L Slides

ME 401 A
Energy Systems II
Turbomachinery
Classification of Turbomachines
1. Based on direction of Energy conversion
2. Based on the fluid used
3. Based on principle of operation

1. Based on direction of Energy conversion
 Turbine:
– Which extracts energy from fluid
 Pump, Compressor, Fan, Blower

– Which adds energy to the fluid
2. Based on the Fluid used
 Liquid:  Gas:
– Hydraulic turbines – Steam turbine
- Pumps - Gas turbine
- Air turbine (wind mill)
- Compressor
- Blower
- Fan
Difference between the three ?

3. Based on Principle of operation
 Positive displacement /  Rotodynamic:

Reciprocating: – Add or remove energy
– squeezes fixed volume - Using fast moving vanes, blades
Example ? - Relative motion between
fluid and moving part
- Two main parts:

- Rotor
- Stator
Classification of Rotodynamic machines
Based on flow direction in the rotor
 Turbine:  Pump & Compressor:
– periphery to centre – centre to periphery
“Inward flow machines” “Outward flow machines”
 Radial Flow  Mixed Flow  Axial Flow
 Courtesy: Web – nptel lectures

Flow velocity components
V : absolute velocity
 1 : Inlet  Va : axial velocity
 2 : Outlet  Vw : tangential velocity
 Vf : radial velocity
Velocity Vector Diagrams
V : absolute velocity
 Va : axial velocity
 Vw : tangential velocity
 Vf : radial velocity
 Vr : relative velocity
fluid to rotor
 U : velocity of rotor

Velocity Vector Diagrams
Impulse & Reaction Machines
 Courtesy: Internet
Similarity Principle
 Model & Prototype are said to be similar iff there exists following similarities
 Geometric Similarity
 Kinematic Similarity
 Dynamic Similarity
Similarity Principle
 What’s the Need?
 Model & Prototype
 Model & Prototype are said to be similar iff there exists following similarities
 Geometric Similarity
 Kinematic Similarity
 Dynamic Similarity
I. Geometric Similarity
 All dimensions have same linear scale ratio
 All angles should be preserved
 Courtesy: ‘Fluid Mechanics’ – White

I. Geometric Similarity

I. Kinematic Similarity
 All length and times should have same linear scale ratio
 Velocity scale ratio should be same for model and prototype

I. Dynamic Similarity
 All length, time, force should have same linear scale ratio

Design of Fluid Machine
 Pump, Compressor and Turbine
 Using Principle of Similarity
 Kinematic similarity  Kinematic similarity  Dynamic similarity
 Dimensions should have  Velocity triangles at Inlet  Forces acting at homologous

linear scaling and Outlet should have points should scale linearly
linear scaling
 Courtesy: ‘Hydraulics & Fluid Mechanics’ – Modi & Seth

Dimensional Analysis
 Origin: Euler (1765)
 Why is it Needed?
 Fourier, Rayleigh
 Advantages of Dimensional Analysis
1. Enormous saving in time and money
2. Dimensionless ways of writing equations
3. Provides scaling laws that can convert data from a small, cheap
model to design information for an expensive, large prototype
 Buckingham’s PI Theorem (1914)

 π = (n - m)
 Number of repeating variables = m
 Selection of repeating variables: Science + Art + Experience

 Relevant variables for fluid Machines
No. Variable Units Dimensions
1. D = Rotor diameter m L
2. Q = Volume flow rate m3/s L3 T-1
3. N = Rotational speed rps T-1
4. H = Diff. In Head (E per unit weight) m L
5. ρ = Density of fluid Kg/m3 M L-3
6. µ = Viscosity of fluid Kg/m s M L-1 T-1
7. E = Coefficient of elasticity of fluid Kg/m s2 M L-1 T-2
8. g = Acceleration due to gravity m/s2 L T-2
9. P = Power transferred between fluid & rotor Kg m2 / s3 M L2 T-3
 No free surface; effect of gravitational force negligible

 consider Energy head per unit mass = gH
 Total number of variables = 8 = D, Q, N, gH, ρ, µ, E, P
 Repeating Variables:
 D, N, ρ
 First π term :
Q
π1 = 3
=Φ (How?)
ND
 Physical Significance of First π term :

average flow velocity at any section in machine α (Q / D2)
Peripheral velocity of rotor α (N D)
Q
2
π1 = D α [ (Fluid velocity V) / (Rotor velocity U) ]
ND
Hence,
π 1 is called “Discharge Coefficient” or “Capacity Coefficient” or “Flow Coefficient”.

“π” Terms for Fluid Machines
No. π Term Name

1. Q Discharge Coefficient/
π1 = 3
=Φ Flow Coefficient/
ND
Capacity Coefficient
2. gH Head Coefficient
π 2 = 2 2 =ψ Fluid head / KE of rotor
N D
3. Reynolds Number
ρND 2
π3 = = Re
µ
4. P Power Coefficient
π4= = Pˆ
ρN D
3 5
5. E Mach Number (?)

ρ
π5 =
N 2D2
Specific Speed
 Basic Necessity:
What type of fluid machine is the “Best Choice” for a particular application?
 Operating conditions/performance
is expressed in terms of :
N, P, H (for Turbines)
N, Q, H (for Pumps)
 Get some characteristic number

which is independent of
machine size D
 Ks varies with shape of a machine,

hence “Shape Factor”.
Specific Speed (dimensional)
 Turbine: Speed of a hypothetical turbine of such a reduced size, but geometrically similar,
that generates unit power under unit head of fluid
 Pump: Speed of a hypothetical pump of such a reduced size, but geometrically similar,
that delivers unit flow rate against a unit head.
Specific Speed : Pump Types
 Courtesy: ‘Fluid Mech. & Thermo of Turbomachinery’ – Dixon & Hall

Specific Speed : Turbomachines

Gas Turbine
 What’s the Need?
 Two-fold: Power production & Propulsion
 Courtesy:
NASA (Glenn Research)
 Courtesy: ae.gatech.edu
Brayton (Joule) Cycle: History
 Named after George Brayton (1830–1892), American engineer
who developed it originally for use in piston engines.
 Originally proposed and patented by Englishman John Barber in 1791.
 Also known as Joule cycle
Brayton petroleum engine  George B Selden driving a Brayton

 Courtesy: Internet powered automobile in 1905
Brayton Cycle: Assumptions
1. Working fluid is a perfect gas with constant specific heat
2. Isentropic compression and expansion (reversible & adiabatic)
3. No pressure losses in any of the components and connections
4. Mass flow rate is constant throughout the cycle
5. Change in KE & PE of working fluid between inlet and outlet of

each component is negligible
6. If used, heat exchanger is ideal

Brayton Cycle: Working
P-V & T-S
 1-2: Isentropic Compression
 2-3: Const. Pressure Heat Addition
 3-4: Isentropic Expansion
 3-4: Const. Pressure Exhaust (??)

Efficiency & Sp. Work
ηαγ  w α T3 for fixed T1
ηαr  For fixed t (T1, T3),

w is max. for a particular
pressure ratio
 Courtesy: ‘Gas Turbine Theory’ – HIH S, H C, GFC R
Regeneration
Regeneration

Salient features of Regeneration
1. Max eta is dependent on T3
2. Eta increases with decrease in r, unlike simple cycle
3. Curves fall till r optimum is reached
4. For higher r, heat ex cools air from comp. So eta will reduce.
5. Sp. Work unchanged, but eta increases.
6. Message:- increase T3, lower r

Reheat
Reheat
Intercooler

‘Actual Gas’ Turbine cycle
1. Specific heat of Working fluid varies with temperature
2. Efficiency of compression and expansion is a consideration
3. Pressure losses in the components and connections
4. Mass flow rate is NOT constant throughout the cycle due to leakages
5. Mechanical losses, due to bearings and auxiliary components
6. Heat exchanger NOT ideal; complete heat exchange not possible.

Gas Turbine Cycle for Propulsion
 Gas Turbines to generate thrust, propulsion
 power/weight ratio superior to reciprocating engines
 Family of Propulsion units:
1. Turboprop engine
 Courtesy: ‘Fundamental of Thermodynamics’ – S, B, Wylen
2. Turbofan
3. Turbojet
4. Thrust boosting: Afterburner
5. Ramjet
6. SCRamjet
Propulsion Family & Selection

Turbjet with Afterburner

Nozzles & Diffusers
Cascade Theory
Stator & Rotor
What is Cascade?
 Row of blades representing a blade ring of actual turbomachine
 Types of Cascade:
1. Rectilinear Cascade:
Linear blades
2. Annular Cascade:
Annular blades
3. Radial Cascade:
Radial flow
Cascade Tunnel
 Courtesy: ‘Turbines, Compressors & Fans’ – Yahya
Turntable:
to change angle of incidence
Measurements:
Pressure, velocity & flow direction
Measurement Traverses:
Upstream & Downstream

Why Cascade Analysis ?
 Advantages
1. Theoretical analysis: too complicated
2. 3D complicated analysis to simple 2D analysis
3. Economical
4. Reliable data
 Why Rectilinear Cascade?

1. Annular: too complicated to test
2. Mechanical & measurement complications reduced
3. Analysis of results is simplified
4. Easy to interpret flow physics
 Minimum blades:
At least 7 blades: why?
 Usage:
Almost every turbomachine plant possesses Cascade Tunnel
Cambered Airfoil
Nomenclature: Cambered Airfoil
a = distance from LE up to the point of max. Camber, along chord
b = max. displacement of camber line from chord
θ = θ1 + θ2 = camber angle
Nomenclature: Compressor Cascade
Four angles: Stagger, Camber, Blade, Air γ = Stagger angle
(+ve for comp. cascade)
α1’ = Blade Inlet angle

= γ + χ1
α2’ = Blade Outlet angle

= γ - χ2
α1 = Air Inlet angle

= γ + χ1 + i
α2 = Air Outlet angle

= γ – χ2 – δ
ε = deflection of flow
= α 1 – α2
 Courtesy: ‘Turbines, Compressors & Fans’ – Yahya = (χ1 + χ2) + i – δ
=θ+i-δ
i = angle of incidence, made by flow vel. with camber line
δ = angle of deviation at exit, made by flow vel. with camber line
Nomenclature: Compressor Cascade

Compressor Cascade
Velocity Triangle & Force Analysis

Cascade: BL, Separation, Wake

Turbine Cascade

Salient features
1. Pressure falls and flow accelerates from inlet to exit
2. BLs more stable & attached
3. More loading without separation
4. No separation, except at low Re
5. Ratio of exit to inlet velocity = 2 to 4
6. Flow deflection > 120̊
Due to accelerating flow,

pressure drop across turbine blades can be much higher
than pressure rise across compressor blades.
Hence fewer Turbine stages than in compressor !!

Nomenclature: Turbine Cascade
Four angles: Stagger, Camber, Blade, Air γ = Stagger angle
(-ve for Turb. cascade)
α1’ = Blade Inlet angle

= χ1 - γ
α2’ = Blade Outlet angle

= χ2 + γ
α1 = Air Inlet angle

= χ1 - γ + i
α2 = Air Outlet angle

= χ2 + γ – δ
ε = deflection of flow
= α 1 + α2
= (χ1 + χ2) + i – δ
=θ+i-δ
i = α1 - α1’ = angle of incidence, made by flow vel. with camber line
δ = α2’ – α2 = angle of deviation at exit, made by flow vel. with camber line
All Angles
α2 > α1

Turbine Cascade: Pressure
P2 < P 1

Turbine Cascade: Surface Velocity
Spacing:
A2 < A 1
C2 > C 1
 Courtesy: ‘FM & Thermo of Turbomachinery’ – Dixon & Hall  Courtesy: ‘Fluid Mech. & Thermo of Turbomachinery’ – Dixon & Hall
Turbine Cascade
Velocity Triangle & Force Analysis

Cascade: Energy Losses
1. Profile loss: BL, separation
2. Annulus loss: BL from casing
3. Secondary loss: Circulatory cross flow near end walls
4. Tip clearance loss: Clearance between blades and casing
5. Mixing / Equalization loss: Non-uniform velocity profiles at exit
Estimation:
Empirical / Semi-empirical
Using Correlations, largely !!

Axial Flow Compressor
Schematic

Flow through stages

Pressure-Velocity variation in stage

Velocity Triangles

Low Reaction

50% Reaction

50% Reaction Velocity Triangles

High Reaction Velocity Triangles

Axial velocity with height

Axial Velocity Triangles

WrokDone factor Vs. Stages

Axial Flow Turbine
Axial Vs. Radial Turbine
Axial Radial
1. Greater mass handling Low mass handling
2. Low pressure ratio High Pressure ratio
3. Multistaging easy Multistaging difficult
Turbine Vs. Compressor
Turbine Compressor
1. Design is simple Complicated design
2. FPG & acceleration APG & deceleration
3. No BL separation BL separation
4. Efficiency high Efficiency low
5. High P & T Low P & T
6. Critical stress problem Stress not so critical
7. Blade cooling required Cooling not required.
 Why high pressure drop per stage?
 More work o/p per stage
 One stage consists of....

Flow

Separation?

Schematic
 “Work producing machine”
 High T & P relative to Compressor
 Annular contraction

Velocity Triangles
 1: Inlet to nozzle
 2: Inlet to Rotor
 3: Exit from rotor
 3: Inlet to nozzle
 α: angle of absolute vel
 β: angle of relative to vel
 ASSUMPTIONS:
 Constant axial velocity x
 Constant u velocity
Constant Peripheral velocity (u) !?
 u increases with r
 shape of velocity triangle varies from root to tip
 look at mean diameter to get average picture what happens
 Assumption: constant u.
 valid when spanwise length is too small
 valid when high hub to tip ratio
 2D analysis -> pitch line design analysis
 This is valid in HPT
 In case of LPT, spanwise length is large
 3D effects unavoidable!!
Velocity Triangles
Velocity Triangles: Superimposed
Work
 Work due to expansion of high pressure hot gases
 Due to change in momentum
 Force, torque on both stator & rotor; Work only by rotor
 Energy / wok transfer only by rotor
 Work obtained at rotor, in terms of flow velocities & blade angles
 What @ workdone factor ??

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ME 401 A

1. Based on direction of Energy conversion

2. Based on the fluid used

3. Based on principle of operation

1. Based on direction of Energy conversion

 Pump, Compressor, Fan, Blower

2. Based on the Fluid used

Difference between the three ?

3. Based on Principle of operation

 Positive displacement /  Rotodynamic:

- Two main parts:

 Radial Flow  Mixed Flow  Axial Flow

 Courtesy: Web – nptel lectures

 Courtesy: Web – nptel lectures

 Model & Prototype

 All angles should be preserved

 Courtesy: ‘Fluid Mechanics’ – White

 Courtesy: ‘Fluid Mechanics’ – White

 Velocity scale ratio should be same for model and prototype

 Courtesy: ‘Fluid Mechanics’ – White

 Courtesy: ‘Fluid Mechanics’ – White

 Kinematic similarity  Kinematic similarity  Dynamic similarity

 Dimensions should have  Velocity triangles at Inlet  Forces acting at homologous

 Courtesy: ‘Hydraulics & Fluid Mechanics’ – Modi & Seth

 Advantages of Dimensional Analysis

1. Enormous saving in time and money

2. Dimensionless ways of writing equations

 Buckingham’s PI Theorem (1914)

 Number of repeating variables = m

 Selection of repeating variables: Science + Art + Experience

3. N = Rotational speed rps T-1

4. H = Diff. In Head (E per unit weight) m L

5. ρ = Density of fluid Kg/m3 M L-3

6. µ = Viscosity of fluid Kg/m s M L-1 T-1

7. E = Coefficient of elasticity of fluid Kg/m s2 M L-1 T-2

8. g = Acceleration due to gravity m/s2 L T-2

9. P = Power transferred between fluid & rotor Kg m2 / s3 M L2 T-3

 No free surface; effect of gravitational force negligible

 Physical Significance of First π term :

Peripheral velocity of rotor α (N D)

π 1 is called “Discharge Coefficient” or “Capacity Coefficient” or “Flow Coefficient”.

No. π Term Name

5. E Mach Number (?)

 Get some characteristic number

 Ks varies with shape of a machine,

 Courtesy: ‘Fluid Mech. & Thermo of Turbomachinery’ – Dixon & Hall

 Courtesy: ‘Fluid Mech. & Thermo of Turbomachinery’ – Dixon & Hall

Brayton petroleum engine  George B Selden driving a Brayton

1. Working fluid is a perfect gas with constant specific heat

2. Isentropic compression and expansion (reversible & adiabatic)

3. No pressure losses in any of the components and connections

4. Mass flow rate is constant throughout the cycle

5. Change in KE & PE of working fluid between inlet and outlet of

6. If used, heat exchanger is ideal

 1-2: Isentropic Compression

 2-3: Const. Pressure Heat Addition

 3-4: Isentropic Expansion

 3-4: Const. Pressure Exhaust (??)

ηαγ  w α T3 for fixed T1

ηαr  For fixed t (T1, T3),

 Courtesy: ‘Gas Turbine Theory’ – HIH S, H C, GFC R

1. Max eta is dependent on T3

2. Eta increases with decrease in r, unlike simple cycle