WORD CLASSES

1. NOUN

A noun is a part of speech typically denoting a person, thing, place or idea.

In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur
as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.

Nouns have sometimes been defined in terms of the grammatical categories to which they are
subject (classed by gender, inflected for case and number). Such definitions tend to be
language-specific, since nouns do not have the same categories in all languages.

Nouns are frequently defined, particularly in informal contexts, in terms of their semantic
properties (their meanings). Nouns are described as words that refer to a person, place, thing,
event, substance, quality, quantity, etc. However this type of definition has been criticized by
contemporary linguists as being uninformative.

Types of Nouns:

 Abstract Noun and Concrete Noun

 Animate Noun and Inanimate Noun
 Attributive Noun
 Collective Noun
 Common Noun and Proper Noun
 Compound Noun
 Count Noun and Mass Noun
 Denominal Noun
 Verbal Noun

Examples :

 The cat sat on the mat.

 Please hand in your assignments by the end of the week.
 Cleanliness is next to godliness.
 Plato was an influential philosopher in ancient Greece.
 Please complete this assignment with black or blue pen only, and keep your eyes on
your own paper.

2. VERB

There are three (3) types of verbs. They are: ACTION VERBS, LINKING
VERBS, and AUXILIARY VERBS (commonly called helping verbs). Action Verbs

An action verb is the word in the sentence that shows what is being done, what is happening.
For instance:

JUMP, THINK, TALK, HAVE, BUY, WANT, and FANTASIZE

are all words that express things that can be done. Action verbs are words that can be done
with your body or mind. You can jump with your body, so "jump" is an action verb. You can
fantasize with your mind, so "fantasize" is an action verb.

Linking Verbs

A linking verb is the word in the sentence that ties the subject of the sentence to the predicate
nomitive or the predicate adjective. The predicate nomitive is a noun or pronoun that renames
or identifies the subject. For instance:

My name IS Jorge.

The word "name" is the subject, and the word "Jorge"is a noun that renames or identifies the
subject. The verb "is" serves to join "name" to "Jorge." Likewise, the adjective identifies or
describes the subject and is tied to the subject by the linking verb. For instance:

This cake smells wonderful!

The word "cake" is the subject, and the word "wonderful" is an adjective which describes the
subject. The verb "smells" joins the subject "cake" to its modifier "wonderful." In other
words, the linking verb is the word that gives the STATE OF BEING of the subject. For
example, in each of these sentences:

Flowers LOOK beautiful.

Silk FEELS soft.

Chocolate TASTES great.

Music SOUNDS good.

The linking verb gives the state of being of the subject. The flowers do not go looking around
the field; they are beautiful. The silk does not go feeling people's bodies; the silk itself is soft.
The chocolate does not have a tongue to taste chocolate; it itself is great.

Auxilory (Helping) Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are verbs that COME WITH ANOTHER VERB. Any verb that is by itself is
not a helping verb! For instance, in the sentence:

He IS GOING to class.

The word "is" is a helping verb because it is with the action verb "going." In the sentence:

He IS studious.

The word "is" is not a helping verb because it is the only verb.
Auxiliary verbs help the main verb by showing time or condition. For instance:

"He WILL GO home"

tells the reader that the going will happen in the future.

"He HAS GONE home"

tells the reader that the going happened in the past . In

"He MIGHT HAVE GONE home,"

The verb "might' tells the reader that had conditions been right the going would have
happened. In

"He SHOULD HAVE GONE home,"

The verb "should" also tells the reader that a certain kind of condition was needed for the
action to happen. The verb "have" in both sentences tells the reader the possibility happened
in the past. The idea of condition is tied to the idea of possibility. If there is possibility but
not an actual fact happening, then the helping verb is showing condition.

3. ADJECTIVE

In grammar, an adjective is a 'describing' word; the main syntactic role of which is to qualify
a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.

Types of use

A given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of four kinds of uses:

1. Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify; for
example, happy is an attributive adjective in "happy people". In some languages,
attributive adjectives precede their nouns; in others, they follow their nouns; and in yet
others, it depends on the adjective, or on the exact relationship of the adjective to the
noun. In English, attributive adjectives usually precede their nouns in simple phrases, but
often follow their nouns when the adjective is modified or qualified by a phrase acting as
an adverb. For example: "I saw three happy kids", and "I saw three kids happy enough to
jump up and down with glee." See also Postpositive adjective.
2. Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or
pronoun they modify; for example, happy is a predicate adjective in "they are happy" and
in "that made me happy." (See also: Predicative expression, Subject complement.)
3. Absolute adjectives do not belong to a larger construction (aside from a larger adjective
phrase), and typically modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or
pronoun they are closest to; for example, happy is an absolute adjective in "The boy,
happy with his lollipop, did not look where he was going."
4. Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns. One way this can happen is if a noun is elided
and an attributive adjective is left behind. In the sentence, "I read two books to them; he
preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy", happy is a nominal adjective, short
for "happy one" or "happy book". Another way this can happen is in phrases like "out
 with the old, in with the new", where "the old" means, "that which is old" or "all that is
old", and similarly with "the new". In such cases, the adjective functions either as a mass
noun (as in the preceding example) or as a plural count noun, as in "The meek shall
inherit the Earth", where "the meek" means "those who are meek" or "all who are meek".

4. ADVERB

An adverb is a word that changes or qualifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, other adverb,
clause, sentence or any other word or phrase, except that it does not include the adjectives
and determiners that directly modify nouns. Adverbs are traditionally regarded as one of the
parts of speech, although the wide variety of the functions performed by words classed as
adverbs means that it is hard to treat them as a single uniform category.

Positions of an Adverb:
An adverb that modifies an adjective ("quite sad") or another adverb ("very carelessly")
appears immediately in front of the word it modifies. An adverb that modifies a verb is
generally more flexible: it may appear before or after the verb it modifies ("softly sang" or
"sang softly"), or it may appear at the beginning of the sentence ("Softly she sang to the
baby"). The position of the adverb may have an effect on the meaning of the sentence.

Functions of an Adverb:
Adverbs typically add information about time (rarely, frequently, tomorrow), manner (slowly,
quickly, willingly), or place (here, there, everywhere) in addition to a wide range of other
meanings.

Forms of an Adverb:
Many adverbs--especially adverbs of manner--are formed from adjectives by the addition of
the ending -ly (easily, dependably). But many common adverbs (just, still, almost, not) do not
end in -ly, and not all words that end in -ly (friendly, neighborly) are adverbs.

5. DETERMINER

words or phrases that precede a noun or noun phrase and serve to express its reference in the
context. The most common of these are the definite and indefinite articles, the and a(n).
Other deteminers in English include demonstratives such as this and that, possessives such as
my and the boy's, and quantifiers such as all, many and three.

Common determiners

The following is a rough classification of determiners used in English, including both words
and phrases:

 Definite determiners, which imply that the referent of the resulting noun phrase is defined
specifically:
o The definite article the.
o The demonstratives this and that, with respective plural forms these and those.
o Possessives, including those corresponding to pronouns – my, your, his, her, its, our,
their, whose – and the Saxon genitives formed from other nouns, pronouns and noun
phrases (one's, everybody's, Mary's, a boy's, the man we saw yesterday's). These can
be made more emphatic with the addition of own or very own.
 o Interrogatives which, what (these can be followed by -ever for emphasis).
o Relative determiners: which (quite formal, as in He acquired two dogs and three
cats, which animals were then...); also whichever and whatever (which are of the
type that form clauses with no antecedent: I'll take whatever money they've got).
 Indefinite determiners:
o The indefinite article a or an (the latter is used when followed by a vowel sound).
o The word some, pronounced [s(ə)m] (see Weak and strong forms in English), used as
an equivalent of the indefinite article with plural and non-count nouns (a partitive).
o The strong form of some, pronounced [sʌm], as in Some people prefer dry wine; this
can also be used with singular count nouns (There's some man at the door). For
words such as certain and other see below.
o The word any, often used in negative and interrogative contexts in place of the
article-equivalent some (and sometimes also with singular count nouns). It can also
be used to express alternative (see below).
 Quantifiers, which quantify a noun:
o Basic words indicating a large or small quantity: much/many, little/few, and their
comparative and superlative forms more, most, less/fewer, least/fewest. Where two
forms are given, the first is used with non-count nouns and the second with count
nouns (although in colloquial English less and least are frequently also used with
count nouns). The basic forms can be modified with adverbs, especially very, too and
so (and not can also be added). Note that unmodified much is quite rarely used in
affirmative statements in colloquial English.
o Phrases expressing similar meanings to the above: a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great
deal of, tons of, etc. Many such phrases can alternatively be analyzed as nouns
followed by a preposition, but their treatment as phrasal determiners is supported by
the fact that the resulting noun phrase takes the number of the following noun, not
the noun in the phrase (a lot of people would take a plural verb, even though lot is
singular).
o Words and phrases expressing some unspecified or probably quite small amount: a
few/a little (learners often confuse these with few/little), several, a couple of, a bit of,
a number of etc.
o Cardinal numbers: zero (quite rare as determiner), one, two, etc. In some analyses
these may not be treated as determiners.[1]
o Other phrases expressing precise quantity: a pair of, five litres of, etc.
o Words and phrases expressing multiples or fractions: half, half of, double, twice,
three times, twice as much, etc. Those like double and half (without of) are generally
used in combination with definite determiners (see Combinations of determiners
below).
o Words expressing maximum, sufficient or zero quantity: all, both, enough, sufficient,
no.
o Note that many of these quantifiers can be modified by adverbs and adverbial
phrases such as almost, over, more than, less than, when the meaning is appropriate.
6. CONJUNCTION

Conjunctions are words that join two or more words, phrases, or clauses.

Co-ordinating Conjunctions

You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join
individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you can also use the
conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.

In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co-ordinating conjunction:

Lilacs and violets are usually purple.

In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.

This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was
written by Mae West.

In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two independent clauses.

Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and
swallowing goldfish.

Here the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases ("dancing on rooftops"
and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs describing the verb "spends."

Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the
relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).

The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because,"
"before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when,"
"where," "whether," and "while."

Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating conjunction:

After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.

The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned
to drive."

If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.

Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the
paperwork arrives on time."

Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer
crashed."

Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and baby
are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.

In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer
people and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "because."

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence
elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or,"
"neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative
conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)

The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions:

Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.

In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the two noun phrases
that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my grandfather" and "my father".

Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.

Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello salad" and "a
potato scallop."

Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law school.

Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive phrases "to go
to medical school" and "to go to law school."

The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.

7. PREPOSITION

A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or
phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition.

A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the
rest of the sentence as in the following examples:

The book is on the table.

The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time.

A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any associated adjectives
or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The
most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after," "against," "along,"
"among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside," "between,"
"beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in," "inside,"
"into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside," "over," "past," "since,"
"through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon,"
"with," "within," and "without."

Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:

The children climbed the mountain without fear.

In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear." The prepositional
phrase "without fear" functions as an adverb describing how the children climbed.

There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.

Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the land." The prepositional
phrase acts as an adverb describing the location of the rejoicing.

The spider crawled slowly along the banister.

The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister" and the prepositional
phrase "along the banister" acts as an adverb, describing where the spider crawled.

The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished for chewing
up a new pair of shoes.

Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase "under the porch," which
acts as an adverb modifying the compound verb "is hiding."

The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was somewhere in his
office.

Similarly in this sentence, the preposition "in" introduces a prepositional phrase "in his
office," which acts as an adverb describing the location of the missing papers.

8. INTERJECTION

An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically

related to any other part of the sentence.

You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in
formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:

 Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!

SOURCES

http://en.wikipedia.org/

http://grammar.about.com/

http://www.writingcentre.uottawa.ca/.html

http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/list-of-conjunctions.html

http://www.oestarapublishing.com/grammar/verdef.html
 WORD CLASSES

Name : SITI DWI RUKMANA ANNUR

Class : English 1 B

NIM : 2223120793

UNIVERSITAS SULTAN AGENG TIRTAYASA

2012