Lecture By Compiled by

Sir Saud-u-Zafar Muhammad Ahmed (pe-033)

General Overview of Natural Fractured Reservoirs

What is Fracture?
Fracture is the surface in which a loss of cohesion has taken place. Since rupture refers
to a process which results in the loss of cohesion of a given material, a fracture is then
the result of a rupture.
In general, a fracture in which relative displacement has occurred can be defined as a
fault, while a fracture in which no noticeable displacement has occurred can be defined
as a joint.
A fracture can also be defined, in a more general way, as the discontinuity which breaks
the rock beds into blocks along cracks, fissures, joints or whatever they may be referred
to as, and along which there is no displacement parallel with the planes of discontinuity.

Sedimentary Rocks
1. Sandstone Reservoir Rock
2. Carbonate
3. Clay/shale Source rock or reservoir rock

Carbonates can be sub-divided into:

 Calcium Carbonates Difference of Mineralogy

 Magnesium Carbonate

Dolomitization

Dolomitization is a geological process by which the carbonate mineral dolomite is

formed when magnesium ions replace calcium ions in another carbonate
mineral, calcite.

2 CaCO3(calcite) + Mg2+ ↔ CaMg(CO3)2(dolomite) + Ca2+

 Calcium being larger in size and with greater atomic no. (20) is replaced by
magnesium which is smaller in size and with less atomic no. (12)

Stress Regimes
1. Extensional Stresses: Stresses acting in opposite direction on a medium.
Common example is normal fault

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2. Compressional stresses: Stresses acting towards each other on a medium.

Common example is thrust fault or reverse fault. They result in fractures.

3. Mixed stresses: A combination of extensional and compressional stresses.

 Sometimes stress regimes are so intense that it might cause fractures in

sandstones. Due to this the rock property called rigidity is affected.

 Porosity of carbonates is approximately 2 to 3 %.

 Shale rocks are very important because they act as source rock. HC are formed
inside shale. Theses shales are not pure shales. They have organic rich material
deposited in them.

 Now if shale is covered by any cap or seal rock with hydrocarbons trapped inside
them, so overburden pressure coupled with non-clay material create internal
fractures inside it. This can be observed by considering an example of permafrost.

 Permafrost is soil, rock or sediment that is frozen for more than two consecutive
years. Water stored in rock in very cold climate freezes and expands. This
expansion creates fractures in rocks.

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 Generally, shales are at very high pressure or over pressured because fluids have
no way to escape.

Three main flow gradients in porous media

1. Hydraulic gradient (pressure gradient): The pressure gradient (typically of air,

more generally of any fluid) is a physical quantity that describes which direction
and at what rate the pressure increases the most rapidly around a particular
location.

2. Capillary gradient

3. Viscous gradient

Two types of fractures

1. Micro fractures (Ұ Pc ] 0,x)

Micro fractures are small, high-aspect-ratio cracks in rock that result from
application of differential stresses. There dimensions are so small that they
usually require microscopy to detect.
The aperture of fracture is so thin that it comes in range of thin film of fluids.

2. Macro fractures: (Pc=0)

Macrofractures correspond to fractures with large width (over 100 microns) and
considerable length.

 Response equation: the response of log is represented by response equation

which is combination of void spaces, fluid and rocks.
 Sonic Log: when sound waves travel through compacted formation so it loose
more energy and vice versa for loose formation. So this tells about void spaces
and so porosity
 The difference in porosity obtained from different logs indicate fracture porosity.

 If fractured reservoir is in contact of acquifer, so water from acquifer might suck

in to these formations.

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Basics of MBE

Material Balance is the basic reservoir energy balance.

The basic governing rule of material balance equation is given by Schiltiest equation:

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Work done at
the expense of
energy

Drive Mechanisms
The reservoir drive mechanism supplies the energy that moves the hydrocarbon located
in a reservoir container toward the wellbore as fluid is removed near the wellbore.
There are five common drive mechanisms:
1. Water drive
The aquifer water expands slightly, displacing the oil or gas from the reservoir
toward the borehole as pressure drops around the borehole.
2. Gas expansion
Free gas in a gas reservoir or in the gas cap of an oil reservoir expands to replace
produced hydrocarbons.
3. Solution gas drive (depletion drive)
Crude oil under high pressure can contain large amounts of dissolved gas. The more
gas there is in solution, the more compressible the oil. In oil reservoirs with little or
no water drive, reservoir energy to drive the oil toward the wellbore can be supplied
by expansion of the oil due to gas expanding in solution. This is a solution gas (or
dissolved gas or depletion) drive. When pressure drops below the bubble point in
the reservoir, small, disconnected gas bubbles form in pores, also pushing the oil
toward the wellbore.
4. Gravity drainage
in gravity drainage, oil drains downward through a reservoir under the influence of
gravity.
5. Rock or compaction drive (Mostly associated for NFR)
In compaction drive, the energy for oil production is provided by the collapse of the
porous medium skeleton and expansion of the porous fluids when the reservoir
pressure drops.

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 Rock compressibility is in 10-6 in absence of fractures. While in presence of

fractures compressibility gets in 10-4 or 10-5
 Due to decreasing pore pressure and increasing overburden pressure,
compaction of rocks occurs which causes healing of fractures. Macro
fractures starts converting into microfractures.
 In this rock expands and pore volume is reduced.
 Actually, rock volume remains same actually, but in relation pore volume it is
said to be increased.
∅
 𝜐𝑚 = 𝑚
∅𝑚 +∅𝑓
So, with depletion Vm increases as fracture porosity (∅𝑓 ) decreses. This
phenomenon is usually visible in large fractured reservoirs.
Fracture porosity as a function of changing Net overburden as pressure drops.

𝑃
∅𝑓𝑖 log ( 𝑘,𝑛𝑒𝑡 )
𝑃ℎ
∅𝑓 =
𝑃
log ( 𝑘,𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖 )
𝑃ℎ
Where,
Pk,net = Net overburden Stress
Ph = Fracture healing pressure
Øfi = Initial Fracture porosity

Q Why compaction drive is more common in Fractured reservoirs?

1. Fractures are much more compressible as compared to primary porosity.

2. Fracture provide necessary flow path, when these flow paths are squeezed, fluid
expulsion will be faster.

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Introduction
NATURALLY FRACTURED RESERVOIRS (NFRs)

Naturally fractured reservoirs (NFR’s) have great importance and differ from conventional reservoirs as
these contain fractures throughout the reservoir. These reservoirs usually have low matrix permeability
and high fracture permeability having oil or water wet rock properties which may results in low
recovery. So good understanding of flow behavior is required to optimize recovery process. Analysis and
simulation of fractured reservoirs are done by dividing such reservoirs into matrix and fracture systems.

The goal of a reservoir engineer should be estimating the reserves, forecasting the production
and understanding how fractures could be used to positively affect production and, last but not
least, estimating the range of uncertainty. In dealing with conventional reservoirs, engineers
can generally, provide a reasonable assessment of the reservoir performance by combining
information on the reservoir’s geologic framework, the rock and fluid properties, and results
from well logs, rock mechanic tests and formation evaluation tests. However, for fractured
reservoirs, obtaining the right data and forecasting the reservoir performance is much more
difficult than for conventional reservoirs.

Natural fractures exist practically in all reservoirs, dividing the reservoir rock in pieces, called
matrix blocks. In this case one must distinguish between matrix and fracture porosity and
permeabilities.

Porosity in NFR

Porosity can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary porosity forms during deposition of
sediments and includes interparticle and intraparticle porosities. Secondary porosity forms
after deposition and develops during diagenesis by dissolution, dolomitization and through
production of fractures in the rock. The matrix porosity, also often called fabric porosity, can be
both primary and secondary. The fracture porosity is always a secondary one and generally
refers to porosity that occurs along breaks in a sediment or rock body where there has been
little mutual displacement along the fracture.

Let Øf be the fracture porosity and Øm the matrix porosity, then the storativity dimensionless
Parameter:
∅𝑓 𝑐𝑓
𝜔=
∅𝑓 𝑐𝑓 + ∅𝑚 𝑐𝑚

It expresses the ratio between the storage capacity of the fracture network and the total
storage capacity.
Also, Partitioning coefficient which is the ratio of matrix porosity to total porosity is given as :

∅𝑚
𝜐𝑚 =
∅𝑚 + ∅𝑓

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For example :
Øm = 2% and Øf = 0.5%

So
0.02
𝜐𝑚 =
0.02 + 0.005

𝜐𝑚 = 0.8

Permeability in NFR
The permeability of a porous rock is a measure of the ability to transmit fluids. A reservoir can
have primary and secondary permeability. The primary permeability is referred to as matrix
permeability, the secondary permeability can be either called fracture permeability or solution
vugs permeability. Matrix- and fracture permeability are other important parameters that have
to be known for an estimate of the influence of the fractures on the overall reservoir
performance. Solution

Classification of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

Naturally fractured reservoirs can be classified in different types, depending on the storage
capacities or porosity and permeability of the matrix and the fractures. Different definitions for
these types can be found in literature. Aguilera classified the naturally fractured reservoirs in
types A, B and C (see Figure 1.1). In reservoirs of type A most fluid is stored in the matrix; the
fractures provide only a very small storage capacity. Typically, the matrix rock tends to have a
low permeability, whereas the fractures exhibit a much larger permeability. In type B reservoirs
approximately half of the hydrocarbon storage is in the matrix and half in the fractures. The
fractures provide the storage capacity of type C reservoirs, without contribution of the matrix.

Another classification of fractured reservoirs is given by Nelson, which is based on percent

of total porosity and permeability (Figure 1.2). The parameters range in percent due to matrix
versus percent due to fracture. In reservoirs of type I fractures dominate porosity and

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permeability. In type II reservoirs the fractures control essential permeability, and in a type III
reservoir, fractures assist permeability. In reservoirs of type IV the fractures provide no
additional porosity or permeability, but can create anisotropic barriers.

Type I porosity (storage) Matrix Dominated More commonly

Flow Fractured dominated occurring NFR

Type II porosity Storage + Flow More commonly

Fracture Storage + Flow occurring NFR

Type III porosity No storage + No flow Less common (igneous

Fracture Storage + Flow and basement rock)

Type IV porosity Storage + Flow Less occuring

Fracture Flow

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In place in NFR

Pore volume is given as:

𝑉𝑝 = 𝐴 × ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑡 × ∅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Where
hnet = net thickness

Øtotal = Øm + Øf

Hence above eq. becomes:

𝑉𝑝 = 𝐴 × ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑡 × (∅𝑚 + ∅𝑓 )
Now,

Hydrocarbons initially in place is given as:

𝑉𝑝 × (1 − 𝑆𝑤)
𝐻𝐶𝐼𝐼𝑃 =
𝐹𝑉𝐹

𝐻𝐶𝐼𝐼𝑃 = 𝐴 × ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑡 × (∅𝑚 (1 − 𝑆𝑤)𝑚 + ∅𝑓 (1 − 𝑆𝑤)𝑓 )

When no storage present so the term Øf(1-Sw)f will be zero.

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Fracture Carbonate Reservoirs

 Compressional environment results in anticline pops (mountains) due to uplifting
 Extensional environment results in hosts and grabens.

Well placement in Conventional and Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

In Conventional reservoirs

Well is placed at the top

Reason
1. Movement of plates along a fault cause ruble or rock breaking which cause variable rock density
at that place. This causes disruption in seismic response. Hence well is placed far away from the
faults and that is at the top.
2. In conventional reservoirs, rubbles and crushed zones are very problematic. They are filled with
cement etc. and they reduce the permeability. So, we place wells far away from the crushed
zones. Stresses are min at the top (with zero slope) and there are min fractures.
3. Even if there is a small pool of HC or a very small reservoir, we place our well at the top. Because
due to gravity effect HC that are less dense are present at the top. So, we place well at the top.

 Matrix K is of 10^-3
 Fracture K is 10 times of matrix permeability.
 Catenary: In mathematics, a curve that describes the shape of a flexible hanging chain or cable.

 Lemniscate: The infinity symbol ∞ (sometimes called the

lemniscate) is a mathematical symbol representing the concept of infinity.

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In Naturally fractured reservoirs

Well is placed where there is maximum curvature.

Reason
In NFR well is placed where there are max frctures. Max fractures occurs at the place where
there is max stress and that is where there is max curvature.
Max fractures near fault are useless because they will oly result in problem.

 Fracture orientation plays a vital role in HC flow towards wellbore

 HC moves towards well bore with radial flow which is perpendicular to well trajectory.
 So fractures should also be perpendicular to well trajectory to allow fluid to easily move
towards wellbore.
𝑑2 𝑦
 = +𝑣𝑒 minima
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
 = −𝑣𝑒 maxima
𝑑𝑥 2

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FRCTURED BASEMENT ROCK RESERVOIRS

Fractured basement reservoirs are found in metamorphic and igneous rock where
faulting has led to the creation of a fracture network, underlying a sedimentary basin.

An important feature of fractured reservoirs is that they need not be confined to the
soft rocks which are normally associated with oil exploration. The term <<basement))
refers to these rocks in which natural matrix porosity and permeability do not exist; this
includes igneous and metamorphic rocks.

 Primary porosity does not exist in igneous rocks and the only porosity that occurs
is secondary porosity.
 Basement rock reservoirs are present in India and offshore Vietnam.
 Basement rocks will be present at the edges of syncline.

How does oil gets into basement?

Here we have illustrated schematically layers of rock that

build up over many millions of years. Somewhere above
the basement, oil producing source rock was formed.
West of Shetland it is the Kimmeridge Clay, famous for
the quality and volume of oil it has produced in the UK's
North Sea.

Over millions of years, movement caused by tectonic

forces can cause disruption in the layers of rock. Here, the
basement has been forced up by as much as a kilometer.
A couple of important things happen: the movement and
heavy faulting has created an extensive fracture network.
It has also resulted in the oil producing layer being at a
lower level than the basement.

At the top of the structure a trap is formed in which oil

can accumulate with a thick seal of muds and clays
above. As the oil producing rock forces out hydrocarbons
they move up the flank and into the basement through
the fracture network.

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Gradually the hydrocarbons become trapped at the top of

the basement reservoir structure by the thick layer of shale
and clay that defines the seal. Once structural closure is at
capacity, oil at the edges of the closure will tend to 'spill'
making its way to the surface or into other shallower traps.

However, one of the great attractions of fractured

basement reservoirs is that oil can be found outside of
structural closure. Oil backfills down through the highly
permeable fracture network. In the basement there is no
permeability in the rock, so the oil cannot escape but is
trapped for explorers to find. We call this the 'jellyfish'
model.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FRACTURES

2.1.1 Classification based on descriptive criteria

2.1.1.1. Natural fracture vs. induced fracture

A natural fracture is any break or crack occurring in the rock including those cracks which can
be identified by the presence of slickensides and mineralization. On the other hand, induced
fractures are all those cracks which result during coring (such as breaks along the bedding
plane) or from mishandling of cores.

The classification of fractures based on their appearance and morphology has been elaborated
by Steams' through the following categories:
a. Unequivocal natural fractures; those which are partially filled or totally filled by vein material
and also those which are opened and lie on a parallel trend to partially or totally filled fractures.
b. Very probable natural fractures; fractures with slickensided surfaces and also those parallel
to them.
c. Probable natural fractures; fractures with clean, fresh surfaces accompanied by small
fractures which are parallel to the unequivocal fractures.
d. Induced fractures; generally recognized as fresh, clean fractures parallel or normal to the
core axis as a result of bending or twisting of the core during coring.

2.1.1.2. Measurable and non-measurable fractures

Measurable fractures are visible fractures which may be defined by width, length, orientation (dip and strike
angle), while non-measurable fractures are only traces across the core which end within the core. Any
reference to fracture density or intensity, etc., should refer to the visible natural fracture which indicates a
certain dip angle and direction.

2.1.1.3. Macrofractures and microfractures

Micro fractures: (Ұ Pc] 0,x)

Micro fractures are small, high-aspect-ratio cracks in rock that result from application of
differential stresses. There dimensions are so small that they usually require microscopy
to detect.
The aperture of fracture is so thin that it comes in range of thin film of fluids.
Macro fractures: (Pc=0)
Macrofractures correspond to fractures with large width (over 100 microns) and
considerable length.

2.1.1.4. Open and closed fractures

Based on direct examination, there are two categories of fractures -open fractures and closed
fractures; these depend mainly on circulating water and precipitation, which is capable of

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plugging the fractures with anhydrite, minerals, etc. On the other hand, fractures which are
closed in surface conditions may often be open or partially open in reservoir conditions where
pore pressure acts on fracture walls.

2.1.2. Classification of fractures based on geological criteria

As discussed in chapter 1, the geological history of a reservoir is directly related to the

fracturing process. Since the major role in generating fractures is played by tectonic events and
the geological environment (lithology) as already discussed in chap. 1, any classification of
fractures has to take these criteria into consideration.

2.1.2.1. Fractures associated with folding

In general, fractures are related to the folding axis3 (figure 2.1) and therefore are denominated:
a. longitudinal fractures - along the folding axis

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b. transversal fractures - perpendicular to the folding axis

c . diagonal fractures - in relation with the folding axis (at certain angle to folding axis)

2.1.2.2. Fractures and the stress state

If fractures are associated to one or more states of stress they are divided into two groups:
a. conjugate fractures
b. non-conjugate (orthogonal) fractures (fracture perpendicular to folding)
where conjugate fractures are those which have been developed from a unique state of stress
(figure 2.1).
The totality of the fractures could be associated with their direction and therefore:
a. The fracture system is formed by all fractures having the same mutually parallel direction.
b. the fracture network is the result of various fracture systems.

2.1.2.3. Fractures associated with stratigraphy

The variations of dimensions and density of fractures depend on lithology and thickness of the
layer in which the fractures are developed. The results obtained will divide the fractures into
two categories:
a. first-order fractures
b. second-order fractures
First-order fractures are those which cut through several layers of rock, while second-order
fractures are limited to a single layer of rock.

 Fissure: Fractures filled with water or fluid are called fissures. They are considered good
from petroleum aspect.

 Veins: Fractures filled with minerals or mineral mix are called veins. They can be both
good and bad.

 Dyke: A dike or dyke, in geological usage, is a sheet of rock that is formed in a fracture in a
pre-existing rock body. Dikes can be either sedimentary in origin. Magmatic dikes form
when magma intrudes into a crack then crystallizes as a sheet intrusion, either cutting across
layers of rock or through a contiguous mass of rock. Clastic dikes are formed
when sediment fills a pre-existing crack.
Dykes are not good from petroleum aspect because fractures act as barriers and prevent the
movement of fluid up to surface.

 Mineral: A naturally occurring inorganic compound with crystal structure for example
calcite, clay, gypsum, magnetite etc.

Stresses
1. Vertical stress/ overburden stress
2. Horizontal stress (caused due to compressional and post compressional environment)
a. Minimum horizontal stress
b. Maximum horizontal stress

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2.2. BASIC PARAMETERS OF FRACTURES

2.2.1. General discussion

The variations in space of fracture characteristics, such as size, orientation and description, are so irregular
and complicated that the description of such a reservoir is substantially more difficult than that of a
conventional reservoir. Therefore, the study of a fractured reservoir must follow a special pattern, beginning
with the examination of local basic characteristics of single fractures, only afterwards continuing with the
examination of a multifracture system. In establishing the relationship among the various groups of
fractures, the local relationships are examined at reservoir scale by comparison, trends and extrapolation of
parameters.
Single fracture parameters refer to the intrinsic characteristics, such as opening (width), size and nature of
fracture. If the single fracture is associated with the reservoir environment, another essential characteristic,
the fracture orientation, will result.
The multi-fracture parameters refer to the fracture arrangement (geometry) which further generates the
bulk unit, called the matrix block. The number of fractures and their orientation are directly related to
fracture distribution and density. When fracture density is related to lithology, another parameter of
particular interest, called fracture intensity, is obtained.
The basic parameters and their relationships are illustrated below:

2.2.2. Single fracture parameters

2.2.2.1. Fracture opening

Fracture opening or fracture width is represented by the distance between the fracture walls.
The width of the opening may depend (in reservoir conditions) on depth, pore pressure and
type of rock. The fracture width varies between 10-200 microns (macro fractures, High K), but
statistics have shown that the most frequent range is between 10-40 microns (micro fractures,
low K) (figure 2.2).

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The fracture opening depends on the lithological-petrographic characteristics of the rock,

nature of stresses and reservoir environment. Often the difference between the width of the
fracture in reservoir conditions and surface conditions (laboratory) is the result of the release of
confining and pore pressure on the sample in laboratory conditions. In reservoir conditions
where the confined pressure u (overburden pressure) remains constant, but the initial pore
pressure Pi is reduced (during reservoir depletion) to P,, the width b will become smaller (figure
2.3), as effect of rock expansion.

2.2.2.2. Fracture size

Fracture size refers to the relationship between fracture length and layer thickness, especially if
a qualitative evaluation is to be formulated. In this case fractures can be evaluated as minor,
average and major:
a. minor fractures have a length less than the single layer pay
b. average fractures traverse more layers
c. major fractures have a very large extension, often tens or even hundreds of meters.

Minor fractures are equivalent to the previously defined second-order fractures, while average
and major fractures are equivalent to first-order fractures.
According to Rhuland’s3 observations, minor fractures generally have smaller openings and are
often filled, while major fractures have large openings and are rarely mineralized or filled.

2.2.2.3. Nature of fracture

The nature of fractures mainly concerns the state of fractures under observation with reference
to opening, filling and wall characteristics, and is generally discussed in the following terms:
a. opening - open, joint, closed
b. filling - mineral, various minerals
c. closed by - homogeneous or diffused filling material
d. fracture walls - rugose, smooth, polished, creeping

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2.2.2.4. Fracture orientation

Fracture orientation is the parameter which connects the single fracture to the environment.
The fracturing plane can be defined (as in classic geological practice) by two angles, dip azimuth
and dip angle  (figure 2.4).
The directions x1, x2, and x3, are oriented towards east, north and zenith, therefore:
cos 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔
cos 𝛼 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔
cos 𝛼3 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔

2.2.3. Multi-fracture parameters

2.2.3.1. Fracture distribution

In a fracture network which contains two or more fracture systems, each fracture system will
generally be generated by a certain state of stress. Pairs of conjugate fractures which have been
generated by the same stress state are an exception. Fracture distribution is then expressed by
a degree of fracturing factor. This factor will be stronger if there is continuous
intercommunication among the fracture systems and if the systems are equivalent to each
other. The degree of fracturing will be weaker if the intercommunication among the fracture
systems is interrupted and if the fracturing of one system prevails over the other.

2.2.3.2. Matrix block unit (trapped bulk)

The fractures which cut the reservoir rock in various directions, delineate a bulk unit referred to
as the matrix block unit or simply the matrix block. Since around any single block a continuum
(formed by the fracture network) exists, each single block will be hydrodynamically separated
from the adjacent blocks. It is thus correct to consider that each bulk unit is, in fact, trapped
inside the fracture network. In reality these blocks are in contact through leaning points, but
the hydrodynamic communication between blocks remains practically interrupted.
The matrix blocks are defined by shape, volume and height, in relation to the fracture system’s
dip, strike and distribution. The shape of the matrix block is irregular, but for practical work the
block units are reduced to simplified geometrical volumes, such as cubes or as elongated or flat
parallelipipeds.
Various block shapes have been described by Ruhland3 through simplified geometrical models
as shown in table 2.2., where a qualitative description of shape can be attached to the basic
dimensions of each block.
The spatial aspect of a block unit may be further associated with tectonic events and the
predominance of one or another of the stresses. In reference to the models shown in table 2.2.,
it may be stated that:
a. column block unit (case 1 and 2) - the principal stress parallel with the bedding generated
higher fracture density
b. flat block unit (case 4 and 5) - the principal stress normal to the bedding generate a higher
fracture density
c. cube block unit (case 3) - orthogonal equivalent stresses took place.

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Vertical blocks
Layered blocks (horizontal flow) (vertical flow)

Cubical blocks
 Based on the direction of the flow, we conceptualize it. If direction of flow is
preferentially in vertical direction then we take vertical matrix block. Similarly for
horizontal flow. When flow exists in both directions then we have cubical matrix blocks.
 We should know the stress regime before studying the orientation of fractures.

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Lecture By Compiled by
Sir Saud-u-Zafar Muhammad Ahmed (pe-033)

Q how can we study about fractures?

1. Coring
2. Well logs (wirelinr loo both conventional and unconventional)
a. FMI log (Formation Micro Imager Log)
b. Sonic log

3. Mud logging (examining mud weight)

 Mud weight gives indication of formation pressure.
 Excessive mud loss indicates presence of fractures

 Largest oil lake is in Bako.

2.2.3.3. Fracture density

Fracture density expresses the degree of rock fracturing through various relative ratios. If the
ratio refers to the bulk volume the fracture density is called volumetric fracture density. If the
ratio refers to the area or to a length the fracture density is called areal or linear fracture
density. The analytical expressions of these densities are as follows:
Volumetric fracture density; the ratio between fracture-bulk surface S and matrix bulk volume:

𝑉𝑓𝑑 = 𝑆/𝑉𝐵

Argal fracture density; the ratio between the cumulative length of the fractures 𝑙𝑡 =
∑𝑛1 𝑙𝑖 = 𝑛𝑓 𝑥𝑙 /𝑆𝐵 and matrix (bulk area SB in a cross-flow section,

𝑛𝑓 𝑥𝑙
𝐴𝑓𝐷 = = 𝑙𝑡 /𝑆𝐵
𝑆𝐵

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