CHAPTER 11

Adolescence: Physical and Cognitive

Development
Puberty: The Biological Eruption
 Puberty: The Biological Eruption
• Puberty
– Stage of development characterized by reaching sexual maturity
and the ability to reproduce
– Onset of adolescence coincides with advent of puberty

• Feedback loop
– Hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland, which in turn releases
hormones that control physical growth and the gonads
– Gonads respond to pituitary hormones by increasing production
of sex hormones
– Sex hormones further stimulate the hypothalamus, perpetrating
the feedback loop
 Puberty: The Biological Eruption (cont’d)

• Primary sex characteristics

– Females: ovaries, vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes
– Males: penis, testes, prostate gland, and seminal vesicles

• Secondary sex characteristics

– Breast development, deepening of the male voice, and the
appearance of facial, pubic, and underarm hair
– Not involved in reproduction
 The Adolescent Growth Spurt

GIRLS BOYS
• Girls’ growth spurt at age 10 • Growth spurt at age 12

• Girls gain a little more than 13 • Peak reached 2 years later

inches in height; spurt in
weight continues for 2 years
after growth spurt begins • Gain 14 ½ inches in height

• Hips get wider due to having • Eventually boys become taller

twice as much body fat as and heavier than girls
boys

• Girls’ body shape more • Boys’ shoulders get broader

rounded
Fig. 11-1, p. 228
Fig. 11-2, p. 229
 Asynchronous Growth

• Children who spurt earlier more likely to have longer

torsos and shorter legs

• No significant differences between early and late

sprouters in the total height at maturity

• Asynchronous growth
– Different parts of the body grow at different rates
– Hands and feet mature before the arms and legs do
– Legs reach peak before shoulders and chest
– Boys stop growing out of pants about a year before they stop
growing out of their jackets
 The Secular Trend

• During the 20th century, children in the Western world

grew more rapidly and wound up taller than children from
earlier times.
– Accompanied by an earlier onset of puberty
– Known as a secular trend

• Occurrence of a secular trend in height and weight has

been documented in nearly all European countries and
the United States.

• Nutrition and medical advances contributed to height

increase.
Fig. 11-3, p. 230
 Changes in Boys

• Pituitary gland stimulates the testes to increase output of

testosterone.
– Leads to further development of male genitals
• First sign of puberty is accelerated growth of the testes,
which begins at about 11½ years old.
• Testicular growth accelerates testosterone production
and other pubertal changes.
• Penis begins a spurt of accelerated growth about a year
later
– Still later, pubic hair spurts
• Underarm and facial hair appears about age 15.
 Changes in Boys (cont’d)
• Facial hair first appears on upper lip
– Full shaving occurs in half of American boys at age 17

• Voice deepens at age 14 or 15 because of the growth of

the “voice box” or larynx and the lengthening of the vocal
cords.

• Testosterone triggers development of acne.

– Boys more prone to acne

• Males have erections from infancy but not frequent until

age 13 or 14, resulting in nocturnal emissions.
– Wet dreams
 Changes in Boys (cont’d)
• Mature sperm found in ejaculatory emissions by age 15
– Ability to ejaculate precedes presence of mature sperm

• Half of all boys experience gynecomastia (enlargement

of the breasts), which declines in a year or two.

• At 20 or 21, young men stop growing taller because

testosterone causes epiphyseal closure, which prevents
the long bones from making further gains in length.
 Changes in Girls

• The pituitary gland signals the ovaries to vastly increase

estrogen production at puberty.

• Estrogen may stimulate growth of breast tissue

beginning at age 8 or 9 (breast buds).

• Breasts reach full size in about 3 years.

– Mammary glands are not fully mature until a woman has a baby

• Estrogen also helps widening of pelvis and rounding of

hips.
 Changes in Girls (cont’d)
• At about age 11, girls’ adrenal glands produce small
amounts of androgens that contribute to development of
underarm and pubic hair.

• Estrogen causes the labia, vagina, and uterus to develop

during puberty.
– Androgens cause the clitoris to develop

• Vaginal lining varies in thickness according to the

amount of estrogen in the bloodstream.

• Estrogen brakes the female growth spurt before the

ending of the male growth spurt.
 Menarche

• Menarche
– First menstruation
– Occurs between ages 11 and 14
– Some girls as earlier as age 9; some as late as age 16
– Height-to-weight ratio contributes to age of menstrual cycle
– Average triggering weight depends on the girl’s height
– Early starting in Westernized countries has stabilized
Fig. 11-4, p. 232
 Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

• Estrogen and progesterone levels regulate the menstrual

cycle.

• Ovulation typically begins 12 to 18 months after

menarche.
– Most menstrual cycles begin in the first two years or so after
menarche occurs without ovulation.
– If ovulating, a ripe ovum is released by the ovary when estrogen
reaches peak blood levels.

• Average menstrual cycle is 28 days

– Menstrual cycle irregular for first few years after menarche but
later assumes a regular pattern
 Early Versus Late Maturers
• BOYS
– Early-maturing boys tend to be more popular than late-maturing
boys and more likely the leaders in their school.
– Some early-maturing boys engage in delinquency and
aggression as well as sexual encounters they may not be
prepared for.

• GIRLS
– Early-maturing girls tend to have lower self-esteem than male
counterparts.
– Early-maturing girls are conspicuous with height and developing
breasts.
• Even worse if development started in elementary school
• May be teased for it and may get lower grades
 Body Image

• Body image refers to how physically attractive we

perceive ourselves to be and how we feel about our
body.

• By age 18, girls and boys are more satisfied with their
bodies than they were in their earlier teens.

• Adolescent females tend to be more preoccupied with

body weight and slimness than adolescent males.

• Adolescent males may want to increase body mass.

Health in Adolescence
 Causes of Death
• Greatest causes of adolescent death
– Accidents, mostly with motor vehicles
– Homicides
– Suicides

• Death rates twice higher for males than females

– Males take more risks

• Poor adolescents living in urban areas of high population

at greatest risk of homicidal death
– Homicide rates greater for African-American adolescents than
for European-American adolescents
Fig. 11-5, p. 211
 Nutrition
• Average girl needs 1,800 to 2,400 calories per day;
average boy needs 2,200 to 3,200 calories per day

• At peak of spurt, adolescents use twice as much

calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, and nitrogen as during
the other years of adolescence.

• Irregular eating patterns contribute to adolescents’

nutritional deficits, especially skipping breakfast.

• More likely to obtain less vitamin A, thiamine, and iron

but more fat, sugar, and sodium than recommended
 Eating Disorders

• Due to slimming down of American ideal, girls are more

prone to eating disorders

• Anorexia nervosa
– Life-threatening eating disorder characterized by extreme fear of
being heavy, dramatic weight loss, a distorted body image, and
resistance to eating enough to maintain a healthful weight

• Female-to-male ratio of anorexia is 10 to 1

• More affluent European-American females have body

image issues.
 Eating Disorders (cont’d)

• Females with anorexia

– Drop 25% of their body weight within a year, resulting in
abnormalities in the endocrine system that prevent ovulation
– General health declines
– Every system in the body is affected, including respiratory and
cardiovascular systems
– At risk for premature development of osteoporosis
– Mortality rate is between 4% and 5%

• Distortion of body image is major feature of the disorder

• Anorexic woman sees self in mirror as too heavy

 Bulimia Nervosa

• Bulimia nervosa
– Cyclical binge eating and purging
– May include strict dieting
– Fasting, laxatives, and demanding exercise regime
• Tends to afflict women during adolescence and young
adulthood
• Eating disorders connected with depression
• Eating disorders run in families, indicating genetic
involvement; eating disorders tend to involve
obsessionistic and perfectionistic personality traits
Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stage
of Formal Operations
 Piaget’s Stage of Formal Operations

• Formal operations refers to the ability to abstract reason,

classify objects, hypothesize, and formulate arguments.

• Top level of Piaget’s theory

• Adolescents have reached cognitive maturity in the

formal operations stage.

• Formal operations can begin as early as 11 or 12 years

old.
 Hypothetical Thinking

• Adolescents develop concept of “what might be” rather

than “what is”.

• Adolescents “try on” different clothes and attitudes to see

which work best for them.

• Some may experience anxiety due to pressure to pick

the best career fit.
 Sophisticated Use of Symbols

• Solving mental activities with “x” as a factor a part of

formal operations stage

• Ability to manipulate symbols a part of formal operations

stage

• Adolescents can analyze metaphors in literature.

• Adolescents may take on “crystal clear” solutions to

religious, political, and social issues without tolerance for
other issues that may be contributory.
 Adolescent Egocentrism
• Adolescents have difficulty sorting out issues that
concern others from the things that concern themselves

• Imaginary audience
– Adolescent placed at center stage of fantasies
– Assumes others are concerned with their looks and dress
– Explains why adolescents engage in looking in the mirror so
much

• Personal fable
– Belief that one’s thoughts and emotions are unique and special
– Normal for male adolescent to think he is indispensable
– Reason STI’s occur – “Can’t happen to me”
– Believe that no one has ever experienced the same things as
themselves
Gender Differences
in Cognitive Abilities
 Verbal Ability

• As a group, females surpass males in verbal ability.

• Boys in the U.S. are more likely to be dyslexic and read

below grade level.

• Culture and heredity play a role in the mastery of verbal

ability.
 Visual-Spatial Ability
• Visual-spatial ability (VSB)
– The ability to visualize objects or shapes and to mentally
manipulate and rotate them
– Important ability in art, architecture, and engineering
• By age 8 or 9, boys begin outperforming girls in VSB.
– Most notable on mental rotation tasks
• VSB ability of boys may be due to evolutionary factors as
well as sex hormones.
• Environment plays a role
– Ex.: toys for boys (Legos, Erector sets) versus the toys for girls
– Boys engage in more sports, which is associated with better
performance of visual-spatial skills
Fig. 11-6, p. 239
 Mathematical Ability

• Male adolescents generally outperform female

adolescents especially in geometry and word problems.

• No sex differences in understanding math concepts at

any age.

• Teaching expectations and involvement with math from

dad contribute to mathematical advancement of boys;
girls less likely to be encouraged in math; advanced
teachers more likely male; teachers spend more time
helping males with math
Moral Development
 Moral Development

• Many adolescents engage in postconventional moral

reasoning.
– They deduce proper behavior
• Postconventional moral reasoning based on person’s
own moral standard and personal values
– Stages 5 and 6
• Stage 5
– Legalistic and contractual
– Laws stem from agreed upon procedures; many rights have
great value and should not be violated
• Stage 6
– Based on universal ethical principles of human life, individual
dignity, and reciprocity (behavior that is consistent with these
principles is considered right)
 Moral Behavior and Moral Reasoning

• Positive relationship between a person’s level of moral

development and his or her behavior

• Group discussion of moral dilemmas elevates

delinquents’ level of moral reasoning
 Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Theory
• Evidence supports that moral judgment develops in
children in upward sequence.

• Postconventional thought first found in adolescents;

formal operational thinking a prerequisite

• Kohlberg underestimated the role of cultural, social, and

educational institutions as well as parents.

• Postconventional thinking absent in developing countries

and infrequent in the U.S.; e.g., principles such as
freedom and tolerance of differences are not universally
admired
The Adolescent in School
 The Adolescent in School
• Adolescents are influenced by opinions of peers and
teachers.
– Self-esteem reflective of their skills
• Middle-school teachers more likely to exert more
behavioral control than teachers in elementary school
– Conflict arises
• Transition to middle and high school results in decline in
grades and participation in school activities.
– More difficult for girls due to puberty
• Drop in self-esteem and increase in psychological
distress
• Schools can ease distress by creating a warmer climate
and establishing schools within a school.
 Dropping Out

• Early predictors
– Below grade-level reading and excessive absences

• Other factors
– Low SES, low grades, poor problem-solving ability, low self-
esteem, problems with teachers, dissatisfaction with school,
substance abuse, being old for one’s grade level (retention is
not the same as remediation), and being male

• Middle-class youth who feel bored with school,

alienated, or strongly pressured to succeed are at risk.
 Preventing Drop Out

• Successful prevention programs include

– early preschool interventions
– identification and monitoring of high-risk students
– small class size, individualized instruction, and counseling
– vocational components that link learning to community work
experiences
– involvement of families or community organizations
– positive school climate that provides clear and reasonable
educational goals, student accountability for behavior, and
motivational systems that involve penalties and rewards
Adolescents in the Workforce
 Prevalence of Adolescent Employment

• One-half of high school sophomores, two-thirds of

juniors, and almost three-fourths of seniors have a job
during the school year.

• 2 to 3 million adolescents work illegally.

• Employed lower-income adolescents work longer hours

than working middle-class teens.
 Pros and Cons of Adolescent Employment

• Potential benefits of employment include

– developing a sense of responsibility, self-reliance, and discipline
– learning to appreciate value of money and education
– acquiring positive work habits and values
– enhancing occupational aspirations
• Lower SES adolescents work to supplement family
income.
• Middle-class teens use income for personal purchases,
such as clothing, iPods, CDs, DVDs, gear, and car
payments.
 Pros and Cons of Adolescent Employment
(cont’d)
• Most working teens in jobs with low pay, high turnover,
little authority, and little chance of advancement; typically
perform repetitive tasks.

• Teens working more than 11 to 13 hours per week have

– lower grades, higher rates of drug and alcohol use, more
delinquent behavior, lower self-esteem, and higher levels of
psychological problems than other students not working

• Working teens less monitored, spend fewer hours with

family, and granted more decision-making power

• Hours worked per week needs to be limited