Chapter 40 - Human Reproduction & Development

Chapter 40 - Human Reproduction & Development

Male reproductive system organs
Scrotum
Supporting structure for the testes
The location of the scrotum & the contraction & relaxation of the cremaster muscle
serve to regulate the temperature of the testes
Sperm production requires temperatures three degrees below core temperature
Cremaster muscle elevates the testes in response to sexual arousal or cold; depresses it
for heat
Spermatozoan structure
1. Acrosome - modified, secretory vesicle/lysosome filled with enzymes that are
needed to fertilize the egg
2. Midpiece - many mitochondria for energy production
3. Flagellum - movement
Testes
Contain coiled seminiferous tubules which are the site for sperm production
Seminiferous tubules are lined with spermatogenic cells = spermatogonia which are
located next to the basement membrane of the tubule
Spermatogonia undergo spermatogenesis (meiosis) to produce sperm & mitosis to
replenish themselves
Meiosis occurs from the basement membrane side to the lumen of the tubule
The wall of the tubule is actually composed of progressively more mature sperm:
spermatogonia, primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, & spermatids
Spermatozoan are released into the lumen of the tubules
Among the developing sperm cells are Sertoli cells that extend from the basement
membrane to the lumen of the tubule
Sertoli cell functions:
1. Support, protect, & nourish developing spermatogenic cell
2. Mediate the effects of testosterone & follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) on the
sperm
A. Testosterone - Development, growth, & maintenance of male sex organs;
final maturation of sperm; stimulates descent of testes during embryogenesis
B. FSH - Act on Sertoli cells = stimulate spermatogenesis
3. Control movements of the spermatogenic cells & the release of spermatozoan into
the lumen
4. Secrete fluid for sperm transport
Leydig cells are found in between the seminiferous tubules; Luteinizing hormone (LH)
stimulates these cells to secrete testosterone
Accessory sex glands
1. Seminal vesicle secretion is/contains:
Alkaline to reduce the acidity in the female reproductive tract
Fructose for energy
Semenogelin (fibrinogen derivative) for the coagulation of the semen following
ejaculation = helps keep the ejaculated sperm in the female reproductive tract following
the withdrawal of the penis
Constitutes ~60% of the volume of the semen
Ducts of the testes (continued)
1. Epididymis
Site of sperm maturation (10-14 days), sperm storage, & “dead” sperm reabsorption
2. Ductus (Vas) defrens
The vas defrens is the site of sperm storage, sperm transportation to the urethra, &
sperm reabsorption
3. Ejaculatory ducts
Formed by the joining of the seminal vesicle duct & the vas defrens
These ducts eject spermatozoan into the urethra just before ejaculation & transport &
eject seminal vesicle secretions
4. Urethra
Passageway for semen = mixture of sperm & accessory gland secretions
2. Prostate gland secretion is/contains:
Slightly acidic (pH 6.5), but is significantly more basic than the female reproductive
tract (pH 3.5 - 4.0)
Citric acid for energy
Clotting enzymes which cause semenogelin to coagulate following ejaculation
Fibrinolysin which de-coagulates the semenogelin a short time later (5 –20 minutes)
allowing the sperm to become motile following ejaculation
Constitutes ~25% of the volume of the semen
3. Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland
Secretion consists of alkaline mucus to lubricate the lumen of the urethra
Sperm + accessory gland secretions = SEMEN
Ejaculate characteristics
2.5 - 5 ml; 150 million sperm per ml; <20 million = infertile
pH = 7.2 -7.7
It contains seminalplasmin, an antibiotic, which may protect the sperm from bacteria in
both the male & female reproductive tracts
Penis
Body composed of three cylindrical tissue masses: Paired corpora cavernosa &
corpus spongiosum
All three are well vascularized with blood sinuses
Under the appropriate stimulation, the penile arteries dilate & the blood sinuses become
filled with blood & expand
This expansion compresses the penile veins, trapping the blood in the penis
Female reproductive system organs
Ovaries
Ovarian follicles lie in the ovaries & consists of oocytes in different developmental
stages surrounded by follicular cells
Graafian follicles are mature & will rupture, expelling a secondary oocyte via a
process called ovulation
Corpus luteum contains the remnants of an ovulated mature follicle, & produces
hormones such as progesterone & estrogen. It will eventually degenerate into the
corpus albicans
Oogenesis
Female meiosis begins in the developing female fetus.
Prior to birth the fetal ovaries are filled with oogonia & some will enter prophase I but
will arrest before completion
These “suspended” primary oocytes will remain dormant until puberty
As it grows , it forms a clear glycoprotein layer, zona pellucida, between the primary
oocyte & the granulosa cells
The innermost layer of granulosa cells will adhere strongly to the zona pellucida =
corona radiata
This structure is now called the secondary follicle, & its maturation will continue once
puberty is reached
The secondary follicle will develop into the mature (Graafian) follicle, during which the
primary oocyte will divide into a secondary oocyte & a polar body, which is a packet
of discarded nuclear material due to unequal division. This completes meiosis I
Oogenesis (continued)
The secondary oocyte will enter meiosis II and arrest at metaphase II, until ovulation
& subsequent fertilization
Once ovulated the secondary oocyte will either be fertilized or not
If it is not fertilized the secondary oocyte will degenerate
If it is fertilized, meiosis II will finish, resulting in the formation of the ovum (mature
egg) & a second polar body (waste)
The nuclei of the ovum & the already penetrated sperm will combine & a zygote is
formed
Uterine (Fallopian) tubes
2 tubes that extend laterally from the uterus
Transport secondary oocytes & fertilized ova from the ovaries to the uterus
Divided into three sections:
A. Infundibulum which lies next to the ovaries. It ends in a fringe of
fingerlike projections called fimbriae which attach to the lateral ends of the
ovary
B. Ampulla - 2/3 of the tube
C. Isthmus connects the tube to the uterus
Uterus
Site of menstruation, implantation of the zygote, development of the fetus, & labor
The superficial layer of the uterus is called the endometrium & it is the site for
implantation of a fertilized egg
Vagina
Passageway for menstrual flow & childbirth
Receives semen
Uterine & Ovarian Cycles
4 phases divided into:
1. Menstrual
2. Preovulatory
3. Ovulation
4. Postovulatory
Menstrual phase
Characterized by menstrual flow
Secondary follicles in the ovaries begin to enlarge
The endometrium is sloughed off due to a decrease in estrogen & progesterone
Preovulatory phase
FSH stimulates the growth & development of a Graafian follicle
Ovulation
A surge of LH induces ovulation
The ovum is ovulated & the remains of the follicle in the ovary will develop into the
corpus luteum
Postovulatory phase
Two pathways:
If the ova is not fertilized the corpus luteum will decrease its secretion rate &
degenerate into the corpus albicans over a period of two weeks
The decrease in corpus luteal hormones will lead to menstruation & the stimulation of
the next round of follicular development
If the ova is fertilized, the embryo’s chorion will secrete hCG (human chorionic
gonadotropin) which will maintain the corpus luteum beyond its two week lifespan
The chorion will develop into the placenta which will begin to secrete estrogen &
progesterone to maintain the pregnancy
Developmental Anatomy of the Reproductive System
Early embryo has primitive gonads that have the potential to develop into either male
or female organs
The embryo also possesses two sets of ducts: Wolffian (primitive male) & Mullerian
(primitive female)
The male pathway depends upon the presence of the Y chromosome which contains the
SRY gene (Sex determining Region of the Y chromosome)
During the 7th week, the SRY gene produces or regulates the production of the H-Y
antigen
This antigen directs the differentiation of the primitive gonads into testes
Testes begin secreting testosterone & Mullerian-inhibiting factor
Mullerian inhibiting factor destroys the Mullerian ducts (female embryonic
reproductive tubes), while testosterone transforms the Wolffian ducts into the internal
male reproductive tube organs
Testosterone is converted to dihydroxytestosterone which directs the development of
the male external genitalia
The female pathway depends upon the absence of the Y chromosome
No SRY gene
No development of the H-Y antigen
Gonads develop into ovaries, which don’t secrete testosterone or Mullerian-inhibiting
factor
Mullerian ducts develop into the female internal reproductive organs
Lack of testosterone allows the development of the female external genitalia, & the
degeneration of the Wolffian ducts
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What muscle regulates the temperature of the testes?
2. What is the acrosome?
3. What tubules are the site for sperm production?
4. What are the functions of Sertoli cells & Leydig cells?
5. Name the 3 male accesory sex glands & a key function of their secretions.
6. What structures fill with blood to cause the penis to be erect?
7. What is the function of the corpus luteum?
8. Name the 3 sections of the fallopian tubes?
9. What are the 4 phases of the female menstrual cycle? What happens during each
phase?
10. Describe how the male reproductive organs develop under the influence of the
SRY gene.
Stages of Human Prenatal Development
Divided into 3 stages
1. Pre-embryonic stage – 1st 2 weeks, including fertilization
A. Fertilization
B. Cleavage (multiple cell division) of the fertilized ovum = zygote
C. Implantation into the uterus wall
D. Gastrulation – the initial folding of the cells into 3 distinctive germ layers
which marks the 1st step in cell specialization
2. Embryonic stage – 3rd week to 8th week
A. The cells of the 3 germ layers grow, specialize, & interact to form all of the
body’s organs = organogenesis
B. Support structures form – placenta, umbilical cord, extra-embryonic
membranes
Stages of Human Prenatal Development
3. Fetal period – 9th week to 38th week (pre-birth)
A. Organs begin to function & coordinate to form organ systems
B. Growth is very rapid
C. Pre-natal development ends with labor & the birth of the baby
Pre-embryonic stage
1. Fertilization – penetration of the ovum by a sperm
The ovum is surrounded by:
A. Zona pellucida – protein / sugar coating
B. Corona radiata – multiple layers of cells
The sperm must get through both layers
What sperm structure is involved in digesting these 2 protective layers?
Acrosome
Pre-embryonic stage
Once the sperm makes contact with the cell membrane of the ovum, 2 events prevent
further sperm from entering the ovum (Polyspermy – fertilization by multiple sperm –
why don’t we want this to happen?)
1. Fast block to polyspermy – when the sperm contacts the ovum’s cell
membrane, an electric field is generated which repels the remaining sperm
2. Slow block to polyspermy – the electric field is a transient event, thus a
more permanent barrier needs to be created. The zona pellucida will literally
harden & form a concrete barrier impenetrable by other sperm
Once in the ovum the sperm pro-nuclei & the ovum pro-nuclei fuse = zygote
Fertilization occurs within the fallopian tubes
Pre-embryonic stage
2. Cleavage
A series of cell divisions in which a single zygote will become a mass of cells
During cleavage a blastocyst will form, which marks the first signs of cell specialization
A. Inner cell mass will become the embryo
B. The trophoblast will become the placenta
What happens to the placenta at birth?
3. Implantation
The blastocyst attaches to the endometrium between days 5 & 7
The trophoblast will extend projections into the endometrium, which will from the
chorion which develops into the placenta
The trophoblast will also secrete human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a hormone
necessary for the maintenance of the endometrium & the blastocyst
Pre-embryonic stage
4. Gastrulation
The inner cell mass develops into the 3 germ layers, which are cells that are destined to
become specific tissues & organs
A. Ectoderm will develop into nervous tissue, the pituitary gland, skin
B. Mesoderm will develop into muscle, bone, kidneys, internal reproductive
organs
C. Endoderm will develop into the liver, pancreas, lung / digestive tract
linings
Embryonic stage
1. Organogenesis – the transformation of the 3 layered embryo into an individual with
distinct organ.
The embryo is very susceptible to environmental factors such as chemicals & viruses
Neuralation – development of the nervous system
Begins above a support structure called the notochord which developed from
mesoderm
Development begins from midline ectoderm cells located above the notochord
These cells thicken to form the neural plate & extensions called neural folds extend
upward eventually fusing together to form a tube aptly called the neural tube
The cells associated with this tube eventually become the brain & spinal cord
What happens to the notochord?
Its replaced by mesoderm cells which will differentiate (change) into the vertebral
column & surrounding muscle
Embryonic stage
2. Support structure formation
Placenta is formed from the chorion which is embryonic tissue & the blood vessels that
come from the mother’s circulatory system
Even though the blood systems of the baby & mother are separate, they lie side by side,
facilitating the transfer of materials between the mother & baby
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What are the 3 stages of human pre-natal development?
2. Define cleavage & gastrulation.
3. What 2 protective layers surround the ovum?
4. Define polyspermy
5. What is the difference between the fast block & slow block to polyspermy?
6. What will develop from the inner cell mass & trophoblast?
7. What are the 3 primary germ layers? Name one organ that will develop from each
layer.
8. What is neuralation?
9. What is the notochord?

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