What Every Baker Needs to Know About

Sugar
Sure sugar is sweet, but it also performs many other
essential functions in cookies, cakes, and other baked goods.
By Kimberly Y. Masibay Fine Cooking Issue 96

Photo: Scott Phillips

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We all know that sugar is essential for baking—after all, it’s what makes sweets taste sweet. But
thanks to its unique chemical nature, sugar also performs many other essential functions in
cookies, cakes, and other baked goods.

Just to be clear, I’m talking about the kind of sugar we use most in baking: the dry, crystalline
sugars that are collectively referred to as table sugar. (It comes in several forms, such as
granulated, brown, powdered, and turbinado.) When you understand how this ingredient behaves
in recipes, you’ll be on your way to becoming a better baker, because many baking disasters can
be traced to one little mistake: tinkering with sugar. Using less (or more) sugar than a recipe calls
for (or even substituting honey for table sugar) can really affect your results.

Sugar stabilizes meringues

Whip egg whites with sugar and what do you get? Meringue. More than just a fluffy, white pie
topping, meringue gives lightness and loft to mousses, sweet soufflés, angel food cakes, and even
some frostings.
Sugar stabilizes meringue in two ways. First, it protects the egg whites from being overbeaten.
As you whip air into egg whites, the egg proteins bond and form thin, strong sheets that stretch
around the tiny air bubbles, creating foam. Adding sugar slows down this foaming, so you’re less
likely to overbeat the egg whites.

Second, sugar protects the foam from collapse. The sugar dissolves in the water in the bubbles’
walls, forming a syrup that surrounds and supports the bubbles.

Sugar affects texture

When sugar molecules meet water molecules, they form a strong bond. This union of sugar and
water affects the texture of baked goods in two important ways.

It keeps baked goods soft and moist. The bond between sugar and water allows sugar to lock in
moisture so that items such as cakes, muffins, brownies, and frostings don’t dry out too quickly.

It creates tenderness. Baked goods get their shape and structure from proteins and starches,
which firm up during baking and transform soupy batters and soft doughs into lofty muffins and
well-formed cookies. But because they build structure, proteins and starches can potentially
make baked goods tough, too. The sugar in a batter or dough snatches water away from proteins
and starches, which helps control the amount of structure-building they can do. The result? A
more tender treat.

It is here that tinkering with a recipe’s sugar can have a dramatic effect. When, for example, a
loaf of pound cake has a nice shape and an appealing texture, the sugar, proteins, and starches are
in balance. But if you tip that balance by using more or less sugar than the recipe calls for, the
result could be so tender that it lacks the structure to hold its shape, or it could be shapely but too
tough.

It’s best to dust moist cakes with confectioners’ sugar right before serving, because over time the
sugar will attract even more moisture and become sticky.

Sugar leavens

No doubt you’ve noticed that cake and quick bread batters rise during baking. Well, sugar helps
make this happen.When you mix up a cake batter and beat sugar into fat, eggs, and other liquid
ingredients, the sugar crystals cut into the mixture, creating thousands of tiny air bubbles that
lighten the batter. During baking, these bubbles expand and lift the batter, causing it to rise in the
pan.

Sugar deepens color and flavor

Thank sugar for the appealing golden-brown color of many baked desserts. As sugar gets hot, it
undergoes a cascade of chemical reactions called caramelization. In this process, sugar molecules
break down into smaller and smaller parts and begin to turn deeper shades of brown and develop
more complex flavors.
Sugar adds crunch

In the heat of the oven, moisture evaporates from the surface of baked goods, allowing dissolved
sugars to re-crystallize. This creates the crunchy, sweet crust that you’ve probably enjoyed on
such items as brownies, pound cakes, and some kinds of muffins and cookies.

Ingredient Function: How Do Eggs Function

in Baking? | Fundamental Friday
Ingredient Function: How Do Eggs Function
in Baking? | Fundamental Friday
 The egg
is quite possibly the most versatile basic baking ingredient on the planet. I think it has to do with
its having two parts: a fatty yolk and a proteiny, watery white. You can also use just yolks, just
whites or a combination of the two. Where to begin? Like Maria, I say let’s start at the very
beginning…

Egg Basics

An egg is “the hard-shelled reproductive body produced by a bird and especially by the common
domestic chicken; also : its contents used as food.” So sayeth Mirriam-Webster online. Thanks,
Mirriam Webster for not bothering to discuss the contents of an egg, because for most of us
interested in baking with eggs, we are only interested in what is inside the shell.

Eggs contain several structures including membranes and air pockets and such, but the main
parts of the egg we are concerned with as bakers and cooks are the yolk and the albumin or
white. I will say here that the albumin can be further divided into thick albumin and thin
albumin. I’m sure you’ve all seen this: there’s a thicker, almost jelly-like white around the yolk
and a thinner, more watery substance that runs out into your pan or bowl. The fresher the egg–
the more recently laid–the more of the thicker part there is and the less of the thinner. That’s why
older whites are preferable to younger whites for whipping. It’s much easier to whip air into a
thinner mixture than it is with a thicker one.

How Do Eggs Function in Baking?

To really understand all the myriad ways eggs function in baking, we have to look at the ways
eggs are called for: whole eggs, just yolks or just whites. Because nothing is ever easy. Still, this
will be Fun and Educational!

Whole Eggs

The fat/protein/water content of whole eggs is 12% fat, 13% protein, 73% water and 2%
minerals and such. A whole large egg has about 80 calories.

 Eggs add structure in the form of protein. As eggs bake in a cake, the proteins denature and
coagulate which, along with the starches in flour help form the overall structure of your baked
goods. Too much egg not balanced with sugar and fat (which both tenderize) and yield tough,
dry or chewy results.
 Egg yolks contain emulsifiers that help to form a thick, luscious batter that doesn’t separate. An
emulsifier helps two items who don’t normally get along (fat and water in this case) get along

 . That’s why adding just a bit of egg yolk to a salad dressing helps to keep the oil and vinegar in
solution. In this case, eggs add volume to batter and an even texture to the final product.
 Eggs contribute to browning

 because of Maillard reactions. Maillard reactions are the set of browning reactions that occur
when proteins are heated. As well, they lend a yellowish cast to batters and dough.
 The yolks add some trace minerals and up the nutritional value while whites up the protein
content.
  Eggs contribute to the overall flavor of whatever you’re making, partly because the fat in the
yolks helps to carry other flavors.
 Since eggs are mostly water, they contribute to the overall moisture content of whatever you’re
making. If you are making an enriched bread for example and you decide you want to only use
yolks rather than whole eggs, you will have to increase the amount of water or other water-type
liquid in the formula so that the bread won’t be too dry. So yes, I realize that I have said eggs
both dry and contribute moisture. Both are true. There are many sides to eggs.
 The fat in yolks helps to shorten gluten and tenderize the final product.

Egg Yolks

Although the yolk makes up roughly 1/3 of the volume of a whole egg, it contains half the
protein, all of the fat and almost all the vitamins and minerals. It also contains three times as
many of the calories as the white (60 as opposed to 20). Yolks are made up of 49% water, 17%
protein and 32% fat along with 2% minerals and such.

 While egg yolks are made up of roughly half water, the actual amount is about 8 grams, or 1 1/2
teaspoons. This is a minimal amount compared to using whole eggs, and with all the emulsifiers
and fats in a yolk, they contribute more of a shortening and tenderizing function than whole
eggs.
 Baked goods made with yolks only are richer and more tender than those made with whole
eggs. Less water equals less gluten development, and the fats in the yolk weaken the gluten that
is present.
 Yolks contribute a lot of color, much more so than using whole eggs. Baked goods made with
yolks only have a lovely deep golden hue. Their protein content assures lovely browning thanks
to Maillard reactions.
 Batters made with yolks only are rich and billowy and luscious, partly due to all the emulsifiers
present in the yolks.

 If the only difference between two batters is one is made with whole eggs and one is made with
yolks, the yolky batter will contain more vitamins, fatty acids and trace minerals than the whole
egg version.
 Yolks add a mellow, “eggy” flavor to baked goods. Either you are a fan of that eggy flavor, or
you’re not, so consider that when deciding whether to bake with yolks only. Yolks can also
muddy the flavor of other ingredients, mellowing and muting them. Again, some folks like this
and some folks don’t.

Egg Whites

The albumin or white of an egg contains 86% water, 12% protein, no fat at all and 2% minerals
and such. When you realize whites make up two thirds the volume of the egg but only contain
1/3 the calories, it’s easy to understand why folks who are on a diet favor using whites only.

 Baked goods made with whites only are pale in color, especially if they don’t contain any other
“coloring agents,” either natural (such as spices) or artificial (like food coloring). If you’re going
to make those rainbow cakes, start with a whites-only batter so your colors stay true.
  While whites are mostly water, they have a drying effect on baked goods since all that water
activates gluten without the tenderizing influence of the fat in the yolks. Most whites-only cakes
(think angel food cake) rely heavily on the addition of extra sugar to tenderize the structure and
bring moisture to the final product.
 Whites don’t contribute to the overall flavor of whatever you’re making. This means that the
flavors you do introduce are more pure tasting since yolks bring a mellowness.
 There are no emulsifiers in egg whites, so batters containing whites only as well as other liquids
are more prone to breaking or having a slightly curdled look to them. Angel food cake is an
exception because the only additional liquid in an angel food cake is maybe a bit of extract.
 While the color of the dough or batter is whiter, you should still be able to achieve a nice brown
crust on whatever you’re making because of the protein in the whites. Again with the Maillard
reactions.

What About in Puddings and Custards?

The function of eggs in pudding and custard is a whole other ball of wax. First, let’s talk about
what happens to eggs when they cook.

As you heat an egg, it goes from a liquid state that can easily mix with other liquids to a solid
state. Both the whites and the yolks do this, right? Think of a “hard” fried eggs. Now think of all
that egg “solidity” evenly distributed throughout a batter, and that gives you an idea of the
structure that eggs can help add to baked goods. This is an oversimplification of what happens
when eggs are heated, especially because I’m not addressing the interactions among other
ingredients in the dough or batter, but as far as it goes, it’s true.

Now, think what happens when you stir the egg in the pan while it’s cooking. You end up with a
completely different end product: scrambled eggs. Scrambled eggs are generally more tender
than fried eggs because you haven’t allowed the proteins to coagulate undisturbed. So what
could have been an ice rink (fried egg) turns into a slushie (scrambled eggs). The constant
stirring action of making scrambled eggs incorporates a bit of air and keeps the proteins moving
so they set up or coagulate in smaller little “clumps.”

If you haven’t noticed yet, I’m not a scientist. But I think the ice rink and slushie are a good
illustration of the differences between letting egg proteins cook undisturbed (as in a cake or fried
eggs) versus agitating them during cooking (stirred custards and scrambled eggs).

Not all custards are stirred though. Some are baked so the proteins coagulate undisturbed:
cheesecake, pots de creme, flan and creme caramel, quiche and creme brulee, just to name a few.

What is a Custard?

Custard is a thickened mixture of some sort of dairy and some form of egg. By that, I mean that
you can use any sort of dairy from skim milk to heavy cream and some form of egg: whole,
yolks only and in a very few instances, whites only.
The final texture of the custard depends not only on the other ingredients you use but on the ratio
of egg to liquid as well as the way you cook it. Stirred custards–anything from creme Anglais to
egg nog to pastry cream to good old vanilla pudding–have a softer set (slushie versus ice rink;
scrambled eggs versus fried) than baked or “still” custards. Here’s another oversimplification for
you: you can have a bowl of pudding or a slice of flan.

Some Interesting Egg Facts

Eggs are one of the leading food allergens. When folks have an egg allergy, generally it is to one
(or a combination of) the proteins present in the whites. I’m not saying that people with egg
allergies are cleared to eat yolks, of course. I just find it interesting.

Eggs do not like really high temperatures. This is why we often bake custards in a water bath.
The part of the batter that is submerged in the water (in a pan, of course) can never rise above the
boiling point of water, or 212F/100C. Eggs like gentle cooking, and the more slowly you can
cook them, the more silky, creamy and sexy your custard will be. Have you ever had a baked
custard that has a weird, grainy texture? This happens when the eggs cook too quickly, the
proteins seize up tight and squeeze out all the liquid. And what are you left with? A nubbly,
tweedy texture. Ew. I cannot tell you how many pieces of flan I’ve sent back. Sigh.

Grocery store eggs, at least here in America, have been washed so they’re all clean and pretty.
This removes the protective coating that they naturally have, allowing them to pick up off flavors
in the fridge and to age more quickly. We get our eggs from our own chickens, and I can tell you
that we are happy when they come out clean, but we don’t expect it. Either way, clean or not, we
just wipe them off and keep them on the counter until we need to use them. We wash them right
before use, thus protecting the coating on them which allows them to sit out at room temperature
in the first place. (And this is all within reason, of course. It’s not like we’re using eggs that have
sat out on the counter for months and months.)

I am sure I have left out some information about eggs, so after reading all of this, please let me
know if you still have any questions. You can leave them here in the comments or shoot me an
email. Either way, I’m happy to help, especially if helping one can help all.

Thanks for spending some time with me today. I appreciate it.

Have a lovely day.

What Does Milk Do in Baking?

Most baked goods rely on a handful of ingredients, including milk, eggs, sugar, flour and butter or oil,
and each of these items plays a vital role. Milk has several roles in baking beyond just moistening a
batter or dough. Milk adds structure to a batter so it doesn't collapse in the oven. Milk can also give
baked goods their crisp crust.
Baking a cake or bread is akin to building a house. Some ingredients, such as flour, egg whites and water,
form the foundation of the baked good, giving it structure and strength. Other ingredients, including
sugar, oil and egg yolks, add the aesthetics that make a baked good truly satisfying. These ingredients
add tenderness, flavor and moisture to the baked good. Milk -- and in particular, whole milk -- perform
both functions. The protein in milk creates a strong batter or dough, capable of rising and withstanding
the rigors of baking. The sugar and fat in milk help tenderize and moisten the baked good, while adding
flavor. Sugar is also the ingredient that creates a golden brown crust on baked goods.

Dairy Dilemmas
Skim milk has no fat, making it the favored choice for those on a diet, but most baking recipes
that call for milk were designed for whole milk. One cup of whole milk has 3.5 grams of fat -- a
relatively small amount -- but enough to increase moisture and tenderness. In most cases, you
can substitute low-fat or skim milk for whole milk, but pay extra attention to how you prepare
the batter. Combine dry ingredients and wet ingredients separately before you mix them together
and use a light hand so you don't further toughen the baked good.

Satisfying Alternatives
Just because a recipe calls for milk, doesn't mean you have to use it. You can substitute goat's
milk or sheep's milk in most recipes, as well as dairy-free alternatives, such as soy milk or
almond milk. Regular, low-fat yogurt makes a healthy stand-in for milk or you can use
evaporated milk or fruit juice. Use these substitutes at the same ratio that you would use regular
milk. Be sure to use a plain, unflavored milk substitute. You may notice a difference in taste or
texture when making substitutions, but in most cases, the difference will be small.

Warm and Toasty

How you use milk matters, too. Cake recipes sometimes call for ingredients, such as milk, to be at room
temperature. This allows the butter, sugar and eggs to come together more smoothly, creating an
emulsion that traps air bubbles and makes a tender cake. If you're making biscuits, you'll want the milk
and other ingredients to be ice cold. Ice cold ingredients are the secret to flaky layers here. In yeast
breads, a recipe may call for the milk to be warmed almost to scalding. This high temperature
encourages the yeast to dissolve and start the rising process.