PhysicsForm 8.

0 4/15/03 12:16 PM Page 1

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS ELECTROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS

Acceleration due to gravity g 9.8 m/s 2 WAVELENGTHS OF LIGHT IN A VACUUM (m)

Avogadro’s number NA 6.022 × 10 23

molecules /mol Red 6.5 – 7.0 × 10−7 ƒ = frequency (in Hz)
Orange 5.9 – 6.5 × 10−7 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
Coulomb’s constant k 9 × 109 N·m2 /C2 radio gamma
Yellow 5.7 – 5.9 × 10−7 waves
microwaves infrared ultraviolet X rays
rays
Gravitational constant G 6.67 × 10−11 N·m2 /kg 2 Green 4.9 – 5.7 × 10−7 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12
= wavelength (in m) R O Y G B I V
Planck’s constant h 6.63 × 10 −34
J·s Blue 4.2 – 4.9 × 10−7
= 780 nm visible light 360 nm
Violet 4.0 – 4.2 × 10−7
Ideal gas constant R 8.314 J/(mol·K)
= 0.082 atm ·L/(mol·K) INDICES OF REFRACTION FOR COMMON SUBSTANCES ( l = 5.9 X 10 –7 m)
Permittivity of free space ε0 8.8541 × 10−12 C/(V·m) Air 1.00 Alcohol 1.36
Corn oil 1.47 Diamond 2.42
Permeability of free space µ0 4π × 10−7 Wb/(A·m)
Glycerol 1.47 Water 1.33
Speed of sound at STP 331 m/s

Speed of light in a vacuum c 3.00 × 108 m/s OPTICS

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION incident ray
Electron charge e 1.60 × 10 −19
C Law of Reflection θinciden t = θreflected angle of
Electron volt eV 1.6022 × 10 −19
J c incidence 01 normal
Index of refraction n= (v is the speed of light in the medium) angle of 0' 02 angle of
v refraction
Atomic mass unit u 1.6606 × 10 kg −27 reflection
Snell’s Law n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 refracted ray
= 931.5 MeV/c2
� � reflected ray
Rest mass of electron me 9.11 × 10−31 kg Critical angle θc = sin −1 nn21
= 0.000549 u
= 0.511 MeV/c2 LENSES AND CURVED MIRRORS
1 1 1 image size q
...of proton mp 1.6726 × 10−27 kg + = =−
p q f object size p
= 1.00728 u
= 938.3 MeV/c2 Optical instrument Focal distance f Image distance q Type of image
Lens:
…of neutron 1.6750 × 10−27 kg Concave negative negative (same side) virtual, erect 1
= 1.008665 u p
= 939.6 MeV/c2 Convex positive p<f negative (same side) virtual, erect 2
p>f positive (opposite side) real, inverted 3 h
V
Mass of Earth 5.976 × 1024 kg Mirror: F

Radius of Earth 6.378 × 10 m 6 Convex negative negative (opposite side) virtual, erect 4
q
Concave positive p<f negative (opposite side) virtual, erect 5
positive (same side) real, inverted 6 6
DYNAMICS p>f

NEWTON’S LAWS
1. First Law: An object remains in its state of rest or motion with h h h
F
q h h
F V V V V F V F
constant velocity unless acted upon by a net external force. F
F F
p p p p q p q
dp q
2. Second Law: Fnet = ma F = q
2 4
dt 1 3 5
3. Third Law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Weight Fw = mg WORK, ENERGY, POWER KINEMATICS

Work W = F · s = F s cos θ
Normal force FN = mg cos θ (θ is the angle to the horizontal) �
Average DISTANCE
W = F · ds ∆s
velocity vavg = s (m)
FRICTION ∆t
1 p2
Static friction fs, max = µs FN Kinetic friction fk = µk FN Kinetic energy KE = mv 2 =
2 2m
µs is the coefficient of static friction. Instantaneous ds
Work-Energy Theorem W = ∆KE velocity v=
µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. (for conservative forces) dt
For a pair of materials, µk < µs .
∆U = −W
�
Potential energy
Displacement ∆s = v dt t (s)
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION Gravitational
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v2 mv 2 potential energy Ug = mgh Average VELOCITY

Centripetal acceleration ac = Centripetal force Fc = ∆v
r r acceleration aavg = v (m/s)
Total mechanical ∆t
energy E = KE + U +
Instantaneous
VECTOR FORMULAS ∆W acceleration a=
dv
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Average power Pavg = dt

∆t
Notation a = ax î + ay î + az k̂ t (s)
Instantaneous
Change �
in velocity ∆v = a dt
�
Magnitude a = |a| = a2x + a2y + a2z power P =F·v

CONSTANT
–
Dot product a · b = ax bx + ay by + az yz MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
(θ is the angle between a and b) = ab cos θ
ACCELERATION
Linear momentum p = mv vf = v0 + at ACCELERATION
Cross product |a × b| = ab sin θ Impulse J = �Ft = ∆p 1 a (m/s2)
axb vavg = (v0 + vf )
a × b points in the a J= F dt = ∆p 2 +
direction given by a
1
the right-hand rule: COLLISIONS s = s0 + v0 t + at
2
b b
All collisions m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v1� + m2 v2�
1 t (s)
= s0 − vf t + at
a × b = (ay bz − az by ) î + (az bx − ax bz) ĵ + (ax by − ay bx ) k̂ Elastic collisions 2
1 1 1 1
� �
� ax ay az ��
= �� ax
�
ay bz �� 2 2 2
2
m1 v12 + m2 v22 = m1 (v1� ) + m2 (v2� )
2
2 = s0 + vavg t –
� î ĵ k̂ �
v1 − v2 = − (v1� − v2� ) vf2 = v02 + 2a(sf − s0 )

CONTINUED ON OTHER SIDE

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WAVES ELECTRICITY
Amplitude A Frequency f Wavelength λ Period T Angular frequency ω ELECTROSTATICS
q1 q2 1 q1 q2
1 2π 2π Coulomb’s Law F =k =
T = = ω = 2πf = r2 4πε0 r 2
f ω T
Wave speed v = f λ Fon q
Electric field E= F = Eq
q
Wave equation
W
y(x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt) = A sin 2π λx − t
� � ��
T Potential difference ∆V =
q

TM

SPARKCHARTS
WAVE ON STRING CIRCUITS
mass
Tension in string FT Length L Mass density µ = ∆Q
length Current I=
� ∆t
FT L
Speed of standing wave v= Resistance R=ρ
µ A
2L V
Wavelength of standing wave λn = Ohm’s Law I=
n R
SOUND WAVES Power dissipated by resistor P = V I = I 2R

Beat frequency fbeat = |f1 − f2 | Heat energy dissipated by resistor W = P t = I 2 Rt

DOPPLER EFFECT Series circuits R1 R2 R3

Ieq = I1 = I2 = I3 = . . .
Motion of source
Veq = V1 + V2 + V3 + · · ·
Motion of observer Stationary Toward observer Away from observer
at vs at vs Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + · · ·

Stationary v veff = v veff = v Parallel circuits

R1

λeff = λ v−v λeff = λ v+v

� � � �
λ s s
Ieq = I1 + I2 + I3 + · · · R2
� v � � v �
f feff = f v−v
v
feff = f v+v
v Veq = V1 = V2 = V3 = . . . R3
s s
1 1 1 1
= + + + ···
Towards source at vo veff = v + vo Req R1 R2 R2
λeff = λ � veff = v ± vo
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
feff = f v+v o
�
λeff = λ v±v
v
� s
�
Loop rule: The sum of all the (signed) potential differences around any closed loop is zero.
v
Away from source at vo veff = v − vo � � Node rule: The total current entering a juncture must equal the total current leaving the juncture.
λeff = λ � feff = f v±v o
v±vs
feff = f v−v
�
MAGNETISM
o
v

Magnetic force on moving charge F = qvB sin θ F = q (v × B)

ROTATIONAL SIMPLE HARMONIC Magnetic force on current-carrying wire F = BI� sin θ F = I (� × B)
MOTION MOTION
s
MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED BY…
Angular position θ= PENDULUM µ0 qv × r̂
r Magnetic field due to a moving charge B=
Velocity at equilibrium 4π r2
v
Angular velocity ω= position
r µ0 I
v= 2g� (1 − cos θmax ) Magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire B=
�

Series Editors: Sarah Friedberg, Justin Kestler

∆θ dθ 2π r
ωavg = ω=

Illustration: Dan O. Williams, Matt Daniels

∆t dt 0 Magnetic field produced by a solenoid B = µ0 nI
at Period
Angular acceleration α=
T

Anna Medvedovsky
r �
µ0 I (d� × r̂)

Contributors: Bernell K. Downer,

T = 2π �
∆ω dω g Biort-Savart Law dB =
αavg = α= 4π r2
∆t dt mg sin 0

Design: Dan O. Williams

CONSTANT a mg
mg cos 0 Lenz’s Law and Faraday’s Law ε=−
dΦB

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1 dt
ωf = ω0 + αt ωavg = (ω0 + ωf ) v=0 v = max v=0
2 U = max U = min U = max MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
KE = 0 KE = max KE = 0
1
θ = θ0 + ω 0 t + Qenclosed
�
αt equilibrium
2 Gauss’s Law E · dA =

$3.95
position ε0
= θ0 + ωavg t �s
MASS-SPRING SYSTEM Gauss’s Law for magnetic fields B · dA = 0

4
ωf2 = ω02 + 2α(θf − θ0 )
Restoring force F = −k(∆)x �s
www.sparknotes.com/errors
∂ΦB ∂
�
∆x is the distance the spring is stretched or E · ds = − =− B · dA

20593 36340
MOMENTS OF INERTIA (I ) Faraday’s Law
c ∂t ∂t s
compressed from the equilibrium position,
Report errors at

�
Moment of inertia I= r 2 dm
�
and k is the spring constant. Ampere’s Law B · ds = µ0 Ienclosed
1 �c
particle sphere Elastic potential energy Ue = k(∆x)2 ∂
�
1 1 2 Ampere-Maxwell Law B · ds = µ0 Ienclosed + µ0 ε0 E · dA
MR 2 MR 2 ML2
R
2 R 12
�
m c ∂t s
R R
Period T = 2π
k
GRAVITY
2
MR 2 MR 2 L
5
ring disk rod Equation of motion x = A sin(ωt)
m1 m2
7

�
TORQUE AND ANGULAR where ω = 2π
T
= k
m
is the angular frequency Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation F =G
r2
MOMENTUM and A = (∆x)max is the amplitude.
GM Earth
Torque τ = F r sin θ Acceleration due to gravity a= 2
dL τ =r×F THERMODYNAMICS rEarth
τ =
dt τ = Iα 1. First Law GM m
Gravitational potential U (r) = −
∆ (Internal Energy) = ∆Q + ∆W r
Angular momentum L = pr sin θ 2. Second Law: All systems tend �
GM
L=r×p L = Iω spontaneously toward maximum entropy. Escape velocity vescap e =
r
∆Qout
Rotational KE rot = 12 Iω 2 Alternatively, the efficiency e = 1 −
∆Qin KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION
kinetic energy
of any heat engine always satisfies 0 ≤ e < 1.
1. Planets revolve around the Sun in an elliptical path with the Sun at one focus.
GAS LAWS 2. The imaginary segment connecting the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time.
Universal Gas Law P V = nRT Boyle’s Law P1 V1 = P2 V2 3. The square of the period of revolution is directly proportional to the cube of the length of
P1 V1 P2 V2 P1 P2 the semimajor axis of revolution: T 2
Combined Gas Law = Charles’s Law = is constant.
T1 T2 T1 T2 a3

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