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Issues related to honesty, integrity, responsibilities as an ethical listener of argued that public communication is “a
and morality are present in our public speaking are explored. means of civic engagement” and ethics
everyday lives. We recognize the need are “a matter of virtue” (p. 1). Ethics
for ethical communication when But I want to say one thing and ethical communication are not only
leaders make deceitful statements. For to the American people. I an important part of our lives and our
instance, we all remember President decision-making but also are crucial to
Clinton’s famous quote: “I did not have want you to listen to me. I'm the public speaking process. In 2011,
sexual relations with that woman.” We going to say this again: I when Representative Anthony Weiner
recognize a crafty speaker when we did not have sexual faced accusations of sending sexually
hear one. Ethics, however, aren’t just explicit photographs to a woman, he
important for presidents and other relations with that woman, vehemently denied any wrongdoing
public figures. Ethical concerns arise Miss Lewinsky. I never told and claimed that he had been set up.
in a variety of public speaking contexts, anybody to lie, not a single Shortly after, his denial turned to an
as this chapter portrays. admission and apology. This scandal
time; never. These called into question the ethics of Rep.
The National Communication
Association (NCA) suggests that allegations are false. And I Weiner, yet it was also his lack of
communicators should be committed to need to go back to work for ethical communication that exacerbated
the situation (Schouten & Page, n.d.).
following principles of ethical the American people. Thank
communication (NCA, 1999). The
NCA Credo of Ethical Communication
you.
claims that “ethical communication is ~ President Bill Clinton, Moral excellence comes
fundamental to responsible thinking, 1998 about as a result of habit. We
decision making, and the development
of relationships and communities become just by doing just
within and across contexts, cultures, acts, temperate by doing
channels, and media” (para. 1). Ethical temperate acts, brave by
communication also yields positive
outcomes, such as truthfulness, respect, doing brave acts.
and accuracy of information. You can ~ Aristotle
see that ethics is a very important part
of the communication process. ethics and ethical standards
Likewise, it is an important part of the Morality is the process of discerning
public speaking process. between right and wrong. Ethics
Unethical communication can lead to involves making decisions about right
poor decision-making or a lack of and wrong within a dilemma. For
respect for self and others, and threaten example, you might claim that stealing
the well-being of individuals and is morally wrong. But is stealing
society. Early scholars of ethical defining ethics morally wrong when a mother steals a
communication, most notably Nielsen Some of the early leaders in loaf of bread to feed her four starving
(1966) and Johannesen (1967), began philosophy—Aristotle, Socrates, and children? It’s this scenario that
to incorporate a discussion of ethics in Plato—spoke extensively about requires an understanding of ethics. In
all aspects of communication. These morality and ethical principles. As you a moral dilemma, we apply ethics to
forerunners began exploring ethics in learned in Chapter 2, Aristotle is make choices about what is good or
the area of public speaking. frequently cited as a central figure in bad, right or wrong. Sometimes,
Communication experts agree that the development of ethics as we discuss ethical dilemmas are simple. Other
ethical communication is an important them today in the communication times, they require complex choices,
responsibility of the speaker. This discipline. Aristotle claimed that a such as the decision to report your
chapter explores ethics and ethical person who had ethos, or credibility, immediate boss for misrepresenting
communication in public speaking. was not only able to convey good sense expenses or the decision to move your
First, ethics and ethical standards are and good will, but also good morals grandmother into a retirement
defined. Second, this chapter describes (Aristotle, 1954). Great philosophers community. These scenarios are more
principles of ethical public speaking, have debated the merits of living well, complex than simple choices between
with guidelines for avoiding doing good, and even communicating right and wrong. Instead, these
plagiarism, citing sources, and setting skillfully. Smitter (2004) describes examples are ethical dilemmas because
responsible speech goals. Lastly, your early Greeks and Romans as teachers of two “right” choices are pitted against
public speaking; these philosophers one another. It’s good to report an
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unethical supervisor, but it’s also good This stance informs one’s ethical Loughnane, claimed that this shows
to keep your job. It’s good that your standards. In fact, Merrill (2009) Albanese is “unoriginal and devoid of
grandmother feels independent, but it’s explains that the holy Dalai Lama, the ideas.” Others stated that he should
also positive for her to receive extra Buddhist spiritual leader, believes be embarrassed and should apologize
assistance as her health deteriorates. compassion is even more essential than to the Parliament (ABC News, 2012).
As public speakers, we make ethical truth. Therefore, it is justifiable to be
choices when preparing and delivering untruthful when the deception is part of
the process of caring for another. This What do you think about Albanese’s
a speech. We can easily be faced with speech? Was this a simple mishap? A
a moral dilemma over what information example illustrates how one’s belief
system influences his or her ethical funny prank? Something more serious?
to provide or how to accurately What do you think this says about
represent that information. Knowing standards. These ethical standards are
the guidelines we use to interpret Albanese’s character? His reputation
the speaking setting, the audience, and as a politician? Assessing your
our knowledge of the topic, we are able rightness and wrongness in life, in
relationships, and in public speaking. attitudes and values toward this
to confront ethical dilemmas with a situation is the same as considering
strong moral compass. This process is Wallace (1955) claims that “ethical
standards of communication should how ethics play a role in public
made easier by our ethical standards. speaking.
Ethical standards, or moral principles, place emphasis upon the means used to
are the set of rules we abide by that secure the end, rather than upon
make us “good” people and help us achieving the end itself” (p. 2). This
choose right from wrong. The virtuous argument suggests that speakers must
standards to which we adhere influence consider moral standards through every
our ethical understanding. For step of the speech process.
instance, followers of Buddha believe “Questions of right and wrong arise
that communication should be whenever people communicate” (NCA,
careful—good communication should 1999, para. 1). Once we have
exhibit restraint, responsibility, and identified our ethical standards, we can
kindness (Merrill, 2009). apply these to make sure that we are
communicating ethically. Ethical
If you want others to be communication is an exchange of
happy, practice compassion. responsible and trustworthy messages
determined by our moral principles. Ethical public speaking is not a one-
If you want to be happy, Ethical communication can be enacted time event. It does not just occur when
practice compassion. in written, oral, and non-verbal you stand to give a 5-minute
~ Dalai Lama communication. In public speaking, presentation to your classmates or co-
we use ethical standards to determine workers. Ethical public speaking is a
what and how to exchange messages process. This process begins when you
with our audience. As you read further begin brainstorming the topic of your
in this chapter, you will begin to speech. Every time you plan to speak
understand the guidelines for how to an audience—whether it is at a
ethical communication should occur in formal speaking event or an impromptu
the public speaking process. pitch at your workplace—you have
ethical responsibilities to fulfill. The
two most important aspects in ethical
ethical speaking communication include your ability to
In January, 2012, an Australian remain honest while avoiding
politician, Anthony Albanese, plagiarism and to set and meet
presented a speech to the National responsible speech goals.
Press Club. Several people criticized
this speech, saying that he stole lines
from Michael Douglas’s character
(the U.S. President) in the movie The Integrity is telling myself the
American President. Several specific truth. And honesty is telling
lines from Albanese’s speech did the truth to other people/
seem to mirror Douglas’s monologue,
with only the names changed. The ~ Spencer Johnson
Liberal Party federal director, Brian
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have been used without being cited. Kelvin (Nine Planets, 2011), then you
Incremental plagiarism can occur if, for should cite that source aloud. Ethical
example, you provide a statistic to speakers are not required to cite
support your claim, but do not provide commonly known information (e.g.,
the source for that statistic. Another skin is the largest human organ; Barack
example would be if a student included Obama was elected President of the
a direct quote from former president U.S. in 2008). However, any
Ronald Reagan without letting the information that isn’t general
audience know that those were knowledge must be orally cited during
Reagan’s exact words. Understanding a speech. The same is true in the text
Did Carley behave unethically? the different types of plagiarism is the of a speech outline: cite all non-general
Some would say: “No!” since she first step in ensuring that you prepare information.
shared her own idea. Did Carley speak an honest speech.
honestly? Perhaps not because she The OWL, an online writing lab at
didn’t account for how her idea took Purdue University, provides an
shape— with the help of Stephen and decide when to cite excellent guide for when you need to
Juan. This scenario is an example of When speaking publically you must cite information (see Table 3.1).
how complicated honesty becomes orally cite all information that isn’t Understanding when to include source
when speaking to an audience. general knowledge. For example, if material is the first step in being able to
your speech claims that the sun is a ethically cite sources. The next step in
The third type of plagiarism is this process is to determine how to
incremental plagiarism, or when most star, you do not have to cite that
information since it’s general appropriately cite sources orally and in
of the speech is the speaker’s original written materials.
work, but quotes or other information knowledge. If your speech claims that
the sun’s temperature is 15.6 million
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cite sources properly is the difference between paraphrasing is acceptable to use the phrases “begin
You’ve learned the importance of and directly quoting a source? If you quote” and “end quote” to indicate this
citing sources. Now that you know research and learn information from a to your audience, such phrases can be
why written and oral citations are source—the Centers for Disease distracting to the audience. One way to
important to the ethical process of Control and Prevention (CDC), for clearly and concisely indicate a direct
public speaking, let’s focus on how to instance— and then share that quote is to take a purposeful pause right
cite supporting speech material. information in your own words; you before and after the quoted material.
Studies show that oftentimes students don’t use quotation marks; but you do This differentiates between your words
do not cite a source because they’re credit the CDC as your source. This is and the source material’s words. See
unsure of how or when to cite a known as a paraphrase—a sentence or Table 3.2 for examples of how to
reference (Shi, 2010). Shi’s study string of sentences that shares learned paraphrase and directly quote an
describes some typical responses for information in your own words. A author, both in written speech materials
why students did not cite sources, such direct quote is any sentence or string and for an oral citation.
as “I couldn’t remember where I of sentences that conveys an author’s
learned the information,” or “I had idea word-for-word. According to the
already cited that author and didn’t APA (American Psychological develop accurate citations
want the audience to think all of my Association) Publication Manual Ethical speakers share source
information was from some outside (2010), when writing speech content, information with the audience. On
source.” Though these rationales are you must include quotation marks written materials, such as handouts or
understandable, they are not ethical. around an author’s work when you use speech outlines, citations are handled
his or her keywords, phrases, or much like they would be in any essay.
sentences. This would be relevant for a In addition to written citations, oral
understand paraphrasing and speech outline, a handout, or a visual citations provide source information to
direct quotations aid. It is also important to specify a audience members who may not see
Next, it is important to understand direct quote when you are orally citing your written speech. In all citations,
the process for paraphrasing and during your speech. This indicates to enough information should be given so
directly quoting sources in order to the audience that you are using the that the audience can easily find the
support your speech claims. First, what original author’s exact words. While it source.
Paraphrase for It is through the practice of showing grace that The CDC (2008) suggests that people get a
Written Speech we grow and develop as individuals (Rohr, vaccination at least once a year to avoid the
Materials 2011). flu.
Direct Quote for According to Rohr (2011), “Grace must and will There is something you can do to avoid the flu.
Written Speech edge you forward” (p. 2). The CDC states that, “Your best defense
Materials against influenza—and its possible
complications—is to receive an annual
vaccination” (para. 6).
Oral Citation for In Rohr’s 2011 book, Falling upward: A spirituality According to the Centers for Disease Control
Paraphrase for the two halves of life, he discussed how we and Prevention website (2008), people should
show grace to others which allows us to grow get a preventative vaccination at least once a
and develop as individuals. year to avoid the flu.
Oral Citation for Rohr (2011), in his book Falling upward: A On their website, the Centers for Disease
Direct Quote spirituality for the two halves of life, stated that, Control and Prevention (2008) states that,
[pause] “Grace must and will edge you [pause] “your best defense against influenza—
forward” [pause]. and its possible complications—is to receive an
annual vaccination” [pause].
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should be reduced so that it is visible to citing images and sources on your your speech content. Promoting
the audience without distracting from visual aid. However, ethics in public diversity allows audience members
the content in your visual aid. Seeing speaking encompass more than who may be different from the speaker
an image link should not be distracting crediting source material. It’s also to feel included and can present a
to audience members. necessary to strive for responsible perspective to which audience members
speech goals. had not previously been exposed.
Speakers may choose a speech topic
Ethics and equity and the that introduces a multicultural issue to
principles of justice do not the audience or can promote diversity
by choosing language and visual aids
change with the calendar. that relate to and support listeners of
~ David Herbert Lawrence different backgrounds. Because of the
diversity present in our lives, it is
necessary to consider how speakers can
set responsible speech goals
promote diversity.
Jensen (1997) coined the term
“rightsabilities” to explain how a One simple way of promoting
communicator must balance tensions diversity is to use both sexes in your
between speaker rights and hypothetical examples and to include
responsibility to others. Ensuring that co-cultural groups when creating a
you have responsible speech goals is hypothetical situation. For example,
one way to achieve ethical you can use names that represent both
communication in public speaking. sexes and that also stem from different
There are several speech goals that cultural backgrounds. In the story
It’s also important to understand how support this mission. This section will about Carley and her co-workers, her
copyright law might affect what and focus on five goals: 1) promote co-workers were deliberately given
how you include information in your diversity, 2) use inclusive language, 3) male names so that both sexes were
speech and on your visual aid. The fair avoid hate speech, 4) raise social represented. Ethical speakers also
use provision allows for copyrighted awareness, and 5) employ respectful encourage diversity in races,
information to be shared if it is used for free speech. socioeconomic status, and other
educational benefits, news reporting, demographics. These choices promote
research, and in other situations. Nolo diversity. In addition, ethical speakers
promote diversity
(2010) explains, “In its most general can strive to break stereotypes. For
One important responsibility
sense, a fair use is any copying of instance, if you’re telling a hypothetical
speakers have is fostering diversity, or
copyrighted material done for a limited story about a top surgeon in the nation,
an appreciation for differences among
and ‘transformative’ purpose, such as why not make the specialized surgeon a
individuals and groups. Diversity in
to comment upon, criticize, or parody a female from a rural area? Or make the
public speaking is important when
copyrighted work. Such uses can be hypothetical secretary a man named
considering both your audience and
done without permission from the Frank? You could also include a
copyright owner” (para. 1). In order to
determine if the use of content falls
under the fair use provision, there are
four factors to consider:
1. How will this be used?
2. What is to be used?
3. How much will be used?
4. What effect does this have?
(Harper, 2007)
You can find more about these four
factors at the U.S. Copyright website –
www.copyright.gov.
Ethical citing includes crediting
authors in the text of your written
speech materials, acknowledging
authors aloud during your speech, and
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picture in your visual aid of the female problem. This promotes a feeling of
surgeon or the male secretary at work. inclusiveness, one of the responsible
Ethical speakers should not assume that speech goals.
a nurse is female or that a firefighter is
male. Sexist language can alienate
your audience from your discussion avoid hate speech
(Driscoll & Brizee, 2010). Another key aspect of ethical
speaking is to develop an awareness of
Another way that sexist language spoken words and the power of words.
occurs in speeches is when certain The NCA Credo of Ethical
statements or ideas are directed at a Communication (1999) highlights the
particular sex. For example, the importance of this awareness: “We
“Selecting a Florist” speech described condemn communication that degrades
at the beginning of this chapter may be individuals and humanity through
considered sexist by many audience distortion, intimidation, coercion, and
members. Another example is the violence, and through the expression of
following statement, which implies intolerance and hatred” (para. 2).
only males might be interested in Words can be powerful—both in
learning how to fix a car: “I think that helping you achieve your speech goal
fixing a car is one of the most and in affecting your audience in
important things you can learn how to significant ways. It is essential that
do. Am I right, guys?” Promoting public speakers refrain from hate or
diversity is related to using inclusive sexist language. Hate speech,
language, discussed in the following according to Verderber, Sellnow, and
sections. Verderber (2012), “is the use of words
and phrases not only to demean another
person or group but also to express
Excellence is the best hatred and prejudice” (p. 195). Hate
deterrent to racism or sexism. language isolates a particular person or
between the speaker and the audience. group in a derogatory manner. Michael
~Oprah Winfrey Take, for example, the following Richards, famous for the role of Cosmo
listener relevance statements in a Kramer on Seinfeld, came under fire for
use inclusive language his hate speech during a comedy
persuasive speech about volunteering:
Avoiding sexist language is one way routine in 2006. Richards used several
to use inclusive language. Another “You” language: You may say that racial epithets and directed his hate
important way for speakers to develop you’re too busy to volunteer, but I language towards African-Americans
responsible language is to use don’t agree. I’m here to tell you that and Mexicans (Farhi, 2006). Richards
inclusionary pronouns and phrases. For you should be volunteering in your apologized for his outbursts, but the
example, novice speakers might tell community. damage to his reputation and career
their audience: “One way for you to get was irrevocable. Likewise, using hate
involved in the city’s Clean Community speech in any public speaking situation
Program is to pick up trash on your “We” language: As college
students, we all get busy in our daily can alienate your audience and take
street once a month.” Instead, an away your credibility, leading to more
effective public speaker could exclaim: lives and sometimes helpful acts such
as volunteering aren’t priorities in serious implications for your grade,
“One way for all of us to get involved your job, or other serious outcomes. It
in our local communities is by picking our schedules. Let’s explore how we
can be more active volunteers in our is your responsibility as the speaker to
up trash on a regular basis.” This latter be aware of sensitive material and be
statement is an example of “we” community.
able to navigate language choices to
language—pronouns and phrases that In this exchange, the “you” language avoid offending your audience.
unite the speaker to the audience. sets the speaker apart from the audience
“We” language (instead of “I” or and could make listeners defensive
“You” language) is a simple way to about their time and lack of
build a connection between the speaker, volunteering. On the other hand, the
No matter what people tell
speech content, and audience. This is “we” language connects the speaker to you, words and ideas can
especially important during a the audience and lets the audience change the world.
persuasive speech as “we” language know that the speaker understands and
establishes trust, rapport, and goodwill has some ideas for how to fix the
~ Robin Williams
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speech is a beautiful American value, ethical feedback. Hearing happens speaker; it is your obligation to manage
but ethical speakers must learn to physiologically, but listening is an art. these distractions before the speaker
balance their speech freedom with their The importance of ethical listening will begins.
obligation to respect each audience be discussed first. In order to ethically listen, it’s also
member. imperative to listen with more than just
your ears— your critical mind should
Fortunately for serious develop ethical listening skills
also be at work. According to Sellnow
The act of hearing is what our body
minds, a bias recognized is a does physically; our ear takes in sound
(2009), two other things you can do to
bias sterilized. waves. However, when we interpret prepare are to avoid prejudging the
speaker and refrain from jumping to
~ Benjamin Haydon (or make sense of) those sound waves,
conclusions while the speaker is
that’s called listening. Think about the
last time you gave a speech. How did talking. Effective listening can only
ethical listening the audience members act? Do you occur when we’re actually attending to
Just as you hope others are attentive remember the people that seemed most the message. Conversely, listening is
to your speech, it is important to know attentive? Those audience members interrupted when we’re pre-judging the
how to listen ethically—in effort to speaker, stereotyping the speaker, or
were displaying traits of ethical
show respect to other speakers. listening. An ethical listener is one making mental counterarguments to the
who actively interprets shared material speaker’s claims. You have the right to
and analyzes the content and speaker’s disagree with a speaker’s content, but
Jordan stood to give his effectiveness. Good listeners try to wait until the speaker is finished and
presentation to the class. He knew he has presented his or her whole
display respect for the speaker.
was knowledgeable about his chosen Communicating respect for the speaker argument to draw such a conclusion.
topic, the Chicago Bears football occurs when the listener: a) prepares to Ethical listening doesn’t just take
team, and had practiced for days, but listen and b) listens with his or her place inside the body. In order to show
public speaking always gave him whole body. your attentiveness, it is necessary to
anxiety. He asked for a show of consider how your body is listening. A
hands during his attention getter, and listening posture enhances your ability
only a few people acknowledged him. to receive information and make sense
Jordan’s anxiety worsened as he of a message (Jaffe, 2010). An
continued his speech. He noticed that attentive listening posture includes
many of his classmates were texting sitting up and remaining alert, keeping
on their phones. Two girls on the eye contact with the speaker and his or
right side were passing a note back her visual aid, removing distractions
and forth. When Jordan received his from your area, and taking notes when
peer critique forms, most of his necessary. Also, if you’re enjoying a
classmates simply said, “Good job” particular speaker, it’s helpful to
without giving any explanation. One provide positive nonverbal cues like
of his classmates wrote, “Bears head-nodding, occasional smiling, and
SUCK!” eye-contact. These practices can aid
you in successful, ethical listening.
As we can see from the example However, know that listening is
One way you can prepare yourself to
above, communicating is not a one-way listen is to get rid of distractions sometimes only the first step in this
street. Jordan’s peers were not being (Sellnow, 2009). If you’ve selected a process—many times listeners are
ethical listeners. All individuals asked to provide feedback.
seat near the radiator and find it hard to
involved in the communication process hear over the noise, you may want to
have ethical responsibilities. An ethical move before the speaker begins. If you
communicator tries to “understand and had a fight with your friend before Constructive criticism is
respect other communicators before
evaluating and responding to their
work that morning, you may want to about finding something good
take a moment to collect your thoughts
messages” (NCA, 1999, para. 2). As and put the argument out of your and positive to soften the
you will learn in Chapter 4, listening is mind—so that you can prevent internal blow to the real critique of
an important part of the public speaking
process. Thus, this chapter will also
distraction during the staff meeting what really went on.
presentation. As a professional, you
outline the ethics of ethical listening. are aware of the types of things and ~ Paula Abdul
This section explains how to improve behaviors that distract you from the
your listening skills and how to provide
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review questions
1. Where did ethics originate? How are ethics used in public speaking?
7. How is listening used in the public speaking setting? What are some guidelines for being an ethical
listener?
activities
1. Think about your ethical standards. Create a list of sources from which your ethical behaviors have
originated. Who or what has influenced your ethics?
3. Split into groups of three to five students. As a group, develop 5 example situations of unethical
behavior in public speaking. Once you are finished, switch situations with a different group. Decide
how you can make changes to create ethical public speaking behavior.
4. Think about the following scenarios involving an ethical dilemma. How would you react?
a) You attend a political debate on campus. The candidate’s speech contains many ideas that
you don’t agree with. How can you be an ethical listener during the speech?
b) You are preparing to give a speech on a topic and realize that you have lost the citation
information for one of your important sources. You can’t seem to find this source again.
What would you do to ethically prepare for the speech?
c) When practicing your speech on influential sports figures, you realize that you refer to the
audience, your co-ed classmates, quite often as “you guys.” Is this ethical language use?
What changes would you make?
5. When preparing for your next speech, create an ethics journal. Write down the various ethical dilemmas
as you encounter them. How did you decide what to do in these situations? What was the outcome?
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glossary
Ethics Plagiarism
Ethics is the process of determining what is good or Plagiarism is when one passes off another’s work as
bad, right or wrong in a moral dilemma. his/her own or neglects to cite a source for his/her
information.
Global Plagiarism
Global plagiarism is plagiarism that occurs when a Social Awareness
speaker uses an entire work that is not his/her own. Social awareness is the recognition of important issues
that affect societies.
“We” Language
“We” Language includes the use of pronouns and
phrases that unite the speaker to the audience.
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references
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