapman & Hall, London, 207 pp. ISBN
0412719606.
Plumb, R. C. (1989) Antique windowpanes and the flow of supercooled liquids. Journal of Chemical
Education, 66(12): 994-996.

10
Rawson, H. (1991) Glasses and Their Applications. Royal Institute of Metals Book, Royal Institute of
Metals, London, 499: 166 pp. ISBN 0901462896.
Tammann, G. (1933) Der Glaszustand. Voss, Leipzig, 123 pp.
Appendix
The following is an extract from ASTM Standard D4359-90: "Standard Test Method for Determining
Whether a Material Is a Liquid or a Solid". It prescribes a relatively simple test to determine whether a
material whose flow characteristics are in doubt is liquid or solid. The test requires fairly simple implements
and can be carried out at home or in a school lab. (For more information on ASTM visit their home page).

ASTM (1996) "D4359-90: Standard Test Method for Determining Whether a Material Is a Liquid or
a Solid."
[excerpts]
In: ASTM "Annual Book of ASTM Standards", Section 6, Vol 6.01, pp. 500-501. American Society for
Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA. ISBN 0803122705 [Set] 0803123094 [Section]
0803123108 [Volume].
3. Summary of Test Method.
The material under test is held at 100deg.F (38deg.C) in a tightly closed can. The lid is removed and the can
inverted. The flow of the material from the can is observed to determine whether it is a solid or a liquid.
5. Apparatus.
5.1. Can, quart (1L), friction top with lid, diameter approximately 4'1/4 in (108 mm) height 4'3/4 in (120
mm)
5.2. Oven, maintained at temperature of 100deg.F (38deg.C)
5.3. Tripod or ring stand
5.4. Watchglass, tared
5.5. Stopwatch
5.6. Ruler.
9. Interpretation of results.
9.1. A material that flows a total of 2 in (50 mm) or less within 3 min is considered a solid. Otherwise it is
considered a liquid.

Is glass liquid or solid?

It is sometimes said that glass in very old churches is thicker at the bottom than at the top because glass is a
liquid, and so over several centuries it has flowed towards the bottom. This is not true. In Mediaeval times
panes of glass were often made by the Crown glass process. A lump of molten glass was rolled, blown,
expanded, flattened and finally spun into a disc before being cut into panes. The sheets were thicker towards
the edge of the disc and were usually installed with the heavier side at the bottom. Other techniques of
forming glass panes have been used but it is only the relatively recent float glass processes which have
produced good quality flat sheets of glass.
To answer the question "Is glass liquid or solid?" we have to understand its thermodynamic and material
properties.
Thermodynamics of glass
There is still much about the molecular physics and thermodynamics of glass that is not well understood, but
we can give a general account of what is thought to be the case.
Many solids have a crystalline structure on microscopic scales. The molecules are arranged in a regular
lattice. As the solid is heated the molecules vibrate about their position in the lattice until, at the melting
point, the crystal breaks down and the molecules start to flow. There is a sharp distinction between the solid
and the liquid state, that is separated by a first order phase transition, i.e. a discontinuous change in the
properties of the material such as density. Freezing is marked by a release of heat known as the heat of
fusion.

11
 molecular arrangement in a crystal
A liquid has viscosity, a measure of its resistance to flow. The viscosity of water at room temperature is
about 0.01 poises. A thick oil might have a viscosity of about 1.0 poise. As a liquid is cooled its viscosity
normally increases, but viscosity also has a tendency to prevent crystallisation. Usually when a liquid is
cooled to below its melting point, crystals form and it solidifies; but sometimes it can
become supercooled and remain liquid below its melting point because there are no nucleation sites to
initiate the crystallisation. If the viscosity rises enough as it is cooled further, it may never crystallise. The
viscosity rises rapidly and continuously, forming a thick syrup and eventually an amorphous solid. The
molecules then have a disordered arrangement, but sufficient cohesion to maintain some rigidity. In this
state it is often called an amorphous solid or glass.

molecular arrangement in a glass

Some people claim that glass is actually a supercooled liquid because there is no first order phase transition
as it cools. In fact, there is a second order transition between the supercooled liquid state and the glass
state, so a distinction can still be drawn. The transition is not as dramatic as the phase change that takes you
from liquid to crystalline solids. There is no discontinuous change of density and no latent heat of fusion.
The transition can be detected as a marked change in the thermal expansivity and heat capacity of the
material.
The temperature at which the glass transition takes place can vary according to how slowly the material
cools. If it cools slowly it has longer to relax, the transition occurs at a lower temperature and the glass
formed is more dense. If it cools very slowly it will crystallise, so there is a minimum limit to the glass
transition temperature.

Density as a function of temperature

in the phases of glassy materials
A liquid to crystal transition is a thermodynamic one; i.e. the crystal is energetically more favourable than
the liquid when below the melting point. The glass transition is purely kinetic: i.e. the disordered glassy
12
state does not have enough kinetic energy to overcome the potential energy barriers required for movement
of the molecules past one another. The molecules of the glass take on a fixed but disordered arrangement.
Glasses and supercooled liquids are both metastable phases rather than true thermodynamic phases like
crystalline solids. In principle, a glass could undergo a spontaneous transition to a crystalline solid at any
time. Sometimes old glass devitrifies in this way if it has impurities.
The situation at the level of molecular physics can be summarised by saying that there are three main types
of molecular arrangement:
crystalline solids: molecules are ordered in a regular lattice
fluids: molecules are disordered and are not rigidly bound.
glasses: molecules are disordered but are rigidly bound.
[Just to illustrate that no such classification could ever be complete, recently scientists have succeeded in
making quasi-crystals that are quasi-periodic. They do not fit into the above scheme and are sometimes
described as being halfway between crystals and glass.]
It would be convenient if we could conclude that glassy materials changed from being a supercooled liquid
to an amorphous solid at the glass transition, but this is very difficult to justify. Polymerised materials such
as rubber show a clear glass transition at low temperatures but are normally considered to be solid in both
the glass and rubber conditions.
It is sometimes said that glass is therefore neither a liquid nor a solid. It has a distinctly different structure
with properties of both liquids and solids. Not everyone agrees with this terminology.
Material properties of glasses
Usually when people talk about solids and liquids, they are referring to macroscopic material properties
rather than the arrangement of molecules. After all, glass as a material was known about long before its
molecular physics was understood. Macroscopically, materials exhibit a very wide range of behaviours.
Solids, liquids and gases are ideal behaviours characterised by properties such as compressibility, viscosity,
elasticity, strength and hardness. But materials don't always behave according to such ideals. For example,
it's possible to take water from being a liquid to a gas at high pressure without its passing through a phase
transition; so at some stage it must be between an ideal liquid and an ideal gas.
For crystalline substances the distinction between the solid and liquid states is very clear, but what about
glasses? Indeed, where do polymers, gels, foams, liquid crystals, powders and colloids fit into this picture?
Some people say that there is no clear distinction between a solid and a liquid in general. A solid, they
claim, should just be defined as a liquid with a very high viscosity. They set an arbitrary limit of 1013 poises
above which they say it's a solid and below which it's a liquid.
According to another point of view, this ignores a distinction between viscosity of liquids and plasticity of
solids. An ideal newtonian liquid deforms at a rate which is proportional to stresses applied and its
viscosity. For arbitrarily small stresses a viscous liquid will flow. Molasses, pine pitch and Silly Putty are
examples of liquids with very high viscosity that flow very slowly under only the force of their own weight.
On the other hand, plastics can be very soft but are still considered solid because they have rigidity and do
not flow.
Solids are elastic when small stresses are applied. They deform but return to their original shape when the
stress is removed. When higher stresses are applied some solids break while others exhibit plasticity.
Plasticity means that they deform and don't return to their original shape when the stress is removed. Many
substances including metals such as copper have plasticity. The resistance to flow under plastic deformation
is called its viscoplasticity. This is like viscosity, except that there's a minimum stress known as the elastic
limit below which there is no plasticity. Materials with plasticity do not flow, but they may creep, meaning
they deform slowly but only when held under constant stress.
So an arbitrary measure of viscosity or viscoplasticity is not a good way to distinguish solids from liquids.
Another way to define the distinction between solid and liquid is to say that, if there is a minimum shear
stress required to produce a permanent deformation then it is a solid. This is just a precise way of saying it
has some rigidity. A liquid can then be defined as a material that will flow. If it is placed in a container it
will eventually flow to fill the lower reaches until its own surface is flat. The difficulty is that these two
definitions do not cover all cases. There are materials that have some limited flow known as viscoelasticity.
The material will deform elastically under stress. If the stress is held for a long time, the deformation
becomes permanent even if the stress was small. Materials with viscoelasticity may seem to flow slowly for
a while but then stop. It is futile to try to make a clear cut distinction between liquids and solids in cases of
such behaviour.

13
Types of Glass
To be sure that glass in old windows has not flowed, we need to recognise the different properties of
different glasses. Glass can be made from pure silica, but fused silica has a high glass transition point at
around 1200° C which makes it difficult to mould into panes or bottles. At least 2000 years ago it was
learned how to lower the softening temperature by adding lime and soda before heating, which resulted in a
glass containing sodium and calcium oxides. Soda-lime glass used for windows and bottles today contains
other oxides as well. Measuring the glass transition temperature for different glasses is not easy because it
changes according to how slowly the glass is cooled. In the case of modern soda-lime glass, a quick cooling
will produce a glass transition at about 550° C. There is thought to be a minimum glass transition
temperature at about 270° C, and if it is cooled very slowly it can still be a supercooled liquid down to just
above that temperature. Glass such as Pyrex (used for test-tubes and ovenware) is usually based on boro-
silicates or alumino-silicates, which withstand heating better and typically have a higher glass transition
temperature. Some glasses, such as the leaded variety, have lower transition temperatures.
Sometimes people say that good evidence that glass does not flow is provided by telescope lenses which
after 150 years still maintain excellent optical qualities. They would be spoiled by the slightest
deformation. In fact, optical glass is usually not the same as the glass used in windows and bottles. It may
be based on boro-silicate or soda-lime glass with other metallic oxides added to improve its thermal and
optical properties. So old telescope lenses and mirrors provide good evidence that some glasses do not flow,
but little evidence to support the claim that glass in old windows has not flowed. Another example is stone
age arrow heads made of obsidian, a natural glass. These are found to be still razor sharp after tens of
thousands of years, but again, this glass is mainly silica and alumino-silicates and is much tougher than
window glass.
For definitive evidence that glass has not flowed in old windows we must examine the oldest examples.
Early glass used to make bottles and windows was usually formed by adding soda and lime to silicates.
Sometimes potash was added instead. Usually there were other impurities that made it softer than modern
soda-lime glass. Other compounds were often added to give colour or to improve its properties. The
Romans were making glass objects of this sort in the 1st century AD, and despite being very delicate, some
examples remain—such as the elaborately decorated Portland Vase kept at the British Museum. Roman
glassware provides some of the best available evidence that types of soda-lime glass are not fluid, even after
nearly 2000 years. The oldest remaining examples of stained glass windows that remain in place have lasted
since the 12th century. The oldest of all are the five figures in the clerestory of Augsburg Cathedral in
Germany, which are dated to between 1050 to 1150. Many other early examples are found in France and
England including the magnificent North Rose window of Notre Dame, Paris dating from 1250.
There have been many claims (especially by tour guides) that such glass is deformed because the glass has
flowed slowly over the centuries. This has become a persistent myth, but close inspection shows that
characteristic signs of flow, such as flowing around, and out of the frame, are not present. The deformations
are more consistent with imperfections of the methods used to make panes of glass at the time. In some
cases gaps appear between glass panes and their frames, but this is due to deformations in the lead
framework rather than the glass. Other examples of rippling in windows of old homes can be accounted for
because the glass was imperfectly flattened by rolling before the float glass process came into use.
It is difficult to verify with absolute certainty that no examples of glass flow exist, because there are almost
always no records of the original state. In rare cases stained glass windows are found to contain lead, which
would lower the viscosity and make them heavier. Could these examples deform under their own weight?
Only careful study and analysis can answer this question. Robert Brill of the Corning glass museum has
been studying antique glass for over 30 years. He has examined many examples of glass from old buildings,
measuring their material properties and chemical composition. He has taken a special interest in the glass
flow myth and has always looked for evidence for and against. In his opinion, the notion that glass in
Mediaeval stained glass windows has flowed over the centuries is untrue and, he says, examples of sagging
and ripples in old windows are also most likely physical characteristics resulting from the manufacturing
process. Other experts who have made similar studies agree. Theoretical analysis based on measured glass
viscosities shows that glass should not deform significantly even over many centuries, and a clear link is
found between types of deformation in the glass and the way it was produced.
Conclusion
There is no clear answer to the question "Is glass solid or liquid?". In terms of molecular dynamics and
thermodynamics it is possible to justify various different views that it is a highly viscous liquid, an

14
amorphous solid, or simply that glass is another state of matter that is neither liquid nor solid. The
difference is semantic. In terms of its material properties we can do little better. There is no clear definition
of the distinction between solids and highly viscous liquids. All such phases or states of matter are
idealisations of real material properties. Nevertheless, from a more common sense point of view, glass
should be considered a solid since it is rigid according to everyday experience. The use of the term
"supercooled liquid" to describe glass still persists, but is considered by many to be an unfortunate
misnomer that should be avoided. In any case, claims that glass panes in old windows have deformed due to
glass flow have never been substantiated. Examples of Roman glassware and calculations based on
measurements of glass visco-properties indicate that these claims cannot be true. The observed features are
more easily explained as a result of the imperfect methods used to make glass window panes before the float
glass process was invented.

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCOsw3qCBBDBbyilDVflx4zA/videos
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCfaMkJD3dCw3K_Y_GuIuXLQ/videos

15