Math221: HW# 3 solutions

Andy Royston
October 17, 2005

8.5.9 The differential equation is (D2 −4D+13)y = 0. The roots of the corresponding polynomial,
r2 − 4r + 13 = 0, are
p √
r=
4 ± 16 − 4(13)
2
=
4 ± −36
2
=2±3 . i (1)
Hence, the general solution is

y(x) = c1 e(2+3i)x + c2 e(2−3i)x = e2x (c1 e3ix + c2 e−3ix ). (2)

The part in parentheses may be reexpressed in the form a cos 3x + b sin 3x or A sin (3x + γ).

8.5.11 We have (4D2 + 12D + 9)y = 0 ⇒ (2D + 3)2 y = 0. The root r = −3/2 is repeated. The
general solution is therefore

y(x) = (Ax + B)e−3x/2 . (3)

8.5.21 First consider (D − a)(D − b)(D − c)y = 0 where the a, b, c are different. Since each pair
of adjacent binomials commutes (see text), if follows that

(D − a)(D − b)(D − c)y = (D − a)(D − a)(D − b)y = (D − b)(D − c)(D − a)y = 0. (4)

So the differential equation is satisfied if

(D − a)y = 0, (D − b)y = 0, or (D − c)y = 0. (5)

The solutions for each of these are y = c1 eax , y = c2 ebx , and y = c3 ecx respectively, where c1 , c2 , c2
are arbitrary integration constants. Therefore the general solution is

y(x) = c1 eax + c2 ebx + c3 ecx , a 6= b 6= c 6= a. (6)

Now, suppose that a pair of the a, b, c are equal, say a = b 6= c. Then the differential equation is
(D − a)2 (D − c)y = 0. This is satisfied if either (D − c)y = 0 or (D − a)2 y = 0. The first case

1
corresponds to the solutions y = c3 ecx . The second case is worked out in the book and the solution
is y = (c1 x + c2 )eax . Therefore, the general solution is a sum of the two:

y(x) = (c1 x + c2 )eax + c3 ecx , a = b 6= c. (7)

Clearly we can relabel a, b, c to get the other possibilities. Finally, suppose that a = b = c, so that
the differential equation is (D − a)3 y = 0. We will solve this by an extension of the method the
book uses to handle the double root case. First, let the function u(x) be given by u(x) = (D − a)y.
Then u satisfies the differential equation (D − a)2 u = 0, whose solution is u(x) = (Ax + B)eax . But
then y(x) is given by

(D − a)y(x) = u(x) = (A + B)eax ⇒ y 0 − ay = (Ax + B)eax . (8)

ThisRis a first order equation of the form y 0 + P (x)y = Q(x), which we know how to solve. We have
I = P dx = −ax, so the integrating factor is eI = e−ax . Then
Z Z Z
ax −ax A
Q(x)e dx = (Ax + B)e e dx = (Ax + B)dx = x2 + Bx.
I
(9)
2
Hence, the general solution is
Z
−I
y(x)e ( QeI dx + c3 ) = (c1 x2 + c2 x + c3 )eax , a = b = c, (10)

where I’ve just set c1 = A/2, c2 = B.

It should now be clear how to generalize this to an order n equation (D − a1 )(D − a2 ) · · · (D −
an )y = 0. I am just going to write it down. It could be proved with induction, but I think this is
unnecessary. First, in the special case that all of the ai are different, the general solution is
n
X
y(x) = ci eai x , all ai different. (11)
i=1

This can be written in a vector space notation as follows. Let the set B = {ea1 x , ea2 x , . . . , ean x } be
a basis for an n-dimensional vector space V , over the reals. In other words, an element v ∈ V ,
R
has the form v = i ci eai x for some ci ∈ . One can check that V satisfies all the properties of a
P
vector space. The 0 element corresponds to ci = 0, ∀i, etc. Since the ai are different, the eai x are
linearly independent functions, and B is indeed a basis. Then it is obvious that V is exactly the
space of all solutions to the differential equation:

{all solutions to diff. eq.} = V = Span{eai x |1 ≤ i ≤ n}. (12)

Now for the general case, suppose that there are k distinct roots ai , i = 1, . . . , k, each with
multiplicity λi In other words, the differential equation has the form
k
X
(D − a1 )λ1 (D − a2 )λ2 · · · (D − ak )λk y = 0, λi = n. (13)
i=1

2
Then the general solution has the form

X λi
k X 
j−1
y(x) = Cij x eai x . (14)
i=1 j=1
The space of solutions is again an n-dimensional vector space V . This time we have

V = Span{xji +1 eai x |1 ≤ ji ≤ λi for each 1 ≤ i ≤ k}. (15)

8.5.24 The differential equation is y 000 + y = 0, or (D3 + 1)y = 0. This corresponds to the
polynomial z 3 + 1 = 0, which has three distinct roots. One of them is z = −1. The other two are
complex conjugate pairs. All three will lie on the unit circle in the complex plane and are separated
o
√ them is 120 . Since we know that one is −1, it’s not hard
by equal angles. Thus, the angle between
i
to see that the other two are 1/2 ± 3/2. Hence, the general solution is
√ √ √ √
y(x) = c1 e−x + c2 e(1/2+i 3/2)x
+ c3 e(1/2−i 3/2)x
= c1 e−x + ex/2 (c2 ei 3x/2
+ c3 e−i 3x/2
). (16)

8.5.33 If the force is given by F = −kx, then Newton’s equation says

d2 x d2 x
ma = m 2 = −kx ⇒ 2
+ ω 2 x = 0, (17)
p dt dt
where I’ve defined ω 2 = k/m. We can write this as (D2 + ω 2 )x = 0, where D = d/dt. ω is a
constant, so this is the usual type of problem we’ve been considering. The factorization is

(D2 + ω 2 )x = (D + ω)(D − ω)x = 0, i i (18)

implying the general solution

x(t) = c1 eiωt + c2 e−iωt . (19)

∗
Note that we are interested in real solutions, so we impose the constraint x = x. Writing this out,

x∗ = c∗1 e−iωt + c∗2 eiωt = c1 eiωt + c2 e−iωt = x. (20)

c∗1 c∗2
The only way this will hold for all t is if = c2 , implying = c1 . That is, c1 , c2 must be complex
conjugates. If we know c1 , we know c2 . This is consistent with the statement that the solution to
a second order diff. eq. should have two real independent constants. Defining the real coefficients
i
A, B such that c1 = 12 (A − B), c2 = 21 (A + B), we find i
1
2
1
i
x(t) = (A − B)eiωt + (A + B)e−iωt
2
i
A iωt
= (e + e−iωt ) −
B
(eiωt − e−iωt )
i
2 2
= A cos (ωt) + B sin (ωt), (21)

3
which is the standard form you’ve seen in physics.
The kinetic energy is given by K = 21 mv 2 = 12 m(dx/dt)2 . Hence,

1
K(t) = m(−ωA sin (ωt) + ωB cos (ωt))2
2
1
= mω 2 (A2 sin (ωt)2 + B 2 cos (ωt)2 − 2AB sin (ωt) cos (ωt))
2
1
= k(A2 sin (ωt)2 + B 2 cos (ωt)2 − 2AB sin (ωt) cos (ωt)). (22)
2
The potential is U = 21 kx2 , so
1
U (t) = k(A2 cos (ωt)2 + B 2 sin (ωt)2 + 2AB cos (ωt) sin (ωt). (23)
2
Add these to get the total energy. Note that the crossterms cancel:
1 1
E = K + U = k((A2 + B 2 ) cos (ωt)2 + (A2 + B 2 ) sin (ωt)2 ) = k(A2 + B 2 ). (24)
2 2
Thus, the energy is constant, or conserved. The averages of the kinetic and potential energies over
one period of motion are

1
hKi = h k(A2 sin (ωt)2 + B 2 cos (ωt)2 − 2AB sin (ωt) cos (ωt))i
2
1
= k(A2 hsin (ωt)2 i + B 2 hcos (ωt)2 i − 2ABhsin (ωt) cos (ωt)i) =
2
1
k(A2 + B 2 ); (25)
4
1
hU i = h k(A2 cos (ωt)2 + B 2 sin (ωt)2 + 2AB cos (ωt) sin (ωt)i
2
1
= k(A2 hcos (ωt)2 i + B 2 hsin (ωt)2 i + 2ABhcos (ωt) sin (ωt)i)
2
1
= k(A2 + B 2 ). (26)
4
Hence,
1
hKi = hU i = E. (27)
2

8.5.34 The restoring force for the pendulum is F = −mg sin θ. The acceleration, in terms of θ,
is given by a = ld2 θ/dt2 , where l is the length of the pendulum. Hence, Newton says
r
d2 θ d2 θ 2 g
ml 2 = −mg sin θ ⇒ + ω sin θ = 0, ω = . (28)
dt dt2 l

4
Now, if θ starts out small, it is reasonable to believe that θ will remain small. Therefore, Taylor
expand sin θ, keeping only the first non-zero term: sin θ ≈ θ. Then the equation of motion becomes

d2 θ
2
+ ω 2 θ = 0, (29)
dt
and we are in business. As we just discussed in the previous problem, the general solution is
θ(t) = A cos (ωt) + B sin (ωt). This time we have two initial conditions which will fix the constants.
First, θ(0) = θ0 ⇒ A = θ0 . (The sine term vanishes at t = 0). Also, the pendulum starts from rest:
θ0 (0) = 0 ⇒ ωB = 0 ⇒ B = 0. Hence, the solution is

θ(t) = θ0 cos (ωt). (30)

8.5.35 Define the coordinate r along the tube, with r = 0 corresponding to the center of the
earth. Then the force is F = −mgr/R, and the acceleration is a = d2 r/dt2 . Therefore, Newton
gives
r
d2 r d2 r 2 g
m 2 = −mgr/R ⇒ 2
+ ω r = 0, ω = , (31)
dt dt R
simple harmonic motion. The general solution is r(t) = A cos (ωt) + B sin (ωt). The period of
motion is T = 2π/ω. Note that R is the radius of the earth, so, in SI,
s r
R 6.37 ∗ 106
T = 2π = 2π ≈ 84min. (32)
g 9.8

8.6.10 The differential equation is (D − 3)2 y = 3e3x . The complementary function, solution to
the equation with right hand side equal to zero, is yc (x) = (Ax + B)e3x . For the particular solution
we try yp (x) = Cx2 e3x , based on the discussion in the text. In the following, I will use the general
result for the second derivative of a product: (f g)00 = f 00 g + 2f 0 g 0 + f g 00 . Plugging this ansatz in to
the equation,

y 00 − 6y 0 + 9y =
= C(2e3x + 2(2x)(3e3x ) + x2 (9e3x )) − 6C(2xe3x + 3x2 e3x ) + 9Ce3x
= 2Ce3x ≡ 6e3x . (33)

Hence, C = 3, and the particular solution is yp (x) = 3x2 e3x . The general solution is thus

y(x) = yc + yp = (3x2 + Ax + B)e3x . (34)

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8.6.13 We have (D2 − 2D + 1)y = (D − 1)2 y = 2 cos x. The complementary function is yc (x) =
(Ax + B)ex . For the particular solution, first solve the equation

(D2 − 2D + 1)Y = 2eix . (35)

Taking the real part of both sides gives the original equation back, if we have yp = Re(Y ). Now,
to solve the complexified equation, try Y = Ceix . Then, plugging in,

i i
C(( )2 − 2 + 1) = −2C ≡ 2, i (36)
we find C = i. Then Y (x) = ie x = i cos x − sin x.
i
Hence, the real part is yp (x) = − sin x. The
general solution is

y(x) = (Ax + B)ex − sin x. (37)

8.6.18 We have (D2 + 2D + 17)y = 60e−4x sin (5x). The roots of r2 + 2r + 17 = 0 are

r=
√
−2 ± 4 − 68
=
−2 ± 8 i
= −1 ± 4 . i (38)
2 2
The complementary solution is

yc (x) = c1 e(−1+4i)x + c2 e(−1−4i)x = e−x (A cos (4x) + B sin (4x)). (39)

For the particular solution, solve the complexified equation

(D2 + 2D + 17)Y = 60e(−4+5i)x , (40)

and then yp = Im(Y ). For Y , try the ansatz Y = Ce(−4+5i)x . Plugging in,

i i i i
C((−4 + 5 )2 + 2(−4 + 5 ) + 17) = C(16 − 25 − 40 − 8 + 10 + 17) = −30C ≡ 60. i
i i i
Thus, C = 2 ; Y = 2 e−4x e5ix = e−4x (2 cos (5x) − 2 sin (5x)). Hence, yp = Im(Y ) = 2e−4x cos (5x),
and the general solution is

y(x) = e−x (A cos (4x) + B sin (4x))2e−4x cos (5x). (41)

8.6.21 We have (5D2 + 6D + 2)y = x2 + 6x. The roots of 5r2 + 6r + 2 = 0 are

r=
√
−6 ± 36 − 40
=
−6 ± 2
=
i−3
± .
1
i (42)
10 10 5 5
So the complementary solution is yc = e−3x/5 (A cos (x/5)+B sin (x/5)). For the particular solution,
try the ansatz yp = ax2 + bx + c. Plugging in,

6
 5(2a) + 6(2ax + b) + 2(ax2 + bx + c) = (2a)x2 + (12a + 2b)x + (10a + 6b + 2c)
≡ x2 + 6x. (43)

In order for this to hold for all x, the coefficients in front of each power of x must match:

2a = 1; 12a + 2b = 6; 10a + 6b + 2c = 0. (44)

These imply a = 1/2, b = 0, and c = −5/2. Hence, the particular solution is yp (x) = x2 /2 − 5/2.
The general solution is
1 5
y(x) = e−3x/5 (A cos (x/5) + B sin (x/5)) + x2 − . (45)
2 2

8.6.23 We have (D2 + 1)y = 2xex . The complementary solution is yc (x) = A cos x + B sin x. For
the particular solution, try the ansatz yp = (ax + b)ex . Plugging in,

2aex + (ax + b)ex + (ax + b)ex = (2a)xex + (2a + 2b)ex ≡ 2xex . (46)
xex , ex are linearly independent functions, so the coefficients in front of each must match:

2a = 2; 2a + 2b = 0. (47)
This implies a = 1 = −b. Hence, yp (x) = (x − 1)ex , and the general solution is

y(x) = A cos x + B sin x + (x − 1)ex . (48)

8.6.30

a (i).
d cx
(D − a)ecx = e − aecx = cecx − aecx = (c − a)ecx (49)
dx
(ii).

d2 cx d
(D2 + 5D − 2)ecx = 2
e + 5 ecx − 3ecx = (c2 + 5c − 3)ecx (50)
dx dx
(iii). Write the general linear operator as L(D) = nj=0 aj Dj , (where n = 0 gives a constant
P
term). Then

7
 n
dn
X 
cx j d cx
L(D)e = aj D ecx = a0 ecx + a1 e + · · · + an n ecx
j=0
dx dx
Xn 
= a0 + a1 cecx + · · · + an cn ecx = aj c ecx = L(c)ecx .
j
(51)
j=0

(iv).

d
(D − c)xecx = (xecx ) − cxecx = (ecx + cxecx ) − cxecx = ecx (52)
dx
(v).

d2 2 cx d 2 cx
(D − c)2 x2 ecx = (x e ) − 2c (x e ) + c2 x2 ecx
dx2 dx
= (2ecx + 2(2x)cecx + x2 c2 ecx ) − 2c(2xecx + x2 cecx ) + c2 x2 ecx
= 2ecx (all other terms cancel) (53)

1
b (i). When we write y = L(D)
u, this means that y solves L(D)y = u. So,

1
y= ecx ⇒ (D − a)y = ecx . (54)
D−a
R
This is a first order linear equation. We have I = P dx = −ax. Then,

e(c−a)x ecx
Z
−ax
ye = dxecx e−ax + A = +A ⇒ y = + Aeax . (55)
c−a c−a
Note we assumed c 6= a to do the integral. A labels a family of solutions. Choosing A = 0 gives
the quoted result: y = ecx /(c − a). In other words,
1 ecx
y(x) = ecx = , c 6= a. (56)
D−a c−a
A = 0 corresponds to the particular solution of the first order equation. It will generally be the
case that the quoted results correspond to choosing the particular solution.
(ii).
1
y= 2
ecx ⇒ (D2 + 5D − 3)y = ecx . (57)
D + 5D − 3

8
 √ √
The roots of the polynomial r2 + 5r − 3 = 0 are r± = (−5 ± 25 + 12)/2 = (−5 ± 37)/2. We will
suppose that c 6= r± , and look for the particular solution to the equation. Try the ansatz yp = Cecx .
Plugging in,
1
C(c2 + 5c − 3)ecx ≡ ecx ⇒ C= . (58)
c2 + 5c − 3
Hence, yp = ecx /(c2 + 5c − 3). Choosing y = yp , (yc = 0 is always a complementary solution),
√
1 cx ecx −5 ± 37
y(x) = 2 e = 2 , c 6= . (59)
D + 5c − 3 c + 5c − 3 2
Note that we may also phrase the condition c 6= r± as c2 + 5c − 3 6= 0.
(iii). Suppose L(D) has the general form given in part (a). We wish to solve L(D)y = ecx ,
supposing that L(c) 6= 0. This condition is equivalent to saying that c is not equal to any of the
(n) roots of the characteristic polynomial. It follows that we may try the ansatz yp = Cecx for the
particular solution. Plugging this in,

1
L(D)Cecx = CL(D)ecx = CL(c)ecx ≡ ecx ⇒ C= , (60)
L(c)

where we used the result of part (a). Hence, yp = ecx /L(c). Choosing y = yp ,
1 cx ecx
y= e = , L(c) 6== 0. (61)
L(D) L(c)
(iv).
1
y= ecx ⇒ (D − c)y = ecx . (62)
D−c
cx
Try the ansatz yp = Cxe . Plugging in,

(D − c)Cxecx = C(D − c)xecx = Cecx ≡ ecx ⇒ C = 1. (63)

Hence, yp = xecx . Choosing y = yp ,

1
y= ecx = xecx . (64)
D−c
(v).
1
y= 2
ecx ⇒ (D − c)2 y = ecx . (65)
(D − c)
Try the ansatz yp = Cx2 ecx and use the result from part (a):

9
 1
(D − c)2 Cx2 ecx = C(D − c)2 x2 ecx = 2Cecx ≡ ecx ⇒ C= . (66)
2
Taking y = yp ,
1 cx 1 2 cx
y= e = xe . (67)
(D − c)2 2

c I will only do a sample of the problems.

(8.6.4).

1 24e−3x 24e−3x
y= 24e−3x = = = 2e−3x (68)
(D + 1)(D − 3) (−3 + 1)(−3 − 3) 12
Note that neither of the roots were equal to the constant in the exponential.
(8.6.8).

40e4x
 
1 4x 1 1
y= 40e = = 5e4x = 5xe4x . (69)
(D + 4)(D − 4) D−4 D+4 D−4
This time c = 4 was the constant in the exponential. After taking care of the (D + 4) first, we
therefore used result (iv) from part (b).
(8.6.10).
1 1
y= 2
6e3x = 6 · x2 e3x = 3x2 e3x . (70)
(D − 3) 2
Here we used result (v) from part (b).
(8.6.13). First solve (D2 − 2D + 1)Y = 2eix , and then y = Re(Y ). We have

Y =
1
(D − 1)2
2eix
=
i
2eix
( + 1)2
=
2eix
−1 − 2 + 1
= eix
i i
i
= cos x − sin x. (71)
Hence, y(x) = − sin x.
(8.6.18). Solve (D2 + 2D + 17)Y = 60e(−4+5i)x and then y = Im(Y ). You can compute the
roots of r2 + 2r + 17 = 0, and show neither is equal to −4 + 5 . Then, i
1 (−4+5i)x 60e(−4+5i)x
Y =
D2 + 2D + 17
60e =
i
(−4 + 5 )2 + 2(−4 + 5 ) + 17 i
60e(−4+5i)x 60e(−4+5i)x
=
i
16 − 40 − 25 − 8 + 10 + 17 i =
−30 i
i
= 2 e(−4+5i)x . (72)
Hence, y = 2e−4x cos (5x).

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8.6.35 We have (D2 − 1)y = sinh x = ex /2 − e−x /2. The complementary function is yc x =
c1 ex + c2 e−x = A cosh x + B sinh x. For the particular solution, write yp = y+ + y− where y± solves
1
(D2 − 1)y± = (± )e±x , (73)
2
all signs correlated. We can use the methods of the previous problem to get these solutions.

1 x  1 x 
e 1 e 1 1 1
y+ = 2
2
= 2
= ( ex ) = xex ; (74)
D −1 D−1 D+1 D−1 4 4
1 −x  1 −x 
− e 1 −2e 1 1 1
y− = 22 = = ( e−x ) = xe−x . (75)
D −1 D+1 D−1 D+1 4 4

Note we had to be careful here because in each case, one of the inverse derivative operators had
the same constant as the coefficient in the exponential. Then yp = 14 xex + 14 xe−x = 12 x cosh x. The
general solution is
x
y(x) = A cosh x + B sinh x + cosh x. (76)
2

8.6.38 We have (D2 − 2D)y = (D − 2)Dy = 9xe−x − 6x2 + 4e2x . The roots of the polynomial
r2 − 2r = 0 are r = 0, 2. Therefore, the complementary solution is yc (x) = Ae2x + Be0x = Ae2x + B.
For the particular solution, write yp = y1 + y2 + y3 where

(D2 − 2D)y1 = 9xe−x ; (D2 − 2D)y2 = −6x2 ; (D2 − 2D)y3 = 4e2x . (77)
We will solve these in order. For the first one, try the ansatz y1 = (ax + b)e−x . Then,

y100 − 2y10 = 2a(−e−x ) + (ax + b)e−x − 2(ae−x + (ax + b)(−e−x ))

= (3a)xe−x + (3b − 4a)e−x ≡ 9xe−x . (78)

Therefore,

3a = 9; 3b − 4a = 0. (79)
So a = 3, b = 4, and we have y1 (x) = (3x + 4)e−x .
For the next one, try the ansatz y2 (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx, where a, b here have no relation to
the above. Note that normally we would try a second order polynomial with a constant term. If
you try this, you will find that you can’t match the x2 dependence on the right hand side. This is
because the differential equation doesn’t contain a term proportional to y. Therefore, we need the
x3 term in the ansatz. Also, a constant term would be pointless, since it will disappear anyway.
Plugging this in,

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 (6ax + 2b) − 2(3ax2 + 2bx + c) = (−6a)x2 + (6a − 4b)x + (2b − 2c)
≡ −6x2 . (80)

Therefore,

−6a = −6; 6a − 4b = 0; 2b − 2c = 0. (81)

The solution is a = 1, b = 3/2 = c. Hence, y2 (x) = x3 + 23 (x2 + x).
We can solve the final one using inverse operators.
 2x 
1 4e 1
y3 = = (2e2x ) = 2xe2x . (82)
D−2 D D−2
Therefore, yp (x) = (3x + 4)e−x + x3 + 32 (x2 + x) + 2xe2x , and the general solution is
3
y(x) = Ae2x + B + (3x + 4)e−x + x3 + (x2 + x) + 2xe2x . (83)
2

8.6.40 The particular solution for the displacement of the forced oscillator is
yp (t) = A(ω) sin (ω 0 t + φ), where the amplitude of the oscillations is given by
F
A(ω) = p . (84)
(ω 2 − ω 02 )2 + 4b2 ω 02
The velocity, dyp /dt, is given by dyp /dt = A(ω)ω 0 cos (ω 0 t + φ). Therefore, it has amplitude ω 0 A(ω).
In the first part of this problem, we want to find the maximum of these amplitudes, viewed as
functions of ω, the natural frequency of the system. Normally, this would mean “solve dA/dω = 0
for ω.” However, we can be smart about this and avoid doing any real work. First note that the
amplitudes of the displacement and velocity have the same maximum, because they only differ by
multiplication by a constant. Now, A(ω) has the form
const.
A(ω) = p ; f (ω) = (ω 2 − ω 02 )2 + 4b2 ω 02 . (85)
f (ω)
p
Then A(ω) will have a maximum ⇐⇒ f (ω) has minimum ⇐⇒ f (ω) has a minimum. But
f (ω) is something squared plus a constant: f (ω) = g(ω)2 + const. This will be minimal when
g(ω) = ω 2 − ω 02 = 0; ie. ω = ω 0 . (We only consider positive ω, ω 0 , because the solutions with
negative value are just related by a shift in phase). Hence, the amplitudes of displacement and
velocity, as functions of ω, are maximal when ω = ω 0 .
In the second part of the problem, we want to view the amplitudes as functions of ω 0 . That
is, the amplitude of displacement is A(ω 0 ), and the amplitude of velocity is ω 0 A(ω 0 ), √
where ω is
now viewed as a constant. The book has shown that A(ω 0 ) has a maximum when ω 0 = ω 2 − 2b2 .

12
We want to show that ω 0 A(ω 0 ) has a maximum when ω 0 = ω. For this, we will need to solve
d
dω 0
(ω 0 A(ω 0 )) = 0.

d 0 0 0 0 dA
(ω A(ω )) = A(ω ) + ω
dω 0 dω 0
0 2 02 0 2 0
F ω F (−1/2)(2(ω − ω )(2ω ) + 8b ω )
=p +
2 02 2
(ω − ω ) + 4b ω 2 02 ((ω 2 − ω 02 )2 + 4b2 ω 02 )3/2
(ω 2 − ω 02 )2 + 4ω 02 b2 + (−ω 0 /2)(2(ω 2 − ω 02 )(−2ω 0 ) + 8b2 ω 0 )
=F . (86)
((ω 2 − ω 02 )2 + 4b2 ω 02 )3/2

We want to set this to zero and solve for ω 0 . The expression can only be zero if the numerator is,
so we have

(ω 2 − ω 02 )2 + 4ω 02 b2 + (−ω 0 /2)(2(ω 2 − ω 02 )(−2ω 0 ) + 8b2 ω 0 ) = 0

 
02 02 02
2
⇒ (ω − ω ) ω − ω + 2ω 2
+ 4b2 ω 02 − 4b2 ω 02 = 0

⇒ (ω 2 − ω 02 )(ω 2 + ω 02 ) = 0. (87)

i
The solutions are ω 0 = ±ω, ± ω. We may take ω 0 = ω.

8.6.42 The differential equation is y 00 + 9y = f (x), where f (x) is periodic with interval length 2,
and given by

0, −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
f (x) = , (88)
x, 0 < x < 1
on (−1, 1). The complementary function if yc (x) = A cos (3x) + B sin (3x). For the particular
solution, we need to express f (x) as a Fourier series. I will use a complex series, since this will
make it easiest to get the particular solution. So take
∞ Z 1
X
iπnx 1
f (x) = cn e , with cn = f (x)e−iπnx dx. (89)
n=−∞
2 −1

Then we have
Z 1 Z 1
1 1 1
c0 = f (x)dx = xdx = , (90)
2 −1 2 0 4
and

13
 1
1 Z 1
1 xe−iπnx 
Z  
1 −iπnx 1 −iπnx
cn =
2 0
xe dx =
2 − nπ 0i +
nπ 0
e
i dx

=
1 e−inπ

i 1
+ 2 2 (e −inπ
− 1)


2 nπ nπ

=
i
(−1)n (−1)n − 1
+ . (91)
2nπ 2n2 π 2
Now, if we take
∞
X
yp (x) = cn yn (x) (92)
n=−∞

where each yn satisfies

(D2 + 9)yn = einπx , (93)

then yp will satisfy (D2 + 9)yp = f (x) by linearity of the differential operator. We can solve the
above equation for yn by the inverse operator method. Note that we never have to worry about
i
the roots ±3 equalling the constant in the exponential, nπ. Then i
einπx
D2 + 9
=
eiπnx
yn =
9 − n2 π 2
, Z
n∈ . (94)

Then, separating out the n = 0 term,

yp (x) =
1
+
X (−1)n i eoπnx
+
X (−1)n − 1
eiπnx . (95)
4 · 9 n6=0 (2nπ)(9 − n2 π 2 ) n6=0
(2n 2 π 2 )(9 − n2 π 2 )

This is real, as it should be, though it may not look like it. In each of the infinite sums, add pairs of
(1) (1)
terms −n, n, for n = 1, 2, . . .. In the first sum, the coefficient is odd: a−n = −an . For the second
(2) (2)
sum, it’s even: a−n = an . Hence,

yp (x) =
1
+
∞
X (−1)ni (eiπnx
− e−iπnx
) +
X∞
(−1)n − 1
(eiπnx + e−iπnx )
36 n=1 (2nπ)(9 − n2 π 2 ) n=1
(2n 2 π 2 )(9 − n2 π 2 )

∞ ∞
1 X −(−1)n X (−1)n − 1
= + sin (nπx) + cos (nπx); (96)
36 n=1 (nπ)(9 − n2 π 2 ) n=1
(n 2 π 2 )(9 − n2 π 2 )

and the general solution is

14
 ∞ 
1 X −(−1)n
y(x) = A cos (3x) + B sin (3x) + + sin (nπx)
36 n=1 (nπ)(9 − n2 π 2 )
(−1)n − 1

+ 2 2 cos (nπx) . (97)
(n π )(9 − n2 π 2 )

8.6.43 We wish to solve the equation

(D2 + 2bD + ω 2 )y = F1 sin (ω10 t) + F2 sin (ω20 t) + F3 sin (ω30 t). (98)
The complementary solution is given by formula (5.30), (5.31), or (5.32), depending on whether the
system is overdamped, critically damped, or underdamped respectively. For the particular solution,
0 0 0
solve (D2 + 2bD + ω 2 )Y = F1 eiω1 t + F2 eiω2 t + F3 eiω3 t , and then yp = Im(Y ). Write Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 ,
where
0
(D2 + 2bD + ω 2 )Yj = Fj eiωj t , j = 1, 2, 3. (99)
The solution to these equations is given by formula (6.37), and it follows from (6.38) that

3
X Fj 2bωj0
yp (t) = sin (ωj0 t − φj ), where φj = arctan ( ). (100)
ω 2 − ωj02
q
02 02
j=1 (ω 2 − ωj )2 + 4b2 ωj

It is evident from this expression that if ω → ω10 , say, then the amplitude of the first term will be
larger than the amplitude of the other two. Since the denominators contain the term (ω 2 − ω 02 )2 ,
the other two amplitudes will be quite small compared to the first for reasonable separation of the
ω 0 frequencies.

15