Tite litt OF INDIA Pe Re Tes M.S. KOHLI MR ea eta) Omar N Cy TN) PEO Watt) NS FRO: agile EXPERTSMOUNTAIN OF INDIA Tourism, Adventure and Pilgrimage M.S. KOHLI WITH FOREWORD BY JAGMOHAN AND CONTRIBUTIONS FROM EMINENT EXPERTS di INDUS PUBLISHING COMPANYForeword Mountains of India, especially the Himalayas, serve as vast reserves of our resources—water, energy and biodiversity. They have contributed to the growth and development of myriad cultures and ethnic groups, some in isolation but others blossoming into living faiths for millions. In the north we have the 2,400 km long majestic Himalayas which have held a strange fascination for men all over the world. and have drawn people from all walks of life—pilgrims, climbers. trekkers. artists, writers, poets and scientists. Their pristine glory lies in their blue and emerald lakes, pine forests, swift mountain streams, rugged rocks, grassy meadows resplendent with multi-coloured flowers, snow bridges spanning gurgling torrents, deep and narrow gorges, high passes enveloped in mist and snow-clad peaks rising above masses of clouds, reaching out to the deep blue sky. Many of the great Himalayan rivers— the Indus, the Sutlej, the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda are known to be older than the mountain ranges. We have a large number of hill stations. The modern concept of the hill station is evidently a phenomenon of the expansion of European imperialism in the Orient. The French established Da Lat in Indo-China, the Spanish built Baguio to escape humidity of Manila and the Dutch founded similar getaways in Indonesia. But most spectacular are the number of hill stations built by the British in India. Not only are these nostalgic reminders of home to the British but also the institution of the hill station fitted most comfortably and perfectly in the subcontinent. Besides the mountain ranges and hill stations, India possesses a unique heritage of mountain shrines. In the mighty Himalayas. since time immemorial, hundreds of shrines dot the Himalayan foothills and the lofty snow-covered peaks. Most of these shrines are very closely associated with the epics that form the backbone of Indian culture and6 Mountains of India ethos. The shrine of Vaishno Devi in Jammu attracts more than four million pilgrims every year. In all humility, | feel proud of having given the control of this important shrine to a public management committee when I was the Governor of Jammu and Kashmir. Today, despite such a large number of visitors the entire hill comprising Vaishno Devi is well preserved. The pilgrims have now access to the main temple round the clock. Besides the Himalayas in the north, there are several mountain ranges criss-crossing the rest of India—these are the Aravallis, the Vindhyas, the Satpuras, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats. Over a million of Indians belong to the tribal communities which inhabit the Himalayan foothills and the Peninsular ranges. Their life-style is fascinating and worth sustaining. In the recent years there has been phenomenal growth in the number of visitors to our mountains. At the same time these enchanting mountains have come under serious ecological threat. The Ministry of Environment and Forests have been seriously engaged in arresting any further degradation of our beautiful mountains. The Himalayan Environment Trust, spearheaded by Sir Edmund Hillary and Captain Mohan Singh Kohli, and many other environmental agencies all over India, have spread awareness about the plight of these mountain areas and are taking all possible steps to keep them clean and green. Since our mountains are very important to our tourism growth and development, we in the Ministry of Tourism and Culture are also taking all possible steps to conserve them. Our new National Tourism Policy— 2002 highlights the relationship between tourism and culture and focuses on avoiding environmental degradation. Effective linkages with the Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Department of Civil Aviation are being maintained to put greater emphasis on ecotourism. In spite of the importance of these enchanting mountains to the nation, not a single book has been written with detailed references to their adventure, pilgrimage, tourism and environmental aspects. Captain Mohan Singh Kohli has rendered a great service in writing this comprehensive volume with several highly useful additional chapters from various experts in their respective fields to fill this void. It will enable students, youth and even elderly people to know and enjoy these serene and beautiful mountains. The book also highlights the importance of keeping our mountains clean and green so that our coming gene-Foreword 7 rations can also savour their grandeur and beauty. This book, | am sure, Will not only help in spreading awareness about our enchanting Himalayas, other magnificent mountain ranges, the hill stations, the hill shrines and beautiful inhabitants of these regions but will also help in spreading concern about keeping them preserved JAGMOHAN New Delhi Minister for Tourism and CulturePreface T was born and brought up in the hilly Hazara district of NWFP, now in Pakistan. Timur Shah while going back after invading India in 1399 felt captivated by the green fields and majestic hills of Hazara. He assigned this beautiful region to his favourite chieftains. Tradition holds it that those chiefs employed in their service 1,000 Turkish soldiers for their defence and this region henceforth came to be known as Hazara. During the occupation of Hazara by the invading army of Maharaja Ranjit Singh towards the beginning of 19th century, my ancestors lost their lives on top of a hill facing my native town, Haripur, on the bank of Indus. This mountain-top since then became a place of pilgrimage for the families of those martyred who used to congregate annually on this mountain top. This entailed crossing several gushing tributaries of the Indus and a steep climb of about 2.000 feet. When I was six months old, in April 1932, | was carried by my father to the top. Six years later, | am told, I completed this adventurous trip on my own steam. Today, I realise that these annual expeditions for 10 years, from 1938 to 1947, had laid an extremely strong foundation on which I could embark on a number of challenging missions which included three expeditions to Mount Everest. This childhood exposure to adventure not only made me physically very strong but also helped me in developing a very high level of mental endurance and spiritual awareness Later, in 1954, when | joined the Indian Navy, I was posted to “INS Shivaji” near the hilly town of Lonavla—the highest quarterdeck of the Indian Navy. Whether it was by sheer coincidence or a part of my destiny, | won't know, but my four-year tenure in Lonavla gave me excellent opportunities to climb the hills and forts surrounding Lonavla. Immediately after reaching I.N.S. Shivaji, | was made officer incharge of the Deep Sea Scouts troupe of the Indian Navy. Every weekend, on10 Mountains of India Saturdays, I would take some 24 scouts on a 20-25 kms long trek, climb a hilltop or a fort, spend the night on top with campfire and scout games. We would return on Sunday evenings as victorious heroes. The impact of these weekly expeditions on the sailor-scouts for almost four years was so profound that these 24 boys turned into hefty men as compared to hundreds of other boy-sailors. They developed strong physique, qualities of leadership and spirit of adventure. Normally, a small percentage of sailors of high calibre succeed in becoming officers. It was interesting to observe that the entire batch of these scouts achieved the unique distinction of being promoted to the commissioned ranks. It is my firm conviction that if India is to become a strong nation, it is important for our youth to use our mountains for acquiring physical strength, vigour and vitality. Mountains are ideal for character-building training and for acquiring qualities of leadership, team spirit, self-reliance and self-confidence. Classroom education alone is not sufficient for our children to face the harsh realities of life. Mountain adventure is the best solution. Besides, mountain tourism, both domestic and inter- national, is of paramount importance to our country. Over one billion people all over the world consider their mountains sacred. In India almost all the mountains, both in the Himalayas and in other parts of India, contain places of worship. Traditional cultures and conservation have evolved together for ages in our mountains. A large number of our people depend on mountain watersheds for their supplies of fresh water. Massive increase of tourism activities in the fragile mountain ecosystem also impose the serious challenges which have to be surmounted. Our lush green forests around our mountains also play a crucial role in the sustainable development of our mountain areas. Mountains harbour some of the earth’s richest concentrations of biodiversities. The magnificent mountains of India are our great assets. Considering the importance of our mountains, it is important that we save them for our future generations. The United Nations, consi- dering all these factors, have declared 2002 as the ‘Year of the Mountain and Ecotourism’. This decision has inspired me to write a book on the beautiful mountains of India with a message to the youth to take advantage of these mountains and follow the message of Swami Vivekananda to become physically, mentally and spiritually tough. To make this book comprehensive in all aspects, I took help fromPreface VW various experts in their respective fields. ] express my sincere gratitude to all of them for responding favourably to my request. Without their cooperation, the publication of this volume would not have been possible. Material for hill shrines, hill stations and certain aspects of tourism has been compiled with the help of various websites, particularly www.ourhimalayas.com, www.travelindia.com, www.templenet.com, www.indiatravelite.com, travel.indiamart.com. I acknowledge with gratitude their contribution to this book. I am also grateful to Yogendra Bali for his valuable advice and for going through the manuscript and making several improvements. My special gratitude goes to Shri Jagmohan for writing the Foreword to this book which puts the entire subject in a proper prespective. New Delhi M.S. KouContents Foreword by Jagmohan Preface List of Contributors weno 17. 18, Part I—Mountainscape The Majestic Himalayas M.S. Kohli The Peninsular Mountains M.S. Kohli Highlands of Madhya Pradesh & Chhattisgarh BLK. Bagchi Himalayan Flora Rupin Dang Part U—Tourism Growth of Himalayan Tourism — Yogendra Bali Tourism in Jammu & Kashmir Mohammad Ashraf Tourism in Himachal Pradesh Ashok Thakur Tourism in Uttaranchal = N.N. Prasad Tourism in Sikkim — Karma Gyatso ¥~ The Indian Mountain Railways = Ashwani Lohani Challenging Heights of Kerala 7. Balakrishnan Part III—Hill Stations Hill Stations of India: The Origin AS. Kohli Hill Stations of Northern India M.S. Kohli Hill Stations of Western India M.S. Kohli Hill Stations of Southern India M.S. Kohli Hill Stations of Eastern India M.S. Kohli Part [V—Mountaineering Indian Mountaineering Foundation. New Delhi NN Vohra Himalayan Mountaineering Institute. Darjeeling Col Vijay Singh 113 117 153 160 170 187 19]cks 34, 35. 36. 37. 4l 42 Mountains of India The Western Himalayan Mountaineering Institute, Manali Col. H.S. Chauhan Nehru Institute of Mountaineering, Uttarkashi Lt, Col. Ashok Abbey Jawahar Institute of Mountaineering and Winter Sports, J&K — Group Capt. SS. Puri Five Decades of Indian Mountaineering M.S. Kohli Part V—Other Adventures Trekking in the Himalayas M.S. Kohli Ice Trekking on the Frozen River Zanskar: An Experience Mandip Singh Soin Adventures in North-East India Nasim Akhtor Rock Climbing in and around Delhi = Mohit Oberoi Trekking in the Sahyadris — Harish Kapadia Adventure in and around Mumbai _K. Saraswati Amongst the Hill Forts of Shivaji M.S. Kohli Adventures in Karnataka = Hari Prasad and B.U. Krishnamurthy White Water Rafting in India Ajeet Bajaj Aero Sports in India Satish Pathania Part VI—Hill Shrines Himalayan Shrines of Jammu & Kashmir M.S. Kohli Himalayan Shrines of Himachal Pradesh M.S. Kohli Himalayan Shrines of Uttaranchal M.S. Kohli Himalayan Shrines of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh M.S. Kohli Hill Shrine of Tirupati M.S. Kohli Part VII—Man, Mountain and Nature The Himalayas: World Heritage — Dr. Karan Singh Himalayan Ecotourism M.S. Kohli Keep the Mountains Clean Sir Edmund Hillary Western Ghats: Ecotourism Gateway to Tamil Nadu JC. Kala Eco-Restoration Strategies for the Mountains Samita Loonker Index 195 198 205 208 219 231 239 243, 249 258 262 266 275 288 359 364 370 376Contributors Abbey, Lt. Col. Ashok—Principal, Nehru Institute of Mountaineering, Uttarkashi-249193 (Uttaranchal) Akhtor, Nasim—Member, Indian Mountaineering Foundation, Barthakur, Mill Road, Ulubari, Guwahati-78 1007 (Assam) Ashraf, Mohammad—Director General (Tourism), Jammu & Kashmir Government, Srinagar, Kashmir (May-Oct.) and Jammu-Tawi (Nov.-April) Bagchi, B.K.—Tourism Consultant, H-40, Nishat Enclave, 74-Bungalows, Bhopal-462003 (M.P.) Bajaj, Ajeet—Managing Director, Snow Leopard Adventures Pvt. Ltd., C-9/ 9174, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070 Balakrishnan, T.—Secretary (Tourism), Govt. of Kerala, Secretariat, Tniruvananthapuram-695001 (Kerala) Bali, Yogendra—Renowned journalist and writer, A-4, Press Enclave, Saket, New Delhi-110017 Chauhan, Col. H.S.—Director, Directorate of Mountaineering and Allied Sports (Govt. of Himachal Pradesh), Manali-175131 (H.P.) Dang, Rupin—Managing Director, Wilderness Films India Pvt, Ltd., 1, Factory Road, Ring Road South, Near Safdarjang Hospital, New Delhi-1 10029 Gyatso, Karma—Commissioner-cum-Secretary (Tourism), Govt. of Sikkim, Gangtok-737101 (Sikkim) Hillary, Sir Edmund—First Man to Climb Mount Everest, 278 A Remueri Road, Auckland-5, New Zealand Kala, J.C.— Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Tamil Nadu, No. I. Jeenis Salai, Panagal Maligai, Saidpet, Chennai-600015 (T.N.) Kapadia, Harish Editor, Himalayan Journal, 72. Vijay Apartments, 16. Carmichael Road. Mumbai-400026 (Maharashtra)16 Mountains of India Kohli, M.S.—Editor, Chairman, Himalayan Environment Trust, E-4, East of Kailash, New Delhi-110065 Krishnamurthy, B.U.—Honorary Secretary, Hill Top Mountaineering Group, 195, 5th Main Road, Chamarajpet, Bangalore-560018 (Karnataka) Lohani, Ashwani—Managing Director, Indian Tourism Development Corporation Ltd., Scope Complex Core 8, 6th Floor, 7 Lodhi Road, New Delhi-1 10003 Loonker, Samita—Programme Officer, (SAHYOG), His Highness Maharaja Hanwant Singhji Charitable Trust, Umaid Bhawan, Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Oberoi, Mohit—Managing Director, Outdoor School Artificial Climbing Wall System, F-6, Naraina Vihar, New Delhi-1 10028 Pathania, Satish—Managing Director, Alpha Aviation Services Pvt. Ltd., A- 247, 1st Floor, Shivalik, New Delhi-110017 Prasad, Hari—Director of Real Academy, 110/A, 29th Cross, 7th Block, Jayanagar, Bangalore-560082 (Karnataka) Prasad, N.N.—Secretary (Tourism), Govt. of Uttaranchal, Sachivalya, Dehradun (Uttaranchal) Puri, Group Cap. S.S.—Principal, Jawahar Institute of Mountaineering and Winter Sports, Tringla, Batote-182143 (J & K) Saraswati, K:—Member, Indian Mountaineering Foundation, 10/156, Adarsh Nagar, Prabhadevi, Mumbai-400025 (Maharashtra) Singh, Col. Vijay—Principal, Himalayan Mountaineering Institute, Darjeeling- 734101 (West Bengal) Singh, Dr. Karan—Member of Parliament, Former Regent and Former Sadar- i-Riyasat of Jammu & Kashmir and Former Cabinet Minister, “Mansarovar”, 3 Nyaya Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi-1 10021 Soin, Mandip Singh— Founder and Managing Director, Ibex Expeditions Pvt Ltd., G-66, East of Kailash, New Delhi-1 10065 Thakur, Ashok—Secretary (Tourism), Govt. of Himachal Pradesh, H.P. Secretariat, Shimla-171002 (H.P.) Vohra, N.N.—President, I.M.F., formerly Defence and Home Secretary and Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister of India, 6, Benito Juarez Marg, Anand Niketan, New DelhiMOUNTAINSCAPE1 The Majestic Himalayas M.S. Kohli Aeons ago when the continents of the earth were being shaped by elemental forces, two land masses were floating towards each other across the sea that separated them. Came the inevitable collision. The result was a vertical rise of the land mass from the sea sediments, presenting the world one of its greatest physical features. This was the beginning of the Himalaya also called the Himalayas. It is also known as the ‘Abode of Snow’ (Aim meaning snow and alaya meaning abode in Sanskrit). Though a complex mountain system, the Himalaya is also the source of most of the major rivers in the sub- continent. The Himalaya has been part of Indian life from times immemorial. The Hoary Origins The hoary origins of these towering land masses gave rise to many myths and legends. But transcending all that has been a spirit of veneration towards the Himalaya and its mountains. References to mountains and hills of Bharatvarsha, as India was known, are found in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Vedas. Accounts of mountains and hills of India of yore—a land far bigger in size than it is today— abound in many sources: Buddhist and Jain texts, Greek authors, Chinese travellers, the district and imperial gazetteers of pre-Independence India. not only to mention the holy books of the Hindus. According to the Mahabharata and the Markandeya Purana, the Himalayan range stretched from sea to sea like the string of a bow. It is believed that the Sakyas and the Koliyas were transported by the Buddha to the Himalaya. The Buddha told them about various “precious”20 Mountains of India mountains in the Himalayan region—golden mountain, jewel mountain, vermilion mountain, collyrium mountain, crystal mountain etc. The Himalayan mountain was believed to be the source of ten rivers. The Kailash Range The Kailash range near Mansarovar has been called the “king” of the mountains with its cluster of giant peaks. It has been identified with the Vaidyutaparvata and also been named Kavilasa. It is venerated as the abode of Lord Shiva. Ancient geographers used the name Himavanta for the entire mountain range that stretched from Sulaiman in West Punjab to the whole boundary of northern India right up to Assam and Arakan hill ranges in the east. The Himalaya mountain has been described as a mine of gems and full of minerals on its summits. The sages took shelter on its “sunny summit”, the caves of which were covered by clouds. Geologically, the Himalayas are among the youngest mountains. This is proved by the fossilized remains of sea life that are found on the higher reaches of Everest and other mountains. The Himalaya are massive in size and majestic in view. In mass alone, the Himalaya are greater than all the mountains of Europe put together. Move in an arc from the western extreme of the Himalaya near Afghanistan to its eastern end close to Myanmar and you would have travelled about 2500 km, almost the distance between London and Moscow. In width, the Himalayan arc is about 200 to 400 kilometre. Not An Uninterrupted Chain But the Himalaya is not an uninterrupted chain of mountains. It is a series of almost parallel and converging ranges with large valleys and extensive plateaux. The legacy of the Himalaya is claimed by a number of countries—India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan, China, Afghanistan, Central Asian Republics and Myanmar. The people living within the Himalayan region follow almost all the great religions of the world— Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism, Christianity. The world’s tallest peak, Mount Everest (8,848 m), is the Himalaya’s most coveted treasure. Put the Jungfrau of the Swiss Alps on top of Europe’s tallest mountain. Mont Blanc, and Everest would still dwarf them. That is not all, the Himalaya has more than 30 peaks which are over 25,000 ft in height, a unique geographical feature in the worldThe Majestic Himalayas 21 The Lesser Himalaya Geographers say that the Himalaya rose in the form of a series of long parallel curvilinear folds whose general alignment and strike is parallel to the edge of the old continental block of India to the south. The parallel folds have been moulded into their present shape by erosion through the ages. The Himalayan region has three major mountain zones: the Shivalik range, the lesser Himalaya and the Great Himalaya. The Shivalik range is the youngest of the three, 20 to 30 miles wide and stretches over 1500 miles from the Indus to near the Brahmaputra in Assam. In between there is a gap of 200 miles between the Kosi and the Manas in Bhutan, the effect of monsoon erosion. This is a zone of both single and double fold with a broad plain (“Dun”) like at Dehra, 20 to 30 miles wide. The height above the plain is not more than 3000 ft. But the forests are often dense which provide sanctuary to tiger, leopard, bear and other wild animals. The Lesser Himalaya is an older and complex zone, averaging a width of 60 miles. Except in the extreme north, the average height of summits here is 15,000 ft. Nearly all the well-known but man-made hill stations of the northern part of the subcontinent are found here: Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, Darjeeling, Dalhousie and Murree (Pakistan). The average height of these hill stations is 5,000 to 7,000 ft. Rains here can be devastating, wiping out mountain paths if not the hillsides themselves. The eastern part has dense green forests while the western part of the zone has beautiful coniferous forests that include the lovely deodars in Kashmir. The Great Himalaya The Great Himalaya is the core of the whole system, parallel to the Shivalik but with some gaps in its length. Within this zone stand some of the world’s tallest peaks, all of which over 25,000 ft: Mt Everest, Kanchendzonga, Makalu. Nanga Parbat, Nanda Devi. Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Namche Barwa. Zanskar Range North of the main Himalaya lies the Zanskar range which can be taken as an unofficial boundary between India and Tibet. Its highest area is in the south-eastern end with Leo Pargial (22.280 ft) rising just north of the Sutlej. Shilla (23,050 ft) and Shipki (21.680 ft)22 Mountains of India The Zanskar range is crossed by several routes where the passes and valleys attracted sportsmen in search of game. The better known among them are Parang La (18.300 ft), Lachalung La and Marang La which are both over 16,000 fi, Nera La (15,966 ft) and Kungri La. At the eastern end of the Zanskar range is the Fatu La pass on the Srinagar- Leh road. The trekking passes are the Singge La, the Cha Cha La and the Rubrang La. During the harsh and long winter months, the main route between the Zanskar valley and Leh is down the ice-bound Zanskar river gorges. Breaching the Zanskar range is the Zanskar river flowing down big, gorges until it reaches the Indus below Leh. The Zanskar range runs through Lahaul and Spiti to act as a buffer zone between the Himalaya and the Tibetan plateau. Across west, it continues across Uttarakhand to constitute another zone between the Himalaya and the Tibetan plateau. The second highest peak in territories under India, Kamet (7,756 m), lies here. Near northeast of the river Kali, close to the Indo-Nepal border, the boundary of the range ends. The Karakoram Himalaya Ancient geographers knew the Karakoram as Krishnagiri, also Kanhagiri or Kanheri, all of which meant the Black Mountain. But much of the Karakoram Himalaya, a trans-Himalayan range, falls in that part of the old Jammu and Kashmir State now under Pakistan occupation. It got its name from the ancient Karakoram pass to Central Asia that kept alive Leh-Yarkand-Kashgar trade links. The Karakoram Himalaya extends south-to-north from the lower Shyok and Indus rivers and the Shaksgam tributary of the Yarkand river and Ishkoman and Karumba rivers on the west and the upper Shyok in the east which has its source in the Rimo glacier and the drier regions of western Tibet. Beyond the Karumba river on the west, the mountain chain is known as the Hindu Kush. Early geographers knew the Hindu Kush as the Malyavat mountain that divided India and Afghanistan. The Karakoram is the home of the world’s second highest peak, K2 (28,250 ft) and has many other mountains of great height: Gasherbrums. four of them over 26,000 ft, Masherbrum (25.660 ft), Rakaposhi (25,550 ft) and Saltoro Kangri (25,400 ft) and Saser Kangri. There are six mountains of over 26,000 ft and another 13 that are over 25,000 ft high.The Majestic Himalayas 23 It is the most heavily glaciated region outside the sub-polar area. Among the longest glaciers are the Batura (36 miles) and Hispar on the west, the Baltoro (also 36 miles) and the Siachen (45 miles). North of Leh, the Ladakh range lies between the lower Shyok and upper Indus. It is part of that range that merges with the Kailash range in Tibet. The world’s highest motorable pass, Kardung La (5,606 m) is within the Ladakh range. Trekkers can take the Digar La pass, north- east of Leh. In the west the rectangular Punjab Himalaya, lying between the Indus and the Sutlej, is about 560 km in length. The basins of some of the great rivers of the area, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Beas, are also located here. Its crest zone starts from Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), one of the great mountains in the whole of Himalaya, moves towards the Nun Kun and then towards the Tibetan border. North of the region is the Zanskar range. But the two principal ranges are in the Kashmir-Punjab region, the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar south of which lies the Shivalik range. Pir Panjal Lying south of the main Himalaya and with an average height of 5,000 metres, the Pir Panjal is the largest of the lesser ranges and takes off from Gulmarg in the northwest along the southern edge of the Kashmir valley up to the Banihal pass where it meets the ridge that divides the Kashmir valley from the Warvan valley. The Chenab pierces the range in Kishtwar. Pir Panjal has many summits of over 19,000 ft. with passes of over 16,000 ft. and glaciers in the north. Pir Panjal has attracted many mountaineers too. Some of its peaks have been described as pleasant holiday climbs which can be reached from Srinagar in about two days. Among the important passes in the region are the Pir Panjal pass (11,462 ft), due west of Srinagar, which has given name to the whole range, and the Banihal pass (8,985 ft). Till the late 19th century. the most frequented pass between Punjab and Kashmir was Pir Panjal which had a number of “serais” in the Mughal era. These days, the main road link between Jammu and Srinagar, the winter and summer capitals of the State of Jammu & Kashmir, is provided by a metalled road with an all-weather tunnel over the Banihal pass which lies at the head of the Jhelum river in the southern part of the Kashmir valley and the Synthen24 Mountains of India pass that extends from Kashmir to Kishtwar. Roads and tunnels are being constructed through Pir Panjal, west of the Rohtang pass, to provide access to Lahaul. Dhauladhar South of the Pir Panjal lies the snow-capped ridges of the Lesser Himalaya’s Dhauladhar range, which rises to a height of 4,570 metres and is set amidst a wooded range of Kangra. It is drained and divided by tributaries of the Beas and the Ravi. It divides the Chenab and Tawi valleys, extending eastwards across Himachal Pradesh. It extends south of the Pin Parvati valley. It also separates the Sangla valley and the upper Tons catchment area. Extending beyond the Bhagirathi river, the Dhauladhar lies between Gangotri and Kedarnath and then joins the Himalaya at the Gangotri glacier. Dhauladhar has many trekking passes like the Indradhar pass which is north of Dharamshala in Himachal Pradesh and the Borasu pass between the Sangla valley and the Har ki Doon. Shivalik Range The Shivalik range was once known as always “clad in forest and draped in cloud” with the giant Himalaya closeby. The average elevation of the Shivalik hills is 1,500-2,000 metres. It is a low, but a long range of about 2,400 km that encloses an area that starts almost from the Indus in the north-west and ends close to the Brahmaputra in the north- east, running almost parallel to the Himalaya. There is a gap of about 90 km in Assam, between the rivers Teesta and Raidak. The width of the Shivalik mountains generally varies from 10 to 50 km. Lying south of the Dhauladhar range, the Shivaliks are geologically separate from the Himalaya. They are the first hills, most of which covered by roads, that one encounters afier leaving the plains. Among these ranges, mention may be made of the Jammu hills, Vaishno Devi, both in Jammu and Kashmir, Kangra, Mandi in Himachal Pradesh, the area from Dehradun to Almora in Uttarakhand and right up to the area near the Nepal border. The Shivalik range is a major mountain zone between the plains of the Ganga and Tibet. The Shivalik is marked by an abrupt drop in height. A large part ofThe Majestic Himalayas 25 the range is separated from the hills by flat-bottomed valleys (“Duns”). A well-known landmark of this nature is the Dehradun valley The Yoginitantra and Bana’s Kadambari identified the Shivalik range with the Mainakagri. Ancient Indian texts have mentioned that in the Himalayan region there was a mountain called Daddara. Then there was a mountain called Kandagiri, close to a forest. Also in the neighbourhood of the Himalaya was a mountain called Dnammaka where lived the first Buddha Dipankara in a hermitage. Great men like Ashoka, Gautama and Kadamba lived not very far from the Himalaya. The Kumaon Himalaya The Kumaon Himalaya is bounded by the Sutlej on the west and north and the Kali (Mahakali) on the east on the western boundary of the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal. From the Shivalik ranges in the south, it rises to the heights of the Himalaya. Its most famous peak is Nanda Devi (25,645 ft). But there are many other great peaks like Nanda Kot (22,510 ft), Kamet (25,447 ft), Kedarnath (22,720 ft), Trisul (23,360 ft) and Panchchuli (22,650 ft). Many of the mountains in the region are held sacred by Hindus as are most of the rivers that flow from here, including the Ganga and the Yamuna. The Bhagirathi river collects waters from glaciers in the Great Himalaya and the Alaknanda collects the Saraswati and Dhauli to plunge south-east of the Chaukhamba mountain in a gorge between Joshimath and Chamoli. The Bhagirathi leads to Gaumukh, the Cow’s Mouth, at the Gangotri glacier. The Alaknanda leads to holy Badrinath on the Saraswati. Legend has it that Patangiri near Gangotri was the place where the five Pandavas lived for 12 years, worshipping Mahadeva, and where Draupadi and four of the Pandavas died. The Mount Meru Mount Meru is identified with Rudra Himalaya in Garhwal where the Ganga takes it rise. Rudra Himalaya, was also called Panchaparvata because of its five peaks. It is near the Badrikasrama and is probably the Mount Meros of Arrian. It is also known as Karnikacala. The Meros mountain is known as Maer-Koh in Jalalabad in Pakistan. On its western side stands Nisadha and Paripatra; on the southern side is Kailash and Himvanta and on the northern side stand Sringavan and Jarudhi. Meru stands in the middle of Ilavrta which was visited by Vaisampayana and26 Mountains of India the sage Salankayana meditated here. Based on the Padmapurana and the Kalikapurana, some scholars have said that Mount Meru is situated to the north of Almora district. It is said that Shiva saw its summit. Buddhist texts have referred to Simeru said to be 68,000 leagues in height. The highest peak is the Simeru which is accompanied by seven celestial ranges. Mount Meru or the Simeru was believed to be rich with gold deposits. The temple at Chidambaram was considered as the southern Meru because of the large amount of gold deposited on the roof of its golden hall. But the area also has a Christian touch, strange though it may sound. It appears that in July 1614, two Portuguese Jesuits, Father Antonio de Andrade and Brother Manuel Marques, undertook a mission to Tsaparang on the Sutlej, the capital of Guge, a prosperous little kingdom in Tibet. In 1626 they founded the first Christian church there. Some of the peaks in the region present an arresting panorama of snow. But they also pose a challenge to the skills of mountaineers who wish to scale them. The surrounding of Nanda Devi has a large ring of mountains, about 70 miles in circumference and an average height of 20,000 ft. On top of it are at least 19 peaks that are over 21,000 ft high. On the west the Rishiganga rises from glaciers on either side of Nanda Devi, draining huge quantities of ice and snow. The Sikkim Himalaya The Sikkim Himalaya is the smallest of the Himalayan regions. It is also known for the easy access it provides to the Himalaya through the road network up to Gangtok, capital of Sikkim. But this eastern Himalayan region is full of mountains. About two-third of the area is above the permanent snow-line. The Great Himalaya is less than 50 miles in a direct line from Darjeeling. The Sikkim Himalaya contains the Kanchendzonga massif, at 8,598 metres the third highest peak in the world. This section of the Himalaya is reinforced by long and high ridges on the north and the south. The uniqueness of Kanchendzonga is that it can be accessed from all the four approaches in the east, west, north and south From west to east, the Kanchendzonga massif consists of JanuThe Majestic Himalayas 27 (25,294 ft), Kanbachen (25,782 ft), Kanchendzonga-I (28,146 ft) and Kanchendzonga-II (27,803 ft). East of the massif are two fine mountains, Simeru (22,803 ft) and Siniolchu (22,600 ft) which are considered one of the most beautiful mountains in the world. Along the northern Kanchendzonga ridge are found peaks popularly known as The Twins (23,360 ft), Nepal Peak (23,560 ft), Tent Peak (24,089 ft), The Pyramid (23,400 ft), Langpo Peak (22,800 fi) and Jongsong Peak (24,344 ft). The Singalila ridge in the south also carries peaks of over 20,000 ft, like Talung Peak (23,082 ft) and Kabru (24,002 ft). The Yalung glacier in the south-west is separated by this section from the Talung glacier in the south-east quadrant. Talung itself is south of the Zemu glacier. The southern face of Kabru falls to the Rathong glacier. East of this group near Kanchendzonga there is a gap in the Great Himalaya. The eastern boundary between Sikkim and Tibet is formed by the Dongkya ridge. There are no peaks of over 20.000 fi. Not being very high, the passes provide an easy access to the Chumbi valley. The Assam Himalaya The Assam Himalaya can be described as the least known Himalayan region which has not been explored fully. Its western part borders Bhutan and Tibet. The eastern part extends towards Tibet and Myanmar. Among its better known peaks are Chomolhari (23,997 ft), Kulha Kangri (24,784 ft) and Namche Barwa (25,445 ft) in the extreme east. Chomolhari on the Bhutan-Tibet boundary is a sacred mountain to the Tibetans. The western part of the Assam Himalaya is drained by rivers Amo Chu (Chumbi valley in upper Tibet), Wong Chu or Raidak, and the Sankosh which is known as Punaka Chu in Bhutan. The eastern half of this part of the Himalaya is tribal dominated area, drained by the small Bhareli and the Subansiri tributary of the mighty Brahmaputra. The great range and upper valleys east of Chomolhari have not been fully explored though there are many peaks rising above 20,000 ft There are two groups over 24.000 ft near the source of the Bumtang and another two summits of 23,000 ft. There is a lot to be explored about the higher approaches, passes and the great range in the north.