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Dormancy and Germination of Fraxinus Seeds
Author(s): George P. Steinbauer

Source: Plant Physiology, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Jul., 1937), pp. 813-824
Published by: American Society of Plant Biologists (ASPB)
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DORMANCYAND GERMINATIONOF FBAXINUS SEEDS
George P. Steinbauer
(with six figures)

Introduction
The genus Fraxinus containsseveralspeciesof woody plants of economic
importance. The majorityof these are propagatedfrom seed in nature and
under cultivation. Very little specific informationis available relative to
the factors affectingseed germinationin the differentspecies.
Special treatmentsof the seeds are often required to produce uniform
stands of seedlings in the year following harvest of the seed. The most
commonrecommendations for germinatingFraxinus seeds suggest stratifica-
tion of the seeds at 5°-10° C. previous to planting (8, 11). In many in-
stances, untreated seeds may remain dormant in the soil for one or more
years after planting. Puchner (10) reported one case in which seeds of
Europeanash,Fraxinus excelsiorL., remainedin a dormantconditionin the
soil for six years beforethey germinated.
Informationon the causes of delayed germinationof Fraxinus seeds is
fragmentaryand meager. The most thoroughlystudied case is that of the
seeds of Europeanash (4, 9) in which the embryois small, though morpho-
logically completeat the maturity of the seed, and requiresa period of time
for enlargementbefore the enveloping tissues and coats can be broken.
Mechanicalresistanceof the envelopingtissues has been suggestedas a pos-
sible reason for further delay in germination. Studies on green ash seed
have suggesteda dormantconditionof the embryo (7).
The presentstudy has been confinedto the following aspectsof the prob-
lem : first, the relative importanceof embryoand envelopingtissues in caus-
ing delayedgermination; second,the factors affectingthe growth of excised
and encasedembryos;third, the effectivenessof current stratificationpro-
ceduresin aiding germinationof the seeds of differentspecies; and fourth,
the factors affectingthe vitality of storedseeds.
Seeds of the following four specieswere used as materialfor this study :
white ash, Fraxinus americanaL. ; black ash, Fraxinus nigra Marsh.; red
ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanicaMarsh.; and green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica
var. lanceolata(Borkh.) Sarg. The abovespecies are of commercialimpor-
tance, grow in somewhatdifferenthabitats,and produceseed in the vicinity
of Orono,Maine. The data presentedhere shouldbe consideredas applying
primarilyto the species studied, althoughthere is some evidencethat these
results may apply also to other species.
813
814 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
Observations
Structure of the seed and fruit of Fjzaxinus
Since the course of the germinationprocess depends largely upon the
structureof the seed, a brief descriptionof it is essential. In Fraxinus the
unit commonlyspoken of as the "seed" is in reality a winged fruit or
samara. The true seed is exposedonly after the ovary wall or pericarphas
been removed. The fruits, seeds, and embryosof red and black ash are
shownin figure1.
A B
Fig. 1. The fruit, seed, and embryoof Fraxinus. A. Red ash. B. Black ash. From
left to right: fruit, seed, embryo. Approximatelynormalsize.
The extent and location of the more importantparts of the samaraare

shown diagrammaticallyin figure 2, using the fruit of black ash as an ex-
ample. Usually one seed is producedwithin each fruit although two and
even three seeds are not uncommon.
Fig. 2. Crosssection of the fruit of black ash (diagrammatic). At the right a few
cells are shown from the layers of the seed external to the embryo. Cell contents have
been omitted.
P- pericarp EN- endosperm
SO- see(l coats M- mucilaginouslayer
SM- suberizedmembrane E- embryo
The seedcoats,SC, are madeup of five to eight layers of cells. The inner-
most cells of the seed coatsare separatedfrom the endospermcells, EN, by a
membrane,SM. The exact chemicalcompositionof the latter has not been
determinedalthough staining properties,solubility, and other microchemi-
STEINBAUER: DORMANCY AND GERMINATION OF ASH SEEDS 815
cal tests indicate the presenceof some cutin and suberin. This membrane
is one of the most resistant layers external to the embryo,and very likely
plays an importantpart in preventingrapid expansionof the embryo.
The reservefood materialsof the endospermconsist largely of fats and
reserveproteins. Starchand solublecarbohydratesappearin the endosperm
and embryoin the later stagesof the germinationprocess.
The embryo,E, is surroundedby a layer of cells, M, containingmucilagin-
ous material,calledthe ''schleimschicht'7by Lakon (9) relativeto the seeds
of Europeanash. Thesecells have thinnerwalls and less reservefood mate-
rial than those of the endosperm. Owingto the semi-gelatinousconsistency
of this layer, the embryosof Fraxinus seeds may be easily excised without
injury.
The degree of embryodevelopmentat maturity of the seed varies con-
siderablyamongthe differentspecies. The embryosare fully differentiated
into hypocotyl,cotyledons,and epicotyl,but the relative size of embryoand
seedvarieswidely. In figure1A thereis illustratedthe type of seed in w7hich
the embryoextendsthe full length of the seed. The seedsof red, white, and
green ash are of this type. Such seeds are quite easily germinatedif they
are first stratifiedfor a periodof one or two monthsat a temperaturenear 5°
C. In figure IB there is illustrated the type of seed in which the embryo
extendsfrom one-halfto two-thirdsthe length of the seed. Seedsof European
ash are said to be similar to those of black ash in this respect (9). Such
seedsdo not germinatereadily. They do not respondfavorablyto ordinary
stratificationtreatmentsand in nature often remainin a dormantcondition
in the soil for one or moreyears beforethey germinate(5, 9).
Dormancyand growth of excised embryosof black ash
Since the embryosof black ash are much smaller in proportionto the
rest of the seed than those of the other speciesstudied,it seemeddesirableto
makeobservationson themfirst.
In orderto determinewhetheror not embryosof recentlyharvestedseeds
are dormant,a numberof embryoswere excised from soakedseeds. They
were placed on moist blotting paper in Petri dishes and kept at room tem-
perature. At the end of two weeksthere was no evidenceof growthin such
excisedembryos.
Varioustreatmentswere then used in an attemptto overcomethis initial
dormancy. These treatments included different rates of aeration, use of
light, various substrata,and a series of differenttemperatures. The use of
higher than roomtemperatureswas effectivein inducing growth. Thus at
the end of four days someof the embryosin the 30°-C. chamberwere begin-
ning to show geotropiccurvatureof the hypocotyl. This was followed by
elongationof the cotyledonsand the formationof root hairs. "Whenthese
seedlings were planted in soil in an illuminatedmoist chamber,they soon

formedchlorophyll. Owingto the limited supply of reservefood contained
in the embryo,they remainedin a dwarfed condition for some time but
eventuallydevelopedinto normalplants.
The necessityfor higher-than-room temperaturesin breakingthis initial
dormancyis evident from table I, which shows the results obtainedwhen
lots of sixty embryoseachwerekept at temperaturesof 5°, 20°, 25°, and 30°
C. It is evidentthat dormancyis not equallydeepseatedin all embryosheld
at a given temperature. The results explain, in part, why stratificationat
low temperatures,which is so successful with some species of Fraxinus, is
ineffectivefor seedsof blackash.
TABLE I
Effectiveness of various temperatures in breaking the dormancy of excised embryos
of black ash, f rax in us nigra
Number of embryos showing geotropic curvature

Duration (go embryos basis of results at each temperature)
OFTEST -
5° C. 20° C. 25° C. 30° C.
days
1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 6
5 0 0 0 6
6 0 0 0 8
7 0 0 0 10
8 0 0 0 16
9 0 0 0 22
10 0 0 0 24
15 0 0 8 44
20 0 0 12 49
25 0 0 18 60
30 0 4 18 60
Growth of encased embryos of black ash seeds

Althoughit is possibleto produceplants from excisedembryosof recently
harvested seed, in nature the embryos undergo considerableenlargement
beforevisible evidenceof germinationappears. Lakon (9), who reporteda
similartype of embryodevelopmentin the seedsof Europeanash, suggested
the use of the term" Vorkeimung' ' to distinguishthe growthchangesof such
embryosfrom the chemicaland physical changesinvolved in "after-ripen-
ing" of seeds. The relative sizes of embryosat the beginning and end of
this growth period are shown in figure 3. It is obviousthat the small em-
bryos of recently harvestedseeds are not comparableto the rudimentary

embryosdescribedby Crocker (1) in Corydalis,Ranunculus, and other
seeds. Since the time requiredfor embryoenlargementmay be weeks, or
even months,it is importantto know the optimumconditionsfor growth of
the embryo.
Fig. 3. Enlargementof the black ash embryopreviousto germination. Left, embryo

at time of shedding of the seed. Eight, embryojust previousto protrusionof the radicle
in germination. About 2 x normalsize.
The length of time requiredfor the embryosto attain their maximum

size depends to a large degree upon the temperatureof the germination
Fig. 4. Graphshowingthe influenceoi temperatureon growth or encased embryosof

black ash. Lengths of embryos expressed in millimeters are averages of one hundred
measurementsat each temperature.
chamber. Seeds were placed between layers of moist linen toweling and
stored at temperaturesof 5°, 20°, 25°, and 30° C. Embryoswere excised
from these differentlots of seed at the end of four, ten, twenty-eight,and
thirty-sixweeksand measuredfor increasesin length. The results obtained
are showngraphicallyin figure4. Measurementsmade on embryosheld at
25° C. wereintermediatebetweenthoseof the 20° and the 30° C. groupsand
havebeenomittedfrom the graph.
Thegrowthcurveduringthis periodof embryodevelopmentexhibitsthree
rather distinct phases. The slow growth at first may be accountedfor by
the initial embryodormancymentionedabove. This is followedby a period
of rapid elongationof both cotyledonsand hypocotyl. When the embryos
have attaineda length of 14r-14.5mm.,the rate of growthrapidly decreases.
Maximumsize is attained at betweentwo and three months at 20° C, and
considerablylater at 25° and 30° C. Further storage of seeds containing
enlarged embryosat temperaturesof 20° C. or higher does not ordinarily
result in germination. One lot of seed stored at 20° C. had fully enlarged
embryos at the end of two months and yet failed to produce a single
seedlingduring the followingtwo years of storageat 20° C.
That germinationof seeds with fully enlarged embryosis not due to
embryo dormancy is shown by the behavior of excised embryos. The
latter will often showmarkedgeotropiccurvaturewithin twelve hours after
excision,which is soon followedby elongationof cotyledonsand the forma-
tion of roothairs. By makinga longitudinalincisionin the seed,being care-
ful not to injure the embryo, one can often induce germinationwithin a
few days. This suggeststhat the delay in germinationis due to restrictions
placed upon the embryo by the enveloping layers: endosperm,suberized
layer, and seed coats. The pericarp probablyis not an important factor
since it disintegratesreadily at temperaturesof 20° C. or higher.
The retardinginfluenceof the envelopingtissueson furthergrowthof the
embryoseems to be primarily in the nature of mechanicalresistance. In
this connectionit is interestingto note that further growthof the cotyledons
is not retardedas much at the higher temperaturesas is the growth of the
hypocotyl. In this respectthe embryosare somewhatsimilarto the embryos
of Crataegus(3) and Ambrosia(2). Abnormalgerminationis not uncom-
monin the seedsof blackash and in otherspeciesof ash. The appearancesof
Fraxinus seeds exhibiting normal and abnormalgerminationare shown in
figure5.
It is interestingto note that 5° C. is not conduciveto embryoenlargement
althoughit is a very effectivetemperaturein forcing germinationafter the
embryoshave becomefully enlarged. Likewiseit is interestingto note that
whereas30° C. is a highly effectivetemperaturefor the growth of excised
embryosit is less effectivethan 20° C. when the embryosare still within the
seed.
Fig. 5. Normal and abnormal germination of Fraxinus seeds. Left, abnormal

germinationof red ash seed. Right, normal germination of white ash seeds. Note that
in abnormalgerminationthe cotyledonsprotrudebefore the hypocotyl whereasin normal
germinationthe reversetakes place.
Germination of seeds containing fully enlarged embryos

Since temperaturesfavorableto enlargementof the embryofail to pro-
motenormalgermination,seeds with fully enlargedembryoswere storedin a
moistconditionat temperaturesof 5°, 20°, 30° C. and observedas to further
changesin the embryos. Microchemicalstudies on seeds storedat these dif-
ferent temperaturesindicatedthat 5° C. was the mostfavorabletemperature
for the variousprocessesof digestion. Seedsstoredat this temperaturewere
characterizedby a morerapid accumulationof starch,solublecarbohydrates,
and proteinsin the embryothan was the case with embryosof seeds storedat
highertemperatures.
Excised embryostakenfrom these differentlots of seeds also showedcon-
siderablevariationin their capacityto resumegrowth. Thesedifferencesare
shown in figure 6. In this experimentembryosexcised from seeds held at
5° C. exhibitedgeotropiccurvaturewithin ten hours after excision. Em-
bryos from seeds storedat 20° C. required24 hours to reach the same stage
of development,and those from the 30° C. lot of seed were still in their
originalconditionat the end of four days.
Although protrusion of the radicle occurs only rarely at 5° C, the
digestionof reservesof the endospermand the accumulationof these mate-
rials in the embryomake possiblerapid growth and germinationwhen the
seeds are transferredto higher temperatures.
The following scheme.summarizesthe principal events leading up to the
protrusionof the radicle through the seed and fruit coats. Optimumtem-
peraturesfor the differentstages of the germinationprocessare indicated.
Seeds with small, morphologicallycompleteembryos.

Dormancyof excised embryosbrokenby temperaturesof 25°-30° C.
J
I
EMBRYO ENLARGEMENT fej

Most effective temperature:20° C. for 2-3 months. g §
Moderaterate of growth of excised embryosat this temperature. cr1cp |
Digestion slow. «3
° § g_&
Very little accumulationof food in embryo. j, S © £,
Restrictions placed on further growth by enveloping tissues and mem- 1*^ »

branes. ». g
Mechanicalresistance and possibly other factors involved. ^^
Excised embryosnot dormant. Normal germinationrare at this tempera- S a*
ture. Abnormalgerminationoccasionallyoccurs. Q
g
83
I r *f
^8
*
^^
CHANGES IN SEED PRODUCED BY LOW TEMPERATURE ® |-

STRATIFICATION ^ £
Most effective temperatures : 5°-10° C. for 2-3 months. m-&
Growth of excised embryos very slow at this temperature. p
q
Digestion continues. Depletion of fat and other reserve foods of endo- Bg
sperm. Accumulation of starch, soluble carbohydrates, and proteins
in embryo.
Excised embryos not dormant. Germination may occur in seeds with more
vigorous embryos.
i
III
GERMINATION
Most effective temperatures:Daily alternation of 20°-30° C.
Growthof excised embryosrapid at this temperature.
Supply of food accumulatedin embryosin stage II combinedwith high
temperaturesmakes possible sufficientpressure (osmotic, imbibitional,
etc.) to overcomemechanicalresistanceof layers external to embryos.
AND GERMINATION
STEINBAUER:DORMANCY OF ASH SEEDS 821
Fig. 6. Effect of storage temperatureson behavior of excised embryosof black ash

seeds. Left, embryosfrom 5° C. chamber. Center,embryosfrom 20° C. chamber. Bight,
embryosfrom 30° C. chamber.
Germination of seeds of red, green, and white ash

Studies on seeds of red, green, and white ash indicated that embryos
excised from freshly harvestedseed are dormant. In the case of red and
greenash the periodof dormancycan usually be reducedto a few days if the
temperatureof the germinationchamberis maintainednear 30° C. Em-
bryosexcisedfromwhite ash seedsremaineddormantover a longer periodof
time and requireda lower temperaturefor resumptionof growth than did
the embryosof the otherspecies that were studied.
The mostfavorableconditionsfor germinationof the seeds of red, green,
and white ash are quite differentfrom those requiredby seeds of black ash.
Placingthe seedsin germinatorsat temperaturesat or near roomtemperature
was ineffectivein producinguniform germination. Abnormalgermination
as previouslydescribedoccasionallyoccurs. The seeds of these species re-
quire approximatelythe sametemperaturesfor germinationas do the seeds
of blackash at the time whenthe embryoshave becomefully enlarged. Thus
the most uniformresults are obtainedwhen the seeds are stored in a moist
conditionfor two or three months at 5°-10° C. and then transferredto a
chamberwith a highertemperaturesuch as 20° C. or 30° C.
Suggested planting practices
The most uniform stands of seedlingscan be obtainedin the nursery or
plantationby takinginto accountthe temperaturerequirementsfor germina-
tion of the differentspecies. In the case of red, white, and green ash very
good results were obtainedby fall planting immediatelyafter the seeds had
beenharvested. This procedureallowsthe seedsto be subjectedto moisture
and low temperatureduring fall and early spring.
Occasionallythe same results may be obtained if seeds that have been
stored over winter in a dry conditionare planted out of doorsvery early in
the spring, so as to take advantageof the low temperaturesthen prevalent.
If planting of dry seeds is delayedtoo long, the warmweathermay prevent
germinationduring the sameseason. If fall or early spring planting is not
practiced,stratificationof the seeds for two or three months at 5°-10° C.
previousto planting is the best procedure.
Successfulpropagationof black ash seedlings from seed must take into

accountthe conditionsrequiredfor enlargementof the embryo. Fall plant-
ings of blackash seed in the MaineState ForestryNurseryat Orono,Maine,
have so far been unsuccessfulin producingseedlings the following season.
Germinationoccurredin the second spring after the planting of the seeds.
The planting of dry seeds in the spring is almost certain to result in
failure to obtaina cropof seedlingsuntil the followingseason. Stratification
procedurescommonlyrecommendedfor red, green, and white ash seeds
shouldbe precededby a period of two or more months' storage of the seeds
at a temperaturenear 20° C. This allow7sthe embryosto becomefully en-
larged, after which the seeds may be treated in the samemanneras those of
red and greenash.
Effect of storage conditions on vitality of ash seeds
Since it is often desirableto defer planting of the seeds until the spring
following the harvestingof the seeds, or occasionallyto store them for more
than one year, it is importantto knowthe optimumstorageconditions. The
seedsof the majorityof plants retain their vitality best when kept dry and
at a low temperature. A few seeds,such as those of the maple (6), require
a considerableamount of moisture along with a favorable temperaturein
orderto remainviable.
In orderto determinethe most favorablestorageconditions,aliquotsam-
ples of eachof the differentkinds of ash seed werestoredin sealedcontainers.
In one series the seeds were placed in sealed containersover dehydrating
agents so selected as to yield various known relative humidities. In the
secondseries the seeds were kept at their original moisturecontentsbut at
temperaturesranging from 5°-30° C. The results of these differenttreat-
ments in terms of percentageof germinationin the nursery beds are given
in table II. Results for green and white ash seeds were similar to those for
red and blackash seeds.
It is evidentfrom the table that the seeds of these speciesare muchmore
sensitive to changes in moisture content than to changes in temperature.
Desiccationof the seeds to within 1.5 per cent, of their oven-dryweight did
not appearinjurious. The critical relativehumidityof the storagechamber
appearsto be between50 and 75 per cent. If the moisturecontent of the
seeds can be reducedto about7.5 per cent, of their dry weight and the seeds
stored in closed containers,or if the storage room can be kept at a relative
humidity of 50 per cent, or less, the seeds may be expected to retain their
vitality for at least one or two seasons after harvest. Studies on excised
embryosindicatedthat the reductionin the percentageof germinationresult-
ing from storageat high relativehumiditieswas due to a deteriorationof the
embryorather than to changes in the enveloping tissues and membranes.
TABLE II
Vitality of Fraxinus seeds in relation to storage conditions
Black Ash Bed Ash Fraxinus

Fraxinus nigra pennsylvanica
Storage conditions* .
Moisture Germi- Moisture Germi1-
content nation t content nation t
% % % %
Over concentrated sulphuric "]
acid 1.72 38 1.68 53
25 per cent, relative humidity 1 25° C. 5.55 46 5.36 48
50 " " " << 7.33 39 6.49 50
75 " " " li 11.39 0 9.85 1
5° C 7.50 40 7.30 54
20° C " 50 " 49
25° C " 43 " 56
30° C " 38 " 51
*
Storage of seeds for one year in sealed containers previous to planting.
t Figures based on quadruplicate samples of 100 seeds each.
Summary
1. A study of the optimumconditionsfor germinationof the seedsof red,
green, white, and black ash indicates that the seeds of black ash do not
germinateat temperaturesfavorableto germinationof the other species.
2. The differencesin temperaturerequirementsof the various species of
ash dependin part upon the size of embryoat maturity of the seed.
3. Embryosof black ash seeds undergoconsiderableenlargementbefore
germinationoccurs. Temperaturesnear 20° C. are most effectivein promot-
ing growthduring this period.
4. Germinationof the seeds of black ash does not occur at temperatures
favorableto enlargementof the embryo. Further growth of the embryois
retardedby mechanicalresistanceof the envelopingtissues and coats.
5. Stratificationof blackash seedsat 5° C. enablesthe fully enlargedem-
bryosto absorband accumulatereservematerialsfrom the endosperm. After
a periodof two or three monthsstratification,the embryosare able to over-
come the resistance of the enveloping membraneswhen placed at higher
temperatures.
6. Embryosof red, green,and white ash are fully enlargedat maturityof
the seed. Stratificationof the seeds at 5° C. brings about changesfavorable
to germination.
7. Dwarf seedlingsmay be obtainedfrom embryosexcised from freshly
harvestedseedsof all of the speciesstudied.
8. Storage of seeds in sealed containersat different temperaturesand
relative humiditiesshowedthat vitality of the seeds is retained the longest
whenthe seedsare kept at a moisturecontentof less than 7.5 per cent, of the
dry weight. Seedswith a moisturecontentof less than 7.5 per cent, retained
their vitality equallywell over a wide range of temperatures.
9. Suggestionsare given for effectiveplanting proceduresfor the differ-
ent species studied.
University of Maine
Orono, Maine
LITBEATUEE CITED
1. Crocker, Wm. Mechanicsof dormancyin seeds. Amer. Jour. Bot.
3 : 99-120. 1916.
2. Davis, W. E. Primary dormancy,after-ripening,and the development
of secondary dormancyin embryos of Ambrosia trifida. Amer.
Jour. Bot. 7 : 57-76. 1930.
3. , and Rose, R. C. The effect of external conditionsupon
the after-ripeningof the seeds of Crataegusmollis. Bot. Gaz. 54 :
49-62. 1912.
4. Findeis, M. Tiberdas Wachstumdes Embryosim ausgesatenSamenvor
der Keimung. Sitzungsber.kaisl. Akad. Wiss. Wien 126 : 77-102.
1917.
5. Heritage, W. Black ash. Jour. For. 34 : 531-533. 1936.
6. Jones, H. A. Physiologicalstudy of maple seeds. Bot. Gaz. 69 : 127-
152. 1920.
7. Lakes States For. Exp. Sta, Recent results from seed dormancytests.
For. Res. Digest 1-2. May, 1935.
8. . geed treatmentfor shelterbeltspecies. For. Res.Digest
6-7. Aug., 1935.
9. Lakon, G. Beitragezur forstlichenSamenkunde. II. Zur Anatomie
und Keimungsphysiologieder Eschensamen. Naturwiss.Zeitschr.
Forst- und Landw.9 : 285-298. 1911.
10. Puchner, H. Die verzogerteKeimungvon Baumsamereien.Forstwiss.
Centralbl.44 : 445-455. 1922.
11. Yerkes, G. E. Propagation of trees and shrubs. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Farmers' Bull. 1567. 1929.

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Dormancy and Germination of Fraxinus Seeds

Author(s): George P. Steinbauer

(with six figures)

The extent and location of the more importantparts of the samaraare

seedlings were planted in soil in an illuminatedmoist chamber,they soon

Number of embryos showing geotropic curvature

Growth of encased embryos of black ash seeds

bryos of recently harvestedseeds are not comparableto the rudimentary

Fig. 3. Enlargementof the black ash embryopreviousto germination. Left, embryo

The length of time requiredfor the embryosto attain their maximum

Fig. 4. Graphshowingthe influenceoi temperatureon growth or encased embryosof

Fig. 5. Normal and abnormal germination of Fraxinus seeds. Left, abnormal

Germination of seeds containing fully enlarged embryos

Seeds with small, morphologicallycompleteembryos.

EMBRYO ENLARGEMENT fej

Restrictions placed on further growth by enveloping tissues and mem- 1*^ »

CHANGES IN SEED PRODUCED BY LOW TEMPERATURE ® |-

Fig. 6. Effect of storage temperatureson behavior of excised embryosof black ash

Germination of seeds of red, green, and white ash

Successfulpropagationof black ash seedlings from seed must take into

Black Ash Bed Ash Fraxinus

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