1.

Electronic concept of oxidation and reduction

Oxidation
Addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen

Electronic concept
Loss of one or more electrons. Increase in charge or decrease of − ve charge

𝐅𝐞𝟐+ → 𝐅𝐞𝟑+ + 𝐞−

Reduction
Addition of hydrogen or removal of Oxygen

Electronic concept
Gain of one or more electrons. Decrease of + ve charge or increase of − ve charge.

𝐅𝐞𝟑+ + 𝐞− → 𝐅𝐞𝟐+

2.Concentration of Ores
 Gravity separation or Hydraulic working
 Froth floatation process
 Electromagnetic separation
 Chemical method

 Gravity separation or Hydraulic working

 It is suitable for oxide ores.

 Ore is crushed and powdered well which is taken into sloping surface / sloping floor.
 When current of running water is passed, the lighter impurities are washed away and the heavy
or particles retain on the sloping surface.

 Froth flotation

 It is suitable for sulphide ores.

 Ore is crushed and powdered well and is taken on iron tank along with the quantity of water and
pine oil equally.

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  When compressed air is agitated the froth will be formed on the surface.
 Impurities are wetted by water and settle down.
 Ore particles are wetted by oil and stick with bubbles and come to the surface.
 The froth is collected and dewatered.

 Chemical method

 This method is employed in the ore is to be in very pure form, e.g., Aluminum extraction.
 Bauxite (Al2 O3 ), an ore of aluminium contains Si O2 and Fe2 O3 as impurities.
 When Bauxite ore is treated with Na OH the Al2 O3 goes into the solution as sodium Meta
aluminate leaving behind the un dissolved impurities.

[ Fe2 O3 , Si O2 , Fe (OH)3 etc.,] which are the filtered off,

𝐀𝐥𝟐 𝐎𝟑 + Na OH → 𝟐𝐍𝐚 𝐀𝐥 𝐎𝟐 + 𝐇𝟐 O

NaOH [Sodium Meta Aluminate]

When Sodium meta aluminate is dissolved in water then the

𝐍𝐚 𝐀𝐥 𝐎𝟐 + H/OH → 𝐀𝐥(𝐎𝐇)𝟑 + Na OH

H/OH

OH

Al OH

OH

+ Al2 O3 + 3H2 O

OH pure alumina is obtained

Al OH

OH

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 Electromagnetic separation process
 This method is used to separate magnetic impurities such as Mn, W,Fe from non magnetic ore
particles.
 The ore is crushed and powdered well and allowed to fall on conveyor belt, which rolls on
electromagnetic roller.
 Due to attraction the magnetic impurities heap near the magnet while the non magnetic ore
particles form heap away from the magnet.

3.Hund’s rule
No pairing occurs until all the orbitals of the given sub cells are half filled.

4.Isotopes
Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass numbers are called
isotopes.
There are three isotopes of hydrogen with mass numbers 1, 2, 3 and each powering an atomic
number of one.

5. Preparation of Tritium

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Tritium is prepared by

1. By bombarding Lithium with slow neutrons.

2. By bombarding beryllium with deuterons.

6. Uses of plaster of Paris

It is used

 In surgery for plastering the fractured bones.

 In making moulds for statues, in dentistry etc.,
 In making false ceiling.

8. Calculate miller indice for (6a,3b,3c)

x=6 y=3 z=3

Weirs indices of a plane are (6,3,3)

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 1 1 1
Miller indices of a plane are = , ,
6 3 3

Multiplying throughout the smallest number in order to get whole number integer to obtain miller
indice

1 1 1
= x 6, X 6, X 6
6 3 3

= 1, 2, 2

Miller indice of a plane = (1,2,2).

9. Joule’s thomeon’s effect

It is a phenomenon of producing lowering of temperature when gases are allowed to expand

adiabatically from the region of high pressure to the region of low pressure.

10.1. Intensive properties

Those properties which do not depend on mass or size of substance is called an intensive property.
Eg., Temperature, Viscosity, boiling point, melting point

10.2. Extensive properties

Those properties which depends on mass or size of substance is called extensive properties.
Eg., Volume, Mass. No. of moles, internal energy.

11.Raoult’s law
At constant temperature, the vapour pressure of the solution is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of the solvent.

P 𝛼 X1

P = K X1 (1)
Now P becomes P0

V1 + V2 = 1

X1 + 0 = 1

X1 = 1
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 P0 = K(1)

P0 = K (2)

Sub ( 2 ) in ( 1 )

P = P 0 X1

12. Dative bond formation between 𝐁𝐅𝟑 and 𝐍𝐇𝟑

The bond thus formed between the donor and the acceptor is known as dative bond.

A coordinate bond is showed as an arrow which points from donor to the acceptor atom. In some cases,
the donated pair of electrons comes from a molecule as a whole which is already formed to an already
formed acceptor molecule as a whole.

For example coordination bond between 𝑯𝟑 N and B𝑭𝟑

The molecule ammonia(donor) which gives a pair of electron(loan pair) to B𝐹3 molecule which is
electron deficient(acceptor) which has an empty orbital to accommodate the pair of electrons.Thus a
dative bond is formed and the molecule as a whole is reperesented as 𝑯𝟑 N→ 𝑩𝑭𝟑

when proton is added to ammonia a pair of electron is donated by nitrogen to proton and then proton
shares the electron pair to form coordinate covalent bond.

13.Why equilibrium concentration remains constant?

Constancy of concentration:

When a chemical equilibrium is established in a closed vessal at constant temperature,the

concentrations of various species like reactants and products remains unchanged.

15.Polymerisation with example

Two or more molecules of same or different components conbine to form single complex compound

nCH2 = CH2 peroxide ( CH2 CH2 )

PET formation:

nCH2 CH2 CH2 OH + HOOC COOH

CH2 CH2 OOC COO

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ALKENE formation:

16.Sublimation
Certain solid substances like camphor or naphthalene when heated passes directly from solid to vapour
without melting .The vapours when cooled give back the solid substance.This process is known as
sublimation.

This process is very helpful in separating a volatile solid from a non-volatile solid.The powdered
substance is taken in a china dish and covered with a perforated filter paper and an inverted funnel.The
dish is carefully heated on a sand bath.The vapours passing through the holes in a paper condense on
the inner sides of the funnel.The non-volatile impurities remain in the dish

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 17.Detection of sulphur in organic compound
Lassaigne’s test:
Small quantity of an oraganic compound is taken along with pea size of Na in fusion tube and is heated
to red hotness and dropped into mortar containing water then it is filled,crushed and powdered
well.Then it is filtered.The filtrate is known as lassigne’s filterate or sodium extract.

Lassaigne’s filterate consists of N𝑎2 S

2Na + S→ N𝒂𝟐 s
Test for sulphur:

To the lassaigne’s filterate sodium Nitro prusside is added,purple colour is obtained.Detection of

sulphur is confirmed

N𝒂𝟐 𝑺 + N𝒂𝟐 [ Fe (CN)𝟓 NO ] N𝒂𝟒 [ Fe (CN)𝟓 (NOS) ]

(sodium Nitro prusside) (purple colour)

18. Markov nikov rule with example

Markov mikov law states that negative part of addendum attaches itself with the C carrying less number
of hydrogen atoms.

CH3 C CH2 + HCL CH3 CH CH2 CL

CH3 CH3

(Iso butylene) (Iso Butyl chloride)

19. Tests for acetylene

Acetylene decolourizes bromine water.

Acetylene decolourises alkaline potassium permanganate solution.

With ammonical solution of cuprous chloride it gives a red precipitate of cuprous acetylite.

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With ammonical solution of silver nitrate it gives a white precipitate of silver acetylite. The tests iii) and
iv) will not be distinguish ethylene from acetylene.

20.Friedal Craft’s Alkylation reaction

H CH3

𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦𝑑
+ CH3 CL
𝐴𝑙 𝑐𝑙 3
+HCL

21. Wurtz fittig reaction

When a mixture of aryl halide and an alkyl halide is treated with metallic rodium, the derivates of
benzene are formed, in presence of either solution

ether

C6 H5 Br + Na + Br CH3 ether C6 H5 CH3 + 2NaBr

Na (Methyl Bromide) (Toluene)

C6 H5 Br + Na + Br + CH3 CH2 Br ether C6 H5 𝐶2 𝐻5 + 2NaBr

Na (Ethyl Benzene)

22. Normality
Normality is defined as the ratio of no. of gram equivalent of soluie to the volume of solution in 1 litre.It
is represented by N

No .of gram equivalent of solute

Normality =
Volume of solution in 1 litre

mass of the solute

No. of gram equivalent of solute =
equivalent mass

given mass of the solute

equivalent mass
No. of gram equivalent of solute =
volume of solution in 1 litre
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 X x 1000
Normality =
equivalent mass x V

23. Calcination
The process of conversion of carlionate ores into oxide ores in absence of air is called as calcination.

Zn CO3 ZnO + CO2 ↑

Mg CO3 . CaCO3 MgO + CaO + 2Co2 ↑

24. Aufbau’s principle

In the ground state of an atom, the orbitals are filled in the increasing order of energy.

28. Epsom salt

It is prepared by dissolving magnesium oxide or carbonate in dilute sulphuric acid.

Mg O + H2 SO4 → Mg SO4 + H2 O

25. ‘S’ Block elements

Those elements which belong to the group1 are called 1s block elements and those elements which
belong to both 1s and 2s are called S block elements.

They are highly reactive and they have very low ionisation energy.

General electronic configuration for alkali metals is 𝑛𝑠 1 .

General electronic configuration for alkaline metals is 𝑛𝑠 2 .

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As we move down the metallic characters, reactivity increases.

They readily lose 1 electron to exhibit +1 oxidation state.

26. Uses of deuterium

 It is used as tracers in the study of mechanism of chemical reactions.
 High speed deuterons are used in artificial radioactivity.
 Its oxide known as heavy water ( D2 O) which is employed as moderator in nuclear reactor to
slow down the speed of fast moving neutrons.

27. Fullerenes
The group of spherical carbon molecules is called fullerenes. These compounds have superconducting
properties and its potential for opening new areas of chemistry have made study of the’ lucky ball’ as
one of the most rapidly expanding areas of chemical research.

28. Simple cubic

In SC system there are 8 corner atoms. Each corner atoms are shared by 8 unit cell.

Contribution is 1/8.

No. of corner atoms NC = 8

1
Total no. of atoms per unit cell in Sc = Nc x
8

Nc 8
= = = 1
8 8

Body centered cubic

In Body centered cubic (BCC) system there is only one body centered atom.

Each body centered atom is shared by 1 unit cell.

Contribution is 1/1.

Total no. of unit per cell is

Nc Nb
+
8 1

8 1
= + = 1 + 1 = 2
8 1

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 Face centered cubic
In face centered cubic system (FCC) there are 6 face centered atom.

Each face centered atom is shared by 2 unit cells.

Contribution is 1/2.

Total no. of atoms per unit cell in FCC system

Nc N
= + 2F
8

8 6
= + = 1 + 3 = 4
8 2

30. Dalton’s law of partial pressure

Total pressure at constant temperature, the total pressure is exerted by gaseous mixture is equal to sum
of pressure of individuals exerted by each gas, if it occupies same volume of mixture fully itself.

Partial pressure
It is a measure of individual pressure of individual pressure of each gas present in the mixture of same
volume and same temperature.

P = PA + PB + PC

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