Math4 PDF

PRECALCULUS
KEN KUNIYUKI
SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 0: Preliminary Topics
Chapter 1: Functions
Chapter 2: Polynomial and Rational Functions
Chapter 3: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Chapter 4: Trigonometric Functions
Chapter 5: Analytic Trigonometry
Chapter 6: Topics in Trigonometry
Chapter 7: Systems
Chapter 8: Matrices and Determinants
Chapter 9: Discrete Mathematics
Chapter 10: Conic Sections, Polar Coordinates, and Plane Curves
COLOR CODING
Warnings are in red.
Tips are in purple.
Calculus comments are (sometimes) in green (clover).
TECHNOLOGY USED
This work was produced on Macs with Microsoft Word, MathType, Adobe Illustrator,
Adobe Acrobat, and Mathematica and Calculus WIZ.
CONTACT INFORMATION
Ken Kuniyuki:
Email address: kkuniyuk@yahoo.com or kkuniyuk@sdccd.edu
Website: http://www.kkuniyuk.com
• You may download these and other course notes, exercises, and exams.
Feel free to send emails with suggestions, improvements, tricks, etc.
LICENSING
This work may be freely copied and distributed without permission under the
specifications of the Creative Commons License at: http://www.kkuniyuk.com/Math141
PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY / SOURCES
Algebra: Blitzer, Lial, Tussy and Gustafson
Trigonometry: Lial, Smith
Precalculus: Axler, Cohen, Larson, Stewart, Sullivan; REA Problem Solvers
Calculus: Hamming, Larson, Stewart, Swokowski, Tan, [Peter D.] Taylor
Complex Variables: Churchill and Brown, Schaum’s Outlines
Discrete Mathematics: Rosen
Online: Britannica Online Encyclopedia: http://www.britannica.com
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org
Wolfram MathWorld: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
Other: Harper Collins Dictionary of Mathematics
People: Larry Foster, Laleh Howard, Terrie Teegarden, Tom Teegarden (especially for the Frame
Method for graphing trigonometric functions), and many more.
(Assumptions and Notation) A.1
ASSUMPTIONS and NOTATION

Unless otherwise specified, we assume that:
• f , g, and s denote functions. (See Section 1.1.)
•• g sometimes denotes Earth’s gravitational constant.
•• h may denote a function, or it may denote the “run” in some difference
quotients in Sections 1.10 and 1.11.
•• s often denotes a position or height function.
• a, b, c, k, m, and n denote real numbers. (See Section 0.1.)
•• “Let a ∈ ” means “let a be an arbitrary real number.”
By “arbitrary,” we mean that any one will do.
•• c sometimes denotes the speed of light in a vacuum.
•• d sometimes denotes a distance function.
•• e denotes a mathematical constant defined in Chapter 3. e ≈ 2.718 .
(
•• i sometimes denotes the imaginary unit defined in Chapter 2 i = −1 . )
In Chapter 9, we will use i as a generic subscript (as in ai ) and as an index
⎛ n ⎞
of summation ⎜ as in ∑ ai ⎟ ; we also use j and k for these purposes.
⎝ i =1 ⎠
•• n might be restricted to be an integer ( n ∈ ) . (See Section 0.1.)
• x, y, t, and θ typically denote variables that take on real numbers as values.

•• z can denote a variable or a complex number (see Chapter 2).
• The domain of a function f , which we will denote by Dom ( f ) , is the implied
(or mathematical) domain of f . (See Section 1.1.)
•• This might not be the case in applied “word problems.”
•• We assume that the domain and the range of a function only consist of
real numbers, as opposed to imaginary numbers. That is, Dom ( f ) ⊆  , and
Range ( f ) ⊆  . ( ⊆ means “is a subset of”; see Section 0.1.)
• Graphs extend beyond the scope of a figure as expected, unless endpoints are
clearly shown. Arrowheads help to make this clearer. (See Section 1.2.)
MORE NOTATION
Sets of Numbers (Section 0.1)
Notation Meaning Comments
This is the set (collection) {1, 2, 3, ...} .
+ , Z + the set of positive integers “Zahlen” is a related German word.

 is in blackboard bold typeface; it is more
commonly used than Z.
This set consists of the positive integers, the
, Z the set of integers negative integers ( −1, − 2, − 3, …), and 0.
This set includes the integers and numbers
1 9
, Q the set of rational numbers such as , − , 7.13, and 14.3587 .
3 4
 comes from “Quotient.”
This set includes the rational numbers and
, R the set of real numbers irrational numbers such as 2 , π , e, and
0.1010010001…. Think: “all decimal
numbers.”
This set includes the real numbers and
, C the set of complex numbers
imaginary numbers such as i and 2 + 3i .
The Venn diagram below indicates the (proper) subset relations:  ⊂  ⊂  ⊂  .
For example, every integer is a rational number, so  ⊂  . ( ⊆ permits equality.)
Each disk is contained within each larger disk.
Set Notation (Section 0.1)

This denotes set membership.
∈ in, is in
Example: 7 ∈ .
∉ not in, is not in Example: 1.7 ∉ .
∍ such that
such that Example: { x ∈ x > 3} , or { x ∈: x > 3} ,
| or :
(in set-builder form) is the set of all real numbers greater than 3.
∀ for all, for any This is called the universal quantifier.
∃ there is, there exists This is called the existential quantifier.
This is called the unique quantifier.
there exists a unique,
∃! Example: ∃!x ∈ ∍ x = 3 , which states that
there is one and only one
there exists a unique real number equal to 3.
More precisely: for any arbitrary member of
the set of real numbers; this member will be
for every real number denoted by x.
∀x ∈ (denoted by x)
Example: ∀x ∈, x < x + 1 ; that is, every
real number is less than one added to itself.
for every pair of real
∀x, y ∈ numbers More precise notation: ∀ ( x, y ) ∈ 2 .
(denoted by x and y)
This is the set consisting of no members.
Example: The solution set of the equation
∅ or {} empty set (or null set) x = x + 1 is ∅ .
The symbol ∅ is not to be confused with
the Greek letter phi ( φ ).
Example: If f ( x ) = csc x , then
Dom ( f ) = ( − ∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) .
∪ set union ∪ is used to indicate that one or more real
number(s) is/are being skipped over.
Think: “all members are invited.”
Example: [ 4, 6 ] ∩ [ 5, 7 ] = [ 5, 6 ] .
∩ set intersection
Think: “overlap.”
1
set difference, Example: If f ( x ) = , then Dom ( f ) is
\ or − x
set complement
 \ {0} , or  − {0} . We exclude 0 from  .
Logical Operators (Sections 0.1, 0.2)

Example: If f ( x ) = csc x , then
∨ or, disjunction
Dom ( f ) = { x ∈ x ≤ −1 ∨ x ≥ 1} .
x−3
Example: If f ( x ) = , then
∧ and, conjunction x−4
Dom ( f ) = { x ∈ x ≥ 3 ∧ x ≠ 4 } .
Example: The statement  ( x = 3) is
 or ¬ not, negation
equivalent to the statement x ≠ 3 .
⇒ implies Example: x = 2 ⇒ x 2 = 4 .
⇔ if and only if (iff) Example: x + 1 = 3 ⇔ x = 2 .
Greek Letters
The lowercase Greek letters below (especially θ ) often denote angle measures.
Notation Name Comments
α alpha This is the first letter of the Greek alphabet.
This is the second letter of the Greek
β beta
alphabet.
γ gamma This is the third letter of the Greek alphabet.
This is frequently used to denote angle
θ theta
measures.
This is not to be confused with ∅ , which
denotes the empty set (or null set).
φ or ϕ phi 1+ 5
φ also denotes the golden ratio, ,
2
which is about 1.618. Tau (τ ) is also used.
The lowercase Greek letters below often denote (perhaps infinitesimally) small positive
quantities in calculus, particularly when defining limits.
This is the fourth letter of the Greek
δ delta
alphabet.
This is the fifth letter of the Greek alphabet.
ε epsilon This is not be confused with ∈, which
denotes set membership.
Some other Greek letters of interest:

This denotes “change in” or increment.
Δy
Example: slope is often written as .
Δ (uppercase) delta Δx
It also denotes the discriminant, b 2 − 4ac ,
from the Quadratic Formula.
κ (lowercase) kappa This denotes the curvature of a curve.
This denotes an eigenvalue (in linear
algebra), a Lagrange multiplier (in
λ (lowercase) lambda
multivariable optimization), and a
wavelength (in physics).
This is a famous mathematical constant.
π (lowercase) pi It is the ratio of a circle’s circumference to

its diameter.
π ≈ 3.14159 . It is irrational.
Π (uppercase) pi This is the product operator.
This denotes mass density and also the
ρ (lowercase) rho distance between a point in 3-space and the
origin ( ρ is a spherical coordinate).
This is the summation operator.
Σ (uppercase) sigma
See Chapter 9.
This denotes the golden ratio, though phi
τ (lowercase) tau
(φ ) is more commonly used.
This is the last letter of the Greek alphabet.
ω (lowercase) omega
It denotes angular velocity.
This denotes ohm, a unit of electrical
Ω (uppercase) omega
resistance.
More lowercase Greek letters:
zeta (ζ ) , eta (η ) , iota (ι ) , mu ( µ ) , nu (ν ) , xi (ξ ) , omicron (ο ) , sigma (σ ) ,
upsilon (υ ) , chi ( χ ) , psi (ψ )
Geometry
∠ angle See Section 4.1.
 is parallel to See Section 0.14 and Chapter 6.
is perpendicular to,
⊥ is orthogonal to, See Section 0.14 and Chapter 6.
is normal to
Vector Operators
dot product,
• Euclidean inner product
See Chapter 6.
cross product,
× vector product
See Chapter 8.
Other Notations
This is placed before a concluding
∴ therefore
statement.
Q.E.D. stands for “quod erat
Q.E.D., or demonstrandum,” which is Latin for
end of proof
 “which was to be demonstrated / proven /
shown.”
is approximately,
≈, ≅
is about
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ or Think: “round down.”
floor, greatest integer
 Examples: ⎢⎣ 2.9 ⎥⎦ = 2 , ⎢⎣ − 2.9 ⎥⎦ = − 3
∞ infinity See Section 0.1.
min minimum The least of …
max maximum The greatest of …
Dom ( f ) domain of a function f The set of legal (real) input values for f
degree of a polynomial
deg ( f ( x )) See Section 0.6.
f ( x)
Example: ( f  g ) ( x ) = f ( g ( x )) .
 composition of functions
See Section 1.6.
CHAPTER 0:
Preliminary Topics
0.1: Sets of Numbers
0.2: Logic
0.3: Rounding
0.4: Absolute Value and Distance
0.5: Exponents and Radicals: Laws and Forms
0.6: Polynomial, Rational, and Algebraic Expressions
0.7: Factoring Polynomials
0.8: Factoring Rational and Algebraic Expressions
0.9: Simplifying Algebraic Expressions
0.10: More Algebraic Manipulations
0.11: Solving Equations
0.12: Solving Inequalities
0.13: The Cartesian Plane and Circles
0.14: Lines
0.15: Plane and Solid Geometry
0.16: Variation
• This chapter will review notation, concepts, skills, techniques, and formulas
needed in precalculus and calculus. Sections 0.2, 0.8, 0.9, 0.10, and 0.16 may be
largely unfamiliar to incoming precalculus students.
(Section 0.1: Sets of Numbers) 0.1.1
SECTION 0.1: SETS OF NUMBERS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Be able to identify different sets of numbers.
• Know how to write sets of real numbers using set-difference, set-builder,
graphical, and interval forms.
• Be able to take the union and intersection of intervals of real numbers.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• Theorems and formulas require constants (denoted by c, a1 , a2 , etc.) to be from a
particular set of numbers, usually the set of real numbers (denoted by  ).
• Sets of real numbers can correspond to solutions of equations (in Section 0.11),
solutions of inequalities (in Section 0.12), and domains and ranges of functions
(in Section 1.1). There are several ways to describe these sets.
PART B: SETS OF NUMBERS
A set is a collection of objects, called the members (or elements) of the set.
• Two sets A and B are equal (that is, A = B ) when they consist of the same
members. Typically, order is irrelevant, and members are not repeated.
∅ denotes the empty set (or null set), the set consisting of no members.
Let A and B be sets. A is a subset of B, denoted by A ⊆ B , when every member

of A is also a member of B.
If A ⊆ B , but A ≠ B , then A is a proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B .
This means that B contains all of the members of A, as well as at least one other
member not in A.
Some important sets of numbers are:
+ , or Z + , the set of positive integers.
• This set consists of 1, 2, 3, etc.
•  comes from the German word “Zahlen.”
•  is in blackboard bold typeface. It is more commonly used than Z.
• WARNING 1: Sources differ as to whether counting numbers,
whole numbers, and natural numbers also include 0.
 , or Z, the set of integers.

• This set consists of 1, 2, 3, etc.; their opposites, −1 , − 2 , − 3 , etc.
(making up − , the set of negative integers); and 0.
 , or Q, the set of rational numbers.
• This is the set of all numbers that can be written in the form:
integer
nonzero integer
• It is the set of numbers that can be written as finite (or terminating)
decimals or repeating decimals.
• Examples include:
Fraction form Decimal form
1
0.5
2
1
0.3, or 0.3333…
3
823
− − 0.831, or − 0.8313131…
9900
7
, or 7 7
1
• As demonstrated by the last example, every integer is a rational
number. That is,  ⊆  .
•  comes from “Quotient.”
 , or R, the set of real numbers.

• This is the set of all numbers that can be written as decimals.
• This set can be represented by the real number line below.
There should be tick marks at 0 and at least one other number to
indicate scale.
• This set consists of rational numbers and irrational numbers, such

as π and 2.
 , or C, the set of complex numbers.

• This set consists of real numbers and imaginary numbers, such as
i and 2 + 3i. (See Chapter 2.)
The Venn diagram below indicates the (proper) subset relations:
 ⊂  ⊂  ⊂  . Each disk is contained within each larger disk.
PART C: SET NOTATION

Set Notation
∈ denotes “in,” or “is in.” It denotes set membership.
∉ denotes “is not in.”
∍ denotes “such that.”
∀ (the universal quantifier) denotes “for all” or “for every.”
∃ (the existential quantifier) denotes “there exists” or “there is.”
Example Set 1 (Using Set Notation)
Plain English translation
7 ∈ 7 is an integer.
1 1
∉ is not an integer.
2 2
∀x ∈ , … For all real numbers x, …
∀a, b ∈ , … For all integers a and b, …
∀x ∈, x < x + 1 Every real number is less than one added to itself.
∀x ∈, ∃y ∈ ∍ x = 2y Every real number is twice some real number.
§
PART D: INFINITY
Infinity, denoted by the lemniscate ∞ , is a quantity that is greater than any
real number.
Negative infinity, denoted by − ∞ , is a quantity that is lesser than any
real number.
WARNING 2: ∞ and − ∞ are not real numbers, though they may be handled
differently in higher math.
PART E: REPRESENTING SETS OF REAL NUMBERS

There are various ways to represent a set of real numbers.
We sometimes list the members of a set and surround them with braces.
{ }
For example, the set 1, π consists of the two members 1 and π .
An interval corresponds to a connected (“unbroken”) piece of the real number

line.
A bounded interval has finite length on the real number line.
An unbounded interval has infinite length.
An open interval excludes its endpoints.
A closed interval includes its endpoints.
Example 2 (A Bounded, Open Interval)
The set of all real numbers x such that 3 < x < 5 …
… in set-builder form is:

{x ∈ }
3 < x < 5 , or
{ x ∈ : 3 < x < 5 }
… in graphical form is:
… in interval form is: (3, 5)

The set is an interval with 3 and 5 as its endpoints.
The set is an open interval, because it excludes its endpoints.
The exclusion of 3 and 5 is indicated by the use of:
• strict inequality signs (<) in set-builder form,
• hollow circles (or parentheses) in graphical form, and
• parentheses in interval form. §
Example 3 (A Bounded, Closed Interval)

The set of all real numbers x such that 3 ≤ x ≤ 5 …

{x ∈ 3 ≤ x ≤ 5 , or }
{ x ∈ : 3 ≤ x ≤ 5 }
… in interval form is: ⎡⎣3, 5⎤⎦

The set is a closed interval, because it includes its endpoints.
The inclusion of 3 and 5 is indicated by the use of:
• weak inequality signs ( ≤ ) in set-builder form,
• filled-in circles (or brackets) in graphical form, and
• brackets in interval form. §
Example Set 4 (Various Types of Intervals)

Set-builder Graphical Interval Type of
Form Form Form Interval
{x ∈ 3 ≤ x < 5 } ⎡⎣3, 5 ) Bounded;
Half-Open
{x ∈ 3 < x ≤ 5 } (3, 5⎤⎦ Bounded;
Half-Open
{x ∈ x > 3 } (3, ∞ ) Unbounded
{x ∈ x ≥ 3 } ⎡⎣3, ∞ ) Unbounded
{x ∈ x < 3 } ( − ∞, 3) Unbounded
{x ∈ x ≤ 3 } ( − ∞, 3⎤⎦ Unbounded
{x x ∈ } , ( − ∞, ∞ ) Unbounded
which is 
§
WARNING 3: In interval form, parentheses are always placed next to ∞ and
− ∞ , because they are not real numbers and are therefore excluded from the set.
However,  may be considered to be both an open interval and a closed interval.
(Section 0.1: Sets of Numbers) 0.1.6.
A ∪ B , the union of set A and set B, consists of all elements in one or both sets.
Think: “All members are invited.”
{ }
• A ∪ B = x x ∈ A or x ∈B , where “or” is taken to be “inclusive or,” or
“and/or.” The disjunctive symbol ∨ denotes “or.”
A ∩ B , the intersection (“overlap”) of set A and set B, consists of all elements in
both sets.
{ }
• A ∩ B = x x ∈ A and x ∈B . The conjunctive symbol ∧ denotes “and.”
Example 5 (A Union of Intervals)

{ }
The set  \ 1, π , which is written in set-difference form, consists of all real
numbers except 1 and π . The set …

{x ∈ x ≠ 1 and x ≠ π , or}
{ x ∈ : x ≠ 1 and x≠π }
… in interval form is: ( − ∞, 1) ∪ (1, π ) ∪ (π , ∞ )

TIP 1: The graphical form can help us write the interval form.
TIP 2: The union symbol ∪ separates intervals in interval form whenever
a real number must be “skipped over.” §
Example 6 (Union and Intersection of Intervals)
( ) )
a) Simplify 1, 5 ∪ ⎡⎣3, ∞ . (Think: “All members are invited.”)
( ) )
b) Simplify 1, 5 ∩ ⎡⎣3, ∞ . (Think: “Overlap.”)
§ Solution
Interval Graphical
Form Form
(1, 5)
⎡⎣3, ∞ )
( ) ) ( )
a) 1, 5 ∪ ⎡⎣3, ∞ = 1, ∞
b) (1, 5) ∩ ⎡⎣3, ∞ ) = ⎡⎣3, 5)

§
(Section 0.2: Logic) 0.2.1
SECTION 0.2: LOGIC

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Be able to identify and use logical notation and terminology.
• Understand the structure of “if-then” and “if and only if” statements.
• Understand counterexamples and logical equivalence.
• Know how to find the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of an “if-then” statement.
• Understand necessary conditions and sufficient conditions.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• Although logic is a subject that is often relegated to courses in discrete
mathematics, computer science, and electrical engineering, its fundamentals are
essential for clear and precise mathematical thought.
• Many theorems are “if-then” or “if and only if” statements.
PART B: PROPOSITIONS AND “IF-THEN” STATEMENTS
A proposition is a statement that is either true or false.
“If-Then” Statements
The statement “If p, then q” can be written as “ p → q .”
• The proposition p is called the hypothesis, assumption, or condition.
• The proposition q is called the conclusion.
• If there are no cases where p is true and q is false, we say that the
statement is true.
• Otherwise, the statement is false, and any case where p is true and
q is false is called a counterexample.
If the statement is known to be true, we can write “ p ⇒ q .”
“ ⇒ ” may be read as “implies.”
• WARNING 1: “ → ” denotes “approaches” when we discuss limits in
calculus.
Example 1 (An “If-Then” Statement)

Consider the statement: “If I get an A, then I pass.”
This statement is of the form “If p, then q,” where:
p is the hypothesis “I get an A,” and
q is the conclusion “I pass.”
The statement is true, because there is no case where a student gets an A but
does not pass. §
The converse of p → q is q → p .
Example 2 (An “If-Then” Statement and Its Converse)

Consider the statement:
“If a number is an integer, then it is a rational number.”
• That is, ( x ∈ ) → ( x ∈) .
The statement is true, because every integer is also a rational number.

We can write: ( x ∈ ) ⇒ ( x ∈) .
Now, consider the converse of the above statement:

“If a number is a rational number, then it is an integer.”
• That is, ( x ∈) → ( x ∈ ) .
This second statement is false, because a counterexample exists.

1
Observe that is a rational number, yet it is not an integer.
2
WARNING 2: The discovery of even one counterexample can be
used to disprove a statement (that is, to prove that a statement is
false). However, a single example is usually not enough to prove that
a statement is true. To prove that a statement is true, one often needs
to present a rigorous and general argument that applies to all cases
where the hypotheses hold.
Because the converse is false, we can write: ( x ∈) ⇒ ( x ∈ ) ,

where “ ⇒ ” denotes “does not imply.” §
PART C: “IF AND ONLY IF” (or “IFF”) STATEMENTS

“If and Only If ” (or “Iff”) Statements
The statement “p if and only if q,” or “p iff q,” can be written as “ p ↔ q .”
If the statement is known to be true, we can write “ p ⇔ q ,” or “ p ≡ q .”
• If p ⇒ q , and if q ⇒ p , then p ⇔ q .
• Then, the propositions p and q are logically equivalent;
either both are true, or both are false.
( ) ( )
• For example, 2x = 6 ⇔ x = 3 . (See Footnote 1.)
• Definitions are essentially “iff” statements. For example, a number is a rational

integer
number iff it can be written in the form .
nonzero integer
• True “iff” statements arise when an “if-then” statement and its converse are true.
PART D: CONVERSE, INVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE

The converse of p → q is: q→ p
The inverse of p → q is: ~ p → ~q

• “~” and “ ¬ ” are used to denote “not.” They are negation operators.
The contrapositive of p → q is: ~ q → ~ p
• TIP 1: Take the original statement, switch the propositions, and
negate them.
Contrapositive Theorem
If an “if-then” statement is true, then its contrapositive must be true, and
vice-versa. In other words, they are logically equivalent.
( ) (
That is, p → q ⇔ ~ q → ~ p . )
• This can be proven using truth tables in a discrete mathematics class.
As a result, any “if-then” statement you know to be true has a
contrapositive associated with it that will automatically be true.
WARNING 3: An “if-then” statement may or may not be logically equivalent to
its converse or its inverse. (However, the converse and the inverse must be
logically equivalent to each other. Why? How are they related?)
Example 3 (Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive of an “If-Then” Statement;
Revisiting Example 1)
Consider the true “if-then” statement: If I get an A , then I pass .
 
p q
What are its converse, inverse, and contrapositive? Which of these are true?
§ Solution
Converse: If I pass , then I get an A .
 
q p
This statement is false, because we can find a counterexample.
A student can pass the class with a grade of B or C.
Inverse: If I do not get an A , then I do not pass .
     
~p ~q
This statement is false, because we can find a counterexample.
A student can have a grade of B or C, and the student can pass.
Contrapositive: If I do not pass , then I do not get an A .
     
~q ~p
By the Contrapositive Theorem, this must be true, since the original
statement is.
The Venn diagram below may clarify matters. (We ignore “+” and “ − ”
modifiers, as well as pass/fail grading.)
§
(Section 0.2: Logic) 0.2.5.
Example 4 (An “Iff” Statement)

Consider the (true) statement: If I get an A, B, or C , then I pass .
  
p q
Its converse is true: If I pass , then I get an A, B, or C .
  
q p
Therefore, this is true: I get an A, B, or C iff I pass . §
  
p q
PART E: NECESSARY CONDITIONS and SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS
p is a necessary condition for q ⇔ q ⇒ p ( )

• That is, for q to be true, it is required that p must be true.
p is a sufficient condition for q ⇔ p ⇒ q( )
• That is, if p is true, then it is guaranteed that q must be true.
Example 5 (Necessary Conditions and Sufficient Conditions; Revisiting Example 1)
Consider the “if-then” statement: If I get an A , then I pass .
 
p q
Is p sufficient for q? Is p necessary for q?
§ Solution
p is sufficient for q, because p ⇒ q . (Equivalently, q is necessary for p.)
Think: If I get an A, then I am guaranteed to pass.
p is not necessary for q, because q ⇒ p .
Think: I don’t need to get an A to pass. §
Example 6 (“Necessary and Sufficient” Conditions; Revisiting Example 4)

Consider the “iff ” statement: I get an A, B, or C iff I pass .
  
p q
This is true, so p ⇔ q , and we say that p is necessary and sufficient for q.
Therefore, p and q are logically equivalent. §
FOOTNOTES
1. Propositions. Unlike some sources such as Rosen’s Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications,
we call “ 2x = 6 ” a proposition, even though its truth value (“true” or “false”) depends on the
value of x.
(Section 0.3: Rounding) 0.3.1
SECTION 0.3: ROUNDING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Be able to round off decimals to a specified decimal place, a specified number of
decimal places, or a specified number of significant digits (or figures).
• Understand scientific notation.
PART A: DISCUSSION (WARNINGS and TIPS)
• Using Calculators
Memory buttons on calculators can help preserve decimal accuracy.
Taking too few decimal places may ruin the accuracy of final answers.
A calculator might approximate π as 3.14159265. Though seemingly
impressive, this is not an exact representation of π . Calculators cannot
give exact decimal representations of such numbers as 2 , ln5 , and sin 37 .
• Exact vs. Approximate Answers
Math instructors typically expect exact answers, though decimal
approximations may be required for “word problems.”
For example, if an answer is π , you should write π .
You may also be asked to give a decimal approximation such as 3.14.
• “Word Problems”
Depending on context, decimal answers might need to be rounded down,
rounded up, or rounded off.
Write any appropriate units such as feet, pounds, etc. as part of your answer.
PART B: ROUNDING
“ ≈ ” means “is approximately” or “is about.”
Example 1 (Rounding Off to a Specified Decimal Place)
π ≈ 3.14159 . π rounded off to the nearest …
… integer is: 3
… tenth (that is, to one decimal place) is: 3.1
… hundredth (that is, to two decimal places) is: 3.14
… thousandth (that is, to three decimal places) is: 3.142
• In the U.S., the “1” in the third decimal place of π is rounded up to “2.”
This is because the digit in the next decimal place is 5 or higher.
(Different countries have different rules if that digit is a “5.”) §
(Section 0.3: Rounding) 0.3.2.
Consider a number written in decimal form.

To count decimal places, count all digits to the right of the decimal point.
To count significant digits (or figures), locate the leftmost nonzero digit, and
count it and all digits to the right of it.
• We may want numbers written out to the same number of decimal places when
adding and subtracting them, while we may focus on significant digits when
multiplying and dividing them. We can also use significant digits to roughly
retain the same level of accuracy when handling different units such as inches,
feet, and miles.
Example 2 (Counting Decimal Places and Significant Digits)

Consider: 70.1230
• This is written out to four decimal places.
We count the four digits after the decimal point.
• This is written out to six significant digits.
We include the two digits to the left of the decimal point.
• The “0” at the end indicates that we claim accuracy to four decimal
places. Writing “70.123” might not have had that effect.
• We call 70 the integer part of this decimal. §
Example 3 (Counting Decimal Places and Significant Digits; Scientific Notation)

Consider: 0.001020, or .001020 (the integer part is 0; writing it is optional).
• These are written out to six decimal places. We count all six digits
after the decimal point, including the two zeros after the decimal point
and before the “1.”
• These are written out to four significant digits. We do not include
the aforementioned zeros, but we include the “1” and all digits after it.
• These can be written as 1.020 × 10− 3 using scientific notation.

The “ − 3 ” exponent tells us to move the decimal point three places to
the left to obtain .001020 in standard form. Note that:
1.020 × 103 = 1020. = 1020 , since the “3” exponent tells us to move the
decimal point three places to the right. §
(Section 0.4: Absolute Value and Distance) 0.4.1
SECTION 0.4: ABSOLUTE VALUE AND DISTANCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Be able to formally define absolute value.
• Know how to take the absolute value of a real number.
• Know properties of the absolute value operation.
• Relate absolute value and distances on the real number line.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• Understanding the definition of absolute value is crucial to understanding the
absolute value function and its graph. (See Section 1.3.)
PART B: ABSOLUTE VALUE

Definition of Absolute Value
The absolute value of a is denoted by a , where
⎧a, if a ≥ 0
a =⎨
⎩− a, if a < 0
• That is, the absolute value of a nonnegative real number is itself,
while the absolute value of a negative real number is its opposite.
• This is an example of a piecewise definition because of the different rules
for different values of a. (See Section 1.5.)
TIP 1: The absolute value of a real number is never negative.
WARNING 1: − a does not necessarily represent a negative value. In fact,
if a < 0 , then − a > 0 . That is, the opposite of a negative real number is positive.
Example 1 (Finding Absolute Value)

a) Find 7 . b) Find 0 . c) Find − 3 .
§ Solution
a) 7 ≥ 0 , so we use the top rule in the definition. 7 = 7 .
b) 0 ≥ 0 , so we again use the top rule in the definition. 0 = 0 .
c) − 3 < 0 , so we use the bottom rule in the definition: − 3 = − ( − 3) = 3 . §
(Section 0.4: Absolute Value and Distance) 0.4.2
PART C: PROPERTIES OF ABSOLUTE VALUE

Properties of Absolute Value
1) a ≥ 0 Absolute values are never negative. (TIP 1)

2) − a = a Opposites have the same absolute value.
The absolute value of a product equals the
3) ab = a b
product of the absolute values.
a a The absolute value of a quotient equals the
4) = , if b ≠ 0 quotient of the absolute values, provided the
b b denominators are nonzero.
PART D: ABSOLUTE VALUE, DISTANCE, and OPPOSITES

Interpreting Absolute Value as a Distance
a = the distance between a and 0 on the real number line.
TIP 2: Just as for absolute value, a distance cannot be negative. However, we do

use “signed distances” and “signed lengths” in trigonometry and motion problems.
Example 2 (Interpreting Absolute Value as a Distance)
− 3 = 3 and 3 = 3 , because both − 3 and 3 are at a distance of 3 units
away from 0 on the real number line.
The Distance Between a and b

b − a = a − b = the distance between a and b on the real number line.
• In particular, a − 0 = a = the distance between a and 0 on the
real number line.
• Absolute value notation allows us to denote such distances without

worrying about whether a is greater than b or vice versa.
• In calculus, this notation helps us rigorously define limits and analyze
sequences and series.
The following (important!) statement explains why b − a = a − b .

(Section 0.4: Absolute Value and Distance) 0.4.3.
“Opposite Differences” Rule

( b − a ) = − ( a − b) . That is, ( b − a ) and ( a − b) are opposites.
• Prove this by rewriting − ( a − b) .
• For example, ( 7 − 3) = 4 , while ( 3− 7 ) = − 4 , its opposite.
• Because they are opposites, ( b − a ) and ( a − b) must have the same
absolute value by Property 2) in Part C. That is, b − a = a − b .
Example 3 (The Distance Between a and b)
x − 3 and 3 − x both represent the distance between x and 3 on the real

number line, regardless of whether x is greater than, less than, or equal to 3.
• For example, if x = 7 , its distance from 3 is given by: 7 − 3 = 4 = 4 ,

or by: 3− 7 = − 4 = 4 .
• For example, if x = 1, its distance from 3 is given by: 1− 3 = − 2 = 2 ,

or by: 3− 1 = 2 = 2 . §
(Section 0.5: Exponents and Radicals: Laws and Forms) 0.5.1
SECTION 0.5: EXPONENTS AND RADICALS:

LAWS AND FORMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand radicals and how they are related to powers.
• Know laws of exponents and radicals and how to apply them, particularly
when simplifying expressions.
• Be able to rewrite expressions in different forms.
• Recognize how expressions are restricted.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• Rewriting expressions can help us solve problems.
PART B: RADICALS
n
is a radical symbol. In x , n is the index, and x is the radicand.
• We assume n is an integer such that n ≥ 2 .
x , also written as x1/ 2 , is the principal square root of x.
• Here, the index n = 2 .
• If x ≥ 0 , x is the unique nonnegative real number whose square is x.
• If x < 0 , x cannot be defined as a real value.
(We will define the imaginary unit i as −1 in Chapter 2.)
()
2
• For example, 9 = 3 and 91/ 2 = 3 , because 3 = 9 , and 3 is nonnegative.
Although 9 has two square roots, 3 and − 3 , we take the nonnegative square root
(3) as our principal square root.
• TIP 1: Remember that 0 = 0.
n
x , also written as x1/ n , is the principal n th root of x.
• If n is even and x ≥ 0 , n
x is the unique nonnegative real number whose
n th power is x. (If x < 0 , then n
x cannot be defined as a real value.)
n
• If n is odd, x is the unique real number whose n th power is x.
()
4
• For example, 4 16 = 2 and 161/4 = 2 , because 2 = 16 , and 2 is nonnegative.
• TIP 2: A principal odd root of a negative real number is negative.
( ) = − 2 , because ( − 2 ) = −8 . In Chapter 6, we
1/3 3
For example, 3
−8 = − 2 and −8
will see that −8 has three complex cube roots, but only one of them − 2 is real. ( )
( ).
m
n n
x m/ n can be rewritten as x m or as x
• We assume that m and n are positive integers (not both even; see Footnote 1).
• Think: take the mth power and the nth root, in either order.
( )
3
5 5
• For example, x 3/5 can be written as x 3 or as x .
PART C: LAWS OF EXPONENTS AND RADICALS
The term power usually refers to an exponent. However, we often refer to x n as a

power of x.
Laws of Exponents
If the expressions involved are real-valued, then the following laws apply.
# Law In Plain English / Comments
To multiply powers of x, add the exponents.
1 x m x n = x m+ n For example, x 2 x 3 = xx xxx = x 5 . ( )( )
xm
2 n
= x m− n To divide powers of x, subtract the exponents.
x
(x )
n
3 m
= x mn To raise a power to a power, multiply the exponents.
( xy )
n
4 = xn yn The power of a product is the product of the powers.
n
⎛ x⎞ xn
5 ⎜⎝ y ⎟⎠ = y n The power of a quotient is the quotient of the powers.
This is consistent with Law 2, with m = n .

6 x0 = 1
(We define 00 to be 1 here. See Section 1.3, Part H.)
1
7 n
= x− n This is consistent with Laws 2 and 6.
x
−1
⎛ x⎞ 1 y
⎛ x⎞
8 ⎜ ⎟
−n
⎛ y⎞
=⎜ ⎟
n
⎜⎝ y ⎟⎠ =
⎛ x⎞ x
= ( y ≠ 0) . Use Law 3 with m = −1 .
⎝ y⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎜⎝ y ⎟⎠
WARNING 1: These laws may or may not apply when the expressions
( )
1/ 2
involved are not real-valued. − 2 , for example, cannot be defined as a
real value. Also, we require nonzero denominators in Laws 2, 5, 7, and 8.
Laws of Radicals
Assume that m and n are positive integers.
If the expressions involved are real-valued, then the following laws apply.
• Law 13 fundamentally distinguishes between even and odd roots.
• For Laws 9 through 12, the square root laws extend to even roots.
They also extend to odd roots, but we allow cases where x < 0 or y < 0 .
For example, 3
xy = ( x )( y ) for all real values of x and y.
3 3
# Law In Plain English / Comments

The root of a product equals the product of
xy = x y ,
9 1 1
if x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0 the roots. See Law 4 with n = , , etc.
2 3
x x The root of a quotient equals the quotient of
= ,
10 y
y 1 1
the roots. See Law 5 with n = , , etc.
if x ≥ 0 and y > 0 2 3
n m
x = mn x For example, 3 x = 6 x , if x ≥ 0 .
11 (if m or n is even, This is related to Law 3, with m and n there
we require x ≥ 0 ) being the reciprocals of m and n here.
( x) = x, ( x)
2 n
More generally, n
= x , if n = 2, 3, 4, etc.
12
if x ≥ 0 If n is even, we require x ≥ 0 .
x2 = x
n
x n = x , if n is even; see Warning 4.
13
3
x3 = x
n
x n = x, if n is odd.
• We simplify 18 , for example, using Law 9: 18 = 9 ⋅ 2 = 9 2 = 3 2 .

(The greatest perfect square that divides 18 is 9. Then, the 9 “comes out” as a 3.)
• WARNING 2: Although Laws 9 and 10 cover the square root of a product or a
quotient, there is no similar law for the square root of a sum or a difference.
In particular, x + y is not equivalent to x + y . (See the Exercises.)
• WARNING 3: Do not apply Laws 9 through 12 to even roots if x < 0 or y < 0 .
As we will see in Chapter 2, −2 −3 ≠ 6 .
• WARNING 4: See Law 13. The statement x 2 = x is incorrect if x < 0.

For example, if x = − 3 , ( − 3)2 = 9 = 3 , not − 3 .
PART D: FRACTIONAL, RADICAL, AND EXPONENTIAL FORMS

Example Set 1 (Equivalent Expressions)
The following tables list pairs of equivalent expressions, together
with relevant restrictions (we will discuss domains in Section 1.1).
The restrictions guarantee that we never (do the equivalent of):
1) divide by zero, or
2) take the even root of a negative value.
WARNING 5: Do not confuse exponential form with exponential functions
(see Chapter 3). “Power form” may be more appropriate.
Fractional Form Restrictions Exponential Form
1
x≠0 x −1
x
1
x≠0 x− 2
x2
1 4/3
1 x ( x ≠ 0)
x≠0 7
7x − 4 /3
(See Warnings below.)
WARNING 6: In the last example, we need to state the “hidden”
1
restriction ( x ≠ 0 ) , because the expression implies it, yet the
7x − 4 /3
1
expression x 4 /3 does not. (See Warnings 9 and 10.)
7
1
WARNING 7: It is incorrect to re-express − 4 /3
as 7x 4 /3 , a common
7x
1 1 1
error. Think of as ⋅ . The negative exponent only applies to x.
7x − 4 /3 7 x − 4 /3
Radical Form Restrictions Exponential Form
x x≥0 x1/2
3
x None x1/3
3 ( x ) or 3( x )
7 5 7
5
None 3x 5 /7
TIP 3: The parentheses in 3 ( x ) prevent us from misreading the

7 5
expression as 37 ( )( x5 .)
WARNING 8: The taking of odd roots (such as cube roots) does not
impose any new restrictions. See Tip 2 in Part B.
Combined Form Restrictions Exponential Form

1
x>0 x −1/2
x
1
3
x≠0 x −1/3
x
7
4 3 x>0 7x − 3/4
x
PART E: SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSIONS

Example 2 (Simplifying an Expression)
−4
⎛ 3 ⎞
Simplify ⎜ . Nonpositive exponents (that is, exponents that are
⎝ − 2x 2 ⎟⎠
negative or zero) are not allowed in the final expression.
§ Solution
−4 4
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ − 2x 2 ⎞
=⎜ ( x ≠ 0) by Law 8
⎜⎝ − 2x 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
WARNING 9: The given expression should be examined for

restrictions. Here, since division by 0 is forbidden, we require
that ( x ≠ 0 ) .
WARNING 10: Whenever a step “hides” a restriction, we

should write the restriction, although we sometimes wait until
the final expression. (See Warning 6 and Example 3.)
Restrictions can be hidden when we apply laws of exponents
and radicals, when we take reciprocals (see the Comment for
Law 8), and when we cancel (see Section 0.9).
=
( − 2x ) 2 4
( x ≠ 0) by Law 5
34
( − 2 )4 ( x 2 )
4
= ( x ≠ 0) by Law 4
81
16x 8
= ( x ≠ 0) by Law 3
81
§
(Section 0.5: Exponents and Radicals: Laws and Forms) 0.5.6.
Example 3 (Simplifying an Expression)

x x
Simplify . Nonpositive exponents are not allowed in the final
x 7 /2 x 0
expression.
§ Solution
The given expression has the restriction x > 0 , because ( ) x and x 7/2
( ) (
require x ≥ 0 , and the powers of x x 7/2 and x 0 that are factors of the )
denominator require x ≠ 0 . ( )
x x x1 x1/2
= by Law 6
x 7 /2 x 0 x 7 /2 ⋅1
1
1+
x 2
= by Law 1
x 7 /2
x 3/2
= 7 /2
x
3 7
−
=x 2 2
( x > 0) by Law 2
= x− 2 ( x > 0)
1
= ( x > 0) by Law 7
x2
It might be unclear which step “hides” the restriction x > 0 , so we might ( )
wait until the end to write x > 0 . § ( )
FOOTNOTES
1. Interpreting x m / n . x m/ n , where m and n are positive, even integers, is interpreted differently
by different sources.
6
• For example, if x 2 / 6 is interpreted as x 2 , there are no restrictions, and
3 1/3
6
x2 = x2 = 3 x = x .
( x ) , we need the restriction x ≥ 0 .

2
6
• On the other hand, if x 2 / 6 is interpreted as
2. Irrational exponents. See Section 3.1 on how to interpret something like 2π .

(Section 0.6: Polynomial, Rational, and Algebraic Expressions) 0.6.1
SECTION 0.6: POLYNOMIAL, RATIONAL, AND

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Be able to identify polynomial, rational, and algebraic expressions.

• Understand terminology and notation for polynomials.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• In Chapters 1 and 2, we will discuss polynomial, rational, and algebraic

functions, as well as their graphs.
PART B: POLYNOMIALS
Let n be a nonnegative integer.
An n th -degree polynomial in x , written in descending powers of x, has the

following general form:
an x n + an 1 x n 1
+ ... + a1 x + a0 , ( an 0)
The coefficients, denoted by a1 , a2 ,…, an , are typically assumed to be real

numbers, though some theorems will require integers or rational numbers.
an , the leading coefficient, must be nonzero, although any of the other

coefficients could be zero (i.e., their corresponding terms could be “missing”).
an x n is the leading term.
a0 is the constant term. It can be thought of as a0 x 0 , where x 0 = 1 .
• Because n is a nonnegative integer, all of the exponents on x indicated above

must be nonnegative integers, as well. Each exponent is the degree of its
corresponding term.
Example 1 (A Polynomial)
5 2
4x 3 x + 1 is a 3rd-degree polynomial in x with leading coefficient 4,
2
leading term 4x 3 , and constant term 1. The same would be true even if the
terms were reordered:
5 2
1 x + 4x 3 .
2
5 2
The polynomial 4x 3 x + 1 fits the form
2
an x n + an 1 x n 1 + ... + a1 x + a0 , with degree n = 3.
It can be rewritten as:
5 2
4x 3 x + 0x + 1 , which fits the form
2
a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 , where the coefficients are:
a3 = 4 ( leading coefficient )
5
a2 =
2
a1 = 0
a0 = 1 (constant term )
§
Example Set 2 (Constant Polynomials)
7 is a 0th-degree polynomial. It can be thought of as 7x 0 .

0 is a polynomial with no degree. §
PART C: CATEGORIZING POLYNOMIALS BY DEGREE
Degree Type Examples

0 [Nonzero] Constant 7
1 Linear 3x + 4
2 Quadratic 5x 2 x + 1
3 Cubic x 3 + 4x
4 Quartic x4
5 Quintic x5
PART D: CATEGORIZING POLYNOMIALS BY NUMBER OF TERMS
Number
Type Examples
of Terms
1 Monomial x5
2 Binomial x 3 + 4x
3 Trinomial 5x 2 x + 1
PART E: SQUARING BINOMIALS
Formulas for Squaring Binomials
( a + b)
2
= a 2 + 2ab + b2
( a b)
2
= a2 2ab + b2
WARNING 1: When squaring binomials, don’t forget the “middle term” of the
resulting Perfect Square Trinomial (PST).
For example, ( x + 3) = x 2 + 6x + 9 . Observe that 6x is twice the product of the
2
terms x and 3: 6x = 2 x 3 . ( )( )
( )
2
The figure below implies that x + y = x 2 + 2xy + y 2 for x > 0 and y > 0 .
PART F: RATIONAL AND ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
A rational expression in x can be expressed in the form:

polynomial in x
nonzero polynomial in x
Example Set 3 (Rational Expressions)
Examples of rational expressions include:

1
a) .
x
5x 3 1
b) 2 . Irrational coefficients such as 2 are permissible
x + 7x 2
as coefficients of either polynomial.
x7 + x
c) x + x which equals
7
. In fact, all polynomials are rational
1
expressions. §
An algebraic expression in x is also permitted to contain non-integer rational

powers of variable expressions (and their equivalents in radical form).
Example Set 4 (Algebraic Expressions)
Examples of algebraic expressions include:
a) x1/ 2 , or x.
x 3 + 7x 5 /7
b) .
x 3 x+5+
• (See Footnote 1.)
All rational expressions are algebraic. §

The Venn diagram below is for expressions in x that correspond to functions

(see Chapter 1):
FOOTNOTES
1. Algebraic expressions. Some sources forbid the presence of in an algebraic expression,
since is a transcendental (i.e., non-algebraic) number. That means that is not a zero of
any polynomial with integer coefficients, as, say, 2 is.
(Section 0.7: Factoring Polynomials) 0.7.1
SECTION 0.7: FACTORING POLYNOMIALS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Know techniques and formulas for factoring polynomials.

• Know the Test for Factorability for factoring quadratic trinomials.
• Recognize polynomials in quadratic form and be able to factor them.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• Factoring is a very commonly used technique in precalculus and calculus.

Factoring helps us simplify expressions, find zeros, solve equations and
inequalities, and find partial fraction decompositions (see Section 7.3).
• Rewriting a sum of terms as a product of factors helps us perform sign analyses,

as we will see in Sections 2.4 and 2.10.
PART B: FACTORING OUT GCFs
For now, when we factor a polynomial, we factor it completely over the integers
( ), meaning that the factors cannot be broken down further using only integer
coefficients. That is, the factors must be prime (or irreducible) over the integers.
• In Chapter 2, we will factor over other sets, such as , , or .
TIP 1: The Greatest Common Factor (GCF), if it is not 1, should typically be

factored out first, although it can be factored out piece-by-piece for more
complicated expressions. (Unfortunately, there is no simple, standard definition for
the GCF.)
Example 1 (Factoring out a GCF)
We factor 8x + 6 as 2 ( 4x + 3) , because 2 is the GCF.

2 is the greatest common divisor of 8 and 6. §
Example 2 (Factoring out a GCF)
( )
We factor x 5 + x 3 as x 3 x 2 + 1 , because x 3 is the GCF.
x 3 is the power of x with the least exponent. §
TIP 2: Sometimes, it is helpful to factor out 1 , particularly when a polynomial

has a negative leading coefficient.
Example 3 (Factoring out -1 First)
Factor 8x 5 6x 3 .
§ Solution
8x 5 6x 3 = ( 8x + 6x )
5 3
= 2x ( 4x + 3)
3 2
WARNING 1: Sometimes, people confuse signs if they try to

factor out 2x 3 immediately.
§
WARNING 2: Be careful when factoring the base of a power. Make sure to apply
the exponent to all factors.
Example 4 (Factoring out of a Power)
(x ) ( )
5 5
3
+x
is not equivalent to x x 2 + 1 .
The following is correct:
(x ) ( )
5 5
3
+x = x x2 + 1
(x + 1)
5
= x5 2
Each factor of the base must be raised to the exponent, 5.

( )
n
See Section 0.5, Law 4: xy = xn yn . §
PART C: FACTORING FORMULAS
Factoring Formulas
Factoring a … Formula
( )
2
Perfect Square Trinomial a 2 + 2ab + b2 = a + b

(PST) = ( a b)
2
a2 2ab + b2
(A rule will be provided for a 2 + b2
Sum of Two Squares when we discuss imaginary numbers in
Section 2.1. As is, it is prime for now.)
Difference of Two Squares (
a 2 b2 = a + b a b )( )
Sum of Two Cubes ( )(
a 3 + b3 = a + b a 2 ab + b2 )
Difference of Two Cubes a3 b3 = ( a b) ( a 2
+ ab + b )
2
WARNING 3: Many math students forgot or never learned the last two formulas.
WARNING 4: In the last two formulas, there is no “2” or “ 2 ” coefficient on the

ab term of the trinomial factor. If a and b have no common factors (aside from 1
and 1 ), the trinomial factors are typically prime. Sometimes, people confuse
these trinomials with Perfect Square Trinomials (PSTs), which we introduced in
Section 0.6, Part E.
TIP 3: In the last two formulas, observe that the binomial factor is “as expected”:
( ) ( )
a + b for a 3 + b3 , and a b for a 3 b3 . The visible signs on the right-hand
sides follow the pattern: “same,” “different,” and “+.”
PART D: TEST FOR FACTORABILITY and PRACTICE EXAMPLES
Test for Factorability
This test applies to any quadratic trinomial of the form ax 2 + bx + c , where

a, b, and c are nonzero, integer coefficients.
(Assume the GCF is 1 or 1 ; if it is not, factor it out.)
The discriminant of the trinomial is b2 4ac .
• If the discriminant is a perfect square (such as 0, 1, 4, 9, etc.; these are

squares of integers), then the trinomial can be factored over the integers.
For example, x 2 + 3x + 2 has discriminant 1 and can be factored as
( )(
x + 2 x +1 . )
•• In fact, if the discriminant is 0, then the trinomial is a perfect
square trinomial (PST) and can be factored as the square of a
binomial with integer coefficients. For example, x 2 6x + 9 has
( )
2
discriminant 0 and can be factored as x 3 .
• If the discriminant is not a perfect square, then the trinomial is prime

over the integers.
This test may be applied in Example Set 5, a) through g), which serve as
review exercises for the reader.
• The discriminant is denoted by (uppercase delta), though that symbol is also used
for other purposes. It is seen in the Quadratic Formula in Section 0.11. We will discuss a
method for factoring quadratic trinomials using the Quadratic Formula in Chapter 2.
Example Set 5 (Factoring Polynomials)
Factor the following polynomials over the integers.
a) x 2 + 9x + 20
b) x2 20x + 100 (Hint: This is a Perfect Square Trinomial (PST).)
c) x2 4x 12
d) 3x 2 20x 7
e) 4x 2 + 11x + 6
f) 2x 2 + 10x + 5
g) 3x 2 + 6x 3
h) x 4 16
i) a 3 3a + 2a 2 b 6b
(Hint: Use Factoring by Grouping. This is when we group terms and factor
each group “locally” before we factor the entire expression “globally” by
factoring out the GCF.)
j) 4x 2 + 9 y 2
k) x 3 + 125y 3
l) x 3 125y 3
§ Solution
ax + bx + c = x + 9x + 20 = ( x + 5 ) ( x + 4 )
2 2
a)
We want 5 and 4, because they have product = c = 20 and (since this is the
a = 1 case) sum = b = 9. We can rearrange the factors: x + 4 x + 5 . ( )( )
20x + 100 = ( x 10 ) , or (x 10 ) ( x 10 ) = ( x 10 )
2 2 2
b) x
( x )2 (10)2 Check:
2( x )( 10 ) =
Guess that this is a 20 x
PST for now.
c) x2 (
4x 12 = x 6 x + 2 )( )
How do we know we need 6 and + 2?
The constant term, c, is negative, so use opposite signs: one "+" and one " ."
The middle coefficient, b, is negative, so the negative number must be higher in
absolute value than the positive number; it “carries more weight.”
2-factorizations of –12 (which is c) Sum = b = 4?
Think: What? • What?? = –12. ( a = 1 case )
12, +1 No
6, +2 Yes Can stop
4, +3 No
F + (O + I ) + L = 3x 7 = ( 3x + 1) ( x 7)
2
d) 20x
F = First product (product of the First terms)
O = Outer product (product of the Outer terms)
I = Inner product (product of the Inner terms)
L = Last product (product of the Last terms)
( 3x )( x ) 2
F = 3x ; factors must be 3x and x
Need L = 7
+7 1
1 +7 Makes O + I = 20x. We need O + I to be 20x,
which is the middle term of the trinomial.
We're only off by a sign, so we change both
signs.
+1 7 Makes O + I = 20x. This works.
7 +1
Also, b = 20 , a "very negative" coefficient, so we are inclined to pair up the 3x
and the 7 to form the outer product, since they form 21x .
e) ( )(
4x 2 + 11x + 6 = 4x + 3 x + 2 )
Method 1: Trial-and-Error ("Guess") Method
( )( )
4x x 2
F = 4x
2x 2x
+1 +6
+6 +1
L = 6; need both " + " because of + 11x
+2 +3
+3 +2
Method 2: Factoring by Grouping

4 and 6 are neither prime nor “1,” so we may prefer this method.
We want two integers whose product is ac = (4)(6) = 24
and whose sum is b = 11. We want 8 and 3; split the middle
term accordingly.
4 x + 11x + 6 = 4 x + 8x + 3x + 6
2 2
OK to switch
(
= 4 x + 8x + ( 3x + 6 )
2
) Group terms
= 4 x ( x + 2 ) + 3( x + 2 ) "Local factoring"
= ( 4 x + 3) ( x + 2 ) "Global factoring"
f) 2x 2 + 10x + 5 is prime or irreducible over the integers (i.e., it cannot be broken down
further using integer coefficients). None of these combinations work:
( 2x )( x ) 2
F = 2x ; factors must be 2x and x
Need L = 5; need both " + " because of + 10x
+1 +5
+5 +1
We could also apply the Test for Factorability. The discriminant
4ac = (10 ) 4 ( 2 ) ( 5 ) = 100 40 = 60 , which is not a perfect square, and
2 2
b
the GCF = 1, so the polynomial is prime.
g)
3x + 6x
2
3= 3 x( 2
2x + 1 )
GCF a PST
You should usually factor out the GCF first.
= 3 ( x 1)
2
h) Apply the Difference of Two Squares formula a [ 2

b = (a + b)(a
2
]
b ) twice:
x4 16 = x 2 + 4 ( ) x2 4
( x2 ) ( 4) ( x) ( 2)
2 2 2 2
prime
(
= x2 + 4 x + 2 x 2)( )( )
i) Use Factoring by Grouping:
a 3 3a + 2a 2 b 6b = a 3 3a + 2a 2 b 6b ( ) ( )
= a ( a 3) + 2b ( a
2 2
3)
= ( a + 2b) ( a 3) 2
j) 4x 2 + 9 y 2 is prime. The GCF = 1, and we have no formula for the Sum of Two Squares
(for now…; this will change when we discuss imaginary numbers in Section 2.1).
k) Apply the Sum of Two Cubes formula a + b =

3 3
(a + b) a
2
ab + b
2
:
"Expected NOT
factor" 2ab
The visible signs follow the pattern:
same, different, "+"
x + 125y = ( x + 5y ) x
3 3
( 2
5xy + 25y
2
)
( x) (5 y)
3 3
l) Apply the Difference of Two Cubes formula a

3 3
b = (a b) a + ab + b
2 2
:
"Expected NOT
factor" + 2ab
The visible signs follow the pattern:
same, different, "+"
x
3
125y = ( x
3
(
5y ) x + 5xy + 25y
2 2
). §
( x )3 (5 y)
3
PART E: FACTORING EXPRESSIONS IN QUADRATIC FORM
An expression is in quadratic form
It can be expressed as au 2 + bu + c after performing a u substitution, where

a 0 , and a, b, and c are real coefficients.
• The term “quadratic form” is defined differently in higher math; that definition requires
each term to have degree 2.
Example 6 (Factoring an Expression in Quadratic Form)
Factor 2x 6 x 3 1 over the integers.
§ Solution
The trinomial 2x 6 x 3 1 is in quadratic form, because the exponent on x

in the first term is twice that in the second term (6 is twice 3), and the third
term is a constant.
We will use the substitution u = x 3 , the power of x in the “middle” term.

( )
2
Then, u 2 = x 3 = x6 .
2x 6 x 3 1 = 2u 2 u 1
Now, factor as usual.
= ( 2u + 1) ( u 1)
Substitute back. Replace u with x 3 .
(
= 2x 3 + 1 x 3 1)( )
With practice, the substitution process can be avoided. Either way, we are
( )
not done yet! It is true that 2x 3 + 1 is prime over the integers; Chapter 2
( )
will help us verify that. However, x 3 1 is not prime, because we can
apply the Difference of Two Cubes formula.
( 2x 3
)( ) ( )
+ 1 x 3 1 = 2x 3 + 1 ( x 1) x 2 + x + 1 ( )
This is factored completely over the integers. The Test for Factorability
(
can be used to show that the trinomial factor x 2 + x + 1 is prime, as )
expected. §
(Section 0.8: Factoring Rational and Algebraic Expressions) 0.8.1
SECTION 0.8: FACTORING RATIONAL AND ALGEBRAIC

EXPRESSIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Know techniques for factoring rational and algebraic expressions.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• In this section, we will extend techniques for factoring polynomials to other

rational and algebraic expressions, including those with negative and fractional
exponents. Prior to a precalculus course, most students have no experience
factoring such expressions.
PART B: FACTORING OUT GCFs
( )
When we factor x 5 + x 3 as x 3 x 2 + 1 , we factor out x 3 , the power of x with the
least exponent; x 3 is the GCF. We then divide each term of x 5 + x 3 by x 3 to
( )
obtain the other factor, x 2 + 1 . When we divide x 5 by x 3 , we subtract the
exponents in that order and get x 2 .
TIP 1: Think: “We’re factoring x 3 out of x 5 . 5 takeaway 3 is 2.”
These techniques apply even when the exponents involved are negative and/or
fractional.
Example 1 (Factoring with Negative Exponents)
Factor x 7
+x 4
2x 1
over the integers.
§ Solution
Observe that 7 is the least exponent on x. Our GCF is x 7 , so we will

factor it out and subtract 7 from each of the exponents.
x 7
+x 4
2x 1
=x 7
(1 + x 4 ( 7)
2x 1 ( 7)
)
=x 7
(1 + x 4+7
2x 1+ 7
)
=x 7
(1 + x 3
2x 6 )
TIP 2: Observe that this last trinomial has no
negative exponents on x. This is a sign that we
have factored out the GCF correctly.
WARNING 1: We usually try to avoid negative
exponents in final answers, so we will rewrite the
expression as a fraction.
1 + x 3 2x 6
=
x7
We are not done yet! We can factor the numerator
further over the integers.
TIP 3: We will first factor out 1 so that the new
leading coefficient is positive. This tends to make
factoring easier.
=
( 1 x 3 + 2x 6 )
7
x
The indicated 1 factor can be moved in front of
the fraction with no other sign changes.
WARNING 2: This is because it is a factor of the
entire numerator.
1 x 3 + 2x 6
=
x7
TIP 4: We will now rewrite the numerator in

descending powers of x. This tends to make
factoring easier.
2x 6 x3 1
=
x7
Fortunately, we have already factored the
numerator in Section 0.7, Example 6.
=
( 2x 3
)(
+ 1 x3 1 )
x7
=
( ) (
2x 3 + 1 ( x 1) x 2 + x + 1 )
x7
§
Example 2 (Factoring with Negative and Fractional Exponents)
( ) ( )
1/3 5 /3
Factor x 3 + 2 + x3 + 2 over the integers.
WARNING 3: Exponents do not typically distribute over sums.

WARNING 4: Likewise, the root of a sum is not typically equal to the sum
of the roots.
§ Solution
WARNING 5: All negative exponents are less than all positive exponents.
5
Observe that
3
( )
is the least exponent on x 3 + 2 . Our GCF is x 3 + 2 ( )
5 /3
,
5
so we will factor it out and subtract from each of the exponents on
3
( )
x3 + 2 .
(x ) ( ) ( ) (x )
1 5
1/3 5 /3 5 /3
3
+2 + x +2
3
= x +2 3 3
+2 3 3 +1
( ) (x )
1 5
5 /3 +
= x +2 3 3
+2 3 3 +1
( ) (x )
5 /3 2
= x3 + 2 3
+2 +1
= (x + 2)
5 /3
3
x 6 + 4x 3 + 4 + 1
= (x + 2)
5 /3
3
x 6 + 4x 3 + 5
x 6 + 4x 3 + 5
=
(x )
5 /3
3
+2
Although x 6 + 4x 3 + 5 is in quadratic form, it is

prime over the integers. §
(Section 0.9: Simplifying Algebraic Expressions) 0.9.1
SECTION 0.9: SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Be able to use factoring and canceling (i.e., division) to simplify algebraic

expressions.
• Be able to rationalize the numerator or the denominator of a fraction
containing radical(s).
• Be aware of common errors when rewriting and simplifying expressions.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• The factoring techniques from Sections 0.7 and 0.8 will help us simplify fractions
by canceling (i.e., dividing out) common factors.
• We can also re-express or simplify a fraction by rationalizing the numerator or

the denominator.
PART B: CANCELING COMMON FACTORS IN A FRACTION
We are typically required to provide answers in simplified form. While there are
different opinions as to what that means, there is common agreement that factors
(other than 1 and 1 ) that are common to both the numerator and the denominator
of a fraction must be canceled (i.e., divided out).
WARNING 1: Some instructors object to the term “canceling,” because students

often abuse the idea by inappropriately and carelessly deleting matching
expressions. Remember to rely on mathematical rules, not merely wishful
thinking!
Canceling Rule for Fractions

As we simplify a fraction, we can “cancel”:
a nonzero factor of the entire numerator with
an equivalent factor of the entire denominator.
• That is, we can divide the entire numerator and the entire denominator
by equivalent nonzero factors.
x
For example, we can divide the numerator and the denominator of
(
x2 x + 4 )
1
by x and obtain . We have canceled a pair of x factors:
(
x x+4 )
(1)
x 1
=
(
x2 x + 4 ) (
x x+4 )
( x)
x
WARNING 2: We cannot cancel a pair of x factors in , because x is
x2 + 4
not shown as a factor of the entire denominator.
Canceling and Restrictions

When canceling, if a factor is eliminated from the denominator
of a fraction, check to see if any restrictions have been “hidden.”
Such restrictions must be written out separately.
• It is usually acceptable to wait until the end to write such restrictions.
For example,
( x)
x2 x2
= ( x 0)
(
x x+4 ) x x+4 ( )
(1)
x
=
x+4
x ( 0 )
PART C: CANCELING OPPOSITE FACTORS
( a b) and ( b a ) are opposites.

Canceling Opposite Factors
The quotient of nonzero, opposite factors is 1 .
Example 1 (Canceling Opposite Factors)
9 x2
Simplify .
x 3
§ Solution Method 1
9 x2
=
(
3+ x 3 x )( )
x 3 x 3 ( )
WARNING 3: It is incorrect to factor 9 ( )(
x 2 as x + 3 x 3 , )
which is the factorization of x 2 9.
(3 x ) and ( x 3) are opposites, so their quotient in either

order is 1.
( 1)
(3 + x ) (3 x )
= ( x 3)
( )
x 3
(1)
TIP 1: The parentheses around the “ 1 ” remind us that it is a
factor of the numerator, not a term.
= (3 + x ) ( x 3) , or
3 x ( x 3)
The choice between (3 + x ) and 3 x may depend on context. §

9 x2
=
(x 2
9 )
x 3 x 3
x2 9
=
x 3
(1)
( x + 3) ( x 3)
= ( x 3)
( x 3)
(1)
= ( x + 3) ( x 3) , or
x 3 ( x 3)
§
PART D: SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
Example 2 (Simplifying an Algebraic Expression)
( 4x + 7 )1/3 ( 2x ) ( x ) 13 ( 4x + 7 ) ( 4 )
2 2 /3
Simplify .
( 4x + 7 )2 /3
Do not leave nonpositive exponents in the final expression.
• In calculus, the given expression is obtained by applying the Quotient Rule for
x2
Differentiation to 3 .
4x + 7
§ Solution
We begin by “cleaning up” the numerator.
( 4x + 7 )1/3 ( 2x ) ( x ) 13 ( 4x + 7 ) ( 4 )
2 2 /3
( 4x + 7 )2 /3
4 2
2x ( 4x + 7 ) x ( 4x + 7 )
1/3 2 /3
= 3
( 4x + 7 )2 /3
Method 1 (Factor the Numerator)
We will factor out the GCF of the numerator, which is x ( 4x + 7 )

2 /3
.
TIP 2: It may be easier to factor out x in one step and then

( 4x + 7 ) 2 /3 in another step. The GCF does not have to be factored
out in one step.
TIP 3: It may be easier to substitute u = 4x + 7 and obtain

4 2 2 /3
2xu1/3 x u
3 . Make sure to substitute back later.
u 2 /3
4 2 4 2
2x ( 4x + 7 ) x ( 4x + 7 )
1/3 2 /3
2xu1/3 x u 2 /3
3 or 3
( 4x + 7 )2 /3 u 2 /3
1 2
1 2
4 4
x ( 4x + 7 ) 2 ( 4x + 7 )
2 /3 3 3
2 /3
3 3 x xu 2u x
3 3
= or
( 4x + 7 )2 /3 u 2 /3
4 4
x ( 4x + 7 ) 2 ( 4x + 7 )
2 /3 2 /3
x xu 2u x
3 3
= or
( 4x + 7 )2 /3 u 2 /3
We now divide ( 4x + 7 ) by ( 4x + 7 ) .
2 /3 2 /3
If we let u = 4x + 7 :
( 4x + 7 ) 2 /3 u 2 /3 2 2 4
1 1
= 2 /3 = u 3 3
=u 3
= =
( 4x + 7 )2 /3 u u 4 /3
( 4x + 7 )4 /3
The division yields ( 4x + 7 )
4 /3
in the denominator.
4
x 2 ( 4x + 7 ) x
3
=
( 4x + 7 )4 /3
4
x 8x + 14 x
3
=
( 4x + 7 )4 /3
WARNING 4: Compound fractions are typically unacceptable in a

simplified expression.
We will multiply the numerator and the denominator by 3.
4
3x 8x + 14 x
3
=
3 ( 4x + 7 )
4 /3
24x 2 + 42x 4x 2
=
3 ( 4x + 7 )
4 /3
20x 2 + 42x 2x (10x + 21)

= , or
3 ( 4x + 7 ) 3 ( 4x + 7 )
4 /3 4 /3
WARNING 5: We should factor the numerator and see if there are

any common factors with the denominator, aside from 1 and 1 .
Such factors must be canceled (divided out).
WARNING 6: Do not distribute the 3 in the denominator. The 4/3
exponent forbids that.
• No restrictions need to be written. The only restriction on the given
7
expression was x , and it is implied by the final expression.
4
Method 2 (Rewrite as a Compound Fraction First)

2
Because of the negative exponent , the expressions in blue below can be
3
rewritten as fractions containing positive exponents.
Again, the substitution u = 4x + 7 may help.

4 2 4 2
2x ( 4x + 7 ) x ( 4x + 7 )
1/3 2 /3
2xu1/3 x u 2 /3
3 or 3
( 4x + 7 )2 /3 u 2 /3
4x 2
2x ( 4x + 7 ) 4x 2
1/3
3 ( 4x + 7 )
2 /3 2xu1/3
= or 3u 2 /3
( 4x + 7 ) 2 /3
u 2 /3
We will multiply the numerator and the denominator by the Least

Common Denominator (LCD), 3 ( 4x + 7 ) , or 3u 2 /3 .
2 /3
4x 2
3 ( 4x + 7 ) 2x ( 4x + 7 )
2 /3 1/3
3 ( 4x + 7 )
2 /3
=
3 ( 4x + 7 ) ( 4x + 7 )2 /3
2 /3
2 /3 1/3 4x 2
3u 2xu
3u 2 /3
or
3u 2 /3 u 2 /3
WARNING 7: Do not cancel the expressions above in red. We must

apply the Distributive Property. If it helps, write the following step;
with experience, you can skip it.
4x 2
3 ( 4x + 7 ) 2x ( 4x + 7 ) 3 ( 4x + 7 )
2 /3 1/3 2 /3
3 ( 4x + 7 )
2 /3
=
3 ( 4x + 7 ) ( 4x + 7 )2 /3
2 /3
2 /3 1/3 2 /3 4x 2
3u 2xu 3u
3u 2 /3
or
3u 2 /3 u 2 /3
6xu 4x 2
=
3u 4 /3
6x ( 4x + 7 ) 4x 2
=
3 ( 4x + 7 )
4 /3
24x 2 + 42x 4x 2
=
3 ( 4x + 7 )
4 /3
20x 2 + 42x 2x (10x + 21)

= , or
3 ( 4x + 7 ) 3 ( 4x + 7 )
4 /3 4 /3
§
PART E: RATIONALIZING DENOMINATORS AND NUMERATORS
When we rationalize the denominator of a fraction, we eliminate radicals and

non-integer exponents in the denominator but possibly introduce them in the
numerator.
1
For example, is unacceptable in a simplified expression, so we
2
1 1 2 2
rewrite it: = =
. For more complicated expressions, there
2 2 2 2
are different opinions as to when denominators need to be rationalized.
(See Footnote 1)
When we rationalize the numerator of a fraction, we eliminate radicals and

non-integer exponents in the numerator but possibly introduce them in the
denominator.
Example 3 (Rationalizing a Numerator)
x+h x
Re-express by rationalizing the numerator.
h
• This expression is an example of a difference quotient (see Section 1.10).
Rationalizing the numerator will help us find a derivative (see Section
1.11).
§ Solution
We will multiply the numerator and the denominator by x+h+ x,

the conjugate of x+h x.
x+h x
=
( x+h x )( x+h+ x )
h h
( x+h+ x)
To multiply out the numerator, we use the

( )( )
rule: a b a + b = a 2 b2 .
( ) ( )
2 2
x+h x
=
h( x + h + x)
WARNING 8: Do not forget the radical

expression in the denominator.
=
( x + h) x
h ( x+h+ x )
x +h x
=
h ( x+h+ x )
h
=
h ( x+h+ x )
We now cancel the h factors and note the
(
restriction h 0 . )
(1)
h
= ( h 0)
h
(1)
( x+h+ x )
1
= ( h 0)
x+h+ x
§
PART F: COMMON ERRORS
Beware of the following errors when rewriting or simplifying an expression.
Errors involving Radicals and Exponents
Error (crossed out) Related Correct Formulas Comments

a2 = a
3
a =a
3 The formula a 2 = a is
a = a, if a < 0
2
( )
2 often forgotten.
a = a, if a 0
Do not apply radicals or
a+b = a + b ab = a b , exponents term-by-term.
a b= a b if a 0 and b 0 .
There is no general
formula for the square
( a + b)
1/ 2
= a1/ 2 + b1/ 2 a a root of a sum (or a
= ,
b b difference), as there is
( a b)
1/ 2
= a1/ 2 b1/ 2 if a 0 and b > 0 . for a product or a
quotient.
ab + ac = a b + c ( )
ab + ac = a b + c = a b + c, When factoring a
if a 0 and b + c 0. radicand or the base of a
power, make sure to
apply the appropriate
( ab + ac) ( )
1/ 2 1/ 2
= a b+ c radical or exponent to all
factors.
( ab + ac) ( ) ( )
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
= a b+ c = a1/ 2 b + c ,
if a 0 and b + c 0.
Errors involving Fractions
Error (crossed out) Related Correct Formulas Comments

( x)
(1) x2 x2
= ( x 0) We can cancel (nonzero,
x
=
1 (
x x+4 ) x x+4 ( ) equivalent) factors of the
x +4
2
x+4 (1) entire numerator and the
( x) x entire denominator.
=
x+4
x ( 0 )
If we add like fractions,
a b a+b we add the numerators
+ = .
1 1 1 and keep the common
denominator.
1 1 1
+ = 1 1 1 b 1 a
a b a+b + = + If we add unlike
a b a b b a fractions, we do not add
b+ a a+b the denominators.
= , or .
ab ab
A fraction groups
a b+c
=
a b+c a b+c a (b + c ) together its numerator
=
d d d d d d (and groups together its
denominator).
1 1 1 Reciprocals cannot be
=x 1+x 2
+ 2 =x 1+x 2
x+x 2
x x taken term-by-term.
1 1 1 4 /3 The negative exponent
= 7x 4 /3 = x (x 0)
7x 4 /3
7x 4 /3 7 only applies to x.
FOOTNOTES
2x (10x + 21)
1. Rationalizing denominators. The expression from Example 2 is often
3( 4x + 7 )
4/3
considered simplified. If we were to rationalize the denominator, we would have (nontrivial)

( )
powers of 4x + 7 as factors of the numerator and the denominator:
2x (10x + 21) 2x (10x + 21) ( 4x + 7 )2 / 3 = 2x (10x + 21) ( 4x + 7 )2 / 3

=
3( 4x + 7 ) 3( 4x + 7 ) ( 4x + 7 )2 / 3 3( 4x + 7 )
4/3 4/3 2
2x (10x + 21)
We may be inclined to divide those powers and go back to .
3( 4x + 7 )
4/3
(Section 0.10: More Algebraic Manipulations) 0.10.1
SECTION 0.10: MORE ALGEBRAIC MANIPULATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Learn additional ways to write equivalent expressions.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• The techniques of this section will help us rewrite expressions so that they are
easier to manipulate.
• They will also help us fit expressions to particular forms and templates.
PART B: SPLITTING A FRACTION THROUGH ITS NUMERATOR
Example 1 (Splitting a Fraction Through its Numerator)

Fill in the boxes below with appropriate, simplified numbers:
7x + 3
4
= x + x
x
§ Solution
We begin by rewriting 4 x as x1/ 4 , because the template on the right-hand

side suggests a preference for exponential form over radical form.
7x + 3 7x + 3
4
= 1/4
x x
We will rewrite this as a sum by splitting it through its
numerator.
7x1 3
= 1/4 + 1/4
x x
= 7x + 3x
3/4 1/4
3 1
7x + 3
Answer: 4 = 7 x 4
+ 3 x 4
x
• In calculus, the right-hand side is much easier to differentiate and integrate.
§
WARNING 1: Do not split a fraction in this way through its denominator.

1 1 1
For example, is not equivalent to + .
x+y x y
PART C: MAKING COMPOUND FRACTIONS
When we divide by a nonzero number, we multiply by its reciprocal.

When we multiply by a nonzero number, we divide by its reciprocal.
Example 2 (Making Compound Fractions)

Fill in the boxes below with appropriate, simplified numbers:
3y 2 x2 y2
9x 2 + = +
4
§ Solution
3y 2 9 2 3 2
9x +2
= x + y
4 1 4
3 3 2
WARNING 2: 2
is not equivalent to y .
4y 4
x2 y2
= +
1 4
9 3
3y 2 x2 y2
Answer: 9x + 2
= +
4 1 4
9 3
§
• This technique will be used in Chapter 10 to set up standard forms for equations of conics.
PART D: COMPENSATION
Sometimes, we can alter an expression if we compensate for the change and

maintain equivalence.
Example 3 (Compensation Using Addition and Subtraction)
Fill in the box below with an appropriate, simplified expression:
x
= 1
x +1
§ Solution
x +1
We know that
x +1
=1 x ( )
1 , so we would like to add 1 to the
x
numerator of . To compensate for that, we must also subtract 1 from
x +1
the numerator.
WARNING 3: If we add 1 to the numerator of a fraction, we cannot
1 2
compensate by adding 1 to the denominator. For example, .
2 3
x x +1 1
=
x +1 x +1
x +1 1
=
x +1 x +1
1
=1
x +1
x 1
Answer: = 1
x +1 x +1
§
• A similar compensation technique is used when Completing the Square (CTS) in Sections 0.11,
0.13, and 2.2 and Chapter 10.
Example 4 (Compensation Using Multiplication and Division)
Fill in the box below with an appropriate, simplified number:
( 4x + 1)5 = ( 4x + 1)5 ( 4 )
§ Solution
The expression on the left-hand side has been multiplied by 4.

1
We compensate by dividing by 4, or by multiplying by its reciprocal, .
4
1
Answer: ( 4x + 1)5 = ( 4x + 1)5 ( 4 )
4
• In calculus, this technique helps us integrate using the u-substitution method.
(Section 0.11: Solving Equations) 0.11.1
SECTION 0.11: SOLVING EQUATIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Know how to solve linear, quadratic, rational, radical, and absolute value
equations.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• Much of precalculus is devoted to solving equations of various types.
In this section, we will solve basic algebraic equations.
• We will solve polynomial equations more generally in Chapter 2,
exponential and logarithmic equations in Chapter 3, and trigonometric
equations in Chapter 4. We will solve systems of equations in Chapters 7 and 8.
PART B: SOLVING EQUATIONS

A solution to an equation in x is a number that makes the equation true when
the number is substituted for x. For now, we only consider real solutions.
We solve an equation by finding its solution set, the set of all solutions.
When solving an equation, we often write a sequence of equivalent equations,
which have the same solution set.
• Adding, subtracting, multiplying by, and dividing by the same
nonzero number on both sides of an equation maintains equivalence.
Example Set 1 (Solving Equations)

• When we solve the linear equation 2x = 6 , we divide both sides by 2 and
obtain the equivalent equation x = 3 . The solution set of both equations is
{}3 . We can check a solution by verifying that it satisfies the original
()
equation: 2 3 = 6 , so 3 checks out.
• The equation x = x + 1 has no real solutions.

Its solution set is ∅ , the empty set (or null set).
• The equation x + 1 = x + 1 is solved by all real numbers.
Its solution set is  , so the equation is automatically called an identity.
1 1
• The equation = is solved by all nonzero real numbers. Its solution set
x x
is  \ {0} , also written as ( − ∞, 0 ) ∪ ( 0, ∞ ) . The equation is an identity, in
part because the only excluded real number (0) corresponds to a restriction. §
WARNING 1: There is a difference between simplifying an expression and

solving an equation. For example, when we simplify the expression 2x + x ,
we write “ 2x + x = 3x ,” and 3x is our answer. On the other hand, when we solve
the equation 2x + x = 3x , we state that the solution set is  .
PART C: SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
The general form of a quadratic equation in x is given by:

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , where a ≠ 0 .
Its solutions are given by the Quadratic Formula:
− b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
• Sometimes, the solutions are not real, but imaginary (see Chapter 2).
The discriminant of ax 2 + bx + c is b2 − 4ac , the radicand in the formula.

• It may be denoted by D or Δ (uppercase delta).
• It helps us classify (or “discriminate between”) types of solutions.
WARNING 2: Make sure the fraction bar in the formula goes all the way
b2 − 4ac
across. The formula is not: x = − b ± .
2a
WARNING 3: Here, the plus-minus sign ± indicates that we take both the
result from the “+” case and the result from the “ − ” case. (The results are
equal ⇔ the discriminant b2 − 4ac is 0.) Sometimes in precalculus, the ±
sign indicates that we do not yet know which sign to take.
Example 2 (Using the Quadratic Formula)

Solve the equation 2x 2 − 7x = 15 using the Quadratic Formula.
§ Solution
WARNING 4: We must rewrite the equation in general form before we
apply the Quadratic Formula. We must isolate 0 on one side of the equation.
(Sometimes, it is easier to isolate 0 on the left-hand side.)
2x 2 − 7x = 15
2x 2 − 7x − 15 = 0
TIP 1: If we had been asked to solve 4x 2 − 14x − 30 = 0 , we could have
easily divided both sides by 2.
TIP 2: To avoid sign errors, we will identify a, b, and c before we apply the
Quadratic Formula. Make sure to get them from the general form!
Here, a = 2 , b = − 7 , and c = −15 .
− b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
− (− 7) ± ( − 7 ) − 4 ( 2)( −15) = 7 ±
2
49 + 120 7 ± 169
= =
2 ( 2) 4 4
WARNING 5: We must simplify the radical.

7± 2
(If we had obtained, say, , there would be no need
4
to simplify.)
7 ± 13
=
4
7 + 13 20
“+” case : x = = =5
4 4
7 − 13 − 6 3
“ − ” case: x = = =−
4 4 2
⎧ 3 ⎫
The solution set is: ⎨− , 5⎬ .
⎩ 2 ⎭
(Some instructors list solutions in increasing order, although solution sets are
technically unordered, meaning order doesn’t matter.) §
We also use the Factoring Method, the Square Root Method, and the Completing
the Square (CTS) Method to solve quadratic equations.
The Factoring Method for solving equations relies on the following
Zero Factor Property.
Zero Factor Property (or Zero Product Property)

If a and b represent real quantities, then:
(
ab = 0 ⇔ a = 0 or b = 0 . )
• Essentially, a product is 0 ⇔ a factor is 0, provided all factors are defined.
Example 3 (Using the Factoring Method; Revisiting Example 2)
Solve 2x 2 − 7x = 15 using the Factoring Method.
§ Solution
WARNING 6: Again, we must first isolate 0 on one side.
2x 2 − 7x = 15
2x 2 − 7x − 15 = 0
( 2x + 3) ( x − 5) = 0
By the Zero Factor Property,
2x + 3 = 0 or x −5= 0
3 x=5
x=−
2
⎧ 3 ⎫
Again, the solution set is: ⎨− , 5⎬ . §
⎩ 2 ⎭
In Example 2, the discriminant of 2x 2 − 7x − 15 was 169, a perfect square,
which led to the elimination of the radical sign. As a result, 2x 2 − 7x − 15 = 0 had
rational numbers as solutions.
Also, by the Test for Factorability from Section 0.7, 2x 2 − 7x − 15 can be

factored over the integers,  . In Example 3, we used the Factoring Method as a
quicker alternative to the Quadratic Formula when solving 2x 2 − 7x − 15 = 0 , and
we obtained the same rational numbers as solutions.
Test for Factorability and Types of Solutions

The Test for Factorability applies to ax 2 + bx + c , where a, b, and c are
nonzero integers. (Assume the GCF is 1 or −1 ; otherwise, factor it out.)
If the discriminant (Distinct) solutions to
Then, ax 2 + bx + c …
b2 − 4ac is … ax 2 + bx + c = 0
… a perfect square … can be factored over  two rational numbers
… in fact, 0 … and is a PST one rational number
(Perfect Square Trinomial) (a “double root”)
… not a perfect square … is prime over 
… and positive two irrational numbers
… and negative two imaginary numbers

(see Chapter 2)
Square Root Method

If d > 0 , then x 2 = d ⇔ x = ± d .
If d = 0 , then x 2 = d ⇔ x 2 = 0 ⇔ x = 0 .
If d < 0 , then x 2 = d has no real solutions.
• For example, x 2 = 3 ⇔ x = ± 3 , while x 2 = − 3 has no real solutions.

WARNING 7: Remember that squares of real numbers are never negative.
• This method can be extended to u 2 = d , where u is an expression in x or some
other variable.
• This is often the quickest method for solving ax 2 + bx + c = 0 when b = 0 .
Example 4 (Using the Square Root Method)

Solve 3x 2 − 4 = 0 using the Square Root Method.
§ Solution
We begin by isolating x 2 on one side of the equation.
3x 2 − 4 = 0
3x 2 = 4
4
x2 =
3
We now apply the Square Root Method.
4
x=±
3
WARNING 8: Do not forget the “ ± ” sign.
WARNING 9: If we have a numerical fraction as a radicand, we usually
have to simplify. Here, we will rationalize the denominator.
2
x=±
3
2 3
x=±
3
⎧⎪ 2 3 2 3 ⎫⎪
Technically, the solution set is: ⎨− , ⎬. §
⎪⎩ 3 3 ⎪⎭
Completing the Square (“CTS”) Method

This method creates a perfect square trinomial (PST), which can be
factored as the square of a binomial. That square is then isolated, and the
Square Root Method is applied.
• This method can be easy to apply if a = 1 and b is even. (Other cases will
be discussed in Chapters 2 and 10.)
• The Quadratic Formula can be derived using this method.
• CTS will be used to set up standard forms for equations of conics in
Sections 0.13 and Chapters 2 and 10.
Example 5 (Using the “CTS” Method)

Solve x 2 + 8x + 5 = 0 using the “CTS” Method.
§ Solution
We begin by isolating the x 2 and x terms on one side of the equation and
isolating a constant term on the other side.
x 2 + 8x + 5 = 0
x 2 + 8x = − 5
The coefficient of x 2 is 1, so we may now complete the square.

We accomplish this by adding 16 to both sides of the equation. Why 16?
We take the coefficient of x (here, 8), halve it (resulting in 4), and then
square the result (the square of 4 is 16).
x 2 + 8x + 16 = −5 + 16
WARNING 10: Remember to add 16 to the right-hand side, also.
We now have a PST on the left-hand side.
( x + 4) ( by factoring the PST )

2
= 11
x + 4 = ± 11 ( by the Square Root Method )
x = − 4 ± 11
{
Technically, the solution set is: − 4 − 11, − 4 + 11 . § }
PART D: SOLVING RATIONAL EQUATIONS

We often solve a rational equation by first multiplying both sides by the LCD.
WARNING 11: Indicate restrictions that are “hidden” by this step.
Example 6 (Solving a Rational Equation)

9 1
Solve = .
x 3 4x
§ Solution
We multiply both sides by the LCD, 4x 3 .
9 1
3
=
x 4x
9
x 3 ( )
4x 3 =
1
4x
( )
4x 3
36 = x 2 ( x ≠ 0)
x 2 = 36 ( x ≠ 0)
x = ±6
{ }
The solution set is: − 6, 6 .
WARNING 12: If we had obtained x = 0 , we would have had to reject it. §
PART E: SOLVING RADICAL EQUATIONS

We often solve a radical equation by isolating radicals on one or both sides of the
equation and then raising both sides to the appropriate positive integer power.
WARNING 13: If we raise both sides of an equation to an even power at any
step, we must check any tentative solutions at the end and reject extraneous
solutions. (Raising to an odd power does not require such a check.)
• Observe that, if we square both sides of x = 2 , we obtain x 2 = 4 , which

has both 2 and − 2 as solutions. However, − 2 is an extraneous solution
that must be rejected.
• Although x = 2 ⇒ x 2 = 4 , the equations x = 2 and x 2 = 4 are not
equivalent. That is, x = 2 ⇔ x 2 = 4 . We lose “reversibility” here.
Example 7 (Solving a Radical Equation)
Solve x + 4 = x 2 + x − 21 .
§ Solution
We square both sides of the equation. Since it is cumbersome to write
restrictions that are “hidden” by this step, namely x + 4 ≥ 0 and
x 2 + x − 21 ≥ 0 , we will instead check our tentative solutions at the end.
x + 4 = x 2 + x − 21 ⇒
( ) =( )
2 2
x+4 x + x − 21
2
x + 4 = x 2 + x − 21
25 = x 2
x 2 = 25
x = ±5
We must check our tentative solutions.
(5) + 4 = (5) + (5) − 21

2
x = 5 checks out:
TIP 3: Beyond mechanical errors,

we need to check that radicands of
even roots are nonnegative.
9= 9
3= 3
x = − 5 does not check out:
( − 5) + 4 = ( − 5) + ( − 5) − 21
2
−1 = −1
WARNING 14: We must reject − 5 , because it yields a

non-real expression, −1 , in the check.
{}
The solution set is: 5 . §
(Section 0.11: Solving Equations) 0.11.9.
PART F: SOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE EQUATIONS

Solving Absolute Value Equations
If d > 0 , then x = d ⇔ x = ± d .
If d = 0 , then x = d ⇔ x = 0 ⇔ x = 0 .
If d < 0 , then x = d has no solutions.
• For example, x = 3 ⇔ x = ± 3 , while x = − 3 has no solutions.

WARNING 15: Remember that absolute values are never negative.
• This method can be extended to u = d , where u is an expression in x or

some other variable.
Example 8 (Solving an Absolute Value Equation)

Solve x − 1 = 2 .
§ Solution
x −1 = 2
x −1= ±2
“+” case : “ − ” case:
x −1= 2 x −1= −2
x=3 x = −1
{ }
The solution set is: −1, 3 .
• Observe that −1 and 3 lie at a distance of two units away from 1 on the
real number line. This is consistent with our discussion of absolute value and
distance in Section 0.4.
§
(Section 0.12: Solving Inequalities) 0.12.1
SECTION 0.12: SOLVING INEQUALITIES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Know how to solve linear inequalities and absolute value inequalities.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• We will solve inequalities when we perform sign analyses and find domains of
radical functions (see Section 1.1 and Chapter 2).
• Absolute value inequalities allow us to write compound inequalities more
efficiently. They also help us describe an interval on the real number line with
respect to its center.
• We will solve nonlinear inequalities in Chapter 2.
PART B: SOLVING LINEAR INEQUALITIES

Strict inequalities involve the “ < ” (is less than) or the “ > ” (is greater than)
signs.
Weak inequalities involve the “ ≤ ” (is less than or equal to) or the
“ ≥ ” (is greater than or equal to) signs.
Inequations involve the “ ≠ ” (is not equal to) sign.
Solving linear inequalities is similar to solving linear equations, except that:

• An inequality typically has infinitely many solutions, and the solution set
is often written in interval form.
• WARNING 1: We must reverse the direction of the inequality sign if we
switch the sides of an inequality, or if we multiply or divide both sides by
a negative number.
Solving inequations is also similar to solving equations, although “ ≠ ” never needs
to be reversed.
Example 1 (Solving a Linear Inequality)

Solve − 3x > x + 8 .
− 3x > x + 8 Now subtract x from both sides.
− 4x > 8 Now divide both sides by − 4 .
We must reverse the direction of the inequality sign.
x < −2
The solution set …

{x ∈ x < − 2} , or
{ x ∈ : x < − 2}
… in interval form is: ( − ∞, − 2)

§
− 3x > x + 8 Now add 3x to, and subtract 8 from, both sides.
− 8 > 4x Now switch sides.
We must reverse the direction of the inequality sign.
4x < − 8
x < −2
See Method 1 for the solution set. §
PART C: SOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES

Solving Absolute Value Inequalities
If d > 0 , then:
x < d ⇔ − d < x < d , and
x ≤ d ⇔ −d ≤ x ≤ d .
Also,
(
x > d ⇔ x > d or x < − d , and )
x ≥d ⇔ (x ≥ d or x ≤ − d ) .
• TIP 1: Think of x as the distance between x and 0 on the real number line.
• For example, x < 1 ⇔ −1 < x < 1 . This is a compound inequality that means:
( )
x > −1 and x < 1. The solution set is the interval −1, 1 . It is the set of numbers
that lie strictly within one unit of 0 on the real number line.
( )
• Also, x > 1 ⇔ x > 1 or x < −1 . This is a different kind of compound
( ) ( )
inequality. The solution set is − ∞, −1 ∪ 1, ∞ . It is the set of numbers that are
further than one unit from 0 on the real number line.
WARNING 2: Students incorrectly write 1 < x < −1 here.

( )
This actually means x > 1 and x < −1 , which corresponds to ∅ ,
the empty (or null) set.
• These methods can be extended to u , where u is an expression in x or some

other variable.
(Section 0.12: Solving Inequalities) 0.12.4.
Example 2 (Solving an Absolute Value Inequality;

Related to Section 0.11, Example 8)
Solve x − 1 < 2 .
§ Solution
x −1 < 2
−2 < x −1< 2
We can add 1 to all three parts of this
compound inequality.
−1 < x < 3
The solution set …

{x ∈ −1 < x < 3} , or
{ x ∈ : −1 < x < 3}
… in interval form is: ( −1, 3)

• The solution set is the set of numbers that lie strictly within two units of 1
on the real number line. This is consistent with our discussion of absolute
value and distance in Section 0.4.
§
(Section 0.13: The Cartesian Plane and Circles) 0.13.1
SECTION 0.13: THE CARTESIAN PLANE and CIRCLES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand the Cartesian plane and associated terminology.

• Know how to plot points and graph equations in the Cartesian plane.
• Know the Distance and Midpoint Formulas.
• Be able to recognize, write, standardize, and graph equations of circles.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• We typically graph an equation in x and y in the Cartesian (or rectangular) plane,

named after René Descartes. We plot points using their Cartesian coordinates.
• There are alternate coordinate systems. We will discuss polar coordinates in Chapter 6. In three
dimensions, we use Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.
PART B: THE CARTESIAN (OR RECTANGULAR) PLANE
The Cartesian (or rectangular) plane is a plane with the Cartesian coordinate
system imposed on it.
We usually graph in the Cartesian xy-plane, though other variables could be used.
We locate a horizontal line called the x-axis and a vertical line called the y-axis.
These coordinate axes are real number lines; at least one nonzero tick mark
should be placed on each axis to indicate scale. The axes intersect at the origin, O.
A point in the plane corresponds to an ordered pair of the form

( )
x-coordinate, y-coordinate . For example, the origin O corresponds to the ordered
( ) ( )
pair 0, 0 , and the red point below corresponds to 2, 3 . If we name the red point
( )
P, we can write P 2, 3 .
PART C: DISTANCE AND MIDPOINT FORMULAS
Distance Formula
( ) (
The distance between points P x1 , y1 and Q x2 , y2 in the Cartesian )
plane is given by:
d= ( x2 x1 ) + ( y2
2
y1 )
2
or, equivalently, ( x1 x2 ) + ( y1
2
y2 )
2
• This is proven using the Pythagorean Theorem, which we will discuss in Chapter 4 on
trigonometry.
Midpoint Formula
The midpoint of PQ , the line segment with endpoints P and Q,

is given by:
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
,
2 2
• Observe that the x-coordinate is the average of the x-coordinates of the

endpoints, and the y-coordinate is the average of the y-coordinates.
• For example, in the figure below, the distance between the points ( 2, 1 )
( )
and 3, 3 is: d = ( 3 ( 2 )) + ( 3 1)
2 2
= 29 . If the coordinate axes are
scaled in (say) meters, then the distance is 29 meters.
• The midpoint M of the red line segment is:
2 + 3 1+ 3 1
, = ,2
2 2 2
PART D: THE GRAPH OF AN EQUATION and CIRCLES
The Graph of an Equation; the “Basic Principle of Graphing”

The graph of an equation consists of all points whose coordinates satisfy
the equation. The points correspond to solutions of the equation.
Circles
A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are a fixed distance (r, the
radius) away from a fixed point (the center). The diameter d is twice the
radius.
Distance and Squared Distance from the Origin
( ) ( )
x 2 + y 2 is the distance between a point x, y and the origin 0, 0 .
x 2 + y 2 is the squared distance between them.
( )
Equation of a Circle with Center 0, 0
The standard form of the equation of a circle (in the xy-plane) with
( )
center 0, 0 and radius r, where r > 0 , is given by:
x 2 + y2 = r 2
( )
• This is because such a circle consists of all points x, y whose squared
( )
distance from 0, 0 is r 2 .
Example 1 (The Graph of an Equation; A Circle Centered at the Origin)
( )
The graph of x 2 + y 2 = 9 is the circle below with center 0, 0 and
radius 3.
( ) (
The ordered pairs 3, 0 , ) ( ) ( )
3, 0 , 0, 3 , and 0, 3 are all solutions of
the equation x 2 + y 2 = 9 , and their corresponding points lie on the circle.
Other points such as ( )
7, 2 also lie on the circle.
Equation of a Circle with Center h, k ( )

( )
More generally, if the circle has center h, k , the standard form is
given by:
(x h) + ( y k ) = r 2
2 2
(
• The left-hand side is the squared distance between the points x, y and )
( h, k ) . The circle consists of all points ( x, y ) whose squared distance from
( h, k ) is r .
2
Example 2 (Finding the Equation of a Circle)
Find an equation of the circle in the xy-plane with center ( )

2, 1 and
radius 3.
§ Solution
( ( )) + ( y 1) = (3) , which we usually

2 2 2
We obtain the equation x 2
( ) ( )
2 2
rewrite as: x + 2 + y 1 = 9 .
WARNING 1: The center of the circle is ( ) ( )

2, 1 , not 2, 1 . If we are
given the equation of a circle in standard form, we can find the center by
asking, “What makes the left-hand side equal to 0?” (The center has a
squared distance of 0 from itself.) §
The circles from Examples 1 and 2 are graphed below:
The circles are translations of one another. (See Section 1.4.)

Example 3 (Finding the Standard Form of the Equation of a Circle)

A circle has as its equation:
4x 2 + 4 y 2 16x + 4 y 11 = 0
Find the standard form of this equation, and identify the center and the
radius of the circle.
§ Solution
The common coefficient of x 2 and y 2 is 4, so we will divide both sides of

the equation by 4.
4x 2 + 4 y 2 16x + 4 y 11 = 0
11
x2 + y2 4x + y =0
4
Now, we group together the x 2 and x terms, and we group together the
y 2 and y terms. We isolate constant terms on the right-hand side.
(x 2
) (
4x + y 2 + y = ) 11
4
We now Complete the Square (CTS) in both groups.
(x 2
)
4x + 4 + y 2 + y +
1
4
11
= +4+
4
1
4
1
WARNING 2: Do not forget to add 4 and to
4
the right-hand side, also.
We now factor both of the resulting Perfect Square Trinomials (PSTs).
2
1
( )
2
x 2 + y+ =7
2
We now have the desired form, although the equation could be rewritten as:
2
1
( x 2)
2
+ y =7
2
1
The circle has center 2, and radius 7.§
2
(Section 0.14: Lines) 0.14.1
SECTION 0.14: LINES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Understand and compute the slope of a line.

• Distinguish between equations of horizontal lines and those of vertical lines.
• Know how to write equations of lines in various forms, including
Point-Slope Form, Slope-Intercept Form, and Two-Intercept Form.
• Understand parallel and perpendicular lines and relate their slopes.
• Know how to find the intercepts of a line.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• We frequently graph lines in precalculus and calculus.
• In this section, we will graph lines in the xy-plane, though we can work with
different variables.
• There are many ways to write an equation for a line. The form we select may
depend on the information we have about the line, or on the information we want
to find or display.
• In Section 1.11, we will discuss linear approximations of functions and graphs by tangent lines,
a crucial idea in calculus.
PART B: NOTATION
Assume that m, a, b, c, x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 , A, B, and C represent real numbers.
Let ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) be two distinct points on a line.
m is the slope of the line (if defined).
( )
a, or the point a, 0 , is the x-intercept of the line (if there is exactly one), and
b, or the point ( 0, b) , is the y-intercept of the line (if there is exactly one).
PART C: m, THE SLOPE OF A LINE
Formulas for m, the Slope of a Line
rise y y2 y1 y1 y2
m= = = or, equivalently,
run x x2 x1 x1 x2
• If the line is vertical, then m is undefined.
• A negative rise can be interpreted as a drop.

• (uppercase delta) denotes “change in.”
Interpretation of Slope m as Marginal Change

For every unit increase in x along the line, y changes by m.
• This idea will be developed in Section 1.11.
Interpreting the Sign of Slope m

m>0 The line slopes upward (from left to right). Think: /
m=0 The line is horizontal (“flat”). Think:
m<0 The line slopes downward. Think: \
m measures the steepness of the line.

PART D: HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINES
Equations of Horizontal and Vertical Lines
The graph of y = c is a horizontal line.

• For instance, the graph of y = 0 is the x-axis.
The graph of x = c is a vertical line.

• For instance, the graph of x = 0 is the y-axis.
WARNING 1: The two equation forms are frequently confused.
TIP 1: Remember the Basic Principle of Graphing. For example, the graph
of x = 2 consists of all points with x-coordinate 2. The graph is a vertical
line. The graph of y = 2 is a horizontal line.
Slopes of Horizontal and Vertical Lines

m = 0 for a horizontal line.
m is undefined for a vertical line.
PART E: FORMS FOR THE EQUATION OF A LINE
The following forms are used to write the equation of a line in the xy-plane.
General Form
Ax + By = C ,
where A and B are not both 0
Point-Slope Form
y y1 = m ( x x1 ) ,
where m is defined
y
• This is derived from the idea that m = .
x
Slope-Intercept Form
y = mx + b ,
where m is defined
Two-Intercept Form
x y
+ = 1,
a b
( )
where the line has a unique x-intercept a, or a, 0 , and
( )
a unique y-intercept b, or 0, b , and neither a nor b is 0.
For example, the Two-Intercept Form of the equation of the line below is:
x y
( ) ( )
+ = 1 . Observe that 2,0 and 0,4 satisfy this equation.
2 4
Two distinct points determine a line.
• In other words, given two different points, exactly one line can pass
through them.
Example 1 (Finding Forms of the Equation of a Line)
Find the Slope-Intercept Form of the equation of the line passing through
the points ( 4, 5 ) and ( 2, 6 ) .
§ Solution
Find m, the slope of the line:

y 6 5 11
m= = =
x 2 ( 4) 6
Method 1 (First Find a Point-Slope Form)
Either of the two given points may be used as our “point.”
TIP 2: There are infinitely many Point-Slope Forms for the equation
of this line, since any point on the line can be used as our “point.”
However, the Slope-Intercept Form is unique, because a nonvertical
line has only one slope and one y-intercept.
Let’s use the first given point, ( 4, 5 ) .
y y1 = m ( x x1 ) ( Point-Slope Form )
y 5=
11
6
x ( ( 4 ))
We now solve for y and write the equation in Slope-Intercept Form,
y = mx + b .
11
y= (x + 4) + 5
6
11 44
y= x +5
6 6
11 22 15
y= x +
6 3 3
11 7
y= x
6 3
Method 2 (Substitute Directly into Slope-Intercept Form)
In Slope-Intercept Form, y = mx + b , x and y are variables that must

11
stay in the final equation. We know that m = . We need to find b.
6
According to the Basic Principle of Graphing, ( x = 4, y = 5 ) must

satisfy the equation of the line.
We now solve for b:

y = mx + b
11
(5) = ( 4) + b
6
22
5= +b
3
7
b=
3
Replace m and b in y = mx + b with their values.

Again, x and y must stay in the final equation.
11 7
y= x
6 3
§
PART F: PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Vertical lines are parallel.
Otherwise, two lines are parallel (“||”) their slopes are equal.
A horizontal line and a vertical line are perpendicular.
Otherwise, two lines are perpendicular (“ ”) their slopes are
opposite reciprocals of each other.
• For example, any line of slope 3 is parallel to any line of slope 3 in the
1
same plane, and it is perpendicular to any line of slope in the same
3
plane.
4 7
• Also, any line of slope is perpendicular to any line of slope in the
7 4
same plane.
WARNING 2: A pair of perpendicular lines may not “appear”

perpendicular if the x- and y-axes are scaled differently.
PART G: FINDING INTERCEPTS
Finding Intercepts
Consider the graph of an equation in x and y.
To find its x-intercept(s), set y equal to 0 (the x-axis has equation y = 0 ),

and solve for x.
To find its y-intercept(s), set x equal to 0 (the y-axis has equation x = 0 ),

and solve for y.
WARNING 3: Remember which variable to set equal to 0 and which

variable to solve for.
Example 2 (Finding Intercepts)

Find the x- and y-intercepts of the line 2x y = 4.
§ Solution
Find the x-intercept.
We substitute y = 0 and solve for x.
2x y= 4
2x (0) = 4
x= 2
The x-intercept is 2 , or the point ( )

2,0 .
Find the y-intercept.

We substitute x = 0 and solve for y.
2x y= 4
()
2 0 y= 4
y=4
( )
The y-intercept is 4, or the point 0,4 .
x y
The equation 2x y = 4 has as its Two-Intercept Form: + = 1.
2 4
(To see this, divide both sides of the first equation by the right-hand side,
4 .) These are equivalent equations, and they have the same graph.
§
(Section 0.15: Plane and Solid Geometry) 0.15.1
SECTION 0.15: PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Know formulas for area, perimeter, and circumference in plane geometry.

• Know formulas for volume and surface area in solid geometry.
• Be able to use dimensional analysis to check the validity of formulas.
PART A: DISCUSSION
• A number of geometric formulas must be memorized in preparation for calculus.
We use them in the study of rates of change, related rates, optimization, and mass.
PART B: PLANE GEOMETRY
Description Plane Figure Formulas
Square Area = s 2
with side length s Perimeter = 4s
(the distance around)
Rectangle
with base b and height h Area = bh
(covers Square) Perimeter = 2b + 2h
Parallelogram
(covers Rectangle, Square)
Triangle
1
(think: half a Parallelogram) 2
b1 + b2
Trapezoid Area = h
with bases b1 and b2 and 2
height h (the average of the bases
times the height)
Circle Area = r 2
with radius r Circumference = 2 r
(the distance around)
PART C: SOLID GEOMETRY
Description Solid Formulas

Volume = lwh
Rectangular Box
Surface Area = 2lw + 2wh + 2lh
with dimensions l, w, and h
(See Note 1.)
Volume = r 2 h
Right Circular Cylinder Lateral Surface Area = 2 rh
with base radius r and
Total Surface Area = 2 rh + 2 r 2
height h
(See Note 2.)
1 2
Volume = r h
3
Right Circular Cone Lateral Surface Area = rl , with
with base radius r and
height h slant height l = r 2 + h2
Total Surface Area = rl + r 2
(See Note 3.)
4 3
Sphere Volume = r
with radius r 3
Surface Area = 4 r 2
• In calculus, you may verify some of these formulas.
• We can use dimensional analysis to help check our formulas. If lengths are
measured in meters, say, then surface areas are measured in square meters, and
volumes are measured in cubic meters. For example, if the radius r of a sphere is
4 3
measured in meters, then the volume formula V = r does, in fact, yield a
3
volume in cubic meters. This analysis prevents us from accidentally switching this
formula with the formula for surface area.
Note 1 (Box)
The volume equals the rectangular base area times the height.
The surface area is the sum of the areas of the six sides.
Think of the walls, floor, and ceiling of a room.
Note 2 (Cylinder)
The volume equals the circular base area times the height.
The total surface area equals the sum of the lateral surface area and the
two circular base areas.
The lateral surface area equals the base circumference times the height.
• Consider the area of a soup can label. Imagine slitting the label
along the red dashed line segment below and spreading it out as the
rectangle on the right.
Note 3 (Cone)
The volume equals one-third of the volume of the right circular cylinder
with the same base radius and height. (The cone “fits snugly” within this
cylinder.)
The total surface area equals the sum of the lateral surface area and the
circular base area.
(Section 0.16: Variation) 0.16.1
SECTION 0.16: VARIATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Know how to model direct, inverse, and joint variation.

• Be able to find constants of proportionality (or variation).
PART A: DISCUSSION
• The terminology and modeling techniques of this section are used in physics and
calculus, particularly in applications involving mass and force.
PART B: VARIATION
y is directly proportional to x (or y varies directly as x)

y = kx for some nonzero constant of proportionality
(or constant of variation) k.
WARNING 1: k could be negative, so y does not necessarily increase as x

increases.
y is inversely proportional to x (or y varies inversely as x)

k
y= for some nonzero k.
x
z is jointly proportional to x and y (or z varies jointly as x and y)

z = kxy for some nonzero k.
(Section 0.16: Variation) 0.16.2
Example 1 (Modeling Using Variation)
h is directly proportional to V and is inversely proportional to the square

of r.
Find the particular mathematical model related to this statement if h is 2

when V is 18 and r is 3.
§ Solution
Our general model is:

kV
h= ,
r2
where k is the (nonzero) constant of proportionality.
To find k, we use the fact that h = 2 when V = 18 and r = 3.
2=
( )
k 18
(3)
2
18 k
2=
9
2=2 k
2
=k
2
1
k=
To obtain our particular model, we must substitute this value of k into our
general model.
1
V
h=
r2
V
h= 2
r
Note: If we solve for V, we get V = r 2 h . What formula is this? §

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PRECALCULUS

ASSUMPTIONS and NOTATION

• x, y, t, and θ typically denote variables that take on real numbers as values.

+ , Z + the set of positive integers “Zahlen” is a related German word.

Set Notation (Section 0.1)

Logical Operators (Sections 0.1, 0.2)

Some other Greek letters of interest:

π (lowercase) pi It is the ratio of a circle’s circumference to

0.1: Sets of Numbers

0.4: Absolute Value and Distance

0.5: Exponents and Radicals: Laws and Forms

0.6: Polynomial, Rational, and Algebraic Expressions

0.7: Factoring Polynomials

0.8: Factoring Rational and Algebraic Expressions

0.9: Simplifying Algebraic Expressions

0.10: More Algebraic Manipulations

0.11: Solving Equations

0.12: Solving Inequalities

0.13: The Cartesian Plane and Circles

0.15: Plane and Solid Geometry

SECTION 0.1: SETS OF NUMBERS

PART B: SETS OF NUMBERS

Let A and B be sets. A is a subset of B, denoted by A ⊆ B , when every member

 , or Z, the set of integers.

 , or R, the set of real numbers.

• This set consists of rational numbers and irrational numbers, such

 , or C, the set of complex numbers.

PART C: SET NOTATION

PART E: REPRESENTING SETS OF REAL NUMBERS

An interval corresponds to a connected (“unbroken”) piece of the real number

… in set-builder form is:

… in interval form is: (3, 5)

Example 3 (A Bounded, Closed Interval)

… in set-builder form is:

… in interval form is: ⎡⎣3, 5⎤⎦

Example Set 4 (Various Types of Intervals)

Example 5 (A Union of Intervals)

… in set-builder form is:

… in graphical form is:

… in interval form is: ( − ∞, 1) ∪ (1, π ) ∪ (π , ∞ )

b) (1, 5) ∩ ⎡⎣3, ∞ ) = ⎡⎣3, 5)

SECTION 0.2: LOGIC

PART B: PROPOSITIONS AND “IF-THEN” STATEMENTS

A proposition is a statement that is either true or false.

Example 1 (An “If-Then” Statement)

Example 2 (An “If-Then” Statement and Its Converse)

The statement is true, because every integer is also a rational number.

Now, consider the converse of the above statement:

This second statement is false, because a counterexample exists.

Because the converse is false, we can write: ( x ∈) ⇒ ( x ∈ ) ,

PART C: “IF AND ONLY IF” (or “IFF”) STATEMENTS

• Definitions are essentially “iff” statements. For example, a number is a rational

PART D: CONVERSE, INVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE

The inverse of p → q is: ~ p → ~q

Example 4 (An “Iff” Statement)

PART E: NECESSARY CONDITIONS and SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS

p is a necessary condition for q ⇔ q ⇒ p ( )

Example 6 (“Necessary and Sufficient” Conditions; Revisiting Example 4)

SECTION 0.3: ROUNDING

Consider a number written in decimal form.

Example 2 (Counting Decimal Places and Significant Digits)

Example 3 (Counting Decimal Places and Significant Digits; Scientific Notation)

• These can be written as 1.020 × 10− 3 using scientific notation.