Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Africa International
Journal of MULTIDISCPLINARY
RESEARCH
© OIRC Journals, 2018 ISSN: 2523-9430 (Online Publication)
www.oircjournals.org ISSN: 2523-9422 (Print Publication)
Elizabeth Murey1
Moi University, School of Business and Economics, Department of Development Studies,
Introduction and Background Information. Istanbul in June 1996, which gave birth to the
In the recent past there has been increasing global Istanbul Declaration on Human Settlements,
attention on the need to tackle the emergence and marked a significant turning point in the global
growth of informal settlements across the world’s policy discourse on the need to ensure adequate
cities. Third United Nations (UN) Conference in shelter for all. This policy agenda, was later
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Inadequate access to safe water; to explore how green practices have been
Inadequate access to sanitation integrated in the informal settlement upgrading
and other infrastructure; in medium size towns in Kenya.
Poor structural quality of
housing; Statement of the Problem
Overcrowding; and The search for sustainable urban development
Insecure residential status framework for the provision of basic services and
Thus, informal settlement in the present study infrastructure in informal settlements has
refers to a settlement which has the above become a global agenda. This is augmented by
attributes and features. global initiatives with international actors such as
Further, the upgrading of informal settlement on UN-HABITAT, World Bank and United Nations
the other hand, consists of physical, social, affiliated bodies working on sustainable
economic, organizational and environmental development. In the past, development actors
improvements undertaken cooperatively and have dealt with such problems through funding
locally among citizens, community groups, of housing programmes such as introduction of
businesses, and local authorities (Cities Alliance, site and service schemes, all geared towards
2012). Kessler (2000) opines that upgrading of increasing housing stock, improvement of
informal settlement customarily provides a physical housing conditions and infrastructure
package of improvements in streets, footpaths provision. This development paradigm however
and drainage, proper solid waste collection, ignored the improvement of the household
street lights for security and electricity to homes. livelihood and minimization of environmental
In addition, Acioly (2002) opines that the new risk which are key pillars to sustainable urban
aphorism in informal settlement upgrading is development. In Kenya, response to the growth
“integration” which includes physical of informal settlements has been fragmented and
integration, social integration and juridical uncoordinated, while at the same time expensive
integration. Physical integration is the and unsustainable. There is need to come up with
transformation of the informal settlement workable strategies that can address green
settlements into neighbourhoods through direct practice adoption. Such initiatives will not only
public investments, opening of roads, connection address the settlement challenges but also open
to city’s infrastructure networks and public up opportunities for employment and
services, merging to the city’s cadastre and empowerment of urban dwellers and above all
official maps. Social integration, meaning that ensure environmental sustainability.
specific programs addressing community needs,
vocational training and social development are Theoretical Framework
implemented vis-à-vis the public works. Juridical Although there are various theories and models
integration means the regularization of land that have been advanced on the study of green
parcelling and individual plot titling and final practices this study is grounded on the Triple
resolution of land ownership issues which Bottom Line Model (TBL) advocated by business
complements city-wide cadastre needed to consultant John Elkington in 1990. The model
collect property taxes and user’s taxes and tariffs. describes economic, environmental, and social
Currently, the paradigm shift is towards value of investment. The concept is sometimes
integration of green practices which is the referred to as the 3Ps (people, planet, profit).
pathways to attaining of Sustainable Triple bottom line thinking is informed by and
Development Goals. Green practices results in relates to the concept of sustainable development
improved human wellbeing and social equity on the premise that development should occur in
while significantly reducing environments risks ways that meet the needs of current generations
and ecological scarcities. There is a need therefore while maintaining conditions and opportunities
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for future generations to do the same (World explains that the TBL sustainability has three
Commission on Environment and Development, mutually reinforcing pillars of sustainable
1987). development namely economic development,
From sustainable urban development social development and environmental
perspective, the TBL approach encompasses a protection. At this point, sustainability is
much bigger picture, and includes a broader perceived as the position where these three
focus on economic sustainability than the mere pillars interact and created a common platform
financial feasibility. On the broader sustainability from which sustainable development can be
platform, the Johannesburg Declaration on attained or exercised to achieve common
Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2002) benefits. As shown in the figure below.
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appropriate since it attempts to describe what is (2016). In addition the provision to each
in a social setting such as an informal settlement. household in an informal settlement with a
The target population of this study comprised prepaid meter, by the Kenya Power is allowing
mainly the 370 households’ heads in the 3 them to control exactly how much they spending
informal settlements in Eldoret. In addition, the on electricity each month. The pay as you use
study also targeted key informants which solar system by Safaricom is also another
included a representative from Ministry of Land, initiative that is encouraging the communities to
Housing, and Urban Development, one from embrace green practices.
NEMA, KISIP project component three Integration of green practices requires creation of
managers, County Community Development awareness for example based on the Case study
Officer, County Director of Environment, County on the adoption of energy efficient lighting in the
Director of Water, and County Physical Planner. Nairobi informal settlement of Kibera it was
The study employed simple random sampling to found out that an incandescent bulb may break
choose a household head (or his/her deputy five times monthly whereas a high quality energy
when the head is absent) who was willing to fill saving bulbs can reach life spans of six to eight
the questionnaires, systematic to obtain the years, resulting in product cost savings as a result
household and purposive sampling to select key of enhanced durability. Further, a randomised
informants and stakeholder’s representative control trial (RCT) conducted in Kibera showed
from Settlement Executive Committee SEC who the impact of simply informing people about this
were believed to be resourceful by virtue of fact. The combination of a voucher for high
possessing information crucial to the quality bulbs with a salient information flyer
achievement of the study objectives. increased the uptake rate of efficient lighting to
84% compared to 23% when only the voucher
Literature Review was provided. In addition, Supporting policy
Arguably one of the better ways of measures also need to be integrated to facilitate
implementing the green practices in the informal energy efficiency uptake. For example, in Kenya,
settlements, is for service providers in water, substantial counterfeit CFL bulbs have reduced
energy and waste sectors to work with consumer confidence in these products, as the
governments and development actors to further market is heavily populated with inferior
reduce the connection fee due to high initial cost products with higher amounts of mercury and
after extending energy, water and sewer low durability. The impact of these concerns on
networks in informal settlements of this basic demand for efficient lighting was highlighted by
services to encourage people to connect legally to the study mentioned above. It showed that
services rather than obtain them through cartels respondents were very willing to buy a CFL bulb
that connect illegally and charge more than even at a relatively high price if they believed
formal service providers would. In addition they efforts had been made to secure a non-
should provide payment alternatives that take counterfeit, high quality product. Quality
into account income levels in informal assurance infrastructure is thus an essential
settlements this will helps reduce defaults and policy framework element that is required in
service interruptions. A good example is the integration of green energy to limit the needless
mechanisms that are being piloted in the water erosion of market confidence in unfamiliar
and electricity sectors by Nairobi Water and efficient technologies and build trust in energy
Sewerage Company which launched a mobile efficient innovations. In tandem to quality
phone platform that enables customers to report On the other hand, Integration of Green Waste in
meter readings and to receive and settle bills. Informal Settlement Upgrading requires tapping
This allows customers to pay their bills when into greening a number of informal activities that
funds are available Kenya urbanization report benefits the poor, including waste management
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(through efforts to prioritise the 3Rs of Reduce, The waste transportation trucks should
Recycle and Reuse. Apart from waste be closed and suitable for the
management integration process involves well transportation of the various waste
laid down policies from disposal at household streams to the waste treatment facilities
level, Transport of waste and management of and landfills; as shown in figure 2.3
land fill. below.
According to NEMA regulations on waste The trucks waste trucks should be
transportation include: regularly serviced and maintained to
avoid littering of waste;
The County Governments should All waste transportation vehicles should
provide adequate transport for the be licenced to operate by NEMA
various segregated waste streams;
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Based on analysis of the different types of (ESIA) Report for the informal settlements in
upgraded projects, it is shown that the most Eldoret Town identified adverse environmental
popular upgraded projects in the settlement were and social impacts which could have been caused
street and security lighting, footpath and bike by the projects selected for implementation in
path and storm water drainage with 317 (88.6%), these settlements and it developed, where
223 (62.3%) and 218 (60.9%) respondents required, suitable mitigation measures.
respectively. Solid waste management and From the above it was clear that the main
drinking water projects were ranked next at 131 environmental mitigation measure that need to
(36.6%) and 121 (33.8%) respectively. The projects be taken during operation is an adequate
that were not very common were vending maintenance of these systems. It is important to
platforms, public parks and green space while define exactly who in each case is responsible for
the least popular was solar installation at 63 maintenance and roles that citizens and
(17.6%), 45 (12.6%) and lastly 27 (7.5%) in that government play as well.
order.
Further, an interview with the KISIP component Stakeholders Involved in Upgrading
three manager carried revealed that. Informal settlement upgrading process involves
Environmental and social management was various improvements undertaken cooperatively
integrated into the development and operation of and locally by various stakeholders such as
projects financed under KISIP to ensure effective citizens, community groups, business people,
mitigation of potentially adverse impacts while FBOs, NGOs, local authorities, and international
enhancing accruing benefits. In addition, community. The figure below shows
Environmental and Social Impact Assessment stakeholders involved in upgrading
program.
Main Stakeholders in Upgrading of Settlements
Main Stakeholder
NGO's 15.10%
KENSUP 22.30%
KISIP 52%
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Findings in the current study show that various programme under the Kenya Slum Upgrading
stakeholders are involved in the upgrading Programme (KENSUP) in the informal
process in the three informal settlements. It was settlements.
clearly evident that KISIP was identified as one Non-governmental organizations often play a
of the main stakeholder having undertaken valuable role in improving the quality of life in
various initiatives in the IS upgrading with 186 informal settlement around the globe. Bad
(54.2%) respondents. The county government of policies, wasteful spending and corruption have
Uasin Gishu was the next main stakeholder in prevented governments from providing
which 108(30%) of respondents confirmed its adequate aid to informal settlements in many
involvement in the upgrading process. Thirdly, parts of the world. NGOs often attempt to fill the
KENSUP had 80 (22.3%) responses, who said that void, promoting development and delivering aid
it was involved in the upgrading process. to slums. According to Wilburn (2008) local
Respondent said that other stakeholders were; NGOs often have the knowledge and experience
NGO’S with 54 (15.1%), the private sector with 18 needed for practicing good governance.
(5.1%), the residents with 17 (4.8%) and lastly Development actors who lack this local
CBOs and FBOs with 9 (2.5%) and 5 (1.4%) knowledge are often willing to form partnerships
respectively. with local NGOs in providing aid to informal
It was also noted that the KISIP project was settlements. NGOs can therefore serve as a link
initiated in the year 2011 and was focused in between informal settlements dwellers and
investing in infrastructure and service delivery. development actors. However, these findings
They have invested in roads, bicycle paths, contradict with those of UN HABITAT (2003)
pedestrian walkways, street and security lights, who argue that civil society and NGOs are an
waste management, water drainage, sanitation, important force to address several humanitarian
green spaces, and platforms in the informal problems and living conditions in informal
settlements. settlement. They are however unable to make as
Chege (2013) opines that local governments are much difference and progress as they should
involved in provision of basic public goods and because they have to cope with political conflicts
services, shelter, social and physical of the state and market (Un-Habitat, 2003).
infrastructure in the areas of their jurisdiction. In
addition, Acioly (2007) argues that experience Governments and the development community
shows that informal settlement upgrading have invested significantly in improving the lives
requires political will and firm commitment of of IS dwellers through a range of upgrading
local governments that can sustain long-term programs which typically include infrastructure
programs and implementation. KENSUP’s investments (water and sanitation, waste
involvement in upgrading process has been management, electricity, roads), and in some
country‐wide and have a long‐term strategy cases interventions aimed at improving tenure
(2005‐2025), focusing on housing and other issues security, social infrastructure, housing quality,
in the informal settlements. Indeed, Mgele (2013) access to credit and access to social programs.
confirms that the Government of Kenya has
addressed shelter issues through various The immense and growing scale of IS has,
initiatives and sectorial interventions that however, outpaced the impact these programs
include: provision of minimum services, alone can have. When considering the scaling up
extension of tenure security and physical of such efforts to address the growing problem, it
upgrading, recognition of the legitimate role of is perhaps doubtful that the public sector can do
low income settlers and other stakeholders in it alone and hence the need for alternative
urban development, and the formulation of a approaches. One such approach with enormous
comprehensive national slum upgrading potential is the mobilization of additional private
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sector finance and expertise. In addition, UN dwellers to improve their living standards (Otiso,
Habitat (2003) opines that the levels of poverty 2003). In addition, the FGD revealed that many
within an IS are critical to the strategies landlords in the IS lack the title deeds and this
employed in involving the private sector. In discourages them from undertaking any
addition, the state of the private sector itself is meaningful upgrading.
also critical. In many countries, the formal private CBOs and FBOs generally have not been
sector is relatively small and may have limited involved in upgrading physical projects but
capacity and even more limited resources, and is rather in intangible projects such as capacity
often highly risky averse, making it easier to building, advocacy and awareness creation
focus investment opportunities with the which are of foremost importance.
wealthy.
Resident’s involvement in informal settlements Participation in Upgrading Process
upgrading process in many ways acts as a It is important for the Informal Settlement
‘poverty trap’ since stigmatization, dwellers to be involved in defining their own
discrimination and geographic separation act to problems, setting priorities, and coming up with
limit IS dwellers’ access to formal job markets solutions that may help solve their problems.
and credit. With good governance, the limiting Respondents were asked if they had taken part in
effects of IS can be overcome, thereby halting the the upgrading process of their settlement. The
growth of IS by providing opportunities for IS table below shows the responses.
These findings revealed that, only 115 (32.2%) took part in the upgrading process while a majority, 242
(67.8%) did not take part. Those who said took part were then asked state the level of participation they
were involved in. The figure below shows the responses.
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Implementation, Implementation
51.30% Monitoring and Evaluation
Other
From the figure, it was noted that 46 (40.7%) planning stage, the success of the program is
respondents were involved in the planning challenged (Lemma, 2010). On the contrary,
process, 59 (51.3%) in the implementation stage, Interviews with KISIP Component Three and
4 (3.5%) in monitoring and evaluation process community development officer confirmed that
and 6 (5.2%) were not sure of the level at which community members were invited to attend
they were involved. It is worth to note that a sensitization meetings on the proposed project
relatively low percentage of IS dwellers (32.2%) but the attendance was not commendable. The
were involved in the different levels of interview further revealed that some were not
participation. Perhaps this may give an involved because projects take long to be
indication that the community is not well implemented after the baseline survey. They
organized, empowered and sensitized from the gave an example of KISIP projects whose process
beginning. Perten (2011) states that there are started in 2011 but was implemented in 2013.
dissimilar stages of participation. These include; This two-year period lapse gives an impression
initiation, planning, design, implementation, and that perhaps other IS residents could have moved
maintenance stages of participation. On the other to other estates and new entrants coming in
hand, Lemma (2010) argues that community altogether.
participation is an indispensable element in any
informal settlement upgrading program and it is Various Activities Involved in the Upgraded
necessary to involve the community in the Projects
preparation of the regularization and upgrading IS upgrading involves various projects which
plans and that without active co-operation, plans requires various activities to be carried out as
cannot be successfully implemented. He further discussed below.
argues that community participation facilitates
Drinking Water Projects in the Settlement
ownership and sustainability. If the community
An adequate supply of safe drinking water is
is not fully engaged in key decision-making
universally recognized as a basic human need.
processes which occur in the conception and
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Yet millions of people in the developing world do
not have ready access to an adequate and safe
water supply.
38.10%
Construction of reservoir Activities in drinking water project
As shown in the figure above, there were several “The county government through ELDOWAS
drinking water projects. 159 (44.5%) of the brought piped water on specific mainline and water
respondents said that improving the distribution Kiosk in the IS which allowed us to easily get meter
system to houses and standpipe and construction water at low cost.” FGD, (2017) Munyaka 11th
of a reservoir 136 (38.1%) were the most March 2017.
noticeable activities. A few respondents however Well maintained water projects, enables residents
said that identification of suitable source of water access clean water and as a result, residents
was a priority activity. In their findings, especially women can save time and be able to
Charumitra et al., (2014) argue that to increase engage in other meaningful economic activities.
access to reliable, affordable, and sustainable There is no doubt that availability of clean water
water supply and sanitation services to the low- supply has less incidences of waterborne diseases
income areas, utilities need to undertake network and in turn lead to improved health.
intensification activities such as expansion of The implication of these findings show that green
piped water supply and sewerage network practices were integrated in drinking water
through the extension of primary and secondary projects in the sense that improved distribution
distribution pipes. This should be done through increased affordability, access, and availability of
a balanced program including the involvement of water. This ultimately contributed to better time
community’s indecision making and planning. management. Additionally, construction of
Communities should be consulted before project water reservoir was aimed at arresting water
implementation in order to ensure ownership. wastage, and water shortage.
Many community members, such as youth
groups take part in the construction of the water Storm Water Drainage Upgrading
and sewer networks. This gives job opportunities Insufficient drainage, often causing floods is
for the community and leverages community considered as a major problem in the informal
support for the projects. This was clarified by one settlements.
participant who said
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When respondents were asked to state the rated highly. The study further established that
elements for storm water drainage in upgrading, existing drainages were improved and enlarged
238 (66.2%) of the respondents identified due to the normal problem of blockage normally
construction of new drainages along the roads, 46 experienced in the informal settlement. In
(12.9%) identified upgrading, improving or addition, upgrading and construction of culverts
enlarging existing drainage channels and 79 was also done in the informal settlements.
(20.9%) said that upgrading or construction of
culverts. The implications of the findings is that Rating the Storm Water Drainage System
prior to upgrading project of storm water The respondents were also asked to rate storm
drainage, the IS had inadequate system and that water drainage system in their settlements. The
is why construction of new drainage system was results were represented in the figure below.
The findings from the study show that 18 (5%) effectiveness of storm water drainage as good
rated the effectiveness of storm water as and 100 (28%) of respondents rated the drainage
satisfactory, 6 (1.7%) rated it as excellent, most system as Fair. A small percentage rated it as
144 (40.3%) of the respondents rated the poor. It can therefore be concluded that storm
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water drainage was effective. Sadly, residents at Kamukunji. This might contribute to blocking
have not taken any personal initiative to clean and eventually flood especially during rainy
the drainage long after its improvement. Further seasons. The pictures below show poorly
through, FGDs it was established that constructed drainage system.
construction of culverts was not properly done
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Source: Researcher, 2017
When asked about maintenance of storm water drainage, 72 (21.5%) respondents could not
drainage, 98 (27.5%) said that they were clearly identify the problem, 182 (50.8%) said
maintained often, 73 (20.4%) said once a month, waterborne diseases and flooding and another 96
44 (12.4%) said once in three months, majority of (26.8%) respondents said it led to destruction of
the respondents 130 (36.4%) said that housing and property. Half of the participants
maintenance was rarely done. Lastly, 12 (3.4%) rated waterborne and flooding as key problem in
could not clearly identify how often the the IS followed by destruction of housing and
maintenance was done. When were asked to state property.
the problems associated with poor storm water
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4. Problems of Poor Storm Drainage
Other 21.50%
Flooding 50.80%
0% 50% 100%
Yes
No
Yes, 73.10%
When the respondents were asked if there was a sewerage system in their settlement, 261 (73.1%) said Yes
and 96 (26.9%) said No. This implies that there was sewerage system in the IS but it is not available is some
parts of the informal settlements.
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Type of Sewerage System
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Yes
Yes , 93% No
When the respondents were asked if the initiated yes while 25 (7%) said no. The implication of the
green practices were sustainable, 332 (93%) said above findings is that majority felt that the
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upgraded projects will be sustainable. Therefore, buttressed by the fact that it has bridged the
sustainability is the most adequate measure of knowledge gap on how to attain sustainability
the final success of a project. A sustainable project through eco-friendly activities within the urban
permanently augments a community’s resources context in Kenya. This research has gone beyond
and reduces its vulnerability (Imparato and the conventional area of studies on squatter
Ruster, 2003). If the IS dwellers will accept such settlements and IS, which have been limited to
projects upgraded as their own, it means they identifying the problems posed by such
will do anything possible to maintain such settlements and finding solutions to them. The
projects solutions which were mostly top-down in their
Discussions approaches were geared towards upgrading
projects addressing basic issues like water,
Conclusion electricity, and waste.
The study sought to examine integration of green In Conclusion, in the view of these findings, the
practices in upgrading of informal settlements study concludes that there was low integration of
medium size town in Kenya by establishing the green practices in upgrading process based on
green practices being employed in upgrading of what the individual residents had done and on
informal settlements ,evaluating the integration the different projects carried out by the various
process, assessing the impact of green practices in stakeholders. Many residents, due to low income
sustainable informal settlements upgrading and cannot afford to switch to green practice. Various
determining the factors influencing integration of stakeholders have not fully integrated green
green practices in informal settlements practices during upgrading. There should be
upgrading. clear policy and effort to maintain upgraded
IS upgrading is carried out by various projects with a keen eye on sustainability so that
stakeholders however the participation of the environment may be well safe.
residents in upgrading is relatively low. There
are different activities carried out in upgrading Recommendations
the settlement. These include; construction of The study therefore came up with the following
water distribution system to houses and or stand recommendations.
pipe, construction of new drainage systems, (a) That to be effective and to fully integrate green
enlarging existing drainage system, construction practices all stakeholders should be involved.
of sewage channels and provision of alternative Instead of wholly depending on development
sanitation infrastructure. When residents are actors the IS residents should also embrace green
involved in upgrading their own community, it practices at individual level
gives them greater satisfaction, in the sense that .
it enables them to take their own decisions and be (e) For sustainability to be achieved the local
responsible for those decisions. This recognition community should be empowered so that they
and identity elevates the community dwellers to can fully understand their roles as citizens and
a higher level. fully participate in monitoring and evaluations
The relevance of the present research to the body of community projects.
of knowledge on the sustainability in Kenya is
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