Precalculus With Trigonometry

PAUL A .
FOERSTER
with Trigonometry L
CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS
SECOND EDITION
•1~4• Key Curriculum Press

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Reviewers, Second Edition
Tim Boykin, Williamsburg , VA
Deborah Davies, The University School of Nashville, Nashville, TN
Daniel Dudley, Verde Valley School, Sedona, AZ
Arnie Hoffman, Acalanes High School, Lafayette, CA
John Quintrell, Montgomery High School, Santa Rosa, CA
Joy Sama, Lake High School, Uniontown, OH
Barbara Uzzell, O'Conner High School, San Antonio, TX
Advisors, First Edition

Bill Medigovich, San Francisco, CA
Mary Anne Molnar, Northern Valley Regiona l High School, Demarest, NJ
Swapna Mukhopadhyay, San Diego State University, San Diego , CA
Wayne Nirode, Troy High School, Troy, OH
Calvin Rouse, Laney College, Oakland, CA
Field Testers, First Edition
Gary Anderson, Seattle Academy of Arts and Sciences, Seattle, WA
David Badal, Bentley Upper School, Lafayette, CA
Brenda Batten, Thomas Heyward Academy, Ridgeland, SC
Jim Bigelow, Redlands East Valley High School, Redlands, CA
Amarjit Chadda, Los Altos High School, Los Altos, CA
Michelle Clawson, Hamlin High School, Hamlin , TX
Melissa Cleavelin, St. Mary's Academy, Denver, CO
John Crotty, Career High School, New Haven, CT
Deborah Davies, The University School of Nashville, Nashville, TN
Carol DeCuzzi, Audubon Junior /Se nior High School, Audubon, NY
Louise Denney, Troup High School, LaGrange, GA
Autie Doerr, Anderson High School, Austin, TX
Paul A. Foerster, Alamo Heights High School, San Antonio, TX
Kevin Fox, Millburn High School, Millburn, NJ
Bill Goldberg, Viewmont High School, Bountiful, UT
Donna Gunter , Anderson High School, Austin, TX
Teresa Ann Guthie-Sarver, Melbourne High School, Melbourne, FL
Karen Hall, Skyview High School, Vancouver, WA
Rick Kempski, Nasho ba Regional High School, Bolton, MA
Ken Koppelman, Montgomery High School, Santa Rosa, CA
Stella Leland, Caney Creek High School, Conroe, TX
Dan Lotesto, Riverside University High School, Milwaukee, WI
Bill Miron, Millburn High School, Millburn, NJ
Deb Prantl, Georgetown Day School, Washington, DC
John Quintrell, Montgomery High School, Santa Rosa, CA
Louise Schumann, Redlands High School, Red lan ds, CA
Luis Shein, Bentley Upper School, Lafayette , CA
Gregory J. Skufca, Melbourne High School, Melbourne, FL
Chris Sollars, Alamo Heights High School, San Antonio, TX
Judy Stringham, Martin High School, Arlington, TX
Nancy Suazo, Espanola Valley High School, Espanola, NM
Rickard Swinth, Montgomery High School, Santa Rosa, CA
Susan Thomas, Alamo Heights High School, San Antonio, TX
Anne Thompson, Hawken School, Gates Mills, OH
Juli e Van Horn , Manitou Springs High School, Manitou Springs, CO
Barbara Whalen, St. John's Jesuit High School, Toledo, OH
Margaret B. Wirth, J. H. Rose High School, Greenville, NC
Isabel Zsohar, Alamo Heights High School, San Antonio, TX
Richard J. Zylstra, Timothy Christian School, Elmhurst, IL
To my students, for whom the text was written.
To my wife, Peggy, who gives me love and encouragem ent.
Author's Acknowledgments
Special thanks go to Debbie Davies and her stu dents at The University School in
Nashville who gave consistent comments and encouragement by field testing
th e text in its formative stage, and who drafted and revised most of the
Instructor's Guide. Thanks to Debbie Preston of the Keystone School in San
Antonio, Texas, for her work on the supplementary materials and for help with
in-service work with teachers . Thanks also to Karen Hall and her students of
Skyview High School in Vancouver, Washington, who also participated in the
initial field test .
Thanks to other teachers and reviewers who se comments helped spot ways to
make the text even more useful for the education of our students . In particular,
thanks to Gary Anderson, Brenda Batten, Bill Goldberg, Ken Koppelman, Deb
Prantl, John Quintre ll, Louise Schumann, Jud y Stringham, Rick Swinth , Anne
Thompson, Barbara Whalen, and Richard Zylstra for their work in field testi ng
and providing feedback for th e first edition . Thanks to Tim Boykin, Daniel
Dudley, Debbie Davies, Arnie Hoffman, John Quintr ell, Joy Sama, and Barbara
Uzzell for reviewing the first edition and providing feedb ack on the second
edition.
The readability of the text is enha nc ed by the fact that much of the wording of
th e original edition came directl y from the mouths of students as they learned
to grasp the ideas . Thanks go to my own students Nancy Carnes, Sus an Curry,
Brad Foster, Stacey Lawrence, Kelly Sellers, Ashley Travis, and Debbie Wisneski,
whose class notes formed the basis for many sect ions.
Above all, thanks to my colleagues Susan Thomas, Isabel Zsohar, and
Chris Sollars , and their students at Alamo Heights High School in
San Antonio, who supplied daily input so that the text could be complete,
correct, and teachabl e.
Finally, thanks to the lat e Richard V. Andree and his wife Jos ephin e for allowing
their children, Phoebe Small and Calvin Butterball, to mak e occasiona l
appearanc es in my texts .
Paul A. Foerster
About the Author

Paul Foerster enjoys teaching mathematics at Alamo Heights High School in
San Antonio, Texas, which he has done since 1961. After earning a bach elor's
degree in chemica l enginee rin g, he served four years in the U.S. Navy. Following
his first five years at Alamo Heights, he earned a master's degr ee in
mathematics. He has published five textbooks , based on problems he wrote for
his own students to let them see mor e realistically how mathematics is app lied
in the real world . In 1983 he received the Presidential Award for Excellence in
Mathematics Teaching, the first year of th e award . He raised thr ee grown
children with the late Jo Ann Foers ter, and he also has two grown stepchi ldr en
through his wife Peggy Foerster, as well as three grandchildren . Paul plans to
continue teaching for the foreseeable future, relishing th e excitement of the
ever-changing content and methods of the evolving mathematics curricu lum.
Foreword
by John Kenelly, Clemson University
Deja vu- again! The second edition of Precalculus with Trigonometry: Concepts
and A pplications shows that even the best can be improved.
Foerster shows us all how the problematic precalculus course can be
m eaningful in a technology-rich world. Precalculus is a far more difficult arena
than calculus to find effective instructional solutions. Simply put, how do you
motivate skill development in a world where calculator s can do so much?
Foerster's simple and effective solution is to make understanding the skills
interesting through insights and fresh applications. What is becoming
in creasingly apparent as technology permeates our classes and our lives is
that th e question is no longer how to do it but when to do it and why.
Technology is used to explore and do mathematics instead of replace or
in terf ere with it. The second edition moves beyond graphing calculators and
int egrates dynamic geometry software, such as The Geometer's Sketchpad ®
an d Java applets, into the text and supporting materials to help students and
in stru ctors maximize the appropriate use of technology. While the information
age is an unrelenting driving force in educational reform, many texts and
educators have not taken on the responsibility of developing students'
m athematical skills for these new conditions . Foerster gives a brilliant solution
to help us all, teachers and students, in that task.
Great texts must motivate students as well as teachers, and Foerster's problems
set s are truly unique in their diversity and originality of real-world applications.
Where else will you find 200 million people jumping off tables to create a
sinusoidal wave around the world , using radian measure to explore the rotary
m otion of a marching band formation, or analyzing the elliptical path of a
comet to determine if it will collide with the earth? Moreover, Foerster crafts his
problem sets to be part of the instructional design so that students continue to
lear n the new material while doing problems, which is ultimately the most
m otivational technique of all.
The second edition continues to present a coherent sequence of topics in a
stud ent -friendly manner that builds conceptual understanding through clear
examples and developmental explorations. It is a very readable text that is
furth er supported by new Reading Analysis questions at the start of each
problem set. I appreciate Foerster for tackling the bigge st problem that students
h ave- reading mathematics.
vii
At a time when the precalculus cours e is being widely debated and many argue
for reform, I think that everyone should tak e a good look at Foerster's solid
solution to the qu esti on of what a pr ecalculus course should be. Together with
th e second edition of his Calculus: Concepts and A pplications, Foerster
con tinue s to provid e the strongest pos sible foundation for students to
su ccessfully complete high school math emati cs and effect ively transition to
univ ersit y mathematics.
John Kenelly has been involved with the Ad van ced Placement Calculus program for over
30 ye ars. He was Chief Read er and later Chair of the AP Calculus Committee when
Paul Foerster was grading the AP exams in the 1970s, and he was instrum ental in getting
the reading sessions mov ed to Clems on University when they outgrew the prior facilities.
Professor Kenelly is a leader in the development of the graphin g calculator and in
pioneering its use in college and school classrooms. His organi zation of Technology
Intensive Calculus for Advanced Placement sess ions following recent AP read ings has
allowed calculus instru ctors to share ideas for impl ementing the chang es in calculus that
hav e been made inevitab le by the adv ent of technology. In 2001, Professor Kenelly served
as President of IMO 2001 USA, which hosted the International Mathematical Olympiad in
Washington, D.C. He currently serves as Treasurer of the Mathematical Assoc iation
of A m erica.
viii
Contents
A Note to the Student from the Author xiii
CHAPTER 1 Functions and Mathematical Models 1

1-1 3
M
Functions: Graphically , Algebraically, Numerically , and Verbally
1-2 Types of Functions 7
1-3 Dilation and Translation of Function Graphs 15
1-4 Composition of Functions 22
1-5 Inverse of a Function 33
1-6 Reflections, Absolute Values, and Other Transformations 43
1-7 Precalculus Journal 50
1-8 Chapter Review and Test 51
CHAPTER 2 Periodic Functions and Right Triangle Problems 59
~
2-1 Introduction to Periodic Functions 61
2-2 Measurement of Rotation 62
2-3 Sine and Cosine Functions 66
2-4 Values of the Six Trigonometric Functions 73
2-5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Triangle Problems 80
CHAPTER 3 Applications of Trigonometric and Circular Functions 93

3-1 95
~
Sinusoids: Amplitude , Period , and Cycles
3-2 General Sinusoidal Graphs 96
3-3 Graphs of Tangent, Cotangent , Secant, and Cosecant Functions 105
3-4 Radian Measure of Angles 110
3-5 Circular Functions . 117
3-6 Inverse Circular Relations: G iven y, Find x 124
3-7 Sinusoidal Functions as Mathematical Models 130
3-8 Rotary Motion 138
CHAPTER 4 Trigonometric Function Properties, Identities, and

Parametric Functions 155
till
X 4-1
4-2
Introduction to the Pythagorean Property
Pythagorean, Reciprocal , and Quotient Properties
157
158
ix
4-3 Identities and Algebraic Transformation of Expressions 162
4-4 Arcsine , Arctangent, Arccosine, and Trigonometric Equations 168
4-5 Parametric Functions 176
4-6 Inverse Trigonometric Relation Graphs 184
CHAPTER 5 Properties of Combined Sinusoids 195

5-1 Introduction to Combinations of Sinusoids 197
~ 5-2 Composite Argument and Linear Combination Properties
5-3 Other Composite Argument Properties
198
205
5-4 Composition of Ordinates and Harmonic Analysis 213
5-5 The Sum and Product Properties 223
5-6 Double and Half Argument Properties 231
C a B
CHAPTER 6 Triangle Trigonometry 247
6-1 Introduction to Oblique Triangles 249
b/7
A
6-2 Oblique Triangles : Law of Cosines 250
6-3 Area of a Triangle 255
6-4 Oblique Triangles: Law of Sines 259
6-5 The Ambiguous Case 263
6-6 Vector Addition 266
6-7 Real-World Triangle Problems 274
6-9 Cumulat ive Review, Chapters 1-6 286
CHAPTER 7 Properties of Elementary Functions 291

7-1 Shapes of Function Graphs 293
1£ 7-2 Identifying Functions from Graphical Patterns
7-3 Identifying Functions from Numerical Patterns
294
304
7-4 Properties of Logarithms 314
7-5 Logarithms: Equations and Other Bases 321
7-6 Logarithmic Functions 328
7-7 Logistic Functions for Restrained Growth 336
CHAPTER 8 Fitting Functions to Data 351

8-1 Introduction to Regression for Linear Data 353
~ 8-2 Deviations, Residuals, and the Correlation Coefficient
8-3 Regression for Nonlinear Data
354
360
8-4 Linearizing Data and Logarithmic Graph Paper 367
8-5 Residual Plots and Mathematical Models 381
X
CHAPTER 9 Probability, and Functions of a Random Variable 397
399
L X
9-1 Introduction to Probab ility
9-2 Words Associated with Probability
9-3 Two Counting Principles
400
402
9-4 Probabilities of Various Permutations 407
9-5 Probabilities of Various Combinations 412
9-6 Properties of Probability 420
9-7 Functions of a Random Variable 428
9-8 Mathematical Expectation 434
9-10 Cumulative Review, Chapters 7-9 445
CHAPTER 10 Three-Dimensional Vectors 449

l 0-1 Review of Two-Dimensional Vectors 451
? 10-2 Two-Dimensional Vector Practice
l 0-3 Vectors in Space
452
461
10-4 Scalar Products and Projectio ns of Vectors 466
l 0-5 Planes in Space 474
10-6 Vector Product of Two Vectors 479
10-7 Direction Angles and Direction Cosines 486
l 0-8 Vector Equations of Lines in Space 490
l 0-9 Chapter Review and Test 495
CHAPTER 11 Matrix Transformations and Fractal Figures 501

l 1-1 Introduction to Iterated Transformations 503
[l 11-2 Matrix Operations and Solutions of Linear Systems 504
11-3 Rotation and Dilation Matrices 510
11-4 Translation with Rotation and Dilation Matr ices 515
11-5 Strange Attractors for Several Iterated Transformations 522
11-6 Fractal Dimensions 530
CHAPTER 12 Analytic Geometry of Conic Sections and Quadric Surfaces 543

12-1 Introduction to Conic Sections 545
tu 12-2 Parametric and Cartesian Equations of the Conic Sections
12-3 Quadric Surfaces and Inscribed Figures
546
557
12-4 Analytic Geometry of the Conic Sections 564
12-5 Parametric and Cartesian Equations of Rotated Conics 580
12-6 Applications of Conic Sections 587
xi
CHAPTER 13 Polar Coordinates, Complex Numbers, and Moving Objects 597
13-1 Introduction to Polar Coordinates 599
* l 3-2
l 3-3
13-4
13-5
13-6
Polar Equations of Conics and Other Curves
Intersections of Polar Curves
Complex Numbers in Polar Form
Parametric Equations of Moving Objects
Chapte r Review and Test
600
610
614
621
631
CHAPTER 14 Sequences and Series 637

14-1 Introduction to Sequences and Series 639
14-2 Arithmetic, Geometric , and Other Sequences 640
14-3 Series and Partial Sums 648
CHAPTER 15 Polynomial and Rational Functions, Limits, and Derivatives 667

15-1 Review of Polynomial Functions 669
15-2 Graphs and Zeros of Polynomial Functions 670
15-3 Fitting Polynomial Functions to Data 680
15-4 Rational Functions: Discontinuities, Limits, and Partial Fractions 687
15-5 Instantaneous Rate of Change of a Function: The Derivative 694
15-7 Cumulative Review, Chapter s 10-15 707
APPENDIXA Types of Numbers, Axioms, and Other Properties 713
APPENDIX B Mathematical Induction 723
Answers to Selected Problems 729
Glossary 821
Index of Problem Titles 827
General Index 833
Photograph Credits 847
xii
A Note to the Student
from the Author
This text is written to make available to students and other teachers the things
I have learned in over 40 years of teaching. The presentation is organized to
take full advantage of technology, particularly graphing calculators, while still
giving students experience with pencil-and-paper and mental computations. It
differs from the earlier edition by inclusion of an expanded treatment of
transformations of functions, inclusion of new topics such as rotary motion and
logarithmic graph paper, and hundreds of other changes designed to enhance
your comprehension of the material.
In previous courses you have learned ab out various kinds of functions. These
functions tell how the value of one variable quantity is related to the value of
another, such as the distance you have driven as a function of time you have
been driving. In this course you will expand your knowledge to inclu de
transformations that can be performed on functions, and functions that vary
periodically. You will learn how to decide just which kind of function will fit
best for a set of real-world data that is inherently scattered . You will get
reinforcement of the fact that variables really vary, not just stand for unknown
constants. Finally, you will be introduced to the rate at which a variable quantity
varies, thus laying the foundation for calculus.
As a student, you will have the opportunity to learn mathematics four ways-
algebraically, numerically, graphically, and verbally . Thus, in whichever of these
areas your talents lie, you will have an opportunity to excel. For example, if you
are a verbal person, you can profit by reading the text, explaining clearly the
methods you use, and writing in the journal you will b e asked to keep . If your
talents are visual, you will have ample opportunity to learn from the shapes of
graphs you will plot on the graphing calculator. The calculator will also allow
you to do numerical computations, such as regression analysis, that would be
too time -consuming to do with just pencil and paper.
One thing to bear in mind is that mathematics is not a spectator sport. You
must learn by doing, not just by watching others. You will have a chance to
participate in cooperative groups, learning from your classmates as you work
on the Explorations that introduce you to new concepts and techniques. The
beginning of each prob lem set includes a Reading Analysis question to help you
reflect upon what your read and ten Quick Review problems to give you a quick
recall of things you may have forgotten. Some specially marked problems ask
you to go online to explore concepts using Dynamic Precalculus Explorations.
Other problems indicate that they introduce you to concepts or techniques in
xiii
the following section. In addition to the sample Chapter Test at the end of each
chapter, there are Review Problems that correspond to each section of that
chapter. You may rehearse for a test on just those topics that have been
presented, and check your answers in the back of the book. The Concept
Problems give you a chance to apply your knowledge to new and challenging
situations . So keep up with your homework to help ensure your success.
Many times you will see applications to real-world problems as a motivation for
studying a particular topic. At other times you may see no immediate use for a
topic. Learn the topic anyway and learn it well. Mathematics has a structure that
you must discover, and the big picture may become clear only after you have
unveiled its various parts. The more you understand about mathematics, the
more deeply you will be able to understand other subjects, sometimes where
there is no obvious connection, such as in theology, history, or law. Remember,
what you know, you may never use. But what you don't know, you' ll definitely
never use.
In conclusion, let me wish you the best as you embark on this course. Keep a
positive attitude and you will find that mastering mathematical concepts and
techniques can give you a sense of accomplishment that will make the course
seem worthwhile, and maybe even fun.
Paul A. Foerster
Alamo Heights High School
San Antonio, Texas
xiv
Functions and
Mathematical Models 1
If you shoot an arrow into the air, its height above the ground
depends on the number of seconds since you released it. In
this chapter you will learn ways to express quantitatively the
relationship between two variables such as height and time. You
will deepen what you have learned in previous courses about
functions and the particular relationships that they describe-
for example, how height depends on time.
1
Mathematical Overview
In previous courses you have studied linear functions, quadratic
functions, exponential functions, power functions, and others. In
precalculus mathematics you will learn general properties that
apply to all types of functions. In particular you will learn how to
transform a function so that its graph fits real-world data. You will
gain this knowledge in four ways.
Graphically The graph at right is the graph of a y (m)

quadratic function. They-variable 30
could represent the height of an
20
arrow at various times, x, after its
release into the air. For larger time 10
values, the quadratic function X (S)
shows that y is negative. These 6
values may or may not be - 10

reasonable in the real world. -2 0
-3 0
Algebraically The equation of the function is
2
y = -4.9x + 20x + 5
Numerically This table shows corresponding x- and y-values that satisfy the
equation of the function.
X (s) Y (m)
0 5.0
1 20.1
2 25.4
3 20.9
Verbally wltervthe, t!tU"iab!-M

U1,,Pv
jwu±iorvrtaitdfar tlwtjr U1,,the, real wor~ the,
jwu±iorvu beiltjwed tU Pv~iutt uwdel. T/u, C()~ l/1,,tn,e;
Ujuatiorvoftn,e;jwu±iorv y = -4.9x + 20x + S /uwe,Pvreat~worU
2
~- Fore,x~ the, C()ejfici,w:-4.9u PvC()n£ttU1i:tlw±u PvruuLt

ofthe,3rcwirarionala.cceLerariorv 1 20 u the, 1JeUJcity
UtituJJ 1 aJtdS rejlutr
t/u, utitiat kei.:Jkt
of the, arrour.
2 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematical
Models
1-1 Functions: Graphically, Algebraically,
Numerically , and Verbally
If you pour a cup of coffee, it cools more rapidly at first , then less rapidly,
finally approaching room temperature. There is one and only one temperature
at any one given time, so the temperature is called a function of time. In this
course you'll refresh your memory about some kinds of functions you have
studied in previous courses. You'll also learn some new kinds of functions, and
you'll learn properties of functions so that you will be comfortable with them in
later calculus courses. In this section you'll see that you can study functions in
four ways.
OBJECTIV
E Work with functions that are defined graphically, algebraically, numerically,
or verbally.
You can show the relationship between coffee temperature and time
graphically. Figure 1-la shows the temperature, y, as a function of time, x.
At x = 0, the coffee has just been poured. The graph shows that as time goes
on, the temperature levels off, until it is so close to room temperature, 20°C,
that you can't tell the difference.
y( OC)
100
80
60
40
20 Room temp . ·
X (min )
10 20 30
Figure 1-la
This graph might have come from numerical data, found by experiment. It
actually came from an algebraic equation, y = 20 + 70(0.8)X.
X (min) y(OC) From the equation, you can find numerical information. If you enter the
equation into your grapher, and then use the table feature, you can find these
0 90 temperatures, rounded to 0.1 degree .
5 42.9
10 27.5 Functions that are used to make predictions and interpr etat ions about
15 22.5 something in the real world are called mathematical models . Temperature is
20 20.8 the dependent variable because the temperature of the coffee depends on the
time it has been cooling. Time is the independent variable . You cannot change
Section
l ·l : Functions:
Graphically,
Algebraically,
Numerically,
andVerba
lly 3
time simply by changing coffee temp erature! Always plot the independent
variable on th e horizontal axis and the dependent variab le on the vertical axis.
y( OC)
The set of values the ind ependent variable of a function can have
100 is called the domain. In the coffee cup examp le, the domain is
the set of nonnegative numb ers, or x ~ 0. The set of values of
80
t
Range,(20 < y 5 90 the dependent variable corresponding to the domain is called
the range of the function. If you don't drink the coffee (which
would en d the domain), the range is the set of temperatures
40 between 20°( and 90°(, including 90°( but not 20°(, or
20 < y ~ 90. The horizontal line at 20 °C is called an asymptote.
20 Room temp. · · The word comes from the Greek asymptotos, meaning "not due to
x(min)
coincide." The graph gets arbitrarily close to the asymptote but
10 20 30
never touches it. Figure 1-1b shows th e domain, range, and
•---- Domain , x ~ 0 -----..
asymp tot e.
Figure 1-lb
Example 1 shows you how to describe a function verbally .
.... EXAMPLE
1 The time it takes you to get home from a football
game is related to how fast you dri ve. Sketch a
reasonabl e graph showing how this time and speed
are related. Give the domain and range of the
function.
Solution It seems reasonable to assume that the time it

takes depend s on the speed you drive. So you must
plot time on the vertical axis and speed on the
hori zontal axis .
To see what the grap h should look like, consider what happens to the time as
the speed varies. Pick a speed value and plot a point for the corresponding time
(Figure 1-1c). Then pick a faster speed. Because the tim e will be shorter, plot a
point closer to the horizontal axis (Figure 1-1d).
Corresponding
time
• Shorter time
/ A particular
/spee d A fast er spee d~
Speed Speed
Figur e 1-lc Figur e 1-ld
For a slower speed, th e time will be lon ger. Plot a point farther from the
horizontal axis (Figure 1-le). Finally, connect the points with a smooth curve,
because it is possible to drive at any speed within the speed limit. The graph
never touches either axis, as Figure 1-lf shows. If speed were zero, you would
never get home. The length of time would be infinite. Also, no matter how fast
you drive, it will always take you some tim e to get home. You cannot arrive
home instantaneously.
4 Chapter
l : Functions
andMathematical
Models
"' -N ever touc hes
§
""\
t
~onger time
I-
A slower
"""'
/ spee d •
Speed
Figure 1-l e Figur e 1-lf
Domain: 0 s; speeds; speed limit

Range: time :?. minimum time at speed limit
This problem set will help you see the relationship betw een variables in the real
world and functions in the mathematical world .
Problem Set 1 -1
1. Archery Problem: An archer climbs a tree near a. What was the approximate height of the
th e edge of a cliff, then shoots an arrow high arrow at 1 s? At 5 s? How do you explain the
int o the air. The arrow goes up, then comes fact that th e height is n egative at 5 s?
b ack down, going over the cliff and landing in b. At what two times was th e arrow at 10 m
the valley, 30 m below the top of the cliff. The above th e ground ? At what time doe s the
arrow's heigh t, y, in met ers above the top of arrow land in the valley below th e cliff?
the cliff depends on the time, x, in seconds
c. How high was th e archer above the ground
since the archer released it. Figure 1-lg shows
at the top of th e cliff when she released the
th e height as a function of time .
arrow?
d . Why can you say that height is a function of
y(m)
time ? Why is time not a function of height ?
30
e. What is th e domain of the function? What is
20 the corresponding range?
10 2. Gas Temperature and Volume Problem: When
X (S) you heat a fixed amount of gas, it expands ,
increasing its volum e. In the lat e 1700s, French
- 10 chemist Jacques Charl es used numerical
measurements of the temperature and volume
-20 of a gas to find a quantitative relationship
betw een the se two variables. Suppose that
-3 0
th ese temperatures and volumes had been
Figure 1-lg recorded for a fixed amount of oxygen.
Section
1-1: Functions:
Graphically,
Algebrai
cally,
Numerically,
andVerbally 5
3. Mortgage Payment Problem: People who buy
hous es usually get a loan to pay for most of
the house and pay on the resulting mortgage
each month. Suppos e you get a $150,000 loan
and pay it back at $1,074.64 per month with an
int erest rate of 6% per year (0.5% per month) .
Your balance, B dollars, after n monthly
paym ents is given by the algebraic equat ion
74 54
B = 150,000(l.005n) + l0 · (1 - 1.005n)
0.005
a. Make a table of your balances at the end of
each 12 months for the first 10 years of the
mortgage. To save time, use the table feature
of your grapher to do this.
Jacques Charles invented the hydroge n balloon, and b. How many month s will it take you to pay off
participated in the first manned balloon flight in 1783. the entire mortgage ? Show how you get your
answer.
a. On graph paper, plot V T( °C) V(L)
c. Plot on your grapher the graph of B as a
as a function of T. Choose function of n from n = 0 until the mortgage
scales that go at least 0 9.5
50 11.2 is paid off. Sketch the graph on your paper.
from T= -300 to T= 400,
and from V= 0 to V= 35. 100 12.9 d. True or false: "After half the payments have
You should find, as 150 14.7 been made, half the original balance remains
Charles did, that the 200 16.4 to be paid." Show that your conclusion
points lie almost in a 250 18.l agrees with your graph from part c.
straight line. With a ruler, 300 19.9 e. Give the domain and range of this function.
construct the best-fitting line you can for Explain why the domain contains only
these points. Extend the line to the left until it integers.
crosses the T-axis and to the right to T = 400.
b. From your graph, read the approximate
volumes at T = 400 and r = 30. Read the
approximate temperature at which V = 0.
How does this temp erature compare with
absolute zer o, the temperature at which
molecular motion stops?
c. Finding a value of a variable beyond all given
data points is called extrapolation. Extra-
means "beyond," and pol- comes from "pole,"
or end . Finding a value between two given
data points is called interpolation. Which of
the three values in part b did you find by
extrapolation and which by interpolation?
d. Why can you say that volume is a function
of temperature? From a mathematical point
of view, is temperature also a function of
volum e? Explain.
e. Considering volume to be a function of
temp erature, write the domain and the
range of this function.
6 Chapter
l: Functions
andMathematical
Models
sto ppin g distance is for the maximum speed
you stated for the domain in part b.
d. When police investigat e an automobile
accident, th ey estimate the speed the car
was going by measuring the length of the
skid marks . Which are the y considerin g to
be the independent variable, the speed or
the length of the skid marks ? Indicate how
this would b e done by drawing arrows on
your graph from part a.
5. Stove H eating Element Problem: When you turn
on the heatin g element of an electric stove, the
temperature increases rapidly at first, then
levels off. Sketch a reasonable graph showing
temperature as a function of time. Show the
4. Stopping Distance Problem: The distance your horizontal asymptot e. Indicate on the graph
car takes to stop depend s on how fast you are th e domain and range.
going when you apply the brakes. You may 6. In mathematics you learn things in four ways-
recall from driver's edu catio n that it takes algebraicall y, graphically, num erically, and
more than twice the distance to stop your car verbally.
if you doubl e your speed.
a. In which of Problems 1-5 was th e funct ion
a. Sketch a reasonable graph showing your given algebraically ? Graphicall y?
stopping distance as a func tion of speed . Numerically? Verbally?
b. What is a reasonable doma in for this b. In which of Problems 1-5 did you go from
function? verbal to graphical? From algebraic
to numerical ? From numerical to graphical?
uuu:: From graphical to algebraic? From
c. Consult a driver's manual, the Internet, or graphical to num erical? From algebrai c to
another reference source to see what th e graphical?
1-2 Types of Functions

In the previous section you learned that you can describ e functions algebraically,
numerically, graphically, or verbally. A function defined by an algebraic equation
often has a descriptive name. For instance, the function y = - x2 + 5x + 3 is called
quadratic because the highest power of xis x squared and quadrangl e is one
term for a square. In this section you will refresh your memory about verbal
names for algebraically defined functions and see what their graphs look like.
OBJECTIVEMake connections among the algebraic equation for a function, its name, and
its graph.
1-2: Types
Section ofFunctions 7
Definition of Function
If you plot the function y = -x 2 + Sx + 3, you get a graph that rises and then
falls, as shown in Figure l -2a. For any x-value you pick, there is only one y-value.
This is not the case for all graphs. For example, in Figure l-2b th ere are places
where the graph has more than one y-value for the same x-valu e. Although the
two variables are relat ed, the relation is not a function.
A function y Not a function y
No two y-values More than one

for the sam e x-value · ~- ~ y-value for th e
same x-value
X X
x-intercept s
Figur e 1-2a Figure 1-2b
Each point on a graph corresponds to an ordered pair of numbers, (x, y).

A relation is any set of ordered pairs . A function is a set of ordered pairs for
which each value of the independent variable (often x) in the domain has only
one corresponding value of the dependent variable (often y) in the range. So
Figures l -2a and l -2b are both graphs of relations, but only Figure l-2a is the
graph of a function.
Th e y-intercept of a function is the value of y wh en x = 0. It gives the place
where the graph crosses the y-axis (Figure l -2a). An x-intercept is a value of x
for which y = 0. Functions can hav e more than on e x-intercept.
f(x) Terminology
You should recall f(x) notation from previous courses. It is us ed for y, the
dependent variable of a function. With it, you show what valu e you substitute
for x, the indep endent variable. For instanc e, to substitute 4 for x in the
quadratic function f(x) = x2 + Sx + 3, you would write
f(4) = 4 2 + 5(4) + 3 = 39
The symbol f(4) is pronounced "f of 4" or sometimes "fat 4." You must
recognize that the parentheses mean substitution and not multiplication.
This notation is also useful if you are working with mor e than one function of
the same independent variable. For instance, the height and velocity of a falling
obj ect both dep end on time, t, so you could write the equations for th e two
functions this way:
h(t) = -4.9 t 2 + lOt + 70 (for the height)
v(t) = -9 .8t + 10 (for th e velocity)
In f(x), the variable x or any value substituted for xis called the argument
of th e function. It is important for you to di sti nguish betwee n f and f(x). The
8 Chapter
l: Functions
andMathematical
Models
symbol f is the name of the function. The symbol f(x) is the y -valu e of the
func tion. For instance, if f is the square root function, then f(x) = Ix and
f(9) = .J§ = 3.
Names of Functions
Functions are named for the operation performed on th e ind ependent variable.
Here are some types of functions you may recall from previous courses, along
with th eir typical graphs . In these examples, the letters a, b, c, m, and n
stan d for constants. The symbols x and f(x) stand for variables, x for the
inde p endent variab le and f(x) for the depend ent variabl e.
f(x) • Polynomial function, Figure 1-2c
General equation: f(x) = anxn + an_1 xn- I + · · · + a 1 x + a 0 ,
X
where n is a nonnegative integer
Verbally: f(x) is a polynomial function of x..
(If n = 3, f is a cubic function.
If n = 4, f is a quartic function.)
Figure l- 2c Features: The graph crosses the x-axis up to
n times and has up to n - 1 vertices (points where
/(x) the function changes direction). The domain is all
real numbers.
• Quadratic ~ction, Figur e 1-2d (a special case of a polynomial function)
X
General equation: f(x) = ax 2 + bx+ c
Verbally: f(x) varies quadratically with x, or f(x) is a quadratic function of x..

Features: The graph chang es direction at its one vertex. The domain is all real
Figure l- 2d num b ers.
• Linear function, Figure 1-2e (another special case of a polynomial function)
{(x)
General equation: f(x) = ax+ b (or f(x) = mx + b)
Verba lly: f(x) varies linearl y with x, or f(x) is a linear function of x.
X
Features : The straight-line graph, f(x), changes at a constant rate as x changes.

The domain is all real numbers.
• Direct variation function, Figure 1-2f (a spec ial case of a linear, power, or
polynomial function)
Figur e l-2 e
Genera l equation: f(x) = ax (or f(x) = mx + 0, or f(x) = ax 1 )
f (x )
Verbally: f(x) varies directly with x, or f(x) is directl y proportional to x.
Features: The straight-line graph goes through the origin. The domain is x ~ 0
(as shown) for most real-world applications .
X
Figure 1-2{
Section
1-2: Types
ofFunctions 9
• Power function, Figure 1-2g (a pol ynomial function if b is a nonn egative
integ er)
General equat ion: f(x) = ax h (a variabl e with a constant exponent)
Verball y: f(x) varies dir ectly with th e bth power of x, or f(x) is dir ectly
proportional to th e bth power of x.
Features : The graph contains the origin if bis po sitive. In most real-world
applicat ions, the domain is nonnegative real numb ers if bis positive and
positive real numbers if bis negative.
f(x) f(x)
X X
If bis positive If bis negati ve

Figur e 1-2g
• Exponential function, Figure 1-2h

f(x)
Howabowt ifo < b < 1?
General equa tion:
Fore,x~,y = (it
f(x) = a · bx (a constant with a
y
var iabl e exponent)
Verbally : f(x) varies exponentia lly
a
X with x, or f(x) is an exponent ial fun ction
of X.
Figur e 1-2h X
Featur es: The graph crosses the y-axi s
at f(O) = a and has th e x-axis as an
asymptote.
f(x)
• Inverse variation function, Figure 1-2i
(a special case of a power function)
X a
General equation: f(x) = - ( or f(x) = ax- 1 )
I
X
a
or f(x) = - (or f(x) = ax- n)
xn
If n is odd
Figur e 1-2i
Verbally : f(x) varies inversely with x (or wkat if11.,u eve11.,?
with th e n th power of x). Alternatively For e,x~, y = }2
f(x) is inverse ly proportion al to x
y
(or to the nth power of x).
Features : Both of the axes are
asymptotes . The domain is x * 0. For
most rea l-world applications, th e domain is x > 0.
Chapt
er l: Functions
andMathematical
Models
f(x) • Rational algebraic function, Figure 1-2)
Removable p(x)
discontinuity General equatio n: f(x) = --, where p and q are polynomial functions
X q(x)
I
:
:
/
Asymptotes
Verbally: f(x) is a rational function of x.
Features: A rational function has a discontinui ty (asymptote or missing po int)
' where the denominator is O; it may have hori zon tal or other asymptotes .
Figur e 1-2}
Restricted Domains and Boolean Variables

Suppose that you want to plot a graph using only part of your graph er 's
win dow. For instance, let the height of a growing child betwee n ages 3 and 10 be
given by y = 3x + 26, where xis age in years and y is hei ght in inches. The
domain here is 3 ::;x ::; 10.
Your grapher has Boolean variable capability . A Boolean varia ble, named for
George Boole, an Irish logician and mathematician (1815-1864), equa ls 1 if a
given condition is true and O if that condition is false . For instan ce, the
compound statement
(x ~ 3 and x ::; 10)
equa ls 1 if x = 7 (which is betwe en 3 and 10) and equ als O if x = 2 or x = 15
(neither of which is betw een 3 and 10). To plot a graph in a restricted domain,
divide the equation by the appropriate Boolean variabl e. For the equa tion above,
enter
y 1 = 3x + 26 / (x ~ 3 and x::; 10)
If xis between 3 and 10, inclu sive, th e 26 in 3x + 26 is divided by 1, which
leaves it unchanged . If xis not between 3 and 10, inclusi ve, the 26 in 3x + 26 is
divided by O and the grapher plots nothin g. Here is an examp le .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Plot the grap h of f(x) = -x 2 + Sx + 3 in the dom ain O::;x ::;4. What kind of
function is this? Give th e range. Find a pair of real-wor ld varia bles that could
have a re lationship des cribed by a graph of this sha p e.
Solution Enter y 1 = - x 2 + 5x + 3 / (x ;;,:0 and x::; 4) Divide by a Boolean variab le.
f/,x) The graph in Figure l -2k shows the restricted domain .

10
Th e function is quadratic b ecause f(x) equals a second-d egree express ion in x.
The range is 3 :s; f(x) :s; 9.25 . You can find this interval by tracin g to the left
-D omain--
endpoint of the graph where f(O) = 3 and to the high point where f(2 .5) = 9.25.
X
4
(At the rig ht endpoint, {(4) = 7, which is between 3 and 9.25.)
The function could represent the relationship between something tha t rises for
Figure 1-2k a while an d then falls, such as a punted football's h eight as a function of tim e
or (if f(x) is multiplied by 10) the grade you could mak e on a test as a fun<tlitO
n
of the number of hours you stu dy for it. (The gra de could b e lower for lon ger
tim es if you stay up too late and thu s are sleepy during th e test.) <1111111
Section
1-2: Types
ofFunctions 11
TECHNIQUE
: Restricted
Domai
n andBool
ean Variables
A Boolean variable is a variable that has a given condition attached to it .
If the condition is true, the variable equals 1. If the condition is false, the
variable equals 0.
To plot a function in a restricte d domain, divide any one term of the
function's equation by the appropriate Boolean variable .
.....EXAMPLE
2 As children grow older, their height and weight are relat ed. Sketc h a reasonable
graph to show this relation and describe it. Tell what kind of function has a
graph like the one you drew.
Solution Weight depends on height, so weight is on the vertical axis, as shown on the
graph in Figure 1-21.The graph curves upward because doubling the height
more than doubles the weight. Extending the graph sends it through the origin,
but the domain starts beyond the origin at a value greater than zero, because a
person never has zero height or weight. The graph stops at the person's adult
height and weight. A power function has a graph like thi s.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Birth hei ght Adul t

height
j
Height
Figure 1-2/
Problem Set 1-2
For Problems 1-4,

a. Plot th e graph on your grapher using the domain given. Sketch the result on your paper.
b . Give the range of the function.
c. Name the kind of function.
d. Describe a pair of real-world variables that could b e related by a graph of this shape.
1. f(x) = 2x + 3 domain: 0 :$; x :$; 10
2. f(x) = 0.2x 3 domain: 0 :$; x :$; 4
12
3. g(x) =- domain: 0 < x :$; 10
X
4. h(x) = 5 x 0.6 x domain: -5 :$; x :$; 5
12 Chapter
1: Functions
andMat
hematicalMode
ls
For Problems 5-18, For Problems 19-28, name the type of function that
a. Plot the graph using a window set to show
the entire graph, when possible. Sketch the
result.
b. Give the y-intercept and any x-intercepts and
the locations of any vertical asymptotes.
c. Give the range.
19-L
(
has the graph shown. ---
20~
5. Quadratic (polynomial) function

f(x) = -x 2 + 4x + 12 with the domain O ~ x ~ 5
6. Quadratic (polynomial) function
f(x) = x 2 - 6x + 40 with the domain O ~ x ::::;
8
2L~ 22L
23-A24m
7. Cubic (polynomial) function
f(x) = x 3 - 7x 2 + 4x + 12 with
the domain - 1 ~ x ~ 7
8. Quartic (polynomial) function
f(x) = x 4 + 3x 3 - 8x 2 - l2x + 16
with the domain -3 ~ x ~ 3
9. Power function f(x) = 3x 2 1 3 with the domain
O~x~8
10. Power function f(x) = 0.3x1.5 with the domain
0::::;x::s; 9
25~ 26L
27+
11. Linear function f(x) = -0.7x + 4 with the
domain -3 ~ x ~ 10
12. Linear function f(x) = 3x + 6 with the domain 28~
-5 ~ X ~ 5
13. Exponential function f(x) = 3 · 1.3x with the
domain -5 ~ x ~ 5
14. Exponential function f(x) = 20 · o.7x with the For Problems 29-32,
domain -5 ~ x ~ 5 a. Sketch a reasonable graph showing how the
25 variables are related.
15. Inverse-square variation function f(x) = 2
with the domain x > O x b. Identify the type of function it could be
(quadratic, power, exponential, and so on).
16. Direct variation function f(x) = 5x with the 29. The weight and length of a dog.
domain x~ 0
30. The temperature of a cup of coffee and the
x-2 time since the coffee was poured.
17. Rational function y = with the
(x - 4)(x + 1)
domain - 3 ~ x ~ 6, x * 4, x * -1 31. The purchase price of a home in a particular
neighborhood based on the price of the lot
x2 - 2x - 2 plus a certain fixed amount per square foot for
18. Rational function y = with the
x-3 the house. The cost is a function of the area,
domain -2 ~ x ~ 6, x * 3 measured in square feet.
Section
1-2:Types
ofFunctions 13
32. The height of a punted football as a function
of the number of seconds since it was kicked.
37~ 38*
39. Vertical Line Test Problem: There is a graphical
way to tell whether or not a relation is a
function. It is called the vertical line test.
Property: The Vertical Line Test

If any vertical line cuts the graph of a
relation in more than one place, then the
relation is not a function.
Figure l-2m illustrates the test .

a. Based on the definition of function, explain
how the vertical line test distinguishes
between relations that are functions and
relations that are not functions.
For Problems 33-38, tell whether or not the relation b . Sketch the graphs in Problems 33 and 35.
graphed is a function. Explain how you made your On your sketch, show how the vertical
decision . line test tells you that the relation in
Problem 33 is a function but th e relation
33. rly)_x 34. Yx in Problem 35 is not.

40. Explain why a function can have more than
~ ~
one x-intercept but only one y-intercept.
41. What is the argument of the function
y = f(x - 2)?
35+ 36. -B ·-
-
::1:::r::
42 . Research Problem: Look up George Boole

on the Internet or in another reference source.
Describ e several of Boole's accomplishments
that you disco ver. Include your source.
Not a function Y A vertic al line A fun ction Y No verti cal line

cuts more than once. cuts more than once.
X
/ I
I
Figur e 1-Zm
14 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematical
Models
1-3 Dilation and Translation
of Function Graphs
Each of these two graphs shows the unit semicircle and a transformation of it .
The left graph shows the semicircle dilated (magnified) by a factor of 5 in the
x-direction and by a factor of 3 in the y-direction. The right graph shows the
unit semicircle translated by 4 units in the x-direction and by 2 units in
the y-direction.
y y
· Image · Image
· · fun ction g function h ·
'3 · 1:::: ·\ "
.3
·n
· x · x
Pre-image
/ 5 .
Pre-image
/ . 4 .
func tion f function f
Figure 1-3a
The transformed functions, g and h, in Figure l-3a are called images of the
function f The original function, f, is called the pre-image. 1n this section you
will learn how to transform the equation of a function so that its graph will be
dilated and trans lated by given amounts in the x- and y-directions.
OBJECTIVE
Transform a given pr e-image function so that the result is a graph of the image
function that has been dilated by given factors and translated by given amounts.
Dilations
To get the vertical dilation in the left graph of Figure l -3a, multiply each
y-coordinate by 3. Figure l-3b shows the image, y = 3f(x).
Figure 1-3b
Section
1-3: Dilation
andTranslation
ofFunction
Graphs 15
The hori zontal dilation is trickier. Each value of the argument must be 5 times
what it was in the pr e-image to generate the same y-values. Substitute u for the
argument of f
y = f(u) Let u represen t the original x-values.
x = Su The x-values of the dilate d im age must be 5 times the

x-values of the pr e-ima ge.
1
-x= u Solve for u.
5
f
Replac e u with x for th e argument to obtain the equation of the
dilated image.
Figure l -3c shows the graph of the image, y = f(f x).
y~ f(x ) · 3
·x
5
Fig ur e 1-3c
Putting the two transformations together gives th e equation for g(x) shown in
Figure l -3a.
g(x) = 3f(ix)
~ EXAMPLE
1 The equation of the pre-image function in
Figure l- 3a is f(x) = ~- Confirm on your
grapher that g(x) = 3f(fx) is the transformed
image function
a. By direct subst itu tion into the equation
b. By using the grapher's built-in variables
feature
Solution a. g(x) = 3.Jl - (x/ 5)2 Subs titute x/5 as the argu men t off Multiply
y the entir e expressi on by 3.
Enter: Y1=~
> ·- ·_3 r- -...
· -Y2 .
Y2 = 3.Jl - (x/5 )2
Yr X
. -.5 . 1 ... 5 . The graph in Figure l- 3d shows a dilation by 5 in the x-direction and
. -3 by 3 in th ey -direction . Use the grid-on feature to make the grid points
appear. Use equal scales on th e two axes so th e graphs have the correct
proportions. If th e window is friendly in th e x-dire ction (that is, integer
Figure 1-3d
values of x are grid points), th en the graph will go all th e way to the x-axis.
16 Chap
terl: Functions
andMathematical
Models
b. Enter: y 3 = 3y 1 (x/ 5) y 1 is th e function name in this format, not the function
value.
This graph is the same as the graph of y 2 in Figure l-3d.

Note that the transformation inf (ix) is applied to the argument of function f,
in side the parentheses. The transformation in 3f(x) is applied outside the
parentheses, to the va lu e of the function. For this reason the transformations
ar e given the names inside transformation and outside transformation,
r espectively . An inside transformation affects the graph in the horizontal
direction, and an outside transformation affects the graph in the vertical
direction.
You may ask, "Why do you multiply by the y-dilation and divide by the
x-dilation?" You can see the reason by substituting y for g(x) and dividing both
sides of the equation by 3:
iy r(fx)
= Divide both sid es by 3 (or multipl y by f).
You actually divide by both dilation factors, y by the y-dilation and x by the
x-dilation.
Translations
y The translations in Figure l-3a that transform f(x) to h(x) are shown again
Image,
fun ction h . in Figure l-3e . To figure out what translation has been done, ask yourself,
. \ ·. "To where did the point at the origin move?" As you can see, the center of the
·2 ·n _,r
semicircle, initially at the origin, has moved to the point (4, 2). So there is a
. ,. --:·.. ·' . X horizontal translation of 4 units and a vertical translation of 2 units .
/ l . 4
Pre-ima ge,
To get a vertical translation of 2 units, add 2 to each y-value:
function f
y= 2 + f(x)
To get a horizontal translation of 4 units, note that what was happening at x = 0
Figur e 1-3e in function f has to be happening at x = 4 in function h. Again, substituting u
for th e argument of f gives
h(x) = 2 + f(u)
X=U+4
X-4=U
h(x) = 2 + f(x- 4) Substitute x - 4 as the argum ent off
.... EXAMPLE
2 The equation of the pre-image function in Figure l-3e is f(x) = ~-
Confirm on your grapher that g(x) = 2 + f(x - 4) is the transformed image
function by
a. Direct substitution into the equation
b. Using the grapher's built-in variables feature
Section
1-3: Dilation
andTranslation
ofFunction
Graphs 17
Solution a. g(x) = 2 + .J i - (x - 4) 2 Substitute x - 4 for th e argume nt. Add 2 to the expression .
Enter: y 1 =~
Y2 = 2 + .J 1 - (x - 4) 2
y The graph in Figure l-3f shows an x-translation of 4 and a y-translation of 2.
. -y· ,,, b. Enter: Y3= 2 + Yi(X - 4)
. . . . . ·2 ..
.,,.....
_ -' ·.
r . I
, J'r · · · · X
The graph is the same as that for y2 in Figure l-3f.
. 4 .
Again you may ask, "Why do you subtract an x-translation and add a
y-translation?" The answer again lies in associating the y-trans lation with
Figur e 1-3{
th e y-variab le. You actually subtract both translations:
y = 2 + f(x - 4)
y- 2 = f(x - 4) Subtr act 2 from both sides.
The reason for writing the transform ed equation with y by itself is to make
it easier to calculate the dependent variable, eith er by pencil and paper or on
your grapher.
This box summarizes the dilations and translation s of a function and its graph .
PROPERTY:
Dilations
andTranslations
The function g given by
~g(x)
= r(ix) or, equiva lent ly, g(x)
= a r(ix)
represents a dilation by a factor of a in the y-direction and by a factor of bin

the x-direction.
The function given by
h(x) - c = f(x - d) or, equivalentl y, h(x) = c + f(x - d)
represents a translation by c units in the y-direction and a translation by
d units in the x-direction.
N ote: If the function is only dilated, the x-dilation is the number you can
substitute for x to mak e the argument equal 1. If the fun ction is only translated,
the x-translation is th e number to subst itu te for x to mak e th e argum ent
equal zero.
~ EXAMPLE
3 The thre e graphs in Figure l- 3g show thre e differ ent transformations of the
pre-imag e graph to ima ge graphs y = g(x) . Explain verbally what transformations
were don e. Write an equation for g(x)
in terms of the function f.
18 Chapter
l: Funct
ions andMathematical
Models
y y y
.. ·10 .... . . . . . . ..... . .. · 10
,..
, .. : :. .: : :r:, ,.. ',- ~: :. :.......
..-
. . . ( , . ., .
'
.
.. ... X ~ ~~ X
..
.,.
I
.
.. lQ
. .....
. ' \' . . . lQ
Figur e 1-3g
Solution Left graph: Vertical dilation by a factor of 3

Equatio n: g(x) = 3 f(x)
Note:Each point on the graph of g is 3 times as far from the x-axis as the
corres ponding point on the graph of f Note that the verti cal dilation moved points
above the x-axis farther up and moved points below the x-axis farther down.
Middle graph: Vertical translation by 6 unit s
Equation: g(x) =6+ f(x)
Note: The vertical dilation moved all points on the graph of fup by th e same
amoun t, 6 units. Also note that the fact that g(l) is thre e times f(l) is purel y
coincidental and is not true at other values of x.
Right graph : Horizont al dilation by a factor of 2 and vertical translation by -7
Equat ion: g(x) = -7 + f( ! x)
Note: Each point on th e graph of g is twice as far from the y-axis as the
corres ponding point on the graph of f The hori zontal dilation moved points to
the right of the y-axis fart h er to th e right and moved points to the left of the
y-axis farther to the left. <111111
Problem Set 1-3
Reading Analysis From what you have read in this section, what do
you consid er to be the main idea? What is the major
From now on most problem sets will begin with an
difference on the image graph betw een a translation
ass ignm ent that requires you to sp end 10 minut es
and a dilation, and what op eration causes each
or so re ading the sec tion and answering some
transformation ? How can you tell whether a
quest ion s to see ho w well you understand what you
translation or a dilation will b e in the x-direction or
have read. This will help develop your ability to
th e y-direct ion 7
read a textbook , a very import ant skill to have in
college. It should also mak e working th e probl ems
in the problem set eas ier.
Section
1-3: Dilation
andTranslation
ofFunction
Graphs 19
Quick Review '~ (J.,('-.::!) For Problems 7-12,
From now on there will be ten short problems at a. Describe how the pre-image function f ·
the beginning of most problem sets. Some of the (dashed) was transformed to get the graph
problems are intended for review of skills from of the image function g (solid).
previous sections or chapters. Others are intended b. Write an equation for g(x) in terms of the
to test your general knowledge. Speed is the key function f.
here, not detailed work. Try to do all ten problems
7. y
in less than five minutes. ·g .
01. y = 3x 2 + 5x - 7 is a particular example of a ...... 5
-?- function.
02. Write the general equation of a power function.
03. Write th e general equation of an exponential
.. -5
.....
... .
. . 5 ..
. . X
. ·-5
function.
04. Calculate the product: (x - 7)(x + 8)
QS.Expand: (3x - 5)2
8. y
06. Sketch the graph of a relation that is not a
function.
. . .5
Ql. Sketch the graph of y = }x + 4. . . . 9· . : : :1,
. '/ . .... X
. Sketch an isosceles triangle.

QB . -s • . . .. . 5 ·
Q9. Find 30% of 3000.

. .... : : ,: :-?
010. Which one of these is not the equation of a
function?
A. Y= ·3X + 5 B. f(x) = 3 - x 2 ;). . . . . . . .. . y
C. g(x)= lxl D. y= ±Jx
E. y= 5x 213
For Problems 1-6, let f(x) = Jg - ·x 2 •

a. Write the equation for g(x) in terms of x.
: : -5
b. Plot the graphs of f and g on the same
screen . Use a friendly window with integers
from about -10 to 10 as grid points. Use the
same scale on both axes . Sketch the result. 10. y
c. Describe how f(x) was transformed to get

g(x), irtcluding whether the transformation
was an inside or an outside function.
.. .. X
1. g(x ) = 2f(x) 2. g(x) = -3 + f(x) .. 5 ..
3. g(x) = f(x - 4) 4. g(x) = f( } x) ..
: : : : : : :-S
5. g(x) = 1 + f(!x) !
6. g(x) = f(x + 3)
20 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematical
Models
11. y Figure l- 3h shows the graph of the pre-image
function f For Problems 15-2 0,
.. 5
. . . . . . . . '. a. Sketch th e graph of the imag e function g on
:. :::::!~\: . . • • X
a copy of Figure l- 3h .
. . . -s. ..
~
b. Identify the transformation(s) that are don e .
........ ·-5 y
.5
12. y ·-, f . . .
, . ' . . . X
5 ...
. . 5 . ·-5
.. :,.· .. f.,;.. \
....... .•• . . X
. . .5 .
Figure 1-3h
g(x) = f(x + 6) 16. g(x) = f(! x)

g(x) = Sf(x) 18. g(x) = 4 + f(x)
13. The equation off in Problem 11 is g(x) = 5f(x + 6) 20 . g(x) = 4 + f(! x)
f(x) = 4~ + 2.25(x - 1). Enter this equation
and the equation for g (x ) into your grapher
- •:n:,r i ) -
and plot the graphs . Does the result agree with
th e figure from Problem 11? 21. Dynami c Transformations Problem: Go to
www.keymath.com/precalc
and find the Dynami c
14. The equation off in Problem 12 is Precalculus Explorations for Chapter 1.
f(x) = 4~ + 2.2 5(x - 1). Enter this equation Complete the Dilation Exploration and the
and the equation for g(x) into your grapher Translation Exploration, and explain
and plot the graphs . Does the result agree with in writing what you learne d.
the figure from Probl em 12?
• 0
The wind' s force on the sail translates

the windsurfer over the water.
Section
1-3:Dilation
andTranslation
ofFunction
Graphs 21
1-4 Composition of Functions
Radius
in creases
Figure 1-4a
If you drop a pebble into a pond, a circular rip ple extends out from the drop
point (Figure l -4a). The radi u s of the circle is a function of time. The area
enclosed by the circular ripp le is a function of the radius. Thus area is a
function of time through this chain of functions:
• Area depends on radius.
• Radius depends on time .
In this case the area is a compos ite function of time. In this section you will
learn some of the mathematics of composite functions .
OBJECTIVEGiven two functions, graph and evaluate the composition of one function with
the other .
Symbols for Composite Functions

Suppose that the radius of the ripple is increasing at the constant rate of
8 in ./ s. Then
r = 8t
where r is the num ber of inches and tis the number of seconds. If t = 5, then
r= 8 · 5 = 40 in.
The area of the circular region is given by
a= rrr 2
where a is the area in square inches and r is the radius . At time t = 5, when the
radius is 40, the area is given by
a = TT· 40 2 = 1600rr = 5026.5482 ... ~ 5027 in. 2
or about 35 ft 2 .
22 Chapter
l: Functions
andMat
hema
ticalMo
dels
The 5 s is the input for the radius function, and the 40 in. is the output.
Figure l -4b shows that the output of the radius function becomes the input
for the area function. The output of the area function is 5026.5 ....
Input for Output from Input for Output from

radius fn. radius fn . area fn. area fn.
\5 s \ I \
r = St I 40 in. , 40 in; I a = rrr2 I 5027 •in.2
I
Radius function Area function
Figur e 1-4b
Mathematic ians often us e f(x) terminology for composite functions. For these
radius and area functions, you can write
r(x) = 8x xis the input for function r.
a(x) = rrx 2 xis the input for function a.
The rand a become the nam es of the functions, and th e r(x) and a(x) are the
va lues, or outputs, of the functions. The x simply stands for the input of th e
func tion. You must keep in mind that the input for function r is the time, and
the input for function a is the radius.
Combining the symbols leads to this way of writing a composite function:
area = a(r(x))
The xis the input for the radius function, and the r(x) is th e input for the area
func tion. This symbo l for area is pronounced "a of r of x." Function r is called
the inside function because it appears inside a pair of parentheses. Function a
is called th e outside function. Figure l -4c shows this symbol and its meanings.
The names parallel the terms insid e transformation and outsid e transformation
that you learned in the previous section .
Outsid e function
\ i Inside function
!/put for fun ction r
area= a(,jj)
I \
Input for function a Output of function r
Figure 1-4c
The two function nam es are sometimes combined this way:

a o r(x) or (a o r)(x)
The symbo l a ris pronounced "a composition r." The parentheses in the
O
express ion (a r) indicate that a r is the name of the function .

O O
Comp osite Functions from Graphs

Example 1 shows you how to find a value of the composite function f(g(x)) from
graphs of the two functions f and g.
Section
l ·4: Composition
ofFunctions 23
.....EXAMPLE
1 Functions fand g are graphed in Figure l -4d. Find f(g( 30)), showing on copies
of th e graphs how you found this value.
g(x)
f(x)
6
5
4
3
2
l X
X
10 20 30 40 50 2 4 6
Figure 1-4d
Solution First find the value of th e inside function, g(30). As sh own on the left in
Figur e l -4e,
g(30)"" 2.8
Use this output of function g as the input for function f, as shown on the right
in Figure l -4e. Note that the x in f(x) is simply th e input for function f and is not
the same number as the x in g(x).
f(2 .8)"" 180
.". f (g(30)) "" 180
g(x) f(x)
6 g(30)"' 2.8 400
~/
3r----- ~r
300
200 ,- - ~ ......
2
100
1 X
JO 20 30 40 50 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figur e 1-4e
Composite Functions from Tables

Example 2 shows you how to find values of a composite function when the two
functions are defined numericall y.
.....EXAMPLE
2 Fun ctio n s f and g are defined only for th e int eger values of x in the table.
X f(x) g(x)
1 3 5
2 4 3
3 6 2
4 2 1
5 0 7
6 1 4
a. Find f(g(x)) for the six values of x in the table .

b. Find g(f(2)), and show that it does not equ al f(g(2)).
24 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematical
Models
Solution a. To find f(g(l)), first find the value of the inside function, g(l), by finding 1
in the x-column and g(l) in the g(x) column (third column) .
g(l) = 5
Then use 5 as the input for the outside function fby finding 5 in the
x-colurnn and f(5) in the f(x) column (second column).
f(5) = 0
... f(g(l)) = 0
Find the other values the same way. Here is a compact way to arrange
your work.
f(g(l)) = {(5) = 0
f(g(2)) = f(3) = 6
f(g(3)) = f(2) = 4
f(g(4)) = f(l) = 3
f(g(5)) = f(7), which does not exist
f(g(6)) = f(4) = 2
b . g(f(2)) = g(4) = 1, which is not the same as f(g(2)) = 6
Note that in order to find a value of a composite function such as f(g(x)), the
value of g(x) must be in the domain of the outside function, f. Because g(5) = 7
in Example 2 and there is no value for f(7), the value of f(g(S)) is undefined .
Composite Functions from Equations

Example 3 shows you how to find values of a composite function if you know
the equations of the two functions .
~ EXAMPLE
3 Let fbe the linear function f(x) = 3x + 5, and let g be the exponential function
g(x) = 2X.
a. Find f(g(4)), f(g(O)), and f(g(-1)).
b. Find g(f(-1)) and show that it is not the same as f(g(-1)).
c. Find an equation for h(x) = f(g(x)) explicitly in terms of x. Show that h (4)
agrees with the value you found for f(g(4)).
Solution a. g(4) = 24 = 16, and {(16) = 3 · 16 + 5 = 53, so f(g(4)) = 53

Writing the same steps more compactly for the other two values of x gives
f(g(O)) = f(2°) = f(l) = 3 · 1 + 5 = 8
f(g(-1)) = {(2- 1) = f(0.5) = 3(0.5) + 5 = 6.5
b. g(f(-1)) = g(3 · -1 + 5) = g(2) = 2 2 = 4, which does not equal 6.5 from part a
1-4:Composition
Section ofFunction
s 25
C. h(x) = f(g(x)) = f(2 x) = 3 · 2x + 5
The equation is h(x) = 3 · 2x + 5.
So h(4) = 3 · 24 + 5 = 3 · 16 + 5 = 53, which agrees with part a.
Example 4 shows you that you can compose a function with itself or compose
more than two functions .
EXAMPLE
liJi,,,, 4 Let fbe the linear function f(x) = 3x + 5, and let g be the exponential function
g(x) = 2X,as in Example 3. Find these values.
a. f(f(2))
b. f(g(f(-3)))
Solution a. f(f(2)) = {(3 • 2 + 5) = f(ll) = 3 · 11 + 5 = 38

b. f(g(f(-3))) = f(g(3 • -3 + 5)) = f(g(-4)) = {(2- 4 ) = f(0 .0625) = 3 · 0.0625 + 5
= 5.1875 <11111
Domain and Range of a Composite Function

In Example 2, you saw that the value of the inside function sometimes is not
in the domain of the outside function. This example shows you how to find
the domain of a composite function and the corresponding range under this
condition.
EXAMPLE
liJi,,,, 5 The left side of Figure l -4f shows function g with domain 2 ~ x ~ 7, and the
right side shows function {with domain 1 ~ x ~ 5.
y y
X X
7
-1
-2
Figur e 1-4(
a. Show on copies of these graphs what happens when you try to find f(g(6)),
f(g(8)), and f(g(2)).
b . Make a table of values of g(x) and f(g(x)) for integer values of x from 1
through 8. If there is no value, write "none." From the table, what does the
domain of function f g seem to b e7 O
c. The equations of functions g and fare

g(x) =x - 3, for 2 ~ x ~ 7
f(x) = - 2x + 8, for 1 ~ x ~ 5
26 Chapter
l : Functions
andMathematical
Models
Plot f(x), g(x), and f(g(x)) on your grapher, using grid-on format. Does the
domain of f g confirm what you found numerically in part b? What is the
O
range off g? O
d. Find the domain of f g algebraically and show that it agrees with part c.
O
Solution a. The left graph in Figure l-4g shows that g(2) = - 1 and g(6) = 3 but g(8)
does not exist, because 8 is outside the domain of function g. The right
graph shows the two output values of function g, -1 and 3, used as inputs
for function f From the graph, f( 3) = 2 and f( - 1) does not exist, b ecause - 1
is outside the domain of function f Summarize the results:
f(g(6)) = f(3) = 2
f(g(8)) does not exist because 8 is outside the domain of g.
f(g(2)) = f(-1), which does not exist because -1 is outside the domain off
y y
_No g(S)
Figure 1-4g
b. X g(x) f(g(x))
1 none none
2 -1 none
3 0 none
4 1 6
5 2 4
6 3 2
7 4 0
8 none non e
The domain off O
g seems to be 4:::; x:::; 7.
c. Enter: y 1 = x - 3/ (x ~ 2 and x:::; 7) for g(x) Use Boolean var iables to restrict
the domain .
Enter: y 2 = -2x + 8/ (x ~ 1 and x :::;5) for f(x)
Enter: y3 = Y2(Y1(x)) for f(g(x)) Y1 and y2 become function

nam es in this format.
Graph (Figure l-4h), showing f(g(x)) thick style.

The domain of f g is 4 :::;x :::;7, in agreement with part b.
O
From the graph , the range of f g is O :::;y :::;6. O
Section
1-4:Composition
ofFunctions 27
y d. To calculate the domain algebraically, first observe that g(x) must be within
· · Y3 = f (g(x))
/ · ...
the domain of f
.6 \ (
1 ::; g(x) ::;5 Write g(x) in th e domain of f
·4
l ::; x-3 ::; 5 Substitut e x - 3 for g(x) .
'' .,
'
. \/
/ /
. 4::; x::; 8 Add 3 to all thr ee memb ers of the inequali ty.
X
-1 1 ~/. 7 Next observe that x must also be in the domain of g, specificall y, 2 ::;x ::;7.
. ' , 5·
-2 .. The domain of f g is the intersection of these two intervals . Number-line
O
graphs (Figure l -4i) will help you visualize the intersection.

Figure l-4h
: . the domain off O g is 4::; x::; 7.
X
2 "x 5 7
0 2 I
I
7
I
I X
4 s; X" 8
0 4 8
X
Inters ection
0 4 7
I I
I I
Figur e l -4i
DEFINITION ANDPROPERTIES: Composite Function

The composite function f g (pronounced "f composition g") is the function
O
(f O g)(x) = f(g(x))
Domain of g Range of g Range off
Function g, the inside f
function, is evaluated
first, using x as its input.
Function f, the outside
function, is evaluated
next, using g(x) as its
input (the output of
function g).
The domain of f g is the set of all values of x in the domain of g for which · ·
O
g(x) is in the domain of f The figure shows this relationship.
Note: Horizontal dilations and translations are examples of composite functions

because they are inside transformations applied to x. For instance, the horizon-
tal translation g(x) = 3(x - 2) is actually a composite function with the inside
function f(x) = x - 2.
28 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathem
atical
Model
s
Problem Set 1-4
Reading Analysis Ll!J} a. Find the radius at times 4 s and 7 s after

you start backing away.
From what you have read in this section, what do
you consider to be the main idea? Think of a real- b. Use the radius at times 4 s and 7 s to find
world example, other than the one in the text, in the area of the spot of light at these times .
which the value of one var iable depends on the c. Why can it be said that the area is a
value of a second variable and the value of the composite function of time?
second var iable depends on the value of a third d . Let t be the number of seconds since you
variable. 1n your example, which is the inside started backing away. Let r(t) be the radius
function and which is the outside function? For of the spot of light, in centimeters. Let
there to be a value of the composite function, what a(r(t)) be the area of the spot, in squar e
must be true of the value of the inside function? centimeters . Write an equation for r(t) as a
function of t. Write another equation for
a(r(t)) as a function of r(t). Write a third
Quick Review equation for a(t) explicitly in terms of t.
Show that the last equation gives the correct
area for times t = 4 and t = 7.
02. What transformation of fis represented by 2. Bacteria Culture Probl em: When you grow a
h(x) = 5 + f(x)? culture of bact eria in a petri dish, the area of
the culture is a measur e of the number of
03. If gis a horizontal translation of fby - 4 units, bacteria present. Suppose that the area of the
then g(x) = -?- . culture , A(t), in square millimeters, is given by
04. If pis a horizontal dilation of f by a factor of this function of time, in t hours .
0.2, then p(x) = -?-. A(t) = 9(1.1 1)
5
05. Why is y = 3x not an exponential function, a. Find A(O), A(5), and A(lO), the area at times
even though it has an exponent? t = 0 h, 5 h, and 10 h , respectively.
06. Write the general equation of a quadratic
function.
x-3
07. For what value of x will the graph of y = --
have a discontinuity ? x- 5
QB.Sketch the graph of f(x) = lxl.
09. Find 40 % of 300.
010. Which of these is a horizontal dilation by a
factor of 27
A. g(x) = 2f(x)
B. g(x) = 0. 5f(x)
C. g(x) = f(O.Sx)
D. g(x) = f(2x)
1. Flashlight Problem: You shine a flashlight,

making a circular spot of light on the wall with
radius 5 cm. As you back away from the wall,
the radius increases at a rate of 7 cm/ s.
Section
l ·4: Composition
ofFunctions 29
b. Assume that the bacteria culture is circular . b. What does x represent in function T? What
Find the radius of the culture at the three does x represent in function S? What does
times in part a. the composite function T(S(x)) represent?
c. Why can it be said that the radius is a What, if any, real-world meaning does
composite function of time? S(T(x)) have?
d. Let R be the radius function, with input A(t), c. Let g(x) = (T S)(x).Sketch a reasonable graph
O
the area of the culture. Write an equation of function g. Label the axes of the graph
for R(A(t)), the radius as a function of area. with the name of the variable represented .
Then write an equation for R(t) explicitly in 5. Composite Function Graphically, Problem 1:
terms of t. Show that this equation gives the Functions h and p are defined by the graphs in
correct answer for the radius at time t = 5. Figure l-4j, in the domains shown.
3. Shoe Size Problem: The size shoe a person
wears, S(x), is a function of the length of the h( x ) p( x)
person's foot . The length of the foot, L(x), is a 7 7

6 6
function of the person's age. 5 5
a. Sketch reasonable graphs of functions S 4 4
and L. Label the axes of each graph with 3 3
2 2
the name of the variable represented . 1 X X
b. What does x represent in function S? What 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 l 2 3 4 5 6 7
does x represent in function L? What does
Figure 1-4}
the composite function S(L(x)) represent?
What, if any, real-world meaning does L(S(x)) a. Find h(3). On a copy of the graphs, draw
have ? arrows to show how you found this value .
c. Let f(x) = (S L)(x). Sketch a reasonable graph
O
b. Use the output h(3) to find p(h(3)). Draw
of function f Label the axes of the graph arrows on th e copy of the graphs to show
with the name of the variable represented. how you found this value.
c. Find p(h(2)) and p(h(S)) by first finding h(2)
and h(S) and then using these values as
inputs for function p.
d. Find h(p(2)) by first finding p(2) and then
using the result as the input for function h.
Draw arrows on the copies of the graphs to
show how you found this value. Show that
h(p(2)) *- p(h(2)).
e. Explain why there is no value of h(p(O)),
even though there is a value of p(O).
6. Composite Function Graphically, Problem 2:
Functions f and g are defined by the graphs in
Figure l -4k, in the domains shown.
4. Traffic Prob lem: The length of time, T(x), it
takes you to travel a mile on the freeway g (x) f'(x)
depends on the speed at which you tra vel. The 60 300

50 250
speed, S(x), depends on the number of other 200
40
cars on that mile of freeway. 30 150
a. Sketch reasonable graphs of functions T and 20 100
JO 50
S. Label the axes of each graph with the X X
name of the variable represented. 1 2 3 4 5 6 20 40 60
Figure 1-4k
30 Chapter
l: Functions
andMathematical
Models
a. Find the approximate value of g(4) . On a a. Find v(2) and u(v( 2))
copy of the graphs, show how you found b. Find v(6) and u(v(6))
this value.
c. Find v(4) and u(v(4))
b. Use the output g(4) to find the approximate
d. Find u(4) and v(u(4))
valu e of f(g(4)). Draw arrows on the copy of
the graphs to show how you found this value. e. Find v(u(lO))
c. Find approximate values of f(g(3)) and f. Find v(v(lO))
f(g(2)) by first finding g(3) and g(2) and then g. Find u(u(6) )
using these values as inputs for function f h. Find v(v(v(8)))
d. Explain why there is no valu e of f(g(6)).
9. Composite Function Algebraically, Problem 1:
e. Try to find f(g(5)) by first finding g(5) and Let g and fbe defined by
then using the result as the input for function
f Draw arrows on the copy of the graphs to f(x) =9 - X 4 ~x~ 8
illustrate why th ere is no value of f(g(5)). g(X) = X + 2 l .:c;x.:c;S
7. Compos ite Function Numerica lly, Problem 1: a. Make a table showing values of g(x) for each
Functions f and g consist of the discrete points integer value of x in the domain of g. In
in the table, and only th ese points. Find the another column, show the corresponding
values of th e composite functi ons, or explain values of f(g(x)). If there is no such value,
why no such valu e exists. write "none. "
X f(x) g(x)
b . From your table in part a, what does th e
domain of the composite function f g seemO
1 3 2 to be? Confirm (or refute) your conclusion

2 5 3 by finding the domain algebraically.
3 4 7 c. Expiain why f(g(6)) is undefined. Explain
4 2 5 why f(g(l)) is undefined, even though g(l)
5 1 4 is defined.
a. Find g(l) and f(g(l)) d. Repeat parts a and b for the composite
b. Find g(2) and f(g(2)) function g f O
e. Figure 1-41 shows functions f and g as they

c. Find g(3) and f(g(3))
might appear on your grapher . Enter th e two
d. Find f(4) and g(f(4)) functions as y 1 and y 2 . Then enter f(g(x )) as
e. Find g(f(3)) Y3= Y1(y z(x)), and g(f(x)) as Y4 = Y2(Y1(x)).
f. Find f(f(S)) Plot the graphs using the window shown,
g. Find g(g(3)) with grid-on format and thick style for the
two composite function graphs. Sketch the
h. Find f(f(f(l))) result. Do the domains of the composite
8. Composite Function Numerica lly, Problem 2: functions from the graph agre e with your
Functions u and v consist of the discrete calculations in parts b and d?
point s in th e table, and only these points . Find
y
the values of the composite functions, or
explain why no such valu e exis ts.
X u(x) v(x)
'• . X
2 3 6 ... 5 .
4 8 5
6 2 4 Figure 1-4/
8 10 2
10 6 8 f. Find f(f(5)) . Explain why g(g(5)) is undefined.
Section
1-4: Composition
ofFunctions 31
10. Composite Function Algebraically, Problem 2: y
Let f and g be defined by ·, .
\\ . .. r:r.
f(x) = -x 2 + 8x - 4 lsxs6 \ · . I . ... .
\ ~:,:..~?/.... X
g(X) = 5 - X Os X s 7 - .5 .
a. Make a table showing values of g(x) for each
integer value of x in the domain of g. In
another column, show the corresponding Figure l-4n
values of f(g(x)). If there is no such value,
write "none ." a. Find f(g(3)), f(g(7)), g(f(S)), and g(f(8)) .
What do you notice in each case? Make a
b. From your table in part a, what does the conjecture : "For all values of x, f(g(x)) =
domain of the composite function f g seem O
-?- , and g(f(x)) = -?-."
to be? Confirm (or refute) your conclusion
by finding the domain algebraically . b. Test your conjecture by finding f(g(-9)) and
g(f( - 9)). Does your conjecture hold for
c. Show why f(g(3)) is defined but g(f(3)) is negative values of x?
undefined.
c. Plot f(x), g(x), and f(g(x)) on th e same
d. Figure l -4m shows the graphs of f and g as screen. Use approximately equal scales on
they might appear on your grapher . Enter both axes , as in Figure l -4n. Explain why
these equations as y 1 and y 2 . Then enter f(g(x)) = x, but only for nonnegative values
f(g(x)) as Y3= Yi (y2(x)), using thick style .
Of X.
Plot the three graphs using grid -on format.
Sketch the result. Does the domain of the d. Deactivate f(g(x)), and plot f(x), g(x), and
composite function agree with your g(f(x)) on the same screen. Sketch the result.
calculation in part b? e. Explain why g(f(x)) = x for nonnegative
e. Find an equation for f(g(x)) explicitly in terms values of x, but g(f(x)) = -x (the opposite
of x. Enter this equation as y 4 and plot it on of x) for negative values of x. What other
the same screen as the other three functions. familiar function has this property?
Use thin style. What similarities and what 12. Horizontal Translation and Dilation Problem:
differences do you see for y 4 and y 3 ? Let f, g, and h be defined by
f(x) = x2 -2 sxs 2
Y . ........
. .
. , .' .
rO . :,' : . :\: g(x) = x- 3 for all real values of x
• I • • • I, ,
. ,: . : :
·5 ...:,': . . '
h(x) = fx for all real values of x
4', ...
. ' >..:.
,: X a. f(g(x)) = f(x - 3). What transformation is
applied to function fby composing it
with g?
Figure 1-4m b. f(h(x)) = f(!x). What transformation is
applied to function fby composing it with h?
11. Square and Square Root Functions: Let f and g
be defined by c. Plot the graphs of f, f g, and f o h. Sketch
O
the results. Do the graphs confirm your

f(x) = x2 , where xis any real number conclusions in parts a and b?
g(x) = Jx, where the values of x make g(x) a
real number
32 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematica
l Models
Problems 13-1 5 prepare you for the next section . 15. Linear Function and Its Inverse Problem : Let
For Problems 13 and 14, find what transformation f and g be defined by
will turn the dashed graph (f) into the solid
f(x) = i x- 2
graph (g).
g(x) = l.5x + 3
13. y
a. Find f(g(6)), f(g( - 15)), g(f(lO)), and g(f( - 8)).
What do you notice in each case?
b. Plot the graphs of f, g, f g, and g f on the
O O
g f~ .
I '
X
same screen. How are the graphs of f g and O
1 ,' . 5 . g f related? How are the graphs off g and

O O
I
... I
g (related to their "parent" graphs, f and g?
O
c. Show algebraically that f(g(x)) and g(f(x))

both equal x.
d. Functions f and g in this problem are said to
14. y
be inverses of each other. Whatever f does
Beith graphs to x, g undoes . Let h(x) = Sx - 7. Find an
coinci~e .
{! .
equation for a function that is the inverse
X
of h.
1 ,' 5
~:r
1-5 Inverse of a Function

The photograph shows a highway crew painting a center
stripe. From records of previous work the crew has done, it is
possibl e to predict how much of the stripe the crew will have
painted at any time during a normal 8-hour shift. It may also
be possible to tell how long it has been working by how much
stripe has been painted. The input for the distance function is
time, and the input for the tim e function is distance .
If a new relation is formed by interchanging the input and
output variables in a given relation, the two relations are
caUed inverses of each other. If both relations turn out to be
functions, the y are called inverse functi ons.
OBJECTIVE
Given a function, find its inverse relation, and tell whether or not the inverse
relation is a function.
Section
1-5: Inverse
ofa Function 33
Inverse of a Function Numerically
Suppose that th e distanc e d, in miles, a particular highway crew paints in an
8-hour shift is given num ericall y by this fun ction of t, in hours, th ey have been
on th e job .
t (h ) d(mi)
1 0.2
2 0.6
3 1.0
4 1.4
5 1.8
6 2.2
7 2.6
8 3.0
Let d = f(t). You can see that f(l) = 0.2, f(2) = 0.6, ... , f(8) = 3. The input for
function f is the number of hours, and the output is the number of miles .
As long as the crew does not stop painting during th e 8-hour shift , the number
of hours the y have be en pa ~g is a function of the di~tanc ~ Let t = g(d). You
e t at g(0.2) = 1, g(0 .6) = 2, .. . , g( 3) = 8. The input for function g is th e
number of mil es , and the output is th e number of hours. The input and output
for functions f and g have been int er chang ed, and thus the two functions ar e
inv erses of each other .
Symbols for the Inverse of a Function

r-
If function g is the inverse of fun ction f, th e symbol 1 is often used for
r-
the nam e of fun ction g. In the highway stripe exampl e, you can write 1(0.2) = 1,
f - 1 (0.6) = 2, . . . , f - 1 (3) = 8. Note that f - 1 (3) does not mean the r eciprocal
of f(3).
1 1
r- (3)=8
1
and -- = - = 1 not 8
f( 3) 1 '
The - 1 u sed with the name of a function means the function inverse, whereas
the -1 used with a nu mber, as in 5- 1 , means th e mu lt ipli cative inverse of that
number .
Inverse of a Function Graphically

Figure l-5a shows a graph of the data for th e highwa y stripe examp le. Note that
the points seem to lie in a straight lin e. Connecting th e points is reasonab le if
you assume that the crew paints continuous ly. The line meets th e t-axis at
about t = 0.5, indicating that it takes the crew about ha lf an hour at the
beginning of the shift to redirect traffi c and set up th e equipment before they
can start painting.
34 Chapter
1: Funct
ionsandMathematical
Mode
ls
d = f(t) r= r-1(d ) y
8 8 8 r-' ,,
7 7 ,,, /y= X
6 , ,
6
5 5 5 , ,,
-l -l 4 ,,
3 3 3
2 2 2
~ fx
1 d
I 2 3 -l 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 -l 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 -l 5 6 7 8 •
Figur e 1-Sa Figure 1-Sb Figure l -Sc
r-
Figure l -5b shows the inverse function, t = 1(d) . Note that every vertical
feature on the graph of (is a horizontal feature on the graph of 1, and vice r-
versa . For instan ce, the graph of f - 1 meets the vertical axis at 0.5 .
Figure 1-Sc shows both graphs on the same set of axes. In this figure, xis used
for the input variable and y for the output variable. Keep in mind that x for
function (represents hours and x for function 1
r-
represents miles. The graphs
are reflections of each other across the line whose equation is y = x.
Inverse of a Function Algebraically

In th e highway stripe examp le, the linear function that fits the graph of
func tion fin Figure l-5c is
y = 0.4(x - 0.5) or, equivalentl y, y = 0.4x - 0.2 Slope= 0.4,
x-intercept = 0.5 .
The linear function that fits the graph of r- is

1
y = 2.5x + 0.5 Slope= 2.5, y-int ercept = 0.5.
If you know the equation of a function, you can transform it algebraically to

find th e equation of the inverse relation by first interchanging the variables .
Function : y = 0.4x - 0.2
Inverse: x = 0.4y- 0.2
The equation of the inverse relation can be solved for yin terms of x.
X = 0.4y - 0.2
y= 2.5x+0.5 Solve for y in term s of x.
To distinguish between the function and its inverse, you can write
f(x) = 0.4x - 0.2 and r- (x) = 2.5x + 0.5
1
Bear in mind that x used as the input for function f is not the same as x us ed as
the input for function 1
r-
• One is time, and the other is distance.
An interesting thing happens if you take the composition of a function and its
inverse. In the highway stripe example,
{(4) = 1.4 and r - 1c1.4) = 4
.·. r - 1cf(4)) =4
Section
1-5: Inver
seofa Function 35
You get the original input, 4, back again. This result should not be surprising to
you. The quantity f - 1 (f(4)) means "How many hours does it take the crew to
paint the distance it can paint in 4 hours ?" There is a similar meaning for
f(f - 1 (x)). For instance,
f(f - 1 (1.4)) = f(4) = 1.4
In this case 1.4 is the original input of the inside function.
Invertibility and the Domain of an Inverse Relation

f(x)
2 In the highway stripe example, the length of stripe painted during the first half
hour was zero because it took some time at the beginning of the shift for the
crew to divert traffic and prepare the equipment. The graph of function fin
Figure l-5d includes times at the beginning of the shift, along with its inverse
relation.
1 2 Note that the inverse relation has multiple values of y when x equals 0. Thus the
Figure l- 5d inverse relation is not a function. You cannot answer the question "How lon g
has the crew been working when the distance painted is zero?"
If the domain of function f is restricted to times no less than a half hour, the
inverse relation is a function. In this case, function f is said to be invertible. If
r-
{is invertible, you are allowed to use the symbol 1 for the inverse function. If
the domain of fis 0.5 :,;x:,; 8, then there is exactly one distance for each time
and one time for each distance. Function f is said to be a one-to-one function.
Any one-to-one function is invertible. A function that is strictly increasing,
such as the highway stripe function f, or strictly decreasing is a one-to-one
function and thus is invertible.
The highway stripe problem gives examples of operations with functions from
the real world. Example 1 shows you how to operate with a function and its
inverse in a strictly mathematical context.
... EXAMPLE1 Given f(x) = 0.5x2 + 2

a. Make a table of values for f(-2), f(-1), f(O), f(l), and f(2). From the numbers
in the table, explain why you cannot find the value of x if f(x) = 2.5. How
does this result tell you that function f is not invertible ?
b. Plot the five points in part a on graph paper. Connect th e points with a
smoot h curve. On the same axes, plot the five points for the inverse
relation and connect them with another smooth curve. How does the graph
of the inverse relation confirm that function fis not invertible?
f and its inverse on
c. Find an equation for the inverse relation . Plot function
the same screen on your grapher. Show that the two graphs are reflections
of each other across the line y = x.
36 Chapter
1: Fun
ctions
andMathematical
Models
Solution a. X f(x) y
f 5
-2 4
-1 2.5
0 2 X
1 2.5
-5 5
2 4
If f(x) = 2.5, there are two different values of Inverseoff

x, - 1 and 1. You cannot uniquely determine
-5
the value of x.
Figure 1-5e
Function fis not invertible because there will
be two values of y for the same value of x if the
variables are interchanged .
b. Figure l-5e shows the graphs of function fand its inverse relation. The
inverse relation is not a function becaus e there are two values of y for each
value of x > 2. The inverse relation fails the vertical line test.
c. Function: y = 0. 5x2 + 2 Use y for f(x) .
Inverse: x = 0.5y 2 + 2 Interchang e x and y.

2
y = 2x - 4
y = ±V2x - 4 Take the square root of both sides.
2
Y1 = 0.5x + 2 Enter f(x) as y 1 .
y 2 = V(2x - 4) Enter the two branches of the inverse relation as y2 and y3 .

Y3 = - ) (2x - 4)
Y4 =X Enter y = x as y4.
Figure 1-5f Figure 1-5f shows the graphs of function f and its inverse relation. The
graphs are reflections of each other across the line y = x. <111111
There is a simple way to plot the graph of the inverse of a function with the
help of parametric equations, equations in which both x and y are functions of
some third variable, t. You will learn more about parametric equations in lat er
chapters . Example 2 shows you how you can use param etr ic mod e on your
grapher to graph inverse relations .
.....EXAMPLE
2 Plot the graph of y = 0.5x 2 + 2 for x in the domain -2 ~ x ~ 4 and its inverse
using parametric equations. What do you observe about the domain and range
of the function and its inverse?
Solution Put your grapher in parametric mode. Then, on the y= menu, enter
X1t=t
ht= 0.5t 2 + 2 Because x = t, this is equiva lent toy = 0.5x 2 + 2 .
X2 1 = 0.5t 2 + 2
Y2 1 = t For the inverse, interchange the equations for x and y.
Section
1-5: Inverse
ofa Function 37
Use a window with a t-range of -2 ~ t ~ 4. Use a convenient t-step, such as 0.1.
The result is shown in Figure l-5g.
The range of th e invers e relation is the same as the domain of the function, and
vice versa. The range and the domain are interchanged. -11111
Example 3 shows you how to demonstrat e algebraically that r- (f(x)) = x and

1
f(f - 1 (x)) = x.
Figur e 1-Sg
... EXAMPLE
3 Let f(x) = 3x + 12.
a. Find an equation for the inverse of f, and explain how that equation
confirms that fis an invertible function.
b. Demonstrate that f - 1 (f(x)) = X and f(f - 1 (x)) = X.
Solution a. Function y = 3x + 12.
Inverse: x= 3y + 12 =} y= ix- 4
Because the equati on for the inverse relation has the form y = mx + b, the
inverse is a linear function. Because the inverse relation is a function, fis
invertible, and you ar e allowed to write
r- (x) = ix- 4
1
b. r- (f(x)) = r- (3x + 12)

1 1
Substitut e 3x + 12 for f(x ).
= !(3x + 12) - 4 Substitute 3x + 12 as the input for fun ction r- 1

.
=x+4-4=x Show th at r- (f(x))

1
equals X.
Also, f(f - 1 (x)) = f (tx - 4) Show that f(f - 1(x)) equals x.
= 3(!x- 4)+12
= X - 12 + 12 = X .
.·. f -l (f(x)) = X and f(f - 1(X)) = X, Q.E.D.
Note: The three-dot mark .'. stands for "therefore." The letters Q.E.D . stan d for
the Latin words quad erat demonstrandum, meaning "which was to be
demon strated."
The box on th e next page summarizes th e information of this section regarding
inverses of functions.
38 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematical
Models
DEFINITIONS
ANDPROPERTIES:
Function
Inverses
• The inverse of a relation in two variables is formed by interchanging the
two variables .
• The graph of a relation and the graph of its inverse relation are reflections
of each other across the line y = x.
• If the inverse of function f is also a function, then f is invertible.
• If f is invertible and y = f(x), then you can write the inverse of fas
r-
y = 1 (x).
• To plot the graph of the inverse of a function, either
Interchange the variables, solve for y, and plot the resulting
equation(s), or
Use parametric mode, as in Example 2.
• lf {is invertible, then the compositions of f and r- 1 are
r- (f(x)) = x, provided xis in the domain off and f(x) is in the
1
domain of 1 r-
f(f - 1 (x)) = X, provided Xis in the domain Of f - l and f - 1 (x) is in the
domain off
• A one-to-one function is invertible. Strictly increasing or strictly decreasing
functions are one-to-one functions.
Problem Set 1-5
Reading Analysis t:l!;/J Q3. Give another symbol for m (d(x)).

From what you have read in this sectio n, what do Q4. If f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x + 3, find f(g(l)).
you consider to be the main idea? Why is it possibl e
Q5. Find g(f(l)) for the functions in Problem Q4.
to find the inverse of a function even if the function
is not invertible? Under what conditions are you Q6. Find f(f(l)) for th e functions in Problem Q4.
permitted to use the symbol r-
1
for the inverse of
Ql. 13 - SI =-?-
fun ction f? How does the meaning of -1 in th e
function r- 1
differ from the meaning of -1 in a . Identif y the function graphed.
QB
numerical expression such as r 1 ? y
Quick Review
,, X
QT. In the composite fun ction m(d(x)), function d

is calle d the-? - function.
09. If f(x) = 2X,find f(O).
Q2.In the composite function m(d(x)), function m
. If f(x) = 2x, find an equation for g(x), a
OTO
is calle d the - ?- function.
horizontal translation of f(x) by -3 units.
Section
1-5: Inverse
ofa Function 39
l. Punctured Tire Problem: Suppose that your car a. Let y = c(x). Find c(40), c(50), and c(60).
runs over a nail. The table shows the pressure b. For temperatures of 40°F and above, the
y, in pounds per square inch (psi), of the air chirping rate seems to be a one-to-one
inside the tire as a function of x, the number function of time. How does this fact imply
of minutes that have elapsed since the nail that function c is invertible for x ~ 40? Find
punctured the tire. the values of C- 1 (30) and c- 1 (80). How do
X (min) y (psi) these values differ in meaning from c(30)
and c(80)?
0 36 c. Why is function c not invertible for x in the
5 24 whole interval given, 20 s x s 80? What do
10 16 you suppose is true in this real-world
15 10.7 situation that makes c not invertible?
20 7.1
25 4.7 d. On graph paper, plot the seven given points
for function c and the corresponding points
30 0
35 0 for the invers e relation. Connect each set of
points with a line or a smooth curve. Draw
a. Let y = f(x) . Find ((5), ((10), and ((15). the line y = x and tell how the two graphs
b. Why is it reasonable to assume that (is an are related to this line.
invertible function if x is in the domain e. What is the difference in the meaning of x
0 s x s 25? Find f - 1 (24) and f - 1 (16), and tell as an input for function c and x as an input
the real-world meaning of these quantities . for function c 1 ?
c. Why is function fnot invertible on th e
whole int erval Os x s 35? What do you 3. Punted Football Problem: Figure l -5h shows the
suppose happens between 25 min and height of a punt ed football y, in meters, as a
30 min that causes f to not be invertible? function of time x, in tenths of a second since
it was punted. On a copy of the figure, sketch
d. On graph paper, plot the eight given points the graph of the inverse relation and show
for function f and the eight corresponding that the two graphs are reflections across the
points for the inverse relation. Connect each line y = x. How does th e graph of the inverse
set of points with a smooth curve. Draw the relation reveal that the height function is not
line y = x and tell how the two graphs are invertible?
related to this line.
y
e. What is the difference in the meaning of x 20 ·
as an input for function f and x as an input
for function r-
1
?
2. Cricket Chirping Problem: The rate at which
crickets chirp is a function of the temperature
of the air around them. Suppose that the
following data have been measured for y ·x
chirps (c) per minute at temperatures of x in 10 20
degrees Fahrenheit. Figure 1-Sh
X (°F) y(c/min)
4. Discrete Function y
20 0 Problem: Figure l-5i
.
6
30 0 shows a function that s
4 .
40 5 consists of a discrete 3
50 30 set of points. Show 2
1
60 55 that the function is X
70 80 one-to-one and thus 12345678910

80 105 is invertible, even Figure 1-Si
40 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematical
Models
though the function is increasing in some parts For Problems 9-20, plot the function in the given
of the domain and decreasing in other parts. domain using parametric mode. On the same
screen, plot the inverse relation. Tell whether or not
For Problems 5-8, sketch the line y = x and the
the inverse relation is a function. Sketch the graphs.
inverse relation on a copy of the given figure. Be
sure that the inverse relation is a reflection of the 9. f(x) = 2x - 6 -1 :s:x :;; 5
function graph across the line y = x. Tell whether or
10. f(x) = -0.4x + 4 - 7 :s:x :;; 10
not the inverse relation is a function.
2 O:s;x:,;5
11. f(x) = -x + 4x + 1
5. y
12. f(x) = x 2 - 2x - 4 -2 :'.S:X .$ 4
5 .
13. f(x) = 2x x is any real number
X
14. f(x) = 0.5" xis any real number
-5 15. f(X) = -~ -6 .$ X.$ 3
16. f(x) = Vx -1:s;x:,;8

-5
1
17. f(x)= x- -2 8
:'.S:X :'.S:
3
6. y
X
18. f(x)=- -6 .$ X .$ 4
x+1
19. f(x) = x 3 -2 :'.S:X $; 1
4
X
20. f(x) = 0.016x -4 .$ X $; 5
-5 5
For Problems 21-24, write an equation for the
inverse relation by interchanging the variables and
-5 solving for yin terms of x..Then plot the function
and its inverse on the same screen , using function
mod e. Sketch the result, showing that the function
7. y
and its invers e are reflections across the line y = x.
5 . Tell whether or not the inverse relation is a
function.
21. y = 2x - 6 6:_ .y=-0 ~
2
23. y = -0 .5x - 2 24. )I = 0:-4~ 3
i
25. Show that f(x) = is its own inverse function.
-5 26. Show that f(x) =-xis its own inverse function.
27. Cost of Owning a Car Problem: Suppose you
8. y have fixed costs (car payments, insurance, and
so on) of $500 per month and operating costs
·5
of $0.40 per mile you drive. The monthly cost
of owning the car is given by the linear
function
c(x) = 0.40x + 500
where xis the number of miles you drive the
. -5 car in a given month and c(x) is the number of
dollars per month you spend.
1-5:Inverse
Section ofa Function 41
a. Find c(lOOO).Explain the real -world b. True or false: "A deer twice the weight of
meaning of th e answer. another deer has a surface area twice that of
b . Find an equation for c- 1 (x), where x now th e other de er." Give numerical evidence to
stands for the number of dollars you spend support your answer.
instead of the number of miles you drive. c. Find an equation for A - 1 (x), where x now
Explain why you can use th e symbol c 1 for stands for area instead of weight .
the inverse relation . Use the equation of d. Plot A and A- 1 on the same screen using
c- 1 (x) to find c 1 (758), and explain its function mode. Use a window with an
real -world meaning. x = range of O ~ x ~ 250. How are the two
c. Plot y 1 = c(x) and y 2 = cL(x) on the same graphs related to the line y = x?
screen, using function mode. Use a window
29. Braking Distance Problem: The length of skid
with an x-range of O ~ x ~ 1000 and use
marks, d(x) feet, left by a car braking to a stop
equal scales on the two axes. Sketch the two
is a direct square power function of x, the
graphs, showing how they are related to the
speed in miles per hour when the brakes were
line y = X.
applied. Based on information in the Texas
28. Deer Problem: The surface area of a deer's Drivers Handbook (2002), d(x) is given
body is approximately proportional to the approximately by
j power of the de er's weight. (This is true d(x) = 0.057x 2 for x :2:.O
becaus e the area is proportional to the square
of the length and the weight is proportional to
the cube of the length.) Suppose that the
particular equation for area as a function of
weight is given by the power function
A(x) = 0.4x 2 13
where xis the weight in pounds and A(x) is the

surface area measured in square feet.
The graph of this function is shown in

Figure 1-Sj.
d(x) (ft)
50
X (mi/h)
50 100
a. Find A(SO),A(lOO),and A(l50) . Explain th e

real-world meaning of the answers . Figure 1-Sj
42 Chapter
l: Functions
andMathematical
Models
a. When police officers investigate automobile between th e domain and range of d and its
accidents, they use th e length of the skid inverse ?
marks to calculate the speed of the car at
30 . Horizonta l Line Test Prob lem : The vertical line
the time it started to brake. Write an
test of Section 1-2, Probl em 39, helps you see
equation for the inverse function , d - 1 (x),
graphically that a relation is a function if no
where xis now the length of the skid marks.
vertical line crosses th e graph more than once.
Explain why you need to take only th e
The horizontal line test allows you to tell
positive square root.
whet h er or not a function is invertibl e. Sketch
b. Find d- 1 (200). What does this number two graphs, one for an invertible function and
represent in the context of this problem? one for a non-invertibl e function, that illustrat e
c. Suppose that the domain of function d this test .
started at -20 instead of zero. With your
grapher in parametric mode, plot the graphs Property : The Horizontal Line Test
of function d and its inverse relation. Use If a horizontal line cuts the graph of a
the window shown in Figure 1-Sj with a function in more than one place, then th e
t-range of -20 ~ t ~ 70. Sketc h the result. function is not invertible because it is not
d. Explain why the invers e of d in part c is not one-to-one.
a function. What relationship do you notice
1-6 Reflections, Absolute Values, and

Other Transformations
Horizontal y In Section 1-3, you learned that if y = f(x), then mult iplying x by a constant
reflection
y= f (x) causes a horizontal dilation. Suppose that the constant is -1. Each x-valu e will
Y= f (-x y 5 ~,/ be 1/ (-1) or - 1 tim es what it was in the pre-image . Figure l-6a shows that the
v l \
\
.
, ,,
resulting image is a horizontal reflection of the graph across th e y-axis . The
X new grap h is th e same size and shape, simply a mirror image of the original.
-5 -2 - 1 2 5 Similarly, a vertical dilation by a factor of - 1 reflects the graph ver tically across
the x-axis.
G\ Vertical In this sectio n you will learn special transformations of functions that reflect
-5 reflecnon
y= - f(x) their grap hs in various ways . You will also learn what happ ens when you take
Figure 1-6a the abso lute value of a function or of th e independent variable x. Finally, you
will learn about odd and even functions.
OBJECT
IVE Given a function, transform it by reflection and by applying abso lute va lue to
the functio n or its argument .
Reflecti ons Across the x-axis and y-axis

Example 1 sho ws you how to plot the graphs in Figure l -6a .
Sect
ion1-6: Reflections,
Absolute
Values
, andOther
Transforma
tion
s 43
~ EXAMPLE
1 The pre-image function y = f(x) in Figure l -6a is f(x) = x 2 - Bx+ 17,where 2 s x s 5.
a. Write an equation for th e reflection of this function across the y-axis.
b. Write an equati on for th e reflection of this function across the x-axis.
c. Plot th e pre-image and th e two reflections on the same screen.
Solution a. A refl ection across the y-axis is a horizontal dilation by a factor of -1. So
y = f( - x) = (- x) 2 - 8(-x) + 17 Substitute - x for x.
y= x 2 + 8x+ 17
Domain: 2 s -x s 5
- 2 z x z -5 or -5 S XS -2 Multiply all thr ee sid es of the inequalit y
by -1. The inequalities reverse.
b. y = -f(x) For a reflect ion across the x-axis,

find th e opposite of f(x).
y = -x 2 + Bx - 17 The domain remains 2 s x s 5.

c. y 1 = x 2
- 8x + 17 / (x ~ 2 and x s 5) Divide by a Boolean variable to restrict th e
dom ain.
y 2 = x 2 +Bx+ 17 / (x z -5 and x s -2)

y 3 = -x 2 + Bx - 17 / (x :2'.2 and x s 5)
The graphs are shown in Figure l -6a.
You can check the algebraic solutions by plotting y 4 = y 1 (-x) and
y 5 = - ri (x) using thick style. The graphs should overlay y2 and y 3 .
PROPERTY:
Reflections
Across
theCoordinate
Axes
g(x) = - f(x) is a vertical reflection of function f across the x-axis.
g(x) = f(-x) is a horizontal reflection of function f across the y-axis.
Absolute Value Transformations

Suppose you shoot a basketball. While in th e air,
y( f t) it is above the bask et level sometimes and below it
10
at oth er times. Figure l -6b shows y = f(x), the
displacement from the level of th e basket as a
function of time. If the ball is above the basket, its
x(s) displacem ent is positiv e; if th e ball is below th e
basket , its displacement is negat ive.
Distance, however, is th e ma gnitude (or size)
-sr of the displacement, which is never negative.
_
10
~ _ _ Floor leve l __ _ _ _
Figure 1-6b
44 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematical
Models
y(ft) Distance equals the absolute value of the displacement. The solid graph
10
Grap hs coincide. in Figure l-6c is the graph of y = g(x) = lf(x)[. Taking the absolute value of
5
\ f(x) retains the non-negative values of y and reflects the negative values
vertically across the x-axis.
X (S) Figure l -6d shows what happens for g(x) = f(lxl), for y
.6 .
I
' 2 which you take the absolut e valu e of th e argument
I
I
''
I
'' (this is a different function f than in the last fand g
-5 '' coincide.
''
exampl e). For positive values of x, lxl = x, so g(x) = . \ .
f (x ) and the graphs coinci de. For negative valu es of
Floor level '• x, lxl = -x, so g(x) = f(-x), a horizontal reflection of
-10 ---- -- ------ -- • --- · X
the positive part of functio n f across the y-axis. -5 . 5

Figure 1-6c
Notice that the graph off for the negative valu es of x
Figure 1-6d
is not a part of the graph of f(lxl).
The equation for g(x) can b e written this way:
if X ~ 0
g(x) = {f(x)
f( - x) if X <0
Because there are two different rules for g(x) in different "pieces" of the
domain, g is called a piecewise function of x.
PROPERTY:
AbsoluteValueTransformations
The transformation g(x) = lf(x)I
• Reflects f across the x-axis if f(x) is negative
• Leaves f unchanged if f(x) is nonne gative
The transformation g(x) = f(lxl)
• Leaves f unchanged for nonnegative values of x
• Reflects the part of the graph for positiv e values of x to the corresponding
negative values of x
• Eliminates the part of f for n egative values of x
Even Functions and Odd Functions

Figure l- 6e shows the graph of f(x) = -x 4 + 5x 2 - 1, a polynomial functio n with
only even exponents. (The number 1 equals 1x 0 , which has an even exponent.)
Figur e l -6f shows the grap h of f(x) = -x 3 + 6x, a polynomial function with only
odd expon ents . What symmetries do you observe?
y y
Even Odd
function functi on 8 f (-a) = - f (a)
X -a X
+- - f (a)
a\ 4
fi.x) = - x 4 + 5x2- l f (x) = - x 3 + 6x
Fig ur e 1-6e Figure 1-6(
Section
1-6: Reflections
, Absolute
Value
s,andOther
Transformat
ions 45
Reflecting the graph of the even function f(x) = -x 4 + 5x 2 - 1 horizontally
across the y-axis leaves the graph unchanged. You can see this algebraically
given the property of powers with even exponents.
f( - x) = -(-x )4 + 5(-x) 2 - 1 Sub st itut e -x for x.
4 2
f(-x) = -x + 5x - 1 Nega tive number raised to an even power.
f( - x) = f(x)
Figure l -6g shows that refl ecting the graph of the odd function f(x) = -x 3 + 6x
hori zontally across the y-axis has the same effect as reflecting it vertically
across the x-axis. Algebraically,
f(-x) = -(-x) 3 + 6(-x) Sub st itute -x for x.
X
4
f( -x) = x 3 - 6x Negative numb er raised to an odd pow er.
f(-x) = -f( x)
Any function having the property f(-x) = f(x) is called an even function. Any
function having the propert y f(-x) = -f(x) is called an odd function. These
Figure 1-6g
names apply even if th e equation for the function does not have exponents.
DEFINITION:
Even
Function
andOddFunction
The function f is an even function if and only if f(-x) = f(x) for all x in the
domain.
The function f is an odd function if and only if f(-x) = -f(x) for all x in the
domain.
Note: For odd functions, r eflect ion across the y-axis gives the same image as
reflection across the x-axis. For even functions, reflect ion across the y-axis is
the same as the pre-imag e. So odd fun ctions ar e symmetric about the origin,
and even functions are symmetric across the y-axis.Most functions do not
possess the prop erty of oddness or evenness.
Problem Set 1-6
Reading Analysis m}
From what you have read in this section, what do you
consider to be the main idea? Reread the paragraph on
page 45 that discusses Figure l -6d. Use numerical Q2. If f(x) = X - 3, then f - 1(X) = -7 - .
values from the graph to guide yourself through this Q3. If f(x) = 2x - 3, then r- (x)
1
= -? - .
paragraph. Explain in your own words what the
sentence about negative values of x means. Why is part Q4.If f(x) = x 2 , write the equation for the inverse
of the graph of {"lost" in the graph of f(lxl)? Write relation.
down specific questions about what you may not Q5. Explain why th e inverse relation in Problem Q4
understand, and find someone who can answer them. is not a function.
Q6. If f(x) = 2X,then r- (8) = -
1
?- .
46 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematical
Models
Ql. If the invers e r elation for function f is also a 6. The equation for the function in Problem 4
fun ction , th en fis called -?- . is f(x) = - 3 + V25 - (x - 2)2 for - 3 s x s 7.
Plot the function as y 1 on your grapher . Plot
. Write th e definition of a on e-to-one function.
QB
Y2 = Y1(lxl) using thick styl e. Does the result
Q9. Give a numb er x for which lxl = x. confirm your answer to Problem 4, part d?
QIO. Give a number x for which lxl = - x. 7. Abso lute Value Transformations Problem:
Figure l -6h shows the graph of
For Probl em s 1-4, sketch the gra ph s of f(x) = 0.5(x - 2)2 - 4. 5 in the domain
-2 S X S 6.
a. g (x) = - f (x)
b . h(x) = f( - x) y
c. a(x) = lf(x)I ! .
I
5
I
,
d. v(x) = f(lxl) I I X
-5 I 6
1. y ' ', .,,,/.r·
I ·
5 }'; .f(x) ,'

, -5
/
.
/
"'' X
Figur e 1-6h
,, s
-5
..- --- a. Plot the graph of y 1 = f (x ). On th e same
-5
screen, plot y 2 = lf(x)I using thick style .
Sketch the result and describe how this
2. y transformation changes the graph of f
5 b. Deactivate y 2 . On th e sam·e screen as y 1 , plot
the graph of y 3 = f(lxl) using thick style.
X
I
\ 5
Sketch the result and describe how this
I
I
I \
\ transformation changes th e graph of f
\
' Y ; f (x)
;t.' ...l c. Use the equation of function f to find the
value of lf(3)1and the value of f(l-31). Show
that both results agr ee with your graphs in
3.
, ~, 50
y
I
.
I
parts a and b. Explain why - 3 is in the
domain of f(lxl) even though it is not in the
I
' ' \•
\
I
I
I
domain of f itself.
·' X
d. Figure l -6i shows the graph of a function g,
\ ,' 4
. \ I
but you don't know the equation of the
\ '
-50 --' ' y; f (x) function. On a copy of this figure, sketch
the graph of y = lg(x)I, using the conclusion
4. y you reached in part a. On another copy of
5 this figure, sketch the graph of y = g(lxl),
using th e conclusion you reached in part b .
, ... --...' X
/
' y
-5 J
I
5/' ,,-5
• y; f(x ) 1
-5 ., '.
'.
\,g
\
,'
. X
·- ·5 \ _,
5 ., .
5. The equati on for th e function in Problem 3 is
f(x ) = x 3 + 6x 2 - 13x - 42 for -6 s x s 4. Plot . -5
the function as y 1 on your graph er. Plot
y 2 = y 1 (lxl) u sing thi ck sty le. Does the result Figur e l -6i
confirm your an swer to Probl em 3, part d?
Section
1-6: Reflection
s,Absolute
Value
s, and Other
Tran
sformations 47
8. Displacement vs. Distance Absolute Value a. On the same scre en, plot y 1 = f(x) and
Problem: Calvin's car runs out of gas as he is Yz = f(-x). Use thick style for y 2 . Based on
· going uphill. He continues to coast uphill for the properties of negative numbers raised to
a while, stops, then starts rolling backward even powers, explain why the two graphs
without applying the brakes . His displacement, are identical.
y, in meters, from a gas station on the hill as a b. Deactivate y 1 and y 2 . On the same screen,
function of time, x, in seconds, is given by plot y3 = g(x), Y4 = g(-x), and Ys = -g(x). Us~
y = -0 .lx 2
+ 12x - 250 thick style for y5 . Based on the properties of
negativ e numbers raised to odd powers,
a. Plot the graph of this function . Sketch th e explain why the graphs of y 4 and y 5 are
result. identical.
b. Find Calvin's displacement at 10 s and at c. Even functions have the property
40 s. What is the real -world meaning of his f( - x) = f(x) . Odd functions have the
negative displacement at 10 s? property f(-x) = -f(x). Figure 1-61 shows
c. What is Calvin's distance from the gas two functions, h and j, but you don 't know
station at times x = 10 and x = 40 ? Explain the equation of either function. Tell which
why both values are positive. function is an even function and which is an
d. Define Calvin's distance from the gas station. odd function.
Sketch the graph of distance versus time. y
e. If Calvin keeps moving as indicated in this
problem, when will he pass the gas station
as he rolls back down the hill? X
9. Even Function and Odd Function Problem: Figure

l -6j shows the graph of the even function
f(x) = x 4 - 3x 2 - 4. Figure l -6k shows the graph
of the odd function g(x) = x 5 + 6x 3 + 6x. Figure 1-6/
d. Let e(x) = 2x. Sketch the graph . Based on the

y graph, is function e an odd function, an
I
I I
I I
even function, or neither? Confirm your
I
;r
I
I X
answer algebraically by finding e(-x).
-4 4
I
I
10. Absolute Value Function - Odd or Even? Plot the
' ,,
I
graph of f(x) = lxl. Sketch the result . Based on
the graph, is function fan odd function, an
Figur e 1-6}
even function, or neither? Confirm your
answer algebraically by finding f(-x).
y 11. Step Discontinuity Problem: Figure l -6m shows
8 I
I
,,, 4 :g the graph of
f(x) = ~
: \ 1 ... , : X
~ ·.........
,-" +,--+-
,--.,~
I / X
-4 \.'
-8 The graph has a step discontinuity at x = 0,

where f(x) jumps instantaneously from -1 to 1.
Figur e 1-6k
48 Chapter
l : Functions
andMathematical
Models
y a. Plot the greatest integer
y 8 function using dot style
so that points will not
4
be connected . Most
X graphers use the
X
symbol int(x) for lxJ.
·, 4 Use a friendly window
that has the integers as
Figure l-6m Figure l-6n grid points. Trace to x = 2.9, x = 3, and
a. Plot the graph of y 1 = f(x). Use a friendly x = 3.1. What do you find for the three
window that includes x = 0 as a grid point. y-values?
Does your graph agree with the figure? b. In the year 2005, the postage for a first-class
b. Figure l-6n is a vertical dilation of function letter was 3 7 cents for weights up to 1 oz
f with vertical and horizontal translations. and 23 cents more for each additional
Enter an equation for this function as y 2 , ounce or fraction of an ounce. Sketch the
using operations on the variable y 1 . Use a graph of this function.
friendly window that includes x = 1 as a grid
point. When you have duplicated the graph
+~ + +~
~
in Figure l-6n, write an equation for the
transformed function in terms of function f
c. Figure l -60 shows the graph of the
quadratic function y = (x - 3)2 to which
something has been added or subtracted to c. Using a transformation of the greatest
give it a step discontinuity of 4 units at integer function, write an equation for the
x = 5. Find an equation of the function. postage as a function of the weight. Plot it
Verify that your equation is correct by on your grapher. Does the graph agree with
plotting it on your grapher. the one you sketched in part b?
y
d. First-class postage rates apply only until the
letter reaches the weight at which the
10 postage would exceed $3.13. What is th e
domain of the function in part c?
5 13. Piecewise Functions-Weight Above and Below
Earth's Surface Problem: When you are above
the surface of Earth, your weight is inversely
X
proportional to the square of your distance
5
Figure l-60
from the center of Earth. This is because the
farther away you are, the weaker the
12. Step Functions-The Postage Stamp Problem : gravitational force between Earth and you.
Figure l -6p shows the graph of the greatest When you are below the surface of Earth, your
integer function, f(x) = lxJ. In this function, weight is directly proportional to your distance
lxJ is the greatest int eger less than or equal to x. from the center . At the center you would be
For instance, l3.9J = 3, l5J = 5, and l-2 .lJ = -3. "weightless" because Earth's gravity would pull
y you equally in all directions.
Figur e _l-6p
Section
1-6:Reflections,
Absolute
Values,
andOther
Transformations 49
Figure l -6q shows the graph of th e weight a. Find the values of a and b that make y = 150
function for a 150-lb person. The radius of when x = 4000 for each branch.
Earth is about 4000 mi. The weight is called a b. Plot the graph off Use Boolean variables to
piecewise function of the distance because it restrict the domain of the graph.
is given by different equations in different
C. Find y if x = 3000 and if x = 5000.
"pieces" of the domain. Each piece is called a
branch of the function. The equation of the d. Find the two distances from the center at
function can be written which the weight would be 50 lb.
ax if O _:,:;
X _:,;4000
14. Dynamic Reflection Problem: Go to
y = l!_ www .keymath.com/precalc
and open the Dilation
{ xz if X ~ 4000 Explora tion. Set slider c equal to 1 and slider d
equal to -1 and describe what you observe.
Then set slider c equal to -1 and slider d equal
y(lb)
to 1 and describe what you observe. Finally, set
150 both sliders equal to - 1 and describe what you
observe. Explain how reflections are related to
LOO dilations.
50
x(mi)
4000 8000
Figure 1-6q
1-7 Precalculus Journal

In this chapter you have been learning mathematics graphically, numerically,
and algebraically . An important ability to develop for any subject you study is to
verbalize what you have learned, both orally and in writing. To gain verbal
practice, you should start a journal. In it you will record topics you have studied
and topics about which you are still unsure. The word journal comes from the
same word as the French jour, meaning "day." Journey has the same root and
means "a day's travel." Your journal will give you a written record of your travel
through mathematics.
OBJECTIVEStart writing a journal in which you can record things you have learned about
precalculus mathematics and questions you have concerning concepts about
which you are not quite clear.
You should use a bound notebook or a spiral notebook with large index cards
for pages so that your journal will hold up well under daily use. Researchers use
such notebooks to record their findings in the laboratory or in the field. Each
entry should start with the date and a title for the topic. A typical entry might
look like the sample on the next page.
50 Chapter
l : Functions
andMathematical
Models
Irwer,e,ofa, FUl1.£1:io11.,
Top,ic,: 9/1 S
I've, Learned t/wJ:you, i.Jwerta,jwictio11.,by iltterdwrjutj t:lwv-ariaJJLM. So/!Ket{All,(,M
a,ff,
i.Jwer,e, t/wJ:U Mt a,jwictio11.,. it U a,jwictio11.,

U a, Yeui.i:io11., If
, t:fw i.Jwer,e, Y = j( X) U of
1
y =f - 1( x). At font, I tlwughi:tlii, ~ f (x), bu±after Lo,utj S p-oilttr a, 1/A,U(,
011., ,
I retJ.iizedt/wJ:w-a;11.,'t
wrrect. Tn,e,3rapk off ated,f - 1 a,re,rejlection£ofeaclvotker
allOff Y = X,
t:fw U/1,e, IJk t/u.,;
, ,,
, ,,
,, , ,
,, ,, X
/ I
,' I
,
,,
,,
,,
Problem Set 1-7
l. Start a journal for recording your thoughts • How to dilat e, translate, reflect, compose,
about precalculus mathematics . The first entry and invert the graph of a function
should include things such as these:
• How you feel about what you are learning,
• Sketches of graphs from real-world such as its potential usefulness to you
information
• Any difficulties or misconceptions you had
• Familiar kinds of functions from previous but overcame
cours es
• Any topics about which you are still unsure
1-8 Chapter Review and Test

In this chapter you saw how you can use functions as mathematical models
algebraically, graphically, numerically, and verbally. Functions describ e a
relationship between two variable quantities, such as distance and time for a
moving object. Functions define d algebraically are nam ed according to the way
the independent variab le appears in the equation . If xis an exponent, the
function is an exponential function, and so forth. You can transform th e graphs
of functions by dilating and translating in the x- and y-d:irections. Some of these
transformations refl ect the graph across the x- or y-axis or the line y = x. A good
understanding of functions will prepare you for lat er courses in calculu , in
which you will learn how to find the rate of change of y as x varies .
Sect
ion1-8:Chapter
Review
andTest 51
You may continue your study of precalculus mathematics either with periodic
functions in Chapters 2 through 6 or with fitting of functions to real-world data
starting with Chapter 7.
The Review Problems are numbered according to the sections of this chapter.
Answers are provided at the back of the book. The Concept Problems allow you
to apply your know ledge to new situations. Answers are not provided, and, in
some chapters, you may be required to do research to find answers to open-
ended problems. The Chapter Test is more like a typical classroom test your
instructor might give you. It has a calculator part and a noncalculator part, and
the answers are not provided.
Review Problems
Rl. Punctured Tire Problem : For parts a-d, suppose d. The graph in Figure l -8a gets closer and
that your car runs over a nail . The tire's air closer to the x-axis but never quite touches
pressure, y, measured in pounds per square it. What special name is given to the x-axis
inch (psi), decreases with time, x, measured in in this case?
minutes, as the air leaks out. A graph of e. Earthquake Problem: Earthquakes happen
pressure versus time is shown in Figure l -8a. when rock plates slide past each other. The
y (psi)
stress between plates that builds up over a
number of years is relieved by the quake in
35
a few seconds. Then the stress starts
building up again . Sketch a reasonable
graph showing stress as a function of time.
2 4 6 8 10
Figure 1-Ba
a. Find graphically the pressure after 2 min .

Approximately how many minutes can you
drive before the pressure reaches 5 psi?
b. The algebraic equation for the function in
Figure l -8a is
y= 35 • 0.7 x
Make a table of numerical values of
pressure for times of 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 min.
c. Suppose the equation in part b gives
reasonable answers until the pressure drops In 2003, a magnitude 6.6 earthquake struck the
to 5 psi. At that pressure, the tire comes city of Barn in Iran, killing over 43,000 people and
destroying this ancient citadel.
loose from the rim and the pressure drops
to zero. What is the domain of the function
described by this equation? What is the
corresponding range?
52 Chapter
l : Funct
ionsandMathematical
Models
R2. For parts a-e, name the kind of function for R3. a. For functions fand gin Figure l-8g, identify
each equation given. how the pre -image function f (dashed) was
a. f(x) = 3x + 7 transformed to get the image function g
(solid). Write an equation for g(x) in terms
b. f(x) = x 3 + 7x 2 - 12x + 5
of x given that the equation of {is
C. f(x) = 1,3 x
f(x) = ) 4 - x 2
d. f(x) = xl.3
Confirm the result by plotting the image
x-5 and the pre-image on the same screen on
e. f(x) = X 2 2
+
3
- X your grapher .
f. Name a pair of real-world variables that
y y
could be related by the function in part a.
. .. - . ·s
g. If the domain of the function in part a
is 2 ~ x ~ 10, what is the range? , ,J ....
• ,• •••• X
. X • • • • 'I •
h. In a flu epidemic, the number of people
.-5 . . 5 . .-5 .... . ... s.
infected depends on time. Sketch a ·g
reasonable graph of the number of people
infected as a function of time. What kind of . -5 .... . ~s ..... .
function has a graph that most closely
Figure 1-Bg Figure 1-Bh
resembles the one you drew?
i. For Figures l-8b through l-8d, what kind of b . If g(x) = 3f(x - 4), explain how function f
function has the graph shown? was transformed to get function g. Using the
pre-image in Figure l -8h, sketch the graph
y y of g on a copy of this figure.
R4. Height and Weight Problem: For parts a-e, the
weight of a growing child depends on his or
her height, and the height depends on age.
X X
Assume that the child is 20 in. when born and
Figur e 1-Bb Figure 1-Bc
grows 3 in. per year .
a. Write an equation for h(t) (in inches) as a
function of t (in years).
b . Assume that the weight function Wis given
J1Figur e 1-Bd
j. Explain how you know that the relation in

by the power function W(h(t)) = 0.004h(t) 2 ·5 .
Find h(S), and use the result to calculate the
predicted weight of the child at age 5.
c. Plot the graph of y = W(h(t)). Sketch the result.
Figure l-8e is a function but the relation in

Figure l -8f is not a function.
Figure 1-Be Figure 1-8{
Section
1-8: Chapter
Review
andTest 53
d. Assume that the height of the child b. Plot th e graphs of f and its inverse relation
incr eases at a constant rate . Does the weight on the same screen usin g parametric
also seem to increase at a constant rate? equations. Also plot th e line y = x. How are
Explain how you arrived at your answer. th e graphs of f and its inverse relation
e. What is a reasonable domain for t for the related to the line y = x ? How are th e
fun ction W h? O domain and range of the inverse rel ation
related to the domain and range of
f. Composite Functions Numerically Probl em:
function f?
Functions f and g are defined only for the
values of x in the table . c. Write an equation for th e inverse of the
function y = x 2 + 1 by int erchanging the
X f(x) g(x) variables. Solve the new equation for yin
3 2 4
terms of x. How do es this solution reveal
4 6 5
that th ere are two differ en t y-values for
3 8
some x-values?
5
6 5 3 d. On a copy of Figure 1-Sj, sketch th e graph of
Find thes e values, or explain why they are the inverse relation. What property does the
undefined: f (g(3) ), f(g(4)) , f(g(S)), f(g(6)), function graph hav e that allows you to
g(f(6)), f(f(3)), and g(g(3)) .
conclude that the function is invertible?
What are the vertical lin es at x = -3 and at
Two Lin ear Functions Probl em: For parts g-j, let x = 3 called?
functions f and g be defined by
y
f(x) =X - 2 4 :,;X :,; 8 5
g(x) = 2x - 3 2::; X:,; 6
g. Plot the graphs of f. g, and f(g(x)) on the
same screen. Sketch the results. X
h. Find f(g(4)). -5 5
i. Show that f(g( 3)) is undefined, even though

g(3) is defined.
j. Calculat e the domain of th e composit e -5
fun cti on f g and show that it agrees with

O
Figur e 1-Sj
the graph you plott ed in part g.
RS. Figure 1-Si shows the graph of f( x) = x 2 + 1 in e. Spherical Balloon Problem: Th e table shows
th e domain - 1 ::;x ::;2. the volume of a spherical balloon, v(x), in
cubic meters , as a function of its radius, x,
y in meter s.
·5 · r · y ,,;f( x )" x(m) v(x) (m 3 )
• /~ ·-··
·, .I
I
I
0.2 0.03
. X
0.4 0.27
.- 5 0.6 0.90
0.8 2. 14
1.0 4.19
~s
Figure 1-Bi Plot fun ction v on graph pap er by plotting
y = v(x) for these point s and connecting the
a. On a copy of the figur e, sketch the graph of points with a smooth curve. What evid enc e
the inverse relation. Explain why th e inver se do you have that function vis invertibl e?
is not a function.
54 Chapter
l : Fun
ctions
andMathematical
Models
R6. a. On four copies of y = f(x) in Figure l -8k,
sketch the grap h s of these four functions:
Y = -f(x), Y = f(-x), Y = lf(x) I, and y = f(lx l).
b . Function fin part a is defined piecewise by
3~-3 2 :<,;X :<,;6
f(x)= { 3~-3 -7:.,; x:.,; 2
Plot the two branches of this functio n as
y 1 and y 2 on your grapher. Does the graph
agree with Figure l -8k? Plot y = f(lxl) by
plotting y3 = Y1(lxl)and Y4 = Y2(lxl). Does
the graph agree with your result in the
correspondin g portion of part a?
c. Explain why functions with the property
f( - x) = - f(x) are called odd funct ions and
functions with the property f(-x) = f(x) are
called even functions .
d. Plot the graph of

Echo 1, the first communication satellite deve loped by
NASA , was a giant metal balloon that floated in orbit. f(x) = 0.2x2 - Ix - 31
It was used to boun ce sound signals from one place x-3
on the earth to anoth er.
Use a friendly window that includes x = 3
1 as a grid point. Sketch the result. Name the
Plot the graph of y = v - (x) on the same
feature that app ears at x = 3.
axes. What is the difference in the meaning
of x as the input for function v and x as the R7. In Section 1-7 you started a precalculus
input for function v - 17 Explain why v - 1 (v(x)) journal. In what ways do you think that
equal s x. keeping this journal will help you? How could
f. Sketch the graph of a one-to-one funct ion. you us e the completed journal at the end of
Explain why it is invertible. the course? What is your responsibility
throughout the year to ensure that writing the
y journal has been a worthwhile project?
·y= f(x )
-.5 . ,\ .,' . 5 .
. V.
I
Figure 1-Bk
Section
1-8: Chopter
Review
andTest 55
Concept Problems
Cl. Four Transformation Problem: Figure 1-81 a. The sine function is an example of a
shows a pre-image function f (dashed) and a periodic function. Why do you think this
transformed image function g (solid). Dilations name is given to the sine function?
and translations were performed in both b. The period of a periodic function is the
directions to get the g graph. Figure out what difference in x values from a point on the
the transformations were. Write an equation graph to the point where the graph first
for g(x) in terms of f. Let f(x) = x 2 with domain starts repeating itself. Approximately what
-2::; x::; 2. Plot the graph of g on your grapher. does the period of the sine function seem
Does your grapher agree with the figure? to be?
y c. Is the sine function an odd function, an
even function, or neither? How can you tell?
d. On a copy of Figure l -8m, sketch a vertical
dilation of the sine function graph by a
5 factor of 5. What is the equation of this
dilated function? Check your answer by
plotting the sine graph and the transformed
X
. -5 . 5 .
image graph on the same screen.
e. Figure l -8n shows a two-step
transformation of the sine graph in
. -5 .
Figure l-8m. Name the two transformations.
Write an equation for the transformed
function, and check your answer by plotting
both functions on your grapher.
Figur e 1-81 f. Let f(x) = sin x. What transformation would
C2. Sine Function Problem: If you enter y 1 = sin (x)
g(x)= sin (!x)be? Check your answer by
plotting both functions on your grapher.
on your grapher and plot the graph, the result
resembles Figure l -8m. (Your grapher should
y
be in radian mode.) The function is called the
sine function (pronounced "sign"), which you
will study starting in Chapter 2.
y
' ,,,.,.-... ...- ~Y,
, ' X
5 lO
X -5
Figure 1-Sn
-5
Figure 1-Bm
56 Chapter
1: Functions
andMathematical
Models
Chapter Test
PART1: Nocalculators
allowed(Tl-Tll) no. y
g
For Problems Tl-T4, nam e th e type of function that
TIL
each graph shows. I:
T2~
. X
T4. rx)/ . -5
~ Tll. y
TS. Which of the functions in Problems Tl - T4 are .. ·5

one -to-one functions ? What conclusion can you : '1
make about a function that is not one-to-one?
T6. When you turn on the hot water faucet, the
y~· ."""'--+-'-t-~~--
-5 .. // .
tim e the water has b een running and th e
temp eratur e of the water are related. Sketch a
reas onable grap h of this fun ction.
.. ..
. /~
. '.
.
/
. -5
For Problems T7 and TS, tell whether the function

is odd , even, or neither .
T7. f(x) TB. f (x) 2: Graphing
PART calculators
allowed(T12-T28)
Tl2. Figure l -80 shows the graph of a function,
X X
y = f(x). Give the domain and the range off
For Problems T9-Tll, describe how th e graph off f

(dashed) was transformed to get the graph of g
(solid). Write an equ ation for g(x) in terms of f
T9. y
X
5 -5 . . 5 .
X
Figur e l-80
. -5
Section
l ·8: ChapterReview
andTest 57
For Problems Tl3-Tl6, sketch the indicated the percent loss in wheat crop, L(x), is
transformations on copies of Figure l -80. Describe approximately
the transformations.
L(x) = 3.2x 0 ·52
Tl3. y = !f(x)
where xis the number of wild oat plants per square
Tl4 . Y = f( i x) meter of land.
TlS . y = f(x + 3) - 4 T20. Describe how L(x) varies with x. What kind of
function is L 7
Tl6 . The inverse relation of f(x)
T21. Find L(lSO). Explain verbally what this number
Tl7. Explain why the inverse relation in Problem
means.
Tl6 is not a function .
T22. Suppose the wheat crop is reduced to 60% of
Tl8 . Let f(x) = .Jx. Let g(x) = x 2 - 4. Find f(g(3)).
what it would be without the wild oats. How
F1nd g(f(3)) . Explain why f(g(l)) is not a rea l
many wild oats per square meter are there?
number, even though g(l) is a real number.
T23. Let y = L(x). Find an equation for y = r-1 (x). For
Tl9. Use the absolute value function to write a
what kind of calculations would the equation
- single eqnationf of t e cttsrnntinuous function
y = r-1 (x) be more useful than y = L(x)?
graphed in Figti're l -8p. Check your answer by
plotting it on your grapher. T24. Find 1- 1 (100). Explain its real-world meaning.
y T25. Based on your answer to Problem T24, what
would be a reasonable domain and range for L?
8
T26. Plot y 1 = L(x) and y 2 = 1- 1 (x) on the same
4
screen. Use equal scales for the two axes. Use
the domain and range from Problem T24.
X Sketch the results along with the line y = x.
4
T27 . How can you tell that the invers e relation is a
Figur e 1-Sp
function ?
T28. What did you learn as a result of taking this
Wild Oats Problem: Problem s T20-T27 refer to the test that you didn't know before ?
competition of wild oats, a kind of weed, with the
wheat crop. Based on data in A. C. Madgett's book
Applications of Mathematics: A Nationwide Survey,
,.
58 Chapter
l: Function
s andMathematical
Models
Per iodic Functions and
Right Triangle Problems 2
(.
\
,.. ___
··1 aal!II____________________________ _
f..
Ice-skater Michelle Kwan rotates through many degrees during a
f
·f spin. Her extended hands come back to the same position at the
end of each rotation . Thus the position of her hands is a periodic
function of the angle through which she {'Otates. This angle is not
restricted to the 0° t6 180° angles you stu died ,in geometry. In this
chapter you will learn about some special periodic functions.
59
In Chapter 1, you studied various types of functions from previous
courses and how these functions can be mathematical models of
the real world. In this chapter you will study functions for which
the y-values repeat at regular intervals. You will study these
periodic functions in four ways.
cos = u = length of adjacent leg

Algebraically 8 V
r length of hypotenuse
(8 is the Greek letter theta.)
Numerically e y= cos e
oo 1 u
30° 0.8660 ...

60° 0.5
goo 0
Graphically This is the graph of a cosine y
function. Here y depends on

the angle, e,which can take e
on negative values and values
greater than 180°.
Verbally The, trijonol4-ldricfwtctiomC/)fute,,

fW, tMljen.f;C!)tMljen.f;
f~ defated
are,utitwJiy
aJt.dC!)feca,t± M
ratiorofride! ofa, rijltt triMtj/,e,.rite, defatitiom are,e-xten.dedtop,oritiv-e,
aJUlftejdwe, MljlM UUMurinjrotario1-v byfar~ a, rejerel'lee,
rijltt
Ujf are,roritwe,or ftejarive,du~
triMtj/,e,w-/wre, a;u{ w-/wre,
hyf0te1UA£e,Uthe, YIUUU,f ofthe,cinu formd M the,Mlj/,e,utereMU. Tn,e,
ruultutj Jwtctiom are,perio& M the, Mlj/,e,utereMU beyon.d360°.
60 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problems
2-1 Introduction to Periodic Functions
As you ride a Ferris wheel, your distance from the ground depends on the
number of degrees the wheel has rotated (Figure 2-la). Suppose you start
measuring the number of degrees when the seat is on a horizontal line through
the axle of the wheel. The Greek letter () (theta) often stands for the measure of
an angle through which an object rotates. A wheel rotates through 360° each
revolutio n, so e is not restricted. If you plot e, in degr ees, on the horizont al
axis and the height above the ground, y, in meters, on the vertical axis, the
graph looks like Figure 2-1b. Notice that the graph has repeating y-values
corres ponding to each revolution of the Ferris wheel.
Angl e
--t 1 Height
y
llm
! j Ground -go o 180° 360° 540°

- - --- -- e
720°
Angle
Figure 2-la Figur e 2-lb
OBJECTIV
E Find the function that corresponds to the graph in Figure 2-lb and graph it
on your grapher .
Exploratory Problem Set 2-1
l. The graph in Figure 2-1c is the sine functi on 2. The graphs in Figures 2-lb and 2-lc are called
(pronounced "sign"). Its abbreviation is sin, sinusoids (pronounced like "sinus," a skull
and it is written sin (8) or sin e. Plot Yi = sin (x) cavity). What two transformations must you
on your grapher (using x instea d of 8). Use the perform on the parent sine function in Figure
window shown, and make sure your grapher is 2-lc to get th e sinusoid in Figure 2-l b?
in degree mode. Does your graph agree with
3. Enter into your grapher an appropriate
the figure ?
equation for the sinusoid in Figure 2-lb as y 2 •
Verify that your equation gives the corr ect
y
20 graph.
,,
4. Explain how an angle can have a measure more
I"'
than 180°. Explain the real-world significance
2 _e of the negative values of() in Figures 2-lb
- 90 ° 1800- 360 ° 5400-720 ° and 2-lc.
Figure 2-lc
Section
2-1: Introduction
toPeriodic
Functions 61
2-2 Measurement of Rotation
In the Ferris wheel problem of Section 2-1, you saw that you can use an angle to
measur e an amount of rotation. In this section you will extend the concept of
an angle to angles whose measures are great er than 180° and to angles whose
measures are negative. You will learn why functions such as your height above the
ground are periodic functions of the angle through which the Ferris wheel turns.
OBJECTIVEGiven an angle of any measure, draw a picture of that angle.
Terminal position An angle as a measure of rotation can be as large as you like. For instance , a
figur e skater might spin through an angle of thousands of degrees. To put this
Rotating
ray idea into math ematical terms, consider a ray with a fixed starting point. Let
the ray rotate through a certain number of degrees, 8, and come to rest in a
Fixed terminal (or final) position, as in Figure 2-2a.
point
\ Angle@ So that the terminal position is uniquel y determined by th e angle measure, a
____l __________
_____.. standard position is defined. The initial position of the rotating ray is along
Initial position
the positi ve horizontal axis in a coordinate system, with its starting point at
Figure 2-2a the origin. Counterclockwise rotation to th e terminal position is measured in
positi ve degr ees , and clockwise rotation is measur ed in negative degr ees.
DEFINITION:
Standard
Position
ofanAngle
An angle is in standard position in a Cartesian coordinate system if
• Its vertex is at the origin.
• Its initial side is along the positive horizontal axis.
• It is measured counterclockwisefrom the horizontal axis if the angle
measure is positive and clockwisefrom the horizontal axis if the angle
measure is negative.
Several angles in standard position are shown in Figure 2-2b. A uv-coordinat e

system (v for vertica l) is used for plotting angles, 8, as measures of rotation,
with both u and v depending on e.The customary variabl es x and y will be used
for plotting sinusoids, with the angle appearing as a displacement along the
horizontal axis as in Figure 2-1b.
V V V V
133°
57°
u u u u
Figure 2-2b
62 Chapter
2: Periodic
Function
s andRight
Triangle
Problems
The same position can have several corresponding angle measures . For
insta n ce, the 493° angle terminates in the same posit ion as the 133° angle after
one full revolution (360°) mor e. The -227 ° angle terminates th ere as well, by
rotating clockwise instead of count erclockwis e. Figure 2-2c sh ows th ese thr ee
coterminal angles.
V V V
133°
u u u
49 3° = 133° + 360 °( I) -227 ° = 133° + 360°(- 1)

Figure 2-2c
Letters such as e may be used

for the measure of an angle or
for the angle its elf. Other
Greek letters are often used as
well: ex(alpha), f3 (beta), y
(gamma), <:p(phi) (pronounced
"fye" or "fee"), w (omega).
You might recognize som e of the Greek letters

on this subwa y sign in Athe ns, Greece.
DEFINITION:
Coterminal
Angles
Two angles in stan dard position are coterminal if and only if their degree
e
measures differ by a multiple of 360°. That is, cf>and are coterminal if and
only if
q>= e + 360°n
where n stands for an integer.
Note: Coterminal angles have terminal sid es that coincide , henc e the name.
To draw an angle in standard position, you can find th e measur e of th e po sitive
acute angle betw een th e horizontal axis and the terminal side. This angle is
called the reference angle.
Section
2-2:Measurement
ofRotation 63
DEFINITION:
Reference
Angle
The reference angle of an angle in standard position is the positive acute
angle between the horizontal axis and the terminal side.
Note: Reference angles are always measured cou nterclockwise. Angles whose
terminal sides fall on one of the axes do not have reference angles.
Example 1 shows you how to find reference angles for angles terminating in
each of the four quadrants .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Sketch angles of 71°, 133°, 254°, and 317° in standard position and calculate the
measure of each reference angle.
Solution To calculate the measure of the reference angle, sketch an angle in the
appropriate quadrant; then look at the geom etry to figure out what to do.
Figure 2-2d shows the four angles along with their reference angl es . For an
angle between 0° and 90° (in Quadrant I), the angl e and th e refer ence angle are
the same . For angles in other quadrants, you have to calculate th e positive acute
angle between the x-axis and th e terminal side of the angle.
V V V V
e= 133°
u e,cf =47° u u u
e,ef= 4 30
e,cf= e= 71° e,,r= 180° - 133° = 47° e,cf= 254° - 180° = 74° e,,r=360° - 317° =43 °
Figure 2-2d
Note that if the angle is not between 0° and 360°, you can first find a coterminal
angle that is between these values. It then becomes an "old" problem like
Example 1.
lllli-EXAMPLE
2 Sketch an angle of 4897 ° in standard pos ition, and calculate the measure of the
r eferenc e angle .
4897
Solution 360 = 13.6027 ... Divide 4897 by 360 to find the number of whole
revolution s.
This number tells you that th e terminal side makes 13 whole revolutions plus
another 0.6027 ... revolution . To find out which quadrant the angle falls in,
multiply th e decimal part of th e revolutions by 360 to find the number of
degrees. The answer is Be, a coterminal angle to 8 between 0° and 360°.
ec= (0.6027 ... )(360) = 217° Comput e without rounding .
64 Chapter
2: Periodic
Function
s andRight
Triangle
Problems
Sketch th e 217° angle in Quadrant III, as in Figure 2-2e.
V
e = 4s91 °
u
(),er= 370
Figure 2-2e
From the figure, you should be able to see that

()ref = 217° - 180° = 37°
As you draw the reference angle, remem b er th at it is always b etween the
terminal sid e and the horizontal axis (never th e vertical axis). The reference
angle sometimes goes from th e axis to the terminal side and sometimes from
the termin al side to the axis . To figur e out which way it goes, recall that th e
reference angle is positive. Thus it always goes in th e counterclockwise dir ection .
Problem Set 2-2
Reading Analysis t:l!J} 09. 40 is 20% of what numb er?

From what you have read in this section, what do you QlO. x 20 / x 5 =
consider to be the main idea? How can an angle have A. xl S D. xlD D
a measur.e greater than 180° or a negative measure? If B. x 4 E. None of these
the terminal side of an angle is drawn in standar d
position in a uv-coordinate system, why can there b e
c. xzs
more than one valu e for the measure of the angle but
only one measure for the reference angle? For Problems 1-20, sketch the angle in standard
po sition , mark th e reference angle, an d find its
~ 5 ,,,.,;. m easur e.
Quick Review U,, .,
1. 130° 2. 198°
Ql. A function that repeats its valu es at regular
intervals is called a- ?- function . 3. 259 ° 4. 147°
In Problems Q2-Q5, describe the transfo rm ation s. 5. 342° 6. 21°
02. g(x) = 5 f (x) 7. 54° -----
- 8. 283°
03. g(x) = f(3x) 9. - 160° 10. -220 °
04. g(x) = 4 + f(x) 11. -295 ° 12. -86 °
05. g(x) = f(x - 2) 13. 98.6 ° 14. 57.3°
06. If f(x) = 2x + 6, then r- (x)1
= -?- . 15. -154.1 ° 16. -27 3.2°
Ql. How man y degrees are there in two revolutions ? 17. 5481 ° 18. 7321 °
QB.Sketch the graph of y = 2x. 19. -2746 ° 20. -3614°
Section
2·2: Measurement
ofRotation 65
For Problems 21-26, the angles are measured 28. The pendulum in a grandfather clock swings
in degrees, minutes, and seconds. There are back and forth. The distanc e from the end of
60 minutes (60') in a degree and 60 seconds (60") the pendulum to the left side of the clock
in a minute . To find 180° - 137°24', you calculate depends on time.
179°60' - 137°24' . Sketch each angle in standard
For Problems 29 and 30, write an equation for the
position, mark the reference angle, and find its
image function , g (solid graph), in terms of the
measure.
pre-image function, f (dashed graph).
21. 145°37' 22. 268°29'
29. y
23. 213°16' 24. 121°43' 10
25. 308°14'51" 26. 352°16'44"

For Problems 27 and 28, sketch a reasonable graph
., ,, \
'
of the function, showing how the dependent I \ \
X
variable is related to the ind ependent variable. \
\
\
,, /
27. A gymnast jumps up and down on a

trampoline. Her distance from the ground
depen ds on time.
- 10
30. y
10
2-3 Sine and Cosine Functions

From previous mathematics courses, you may recall working with sine , cosine,
and tangent for angles in a right triangle. Your grapher has these functions
in it . If you plot the graph of y = sine and y = cos e,you get the periodic
functions shown in Figure 2-3a. Each graph is called a sinusoid, as you learned
in Section 2-1. To get these graphs, you may enter the equations in the form
y = sin x and y = cos x and use degree mode .
y = sin ti y = cos ti
Figure 2-3a
66 Chap
ter2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problems
In this section you will see how the reference angles of Section 2-2 let you
extend the right triangle definitions of sine and cosine to include angles of any
measure. You will also see how these definitions lead to sinusoids.
OBJECTIVEExtend the definitions of sine and cosine for any angle.
••• f
t (
) (
Periodicity is quite common. The phases of the moon
are one examp le of a periodic phenomenon.
A periodic function is a function whose values repeat at regular intervals. The

graphs in Figure 2-3a are examples. The part of the graph from any point to the
point where the graph starts repeating itself is called a cycle. For a periodic
function, the period is the difference between the horizontal coordinates
corresponding to one cycle, as shown in Figure 2-3b. The sine and cosine
functions complete a cycle every 360°, as you can see in Figure 2-3a. So the
p eriod of these functions is 360°. A horizontal translation of one period makes
the pre-image and image graphs identical.
Equa l y-va lues
-- One period -
Figure 2-3b
DEFINITION:
Periodic
Function
The function fis a periodic function of x if and only if there is a number p
for which f(x - p) = f(x) for all values of x in the domain.
If pis the smallest such number, then pis called the period of the function.
Section
2-3: SineandCosine
Functions 67
Definition of Sine and Cosine for Any Angle
To understand why sine and cosine are periodic functions, consider a ray
rotating about the origin in a uv-coordinat e system, forming a variable angle e
in standard po sition. The left side of Figure 2-3c shows the ray terminating in
Quadrant I. A point r units from the origin traces a circle of radius r as the ray
rotates. The coordinates (u, v) of the point vary, but r stays constant.
V
V
(u, v)
'- Ray rotat es. Hypot enus e
- ------\ '-Term inal (radius) r
Radius r ',,, side of e.
\
Reference
V '\ triangle
\
Draw a\ Vertical leg v
perp end\cular. (oppos ite 8)
u u
u
Horizontal leg u
(adjacent to 8)
Fig ur e 2-3c
If you draw a perpendicular from point (u, v) to th e u-axis, a right triangle is

e
formed, with one of th e acute angles. This triangle is called the reference
triangle. As shown on the right in Figure 2-3c, the coordinate u is the length of
the leg adjacent to e,and the coordinate vis the length of the leg opposite e.
The radius, r, is the length of the hypotenuse.
The right triangl e definitions of the sine and cosine functions are
. e =-----
Sill
opposite leg
cos
adjacent leg
e = hypotenuse
hypotenuse
These functions are called trigonometric functions, from the Greek roots for
"triangle" (trigon-) and "measur ement" (-metry).
As e increases beyond 90°, the values of u, v, or both become negative. As
shown in Figure 2-3d, the referenc e triangle appears in different quadrants, with
the reference angle at the origin . Because u and v can be negative, consider
them to be displacements of the point (u, v) from the respective axes. The value
of r stays positiv e because it is the radius of the circle. The definitions of sine
and cosine for any angl e use th ese displacements, u and v.
V V V
(u, v), - ' '

'\ \ / ''
- '
'\\ / ' -- ''\
\
/ I
\
, u neg. \ \
\
I
\ I
e \
I
I u I
I
I
\ I
I u I
I
I I
\ u
I I
I I e ref I
\ u neg . I vneg. I I
/
I \ r /
I \
\ \
--
\ /
''
'
(u, v) '
'' - ' ''
8 in Quadrant JI 8 in Quadrant III 8 in Quadrant N

Figure 2-3d
68 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problems
DEFINITION:
SineandCosine
Functions
forAnyAngle
Let (u, v) be a point r units from the origin on a rotating ray. Let e be the
angle to the ray, in stan dard position. Then
sin
8
= ~ = vertical displacement cos e = ~ = horizontal displacement
r radius r radius
You can remember these definitions by thinking "v as in vertica l" and "u comes
before v in the alphabet, like x comes before y." With respect to the reference
triangle, vis the displacement opposite the reference angle, and u is the
displacement adjacent to it. The radius is always the hypotenuse of the
reference triangle.
I
I
I I
I
I
Figure 2-3e shows the signs of the displacements u and v for angle e in the four
1/ quadrants.
e
Note that the values of sine and cos depend only on the size of angle not e,
on th e location of the point on the terminal side. As shown in Figure 2-3f,
Figur e 2-3e reference triangles for the same angle are similar. Thus
and
Periodicity of Sine and Cosine

Figure 2-3g shows why the sine function is periodic. On the left, e is shown as
an angle in standard position in a uv-coordinate system. As e increases from
0°, Vis positive and increasing until it equals r, when e reaches 90°. Then V
e
decr eases, becoming negative as passes 180° until it equals -r, when e
Similar reaches 270°. From 270° to 360°, vis negative but increasing until it equa ls 0.
triangles Beyond 360°, the pattern repeats . Recall that sin e = v/ r. Thus sin e starts
at 0, incr eases to 1, decreases to -1, then increases to O as e increases from
u 0° through 360°. The right side of Figure 2-3g shows e as the horizontal
coordinate in a By-coordinate system, with y = sin This is the first sinusoid e.
Figur e 2-3{ of Figure 2-3a.
V
y= sine
V iS Vis Decreas ing Repeating!

positive, pos itive, / \
decreas ing. in creas ing.
Increasin g
u e
-90 ° 270°
V iS v is
negative, negative,
decreasing . increasing.
Increas ing
-1
Figur e 2-3g
You can see dynamically how the rotating ray in a uv-coordinate system
gen erates a sinusoid by viewing the Sine Wave Tracer Exploration at
www .keymath.com/precal
c.You can also create your own animation using geometry
sof tware such as The Geometer's Sketchpad ®.
Section
2-3:Sine
andCosine
Functions 69
~ EXAMPLE
1 Draw angle e equal to 147° in standard position in a uv-coordinate system.
Draw the reference trian gle and show the measure of erer, the reference angle.
Find cos 147° and cos erer, and explain the relationship between the two cosine
values.
Solution Draw the 147° angle and its reference angle, as in Figure 2-3h. Pick a point on
the terminal side of the angle and draw a perpendicular to the horizontal axis,
forming the reference triangle.
eref = 180° - 147° = 33° Because 8rer and 147° must sum to 180°.
cos 147° = -0 .8386 ...
cos 33° = 0.8386 ... By calculator.
Both cosine values have the same ~m,UJ.de. Cos 147° is negative because the
horizontal coordinate of a point in Quadrant II is negative. The radius, r, is
always considered to be positive because it is the radius of a circle traced as the
ray rotates. <11111
Note: When you write the cosine of an angle in degrees, such as cos 147°, you
Figure 2-3h must write the degree symbol. Writing cos 147 without the degree symbol has a
different meaning, as you will see when you learn about angles in radians in the
next chapter.
~ EXAMPLE
2 The terminal side of angle e contains the point (u, v) = (8, -5). Sketch the angle
in standard position. Use the definitions of sine and cosine to find sine and cos e.
Solution As shown in Figure 2-3i, draw the point (8, -5) and draw angle 8 with its
terminal side passing through the point. Draw a perpendicular from the
point (8, - 5) to the horizontal axis, forming the reference triangle. Label the
displacements u = 8 and v = -5. Calculate the radius, r; using the Pythagorean
theorem, and show it on your sketch.
V
r = -J8 2 + (-5) 2 = )89 Show Js'§ on the figure.
-5 . . opposite displacement
sine= .J8§ = - 0.5299 ... Sme 1s .
hypotenuse
8 u
8 . . adJacent displacement
I
cos 8 = )89 = 0.8479 ... Cosme 1s --------
:-s hypotenuse
Figure 2-3j shows the parent sine y = sin 0

function, y =sine. You can plot sinusoids
with other proportions and locations
Figure 2-3i
by transforming this parent graph.
Example 3 shows you how to do this.
0
Figure 2-3j
70 Chapter
2: Periodic
Function
s andRight
Triangle
Problem
s
~ EXAMPLE
3 Let y = 4 sin e.What transformation of the parent sine function is this? On a
copy of Figure 2-3j, sketch the graph of this image sinusoid . Check your sketch by
plotting the parent sinusoid and the transform ed sinusoid on the same screen.
Solution The transformation is a vertical dilation by a factor of 4.

Find places wher e the pr e-image function has high points, low points, or zeros .
Multiply th e y-values by 4 and plot th e resulting point s (Figure 2-3k, left side) .
Sketch a smooth curve through the critical points (Figure 2-3k, right side). The
grapher will confirm that your sketch is correct.
y y
Mark high, low, and middle points. Sketch the gra ph .
,"'
..--..', ' f} ' f}
......
-"'
Figur e 2-3k
Problem Set 2-3
Reading Analysis t:l!}j Q6. Find x if 5 log 2 = log X.
Ql. Sketch a reasonable graph showing the height

of your foot above the pa vement as a function
you consider to be the main idea ? Give a real-world
of the distan ce your bicycle has traveled.
example of what it means for a func tion to be
periodic. How are th e definitions of sine an d cosine
extend ed from right triangles , with angle measur es
limited to 90°, to angles of any measure, positive or
negativ e? What is the difference between the way e
appears in a uv-coordinat e system and the way it
appears in a 8y-coordinat e system?
Quick Review
Ql. Write the general equation of an exponential
function .
02. The equation y = 3x1.2 represents a particular
-?- function.
QB.3.7° = - ?- (3.7 with a zero expone nt , not
03. Find the reference angle for a 241 ° angle.
3.7 degrees)
Q4. Name these Greek lett ers: ex, /3,y, cf>
. Q9. What is the value of 5! (five factorial) ?
05. What transformation of the pr e-image function 010. What percent of 300 is 60?
y = x 5 is the image function y = (x - 3)5 ?
Section
2-3: SineandCosine
Functions 71
For Problems 1-6, sketch the angle in standard y= cos e
position in a uv-coordinate system. Draw the
reference triangle, showing the measure of the
reference angle. Find the sine or cosine of the angle
and its reference angle. Explain the relationship
between them.
1. sin 250° 2. sin 320°
3. cos 140° 4. cos 200°
5. cos 300° 6. sin 120°
For Problems 7-14, use the definitions of sine and
cosine to write sine and cos e for angles whose Figure 2-31
-~rninal side contains the given point.
21. Draw the uv-coordinate system. In each
7. (7, 11) 8. <t,~ quadrant, put a + or a - sign to show whether
9. (-2, 5) 10. (-6, 9) e
cos is positive or negative when angle e
terminates in that quadrant.
11. (4, -8) 12. (8, -3)
22. Draw the uv-coordinate system. In each
13. (-24, -7) (What do you notice about r?)
quadrant, put a + or a - sign to show whether
14. (-3, -4) (What do you notice about r?) sine is positive or negative when angle e
terminates in that quadrant.
Figure 2-31 shows the-parettt function graphs
y = sine and y = cos e.For Problems 15-20, give 23. Functions of Reference Angles Problem: This
the transformation of the parent function property relates the sine and cosine of an
represented by the equation. Sketch the angle to the sine and cosine of the reference
transformed graph on a copy of Figure 2-31. angle. Give numerical examples to show that
Confirm your sketch by plotting both graphs on the property is true for both sine and cosine.
the same screen on your grapher.
15. y= sin(()- 60°) ,- 16. y= 4 + sine Property: Sine and Cosine of a
Reference Angle
17. y= 3 cos(:) ~ 18. y= coste
sin eref = !sin e1 and cos eref = !cos e1
19. y= 3 + cos 28 20. y= 4 cos(()+ 60°)
y= sine ::: ::
•:r::u::
24. Construction Problem: For this problem use

pencil and paper or a computer graphing
program such as The Geometer's Sketchpad.
Construct a right triangle with one horizontal
e leg 8 cm long and an acute angle of measure
35° with its vertex at one end of the 8-cm leg.
Measure the hypotenuse and the other leg. Use
these measurements to calculate the values of
sin 35° and cos 35 ° from the definitions of sine
and cosine. How well do the answers agree
with the values you get directly by calculator?
While keeping the angle measure equal to 35°,
increase the lengths of the sides of the right
triangle. Calculate the values of sin 3 5° and
cos 35° in the new triangle. What do you find?
72 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problems
2-4 Values of the Six Trigonometric Functions
In Section 2-3, you recalled the definitions of the sine and cosine of an angle and
saw how to extend these definitions to include angles beyond the range of 0° to
e e
90°. With the extended definitions, y = sin and y = cos are periodic functions
whose graphs are called sinusoids . 1n this section you will define four other
trigonometric functions . You will learn how to evaluate all six trigonometric
functions approximately, by calculator, and exactly in special cases, using the
definitions. In the next section you will use what you have learned to calculate
unknown side lengths and angle measures in right trian gles .
OBJECTIVE
Be able to find values of the six trigonometric functions approximately, by
calculator, for any angle and exactly for certain special angles.
Sine and cosine have been defined for any angle as ratios of the coordinates
(u, v) of a point on the terminal side of the angle and, equivalent ly, as ratios of
the displacements in the reference trian gle.
sin e = ~ = vertica l displacement = opposite
r radius hypotenuse
cos e = _:!.= horizontal displacement = adjacent
r radius hypotenuse
Four other ratios can be made using u, v, and r. Their names are tangent,
cotangent, secant, and cosecant, and their definitions are given in the box on
th e next page. ·
The right triangle definition of tangent for an acute-angle is extended to the
ratio of v to u for a point on the terminal side of any angle.
tan e= ~ = vert ical displacement = opposite
u horizontal displacement adjacent
The cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are reciprocals of the tangent,
cosine, and sine functions, respectively. The relationship between each pair of
functions, such as cotangent and tangent, is called the reciprocal property of
trigonometric functions, which you will explore fully in Chapter 4.
When you write the functions in a column in the order sin 8, cos 8, tan 8, cot 8,
sec e,and csc e,the functions and their reciprocals have this pattern:
sine
cos e
tan e
Reciprocals 1
cot e u;t e= ta;,r, e
sec e
csc e
Sect
ion2-4: Values
oftheSixTrigonometric
Functions 73
DEFINITIONS:
TheSixTrigonometric
Functions
Let (u, v) be a point r units from the origin on the terminal side of a rotating
ray. If e is the angle to the ray, in standard position, then the following
definitions hold.
Right Triangle Form Coordinate Form
. e=
SID
opposit e sin e = vertical coordinat e = ~
hypotenu se radius r
adjacent cos e = horizontal coordinate = _I!_

cos e =
V
hypotenuse Hypot enus e radius r

r
opposite (u, v) vertical coordinate v
tan e =---adjacent I
I
tan e = --------
horizontal coordinate u
: Opposite leg
V
adjacent horizontal coordinate u
cot e =~-- cme = vertical coordinate
=-
v
opposite
u
hypotenuse radius r
sec e = Adjacent leg
u
sec e =
adjacent horizontal coordinate u
csc e = hypotenuse csc

e -- radius
. al coor dinate
r
opposite vernc V
Note: The coordinates u and v are also the horizontal and vertical displacements
of the point (u, v) in the referen ce triangle.
The Names Tangent and Secant

To see why th e names tangent and secant are used, look at Figure 2-4a.
V
The point (u, v) has been chosen on the terminal sid e of angle e wher e
r = l unit. The circle traced by (u, v) is called the unit circle (a circle with
radius 1 unit). The value of the sine is given by
V V
Sin 8 =- =- = V
r l
Tangent
Thus the sine of an angle is equal to the vertica l coordinate of a point on the
unit circle. Similarly, cos e = u/ l = u, the horizontal coordinate of a point on
the unit circle.
u
---1 (1,0) If you draw a vertica l line tangent to the circle at the point (1, 0), another
reference trian gle is formed, with the adjacent displacement equal to 1 unit. In
Figur e 2-4a
this larg er triangle,
tan e __
opposite
adjac ent
_ length of tangent segment
1
= length of tangent segment
Hence the name tangent is used.
74 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problem
s
The hypotenuse of this larg er reference triang le is part of a secant line, a line
tha t cuts through th e circle. In the larger triangle,
Sec e
__
hypotenuse __ length of secant segment h f
= 1engt o secant segment
adj acent 1
Hence th e name secant is us ed . By the properties of similar triangles, for any
point (u, v) on the terminal side
tan e = -u
V
and sec e = -ur
You have seen why the names tangent and secant are used for these ratios.
You will explore the reason for the pr efix coin the nam es cosine, cotangent,
and cosec ant when you do Problem 43 in the probl em set for this section .
Section 5-3 explains in detail how the reciprocal functions are related to
compl em entary angl es.
Appr oximate Values by Calculator

Example 1 shows how you can find approximate values of all six trigonometric
func tion s usin g your calculator .
.....EXAMPLE
1 Evaluat e by calculator the six trigonom etric functions of 58.6 °. Round to four
decimal places.
Solution You can find sine, cosine, and tangent directl y on the calculator.
sin 58.6° = 0.8535507 .. . ""0.8536 Note pr eferr ed usag e of the ellip sis and
th e"' sign .
cos 58.6° = 0.5210096 .. . ""0.5210
tan 58.6° = 1.6382629 ... "" 1.6383
The other three functions are th e reciprocals of the sin e, cosine, and tangent
functio ns. Notice that th e reciproca ls follow the pattern des cribed earlier .
0 1
cot 58.6 = 0
= 0.61040260 ... ""0.6104
tan 58.6
0 1
sec 58.6 = = 1.91935 031... ~ 1.9194
cos 58.6 0
1
csc 58.6° = = 1.171576 4 3 . . "" 1.1716
sin 58.6°
Section
2-4:Values
Fun
ctions 75
Exact Values by Geometry
If you know a point on the terminal side of an angle, you can calculate the
values of the trigonometric functions exactly. Example 2 shows you th e steps.
l)IJi-EXAMPLE
2 The terminal side of angle e contains the point (- 5, 2). Find exact values of the
six trigonometric functions of e.Use radicals if necessary, but no decimals.
Solution • Sketch the angle in standard position (Figure 2-4b).

• Pick a point on the terminal side, (-5, 2) in this instance, and draw a
perpendicular.
• Mark the displacem ents on the reference triangl e, u sing the Pythagorean
theorem .
V
r= J (-5) 2 + 22 = -fig
sin e= vertical = _2_
radius m
cos e = horizontal = 2 = __ s_
radius m m u
-5
tan e = _v_er_t_ic_a_l
_ __ 2 _ -~
horizontal -5 5 Figure 2-4b
1 5
cote =--= --
tane 2
sece = --
1
=-
m
-
cos e 5
csce =--=--
1 m
sine 2
Note: You can use the proportions of the side lengths in the 30°- 60°- 90°
triangle and the 45°- 45°-90° triang le to find exact function values for angles
whose reference angle measure is a multiple of 30° or 45°. Figure 2-4c shows
th ese proportions.
60° ./2 4 5°
2
45°
The shorter leg is half the The triangle is isosce les;

length of th e hypotenu se. the legs ha ve equal length .
Figure 2-4c
76 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problem
s
.....EXAMPLE
3 Find exact values (no decimals) of the six trigonometric functions of 300°.
Solution Sketch an angle terminating in Quadrant IV and a reference triangle

(Figure 2-4d).
V
sin8=-=--
--/3 v3
Use the negative square root because vis negative.
2 2
u
cos e = -21
tan e = --13= --13 Simplify.

1
1 1
(u, v) cote=--= -- Use the reciprocal relationship .
tan e v3
Figure 2-4d 1 2
sec 8 = - - = - = 2
cos e 1
1 2 2
csce = --=--= --
sine --13 v3
Note: To avoid errors in placing the 1, 2, and F3on the reference triangle,
remember that the hypotenuse is the longest side of a right triangle and that
2 is greater than './3
.
Example 4 shows you how to find the function values for an angle that
terminates on a quadrant boundary .
.....EXAMPLE
4 Without using a calculator, evaluate the six trigonometric functions for an angle
of 180°.
Solution Figure 2-4e shows a 180° angle in standard position. The terminal side falls on
th e negative side of the horizontal axis. Pick any point on the terminal side,
such as (-3, 0). Note that although the u-coordinate of the point is negative, the
distance r from the origin to the point is positive because it is the radius of a
circle . The vertical coordinate, v, is 0.
V vertical 0
sin 180 0 = =- =0 Use "vertical , radius" rather than
radius 3 "opposit e, hypot enus e."
180°
horizontal -3
cos 180 0 =
V= Q u
= - = -1
u = -3 radius 3
r =3
vertical O
tan 180 0 = =- =0 Do the obvious simplification.
horizontal -3
Figur e 2-4e
1 1
cot 180° = =- No value Undefin ed because of division by zero .
tan 180 0 0 ·
1
secl80°= =_.!_=-1
cos 180° -1
0 1 1
csc 180 = . 800 No value.
sm 1 0
Section
2·4: Values
Fun
ctions 77
Problem Set 2-4
Reading Analysis t:l{JJ y y

you consider to be the main idea? In what way does
the reference triangle help you explain why certain
trigonometric functions have negative values in
certain quadrants of a uv-coordinate system? How
do geometric properties of right triangles allow you
to find the exact valu es of trigonometric functions
of certain angles? Figure 2-4g Figur e 2-4h
.k .
Q u,c Review
,,--,1)
v , s'%
I For Problems 1-6, find a decimal approximation of
Problems Ql -Q5 concern the right triangle in the given function value. Round the answer to four
Figure 2-4f. decimal places.
01. Which side is the leg opposite 8? l. cot 38° 2. cot 140°
02. Which side is the leg adjacent to 8 ? 3. sec 238° 4. sec (-5 3°)
03. Which side is the hypotenuse? 5. csc (-179°) 6. csc 180° (Surprising ?)
a4. cos e = - ?- For Problems 7-10, find the exact values (no
decimals) of the six trigonometric functions of an
as. sine=- ?- angle e in standard position whose terminal side
contains the given point .
7. (4, -3) 8. (-12 , 5)
9. (-5, -7) 10. (2, 3)
Figure 2-4( For Problems 11-14, if angle e terminates in the
given quadrant an d has the given function value,
06. Write an equation for the sinusoid in find the exact values (no decimals) of the six
Figure 2-4g. trigonometric functions of e.
Ql. Write an equation for the sinusoid in 11. Quadrant II, sine = t
Figure 2-4h.
12. Quadrant III, cos 8 = -f
. How was the parent function transformed to
QB
get the sinusoid in Figure 2-4h? 13. Quadrant IV, sec e= 4
l3 ll
09. Sketch the graph of y = -x 2 . 14. Quadrant I, csc () = 12 v
010. A one-to-one function is For Problems 15-20, find the exact values of the six
trigonometric functions of the given angle.
A Always increasing
B. Always decreasing 15. 60° 16. 135°
C. Always positive 17. -31 5° 18. 330 °

D. Always negative . 19. 180° 20 . - 270°
E. Always invertible
78 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problems
For Problems 21-32, find the exact value (no 43 . From geometry recall that complementar y
decimals) of the given function. Try to do this quickly, angles sum to 90°.
from memor y or by visualizing th e figure in your e
a. If = 23°, what is the complement of 8?
head .
b . Find cos 23° and find sin(complement of
21. sin 180° 22. sin225° 23°). What relationship do you notice ?
23. cos 240° 24. cos 120° c. Based on what you've disco vere d, what do
you think the prefix co- stands for in the
25. tan3 15° 26. tan 270° nam es cosine, cotan gent, and cosecant ?
27. cot 0° 28. cot 300°
44. Pattern in Sine Values Problem: Find th e exact
29. sec 150° 30. sec 0° values of sin 0°, sin 30°, sin 45°, sin 60°, an
31. csc 45° 32. csc 330° sin 90°. Make all the denominator s equal to 2 /
.-----
33. Find all values of
for which
e from 0° thro ugh 360° -
and all th e numerators radicals. Desc ·he the -
e
a. sin = 0 b. cos e = 0
C. tan 8 = 0 d. cot 8 = 0 45. Sine Wave Tracer Project: Figure 2-4i shows the
e. sec e = 0 f. csc e = o unit circle in a uv-coordinat e system and a
sinusoid whose y-values equal th e v-values of
34. Find all values of e from 0° through 360° for the point P where th e rotating ray cuts the unit
which
circle . Create this sket ch using dynami c
a. sin 8 = 1 b. cos e = 1 geometry software such as The Geometer's
C. tan 8 = 1 d. cot 8 = 1 Sketchpad so that when you move point P
e. sec e = 1 f. csc e = 1 around the circle, point Q trac es the sinusoid.
You can also find the Sine Wave Tracer
For Problems 35- 42, find the exact valu e (no Exploration at www.keymath .com/precalc
that
decimals) of the given expression. Note that the provides this sketch.
e
expression sin 2 means (sin 8)2 (and similarly for
Explore this sketch. Write a para graph telling
other functions) . You may check your answe rs u sing
your calculator. what you learned. In particular, explain th e
relationship between e plotted as an angle
35. sin 30° + cos 60° 36. tan 120° + cot (-30 °) in a uv-coordinate system and e plotted
37. sec 2 45° 38. cot 2 30° horizontally in a 8 y-coordinate system.
39. sin 240° csc 240° 40 . cos 120° sec 120° 46. Journal Problem: Update your journal , writing
about con cepts you have learned since th e last
41. tan 2 60° - sec 2 60° 42. cos 2 210° + sin 2 210° entry and concepts about which you are still
unsur e.
- I
y
Q
\ Trace
e
goo 18 ° 270 ° oo 450 °
Figur e 2-4 i
Section
2-4:Values
oftheSixTrigonometr
icFun
ctions 79
2-5 Inverse Trigonometri c Functio ns
and Triangle Problem s
You have learned how to evaluate trigonometric functions for specific angle
measures. Next you'll learn to use function values to find the angles . You'll also
learn how to find unknown measures in a right triangle.
OBJECTIVEGiven two sides of a right triangle or a side and an acute angle, find measures
of the other sides and angles .
Inv erses of Trigonome tric Functions

In order to find the measure of an angle when its function value is given, you
could press the appropriate inverse function keys on your calculator. For
instance, if you know that cos = 0.8, you press e
cos- I 0.8 = 36.8698 ... 0
The symbol cos- I is the familiar inverse function terminology of Chapter 1, read
as "inverse cosine of 0.8." Note that it does not mean the -1 power of cos, which
is the reciprocal of cosine:
1
(cos xr = --cosx
1
Some calculators avoid this difficulty

by using th e symbol acos x, where
"a" can be thought of as standing for
"angle." You can call cos- 1 x or acos x
"an angle whose cosine is x."
Trigonometric functions are periodic, so they are not one-to -one functions.
There are many angles whose cosine is 0.8 (Figure 2-Sa). However, for each
trigonom etric function there is a principal branch of the function that is one-to-
one and includes angles between 0° and 90°. The calculator is programmed to
give the one angle on the principal branch. The symbol cos- 1 0.8 means the one
angle on the principal branch whose cosine is 0.8. The inverse of the cosine
function on th e principal branch is a function denoted cos- 1 x.
y
y = 0.8
Many angles whose cosine is 0.8
\ I
I I \
I \ I
I \
\ I
I
I
I
I
\
\ I
I ' e
I \
I I
I \
I \
I I
I \ I
I I
,' ' ,
Principal branch is a one-to-one function.
Figure 2-5a
80 Chapter2: Per
iodicFunctionsand Rig
ht Triangle Problems
Later, in Section 4-6, you will learn more about the principal branches of all
six trigonometric functions. For the triangle problems of this section, all the
angles will b e acute, so the value the calculator gives you is the value of the
angle you want .
The definitions of the inverse trigonometric functions are presented in the box.
DEFINITIONS:
Inverse
Trigonometric
Functions
If xis the value of a trigonometric function at angle then the inverse e,
trigonometric functions can be defined on limited domains.
(} = Sin- l X means Sin(}= X and -90° ~ (} ~ 90°.
(} = COS
-l X means COS(}= X and 0° ~ (} ~ 180°.
(} = tan - l X means tan(}= X and -90° < (} < 90°.
Notes:
• Words: "The angle eis the angle on the principal branch whose sine (and
r so on) is x."
• Pronunciation: "Inverse sine of x" and so on, never "sine to the negative l."
• The symbols sin- 1 x, cos- 1 x, and tan -1 x are used only for the value the
calculator gives you, not for other angles that have the same function
values. The symbols cor- 1 x, sec- 1 x, and csc 1 x are similarly defined.
• Caution : The symbol sin- 1 x does not mean the reciprocal of sin x.
Right Triangle Problems

Trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions often come up in
applications, such as right triangle problems .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Suppose you have the job of measuring the height of the local water tower.
Climbing makes you dizz y, so you decide to do the whole job at ground level.
You find that from a point 47.3 m from the base of the tower you must look up
at an angle of 53° (angle of elevation) to see the top of th e tower (Figure 2-Sb).
How high is the tower?
How high ?
Angle of elevation
53°
f- 47.3 rn --+-
Figure 2-Sb
Section
2·5: Inverse
Trigonometric
Functions
andTriangle
Problems 81
Solution Sketch an appropr iate right triangl e, as in Figure 2-5c. Label th e known and
unknown informat ion .
_h_ = tan5 3° Write a ratio for tangent.

47.3
h = 47.3 tan 53° = 62.7692 ... Solve for h.
h
The tower is about 62.8 m high . Write th e real-world answer.
53°
47.3 cm
Note that the angle must always hav e the degree sign, even during the
Figure 2-Sc computations. The symbo l tan 53 has a different meaning, as you will learn
when you study radians in the next chapter.
~ EXAMPLE
2 A ship is passing through the Strait of Gibraltar. At its closest point of
approach, Gibraltar radar determines that th e ship is 2400 m away. Later, the
radar determines that the ship is 2650 m away (Figure 2-5d).
a. By what angle e did the ship's bearing from Gibraltar change?
b . How far did the ship tra vel between the two observations ?
)
Gibraltar
~
Strait of'
Gibraltar
2400 m
Figure 2-Sd
Solution a. Draw th e right triangl e and lab el the unknown angle e.By the definition of
cosine,
cos e= adjacent = 2400
hypot enuse 2650
e = cos - I 2400 2 08 6 o
2650 = 5. 7 ... Take the inverse cosine to find 8.
The angle measure is about 25 .09°.

b. Label the unknown sid e d, for distanc e. By th e definition of sine,
d . O Use the unrounded angle measur e
= sm 25.0876 ... that is in your calculator .
2650
d = 2650 sin 25.0876 ... 0 = 1123.6102 ...
Th e ship traveled about 1124 m.
82 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triang
le Problems
Problem Set 2-5
Reading Analysis t:lf!} 7. Principal Branc hes of Sine and Cosine Problem:
Figure 2-5f shows the principal branch of the
you consider to be the main idea? In what way does
function y = sin as a solid line on the sine e
graph . Figure 2-5g shows the principal branch
the inverse of a trigonometric function compare
of the function y = cos e as a solid line on the
with the inverse of a function that you studied in
cosine graph.
Section 1-5? How can you use the inverse of a
trigonometric function to find an unknown angle y
measur e in a right triangle ?
e
Quick Review \
\ I
I
\
\
Problems Ql -Q6 refer to the right triangle in -1 ' ,
Figure 2-5e .
Figure 2-5(
QI. sine = -?-
Q2. cos e = -?- y

l ,~'
aJ. tan e = -?- y
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
e
Figur e 2-Se
Q4. cote=-?-
I
I
as.sec e = - ?- I I
\ I I
-1
Q6. csc e = -?-

Figure 2-Sg
a,. sin60° =-?-(No decimals!)
a. Why is neither the entire sine function nor
QB.cos 135° =-?-(No decimals!) the entire cosine function invertible ?
09. tan 90° =-?-(No decimals!) b. What are the domains of the principal
branches of the cosine and sine functions?
Q10. The graph of the periodic function y = cos eis What property do these principal branches
called a-?-. have that makes them invertible functions?
For Problems 1-6, evaluate th e inverse

e
c. Find = sin - 1 (-0 .9). Explain why the answer
is a negative number.
trigonometric function for th e given value . (Note the
domain restrictions for inverse trigonometric
functions, given on page 81.)
8. Construction Prob lem: Draw a right triangle to
1. Find sin - 1 0.3. Explain what the answer means.
scale, with one leg 8 cm long and the adjacent
2. Find cos - 1 0.2. Explain what the answer means . acute angle 34°. Draw on paper with ruler and
protractor or on the computer with a program
3. Find tan - 1 7. Explain what the answer means.
such as The Geometer's Sketchpad.
4. Explain why sin - 1 2 is undefined. a. Measure the opposit e leg and the
1
5. Find cos (sin- 0.8). Explain, based on the hypotenuse to the nearest 0.1 cm.
Pythagorean theorem, why the answer is a b. Calculate the lengths of the opposite leg
rational number. and the hypotenuse using appropriate
trigonometric functions . Show that your
6. Find sin (cos- 1 0.28). Explain, based on the
measured values and the calculated values
Pythagorean theorem, why the answer is a
agree within 0.1 cm.
rational number.
Sect
ion2-5: Inverse
Trigonometric
Functions
andTriangle
Problems 83
above sea level to 500 ft above sea level in a
slant distance of 6 mi.
a. Approximately what angle do es the roadway
make with the horizontal?
b. What assumption must you make about how
the road slopes?
12. Grand Canyon Problem: From a point on the
North Rim of the Grand Canyon, a surveyor
measures an angle of depression of 1.3° to a
point on the South Rim (Figure 2-5i). From an
aerial photograph she determines that the
horizontal distance between the two points is
10 mi. How many feet is the South Rim below
The Berlin Wall, long a symbol of the Cold War, was
the North Rim?
demolished in 1989. This man is chiseling away
a souvenir piece of the wall. North
Rim
9. Ladder Problem: Suppose you have a ladder --- --- -- -- 10-~------- 1~th
~Angle of ------
2.7 m long like the one in the picture above.
d epression
a. If the ladder makes an angle of 63° with th e
level ground when you lean it against a
vertical wall, how high up the wall is the top
of the ladder?
b. Your cat is trapped on a tree branch 2.6 m
above th e ground. If you place the ladder's top
on the branch, what angle does the bottom of
Figure 2-Si
the ladder make with the level ground?
10. Flagpole Problem: You must order a new rope 13. Tallest Skyscraper Problem: In 2005, Taipei 101
for the flagpole. To find out what length of in Taiwan was the world's tallest skyscraper,
rope is needed, you observe that the pole casts reaching 509 m above the ground. Suppose
a shadow 11.6 m long on the ground. The that at a particular time the building casts a
angle of elevation of the Sun is 36° at this time shadow on the ground 1070 m lon g. What is
of day (Figure 2-5h). How tall is the flagpole? the angle of elevation at this time?
Sun
Angle o f
elevat ion
Flagpol e
36°
ll. 6 m-
Figure 2-Sh
11. The Grapevine Problem: Interstate 5 in

California enters the San Joaquin Valley
through a mountain pass called the Grapevine.
The road descends from an elevation of 3000 ft
84 Chapter
2: Periodi
c Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problems
14. Airp lane Landing Problem: Commercial a. At what angle do Pine and Market Streets
airliners fly at an altitude of about 10 km. intersect?
Pilots start descending toward the airport b . How many paces must you take on Front
when they are far away so that the airplane Street to complete the trip ?
will not have to dive at a steep angle.
17. Surveying Problem : When surveyors measure
a. If the pilot wants the plane's path to make
land that slopes significantly, the slant
an angle of 3° with the ground, at what
distance they measure is longer than the
horizontal distance from the airport must
horizontal distance they must draw on the
she start descending ?
map. Suppose that the distance from the top
b. If she starts descending when the plane is at edge of the Cibolo Creek bed to the edge of
a horizontal distance of 300 km from the the water is 37.8 m (Figure 2-51).The land
airport, what angle will the plane's path slopes downwar d at an angle of 27.6° to the
make with the horizontal? hori zontal.
c. Sketch the actual path of the plane just a. What is the horizontal distance from the top
before and just after it touches the ground. of the creek bed to the edge of the creek?
15. Radiotherapy Problem: A doctor plans to use a b . How far below the level of the surrounding
beam of gamma rays to treat a tumor that is land is the surface of the water in the creek?
5.7 cm beneath the pati ent's skin. To avoid
damaging a vital organ, the radiologist moves Surrounding
land
the source over 8.3 cm (Figure 2-5j).
e
a. At what angle to th e patient's skin must
the radiologist aim th e source to hit the
\
tumor?
b. How far will the beam travel through the
patient's body b efore reaching the tumor? Cibolo
Creek
Figure 2-5/
Sourc~ ·, 1--- 8.3 cm __ .,
Skin 18. Submarine Problem: As a submarine at the
surface of the ocean makes a dive, its path
, 5.7 cm makes an angle of 21° with the surface.
Gamma-ray beam/ ',, ,, '-"----__,__ _) Organ
',, ~ '
' 'i,
Tumor
Figur e 2-Sj
16. Triangular Block Problem: A block bordering

Market Street is a right triangle (Figure 2-5k).
You take 125 paces on Market Street and
102 paces on Pine Street as you walk around
the block.
a. If the submarine travels for 300 m along its

--J~ downward path, how deep will it be? What is
Frojn st./~
its horizontal distance from its starting
~e tSt. point ?
b. How many meters must it go along its
Figure 2-Sk downward path to reach a depth of 1000 m?
Section
2-5: Inverse
Trigonometric
Functions
andTriangle
Problems 85
19. Highland Drive Problem: One of the steeper 0. When Jupiter is closest to Earth
streets in the United States is the 500 block of (390,000,000 mi), the angle is 0°0'46.9".
Highland Drive on Queen Anne Hill in Seattle. Find the approximate diameter of Jupiter.
To measure the slope of the street, Tyline held
; ~ . ~
a builder's level so that one end touched the
pavement . The pavement was 14.4 cm below """"')
c. Check an encyclopedia, an almanac, or the
the level at the other end. The level itself was
Internet to see how close your answers are
71 cm long (Figure 2-5m).
to the accepted diameters.
Level 1J.7
~"' 21. Window Problem: Suppose you want the
I· windows of your house built so that the eaves
completely shade them from the sunlight in
the summer and the sunlight completely fills
Pavement the windows in the winter. The eaves have an
Figure 2-5m overhang of 3 ft (Figure 2-50).
a. How far below the eaves should the top of a
a. What angle does the pavement mak e with window be placed for the window to receive
the level? full sunlight in midwinter, when the Sun's
b. A map of Seattle shows that the horizontal noontime angle of elevation is 25°?
length of this block of Highland Drive is b. How far below the eaves should the bottom
365 ft. How much longer than 36_5ft_isJ:.be of a window be placed for the window to
slant distance up this hill? receive no sunlight in midsummer, when the
c. How high does the street rise up in this block? Sun's angle of elevation is 70°?
c. How tall will the windows be if they meet
both requirements7
I
,'""-70 °
I~ .,.....,
I / \ 2 5°
Eave '~- ~--
,'
',I
,,' , Sun's rays
'' ,' in wint er
I
,'"'
I
20. Planet Diameter Problem: You can find the ,' Sun's rays
approximate diameter of a planet by ,' in summer
I
measuring the angle between the lines of sight Window
,I
to the two sides of the planet (Figure 2-5n). I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
, I
I
I
I
I
Earth An g le Other I
I
plan et I
Figure 2-5n
Wall
a. When Venus is closest to Earth

(25,000,000 mi), the angle is 0°1' 2.5"
Figur e 2-50
(0 degre es, 1 minute, 2.5 seconds). Find the
approximate diameter of Venus.
86 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problems
22. Grand Piano Problem: A 28 in . prop holds open b. Find a convenient handicap access ramp.
the lid on a grand piano. The base of the prop ' With a level and ruler , measure the run and
is 5 5 in. from the lid's hinge. the rise of the ramp. Use these numbers to
calculate the angle the ramp makes with the
horizontal.
;
c. Check on the Internet or use anot her

reference source to find the maximum angle
a handicap access ramp is allowed to make
with the horizontal.
24. Pyramid Problem: The Great Pyramid of
Cheops in Egypt has a square base measurin g
230 m on each side. The faces of the pyramid
make an angle of 51°50' with the horizontal
(Figure 2-5p).
a. How tall is the pyramid ?
a. What angle does the lid make with the piano b. What is the shortest distanc e you would
top when the prop is placed perpendicular
have to climb to get to the top?
to the lid?
c. Suppose that you decide to make a mod el of
b. Where on the lid should the prop be plac ed rJ
to make the right angle in part a? GIJ/ the pyramid by cutting four isosceles
triangles out of cardboard and gluing them
c. The piano also has a shorter (13 in.) prop . together. How large should you make the
Where on the lid should this prop be placed base angles of these isosceles triangles?
to make a right angle with the lid?
d. Show that the ratio of the distance you
23. Handicap Ramp Project: In this project you will calculated in part b to one -half the len gth of
measur e th e angle a typical handicap access the base of the pyramid is very close to the
ramp mak es with the horizontal. golden ratio, ..Js+ 1 .
2
; :.
:::::::::
e. Check on the Internet or use another

reference source to find other startling
relationships among the dimens ions of this
pyramid. Also visit Public Broadcasting
System's Web site and look for Nova: Secrets
of Lost Empires for photographs and
information about the pyramids.
a. Based on handicap access ramps you have

seen, mak e a conjecture about the angle
th ese ramps mak e with the horizontal . Each
Figur e 2-Sp
member of your group sho uld make his or
her own conjecture.
Section
2-5: Inverse
Trigonometri
c Functions
andTriangle
Problems 87
This chapter introduced you to periodic functions. You saw how these functions
occur in the real world . For instance, your distance from the ground as you ride a
Ferris wheel changes periodically. The sine and cosine functions are periodic. By
dilating and translating these functions, you can get sinusoids of different
proportions, with their critical points located at different places. You also learned
about the other four trigonometric functions and their relationship to the sine
and cosine functions. Finally, you learned how to use these six functions and their
inverses to find unknown side lengths and angle measures in right triangles.
Review Problems
RO.Update your journal with what you have learned parent sine function graph on your grapher.
since the last entry. Include things such as Does the result agr ee with Figure 2-6b?
• How angles can have measures that are b. The solid graph in Figure 2-6b is a dilation
negative or greater than 180°, and ref erence and translation of the pre-image function
angles y = sine. Write the full names of these
• The definitions of sine, cosine, tangent, transformations, and write an equation
cotangent, secant, and cosecant for the function. When you plot the
transformed graph on your grapher, does
• Why sine and cosine graphs are periodic
the result agree with Figure 2-6b?
• Inverse trigonometric functions used to find
c. What is the name for the periodic graphs in
angles
Figure 2-6b?
• Applications to right triangle problems
Handl e
1
y
2 ft
Ground
j j
Figur e 2-6a
y
3
2.7 -----
Rl. Hose Reel Problem: You unwind a hose by
turning the crank on a hose reel (Figure 2-6a). 2 · -·-·-·-· ·-·-·- · -·- · ·- · -·-
As you crank, the distance your hand is above 1.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
the ground is a periodic function of the 1
,
angle through which the reel has rotated ,, '
' ,, e
(Figure 2-6b, solid graph). The distance, y, is ,3 60°
measured in feet, and the angle, e, is
-1
measured in degrees.
a. The dashed graph in Figure 2-6b is the Figure 2-6b
pre-image function y = sine. Plot this
88 Chapter
2: Periodic
Function
s andRight
Triangle
Problems
R2. For each angle measur e, sketch an angle in b. Sunken Ship Probl em: Imagin e that you are
standard position. Mark the reference angl e on a salvage ship in the Gulf of Mexico. Your
and find its measur e. sonar system ha s located a sunken ship at a
a. ll0 ° b. -79° slant distan ce of 683 m from your ship, with
an angle of depr ess ion of 28 °.
C. 2776°
i. How de ep is the water at the locati on of
R3. a. Find sin 8 and cos 8 given that the terminal the sunken ship ?
side of angle e contains the point (u, v) = ii . How far must your ship go to b e directly
(-5 , 7). above th e sunken ship?
b. Find decimal approximatio ns of sin 160 ° iii . Your ship moves horizontally toward the
and cos 160 °. Draw a 160 ° angle in standard sunken ship. After 52 0 m, what is th e
position and mark the reference angle. angle of depre ssion?
Based on displac emen ts in th e reference iv. How could the crew of a fishing vessel
triangle, explain why sin 160° is positi ve but u se th e techniques of this problem while
cos 160 ° is negative. searching for schoo ls of fish?
c. Sketch the graph s of the parent sinusoids
y = cos e and y = sin e.
d. In which two quadran ts on a uv-coordinate
sys tem is sine negative?
e,
e. For th e function y = 4 + cos 2 what ar e the
transformations of the parent function
graph y = cos 8? Sketch the graph of the
transformed function.
R4. a. Find a decimal approximation of csc 256°.
b. Find exact values (no decimals) of th e six
trigonometric functions of 150° .
c. Find the exact value of sec if e erer
= 45°
e
and angle terminat es in Quadrant III.
d . Find the exact value of cos e if the terminal
e
side of angle contains the point (-3, 5).
e. Find the exact value of sec (-1 20°).
f. Find th e exact value of tan 2 30° - csc 2 30° .
g. Explain why tan 90° is undefined.
RS. a. Find a decimal approximation of
e = cos - 1 0. 6. What do es the answer mean ?
Section
2-6: Chapter
Review
andTest 89
Concept Problems
Cl. Tide Problem: The average depth of the water C2. Figure 2-6d shows three cycles of the sinusoid
at the beach varies with time due to the function y = 10 sin e.The horizontal line y = 3
motion of the tid es . Figure 2-6c shows the cuts each cycle at two points.
graph of dept h, in feet, vers us time, in hours, a. Estimate graphically the six value s of e
for a particular beach. Find the four where the line inters ects the sinusoid.
transformations of the parent cosine graph
b. Calculate the six points in part a
that would give the sinu soid shown. Write an
numerically, u sing the inters ection feature
equation for this particular sinu soid, assuming
of your grapher.
1 degree represents 1 hour. Confirm your
answer on your grap her. c. Calculate the six points in part a
algebr aically, using the invers e sine function.
y
y
3
e e
4 16 28
Time(h)
Figure 2-6c
Figur e 2-6d
.._
C3. On your grapher, make a table of values of
e e
cos 2 + sin 2 for each 10 degrees, starting at
e = 0°. What is the pattern in the answers?
Explain why this pa tt ern applies to any value
of e.
C4. A ray from the origin of a uv-coordinate
system starts along the positive u-axis and
rotates around and around the origin . The
slope of the ray depends on the angle measure
through which th e ray has rotated.
a. Sketch a reasonable graph of th e slope as a
function of th e angle of rotation.
b. What function on your graph er is the same
as the one you sketch ed in part a?
90 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triongle
Probl
ems
Chapter Test
allowed(Tl-TB) PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(T9-T22)
Tl. Sketch an angle e in standard position whose For Problems T9-Tl2, us e your calculator to find
terminal side contains the point (3, -4) . Sketch each value .
the reference triangle, showing the reference
angle and the displacements u, v, and r. Find T9 . sec 39°
the exact values of the six trigonometric no . cot173°
functions of e.
Tll. csc 191°
T2. Sketch a 120° angle in standard position.
Sketch the reference triangle . Show the Tl2. tan - 1 0.9. Explain the meaning of the answer.
reference angl e and its measure and the Tl3 . Calculate the length of side x.
displacements u, v, and r. Find the exact values
of the six trigonometric functions of 120°.
T3. Sketch a 225° angle in standard position. ~ x
Sketch the reference triangle. Show th e
reference angle and its measure and the
displacements u, v, and r. Find the exact values
~ 27 ft
~
of the six trigonometric functions of 225°. Tl4 . Calculate the length of side y.
T4. Sketch a 180° angle in standard position . Pick
a point on the terminal side, and write the
horizontal coordinate, vertical coord inat e,
and radius . Use these numbers to find the
exact values of the six trigonometric
4mi
functions of 180°.
T5. The number of hairs on a person's head and ~
his or her age are relat ed. Sketch a reasonable
graph .
Tl5. Calculate the length of angle B.
T6. The distance between the tip of the "second"
hand on a clock and the floor depends on
time. Sketch a reasonable grap h .
T7. Only one of the functions in Problems TS and
T6 is periodic. Which one is that? Tl6 . Calculate the length of side z.
z
TS. Figure 2-6e shows the graph of y =sin e
(dashed) and its principal branch (solid).
Explain why the function y = sin is not e
invertible but the function defined by its
principal branch is invertible. Tl7. Calculate the length of angle A.
y A
'\
\
\
\
\
\ e
\ - 90° go o \ I
I
\
\ ,
-1 ' ,
Figur e 2-6e
Section
2·6:Chapter
Review
andTest 91
Buried Treasure Problem: For Problems Tl8-T20, T21. In Figure 2-6g, the solid graph shows the result
use Figure 2-6f, the diagram of a buried treasure. of three transformations applied to the parent
From the point on the ground at the left of the function y = cos e (dashed) . Write the equation
figure, sonar detects the treasure at a slant distance for the transformed function. Check your
of 19.3 m, at an angle of 33° with the horizontal. results on your grapher.
1-- \ e,. t\ ·l--10.?m

- l y
5 ...
•,,, z:::,',,, G~u"d
: : : : l: :· .. : :: : : : : .....
19.3 m ',,, ,, . . ·(? ....... . .. .
,,
. . ;. - -·.... . . ..,.·...- . . . . ·e
'
', I
.......
!'
,,"
,
,,
.. . ...
~ . . . .
· - -~
'
,,
-....;..;;. 720°
.;,,
.;...... __
..:....
''
~: Buried treasure
Figure 2-6{
Tl8. How far must you go from the point on the left
Figure 2-6g
to be directly over the trea~ure?
Tl9. How deep below the ground is the treasure? T22. What d1d you learn as a result of taking this
test that you didn't know before ?
T20. If you keep going to the right 10.7 m from the
point directly above the treasure, at what angle
would you have to dig to reach the buried
treasure?
92 Chapter
2: Periodic
Functions
andRight
Triangle
Problems
Applications of
Trigonometric and
Circular Functions 3
Stresses in the earth compress rock formations and cause them to

buckle into sinusoidal shapes. It is important for geologists to be
able to predict the depth of a rock formation at a given point. Such
information can be very useful for structural engineers as well. In
this chapter you'll learn about the circular functions, which are
closely related to the trigonometric functions. Geologists and
engineers use these functions as mathematical models to perform
calculations for such wavy rock formations.
93
So far you've learned about transformations and sinusoids. In this
chapter you'll combine what you've learned so that you can write
a particular equation for a sinusoid that fits any given conditions.
You will approach this in four ways.
Graphically The graph is a sinusoid that is a y

cosine function transformed
through vertical and horizontal
translations and dilations. The
independent variable here is x
X
rather than e so that you can fit 4 7 10
sinusoids to situations that do not
involve angles.
Algebraically Particular equation: y = 7 + 2 cos f(x - 1)
Numerically X y
1 9
2 8
3 6
4 5
Verbally T~ circularfwtc:tum£are,jU£t ~ t/u, tri-joMmdricfunctwrUe,xcep:t

tlw±t/u, ~ v-arWLe,u aJ'l, are,ofa, wut &de, wtead ofaJ'l,
tuf.j(e,·Artjl.Mifvradi.afujorMv~WU<:,be;tweervtur.jl.M
ilvdejreM a;u:l
of of
n.umlJen wutr are,~tk .
94 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometr
icandCircular
Functions
3-1 Sinusoids: Amplitude, Period, and Cycles
Figure 3-la shows a dilated and translated sinusoid and some of its graphical
features . In this section you will learn how these features relate to
transformations you've already learned.
Y Phase displacem ent

(hori zontal translation )
Sinusoidal axis
Figure 3-la
OBJECTIVELearn the meanings of amp li tude, period, phase displacement, and cycle of a
sinusoidal graph.

1. Sketch one cycle of the graph of the parent 3. What is the period of the transformed function
sinusoid y = cos 8, starting at 8 = 0°. What is in Problem 2? What is the period of the parent
the amplitude of this graph? function y = cos 8?
2. Plot the graph of the transformed cosine 4. Plot the graph of y = cos 38. What is the period
fun ction y = 5 cos 8. What is the amplitude of of this transformed function graph? How is the
thi s graph ? What is the r elationship between 3 related to the transformation? How could
the amplitude and the vertical dilation of a you calcula te the period using the 3?
sinusoid?
5. Plot the graph of y = cos (8 - 60°). What
transformation is caused by the 60°?
6. The (8 - 60°) in Problem 5 is called the
argument of the cosine. The phase
displacement is the value of 8 that makes
th e argument equ al zero. What is the ph ase
displacement for this function? How is the
phase displacement related to the horizontal
translation?
Section
3-1: Sinusoids:
Amplitude,
Period,
andCycles 95
7. Plot the graph of y = 6 + cos e.What does the location of the sinusoidal axis
transformation is caused by the 6? indicate?
8. The sinusoidal axis runs along the 9. What are the amplitude, period, phase
middle of the graph of a sinusoid. It is displacement, and sinusoidal axis location of
the dashed centerline in Figure 3-la. What the graph of y = 6 + 5 cos 3((} - 60°)? Check by
transformation of the function y = cos x plotting on your grapher.
3-2 General Sinusoidal Graphs

In Section 3-1, you encountered the terms period, amplitude, cycle, phase
displacement, and sinusoidal axis. They are often used to describe horizontal
and vertical translation and dilation of sinusoids. In this section you'll make the
connection between the new terms and these transformations so that you will
be able to fit an equation to any given sinusoid. This in turn will help you use
sinusoidal functions as mathematical models for real-world applications such
as the variation of average daily temperature with the time of year.
OBJECTIVEGiven any one of these sets of information about a sinusoid, find the
other two.
• The equation
• The graph
• The amplitude, period or frequency, phase displacement, and
sinusoidal axis
Recall from Chapter 2 that the period of a sinusoid is the number of degrees
per cycle. The reciprocal of the period, or the number of cycles per degree, is
called the frequency. It is convenient to use the frequency when the period
is very short. For instance, the alternating electrical current in the United
States has a frequency of 60 cycles per second, meaning that the period is
1/60 second per cycle.
You can see how the general sinusoidal equations allow for all four
transformations.
DEFINITION:
General
Sinusoidal
Equation
y = C + A cos B((} - D) or y= C + A sinB(8 - D), where
• IAIis the amplitude (A is the vertical dilation, which can be positive or
negative).
• Bis the reciprocal of the horizontal dilation.
• C is the location of the sinusoidal axis (vertical translation).
• Dis the phase displacement (horizontal translation).
96 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
The period can be calculate d from the value of B. Because -Jiis the horizontal
dilation and because the parent cosine and sine functions have the period 360°,
the period of a sinusoi d equals fsi-(360°).Dilations can be positive or negative, so
you must use the absolute value symbol.
PROPERTY:
Period
andFrequency
ofa Sinusoid
For general equations y = C + A cos B(e - D) or y = C + A sin B(e - D)
1
period = IBl(360°) and freque n cy= --- = --
1 IBI
p eriod 360°
Next you'll use these propert ies and the general equation to graph sinusoids
and find their equations.
Background: Concavity, Points of Inflection ,

and Upper and Lower Bounds
A smoothly curved graph can have a
concave (hollowed-out) side and a con vex Half-coconut
(bulging) side, as Figure 3-2a shows for a
typical sinusoid. In calculus, for reasons you
will learn, mathematicians usually refer to ; i~~vex
th e concave side . Figure 3-2a also shows
regions where the concave side of the graph
is up or down . A point of infle ction occurs
where a graph stops being concave one way
and starts being concave the other way. The
word originates from the British spelling, inflexion,which means "not flexed."
y Y High point
Convex Wlection point
/ Upper bound
/side Points of inflection
. --_Z_------~--~-~---
I /\
Concave
c:=~
side Concave
up
Low point
/ Lower bound
e
e Sinuso ida l axis
Figure 3-2a Figure 3-2b
As you can see from Figure 3-2b, the sinuso idal axis goes through the points of
inflection. The lines through the high points and the low points are called th e
upper boun d and the lowe r bound , respect ively. The high points and low
points are called critical points because they have a "criti cal" influence on the
size and location of the sinu soid . Note that it is a quarter-cycle between a
critical point and the next point of inflection.
Section
3-2: General
Sinusoidal
Graphs 97
.... EXAMPLE
I Suppose that a sinusoid has period 12° per cycle, amplitude 7 units, phase
displacement -4 ° with respect to the parent cosine function, and a sinusoidal
axis 5 units below the 8-axis. Without using your graph er, sketch this
sinusoid and then find an equation for it. Verify with your grapher that your
equation and th e sinusoid you sketched agree with each other.
Solution First draw the sinusoidal axis at y = -5 , as in Figure 3-2c. (The long-and-short ""
da shed line is used by draftspersons for centerlines.) Use the amplitude, 7,
to draw the upper and lower bounds 7 units above and 7 units below the
sinusoidal axis.
y
Upper bound
--- ------ 2 -- - -------------- -- - -------- -e
-5
- 12
Low er bound
Figure 3-2c
Next find some critical points on the graph (Figure 3-2d). Start at e = -4°,
be cause that is the phase displacement, and mark a high point on the upper
bound. (The cosine function starts a cycle at a high point because cos 0° = 1.)
Then us e the period, 12°, to plot th e ends of the next two cycles.
-4° + 12° = 8°
-4° + 2(12°) = 20°
Mark some low critical points halfway between consecutive high points.
y
---- • ----2 ---------------------------··--- e

-40 go 20°
-5
- 12
Figure 3-2d
Now mark the points of inflection (Figure 3-2e). They lie on the sinusoidal axis,
halfway between consecutive high and low points .
98 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
y
--- - ~ ---2 - - - - - - - - - _......

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -·- - . e
-4 0 so 20 °
-- --:.s_- -- . - • - -- -- _.__. - . - .... . - . - -
---------- 12 --~- ----- -- - -- ---- ~ -------- --

Figure 3-2e
Finally, sketc h the graph in Figure 3-2f by connecting th e critical points and
points of inflection with a smooth curve . Be sure that the graph is rounded at
the critical points an d that it changes concavity at th e points of inflection.
y
~
--- ----- - ~
Fig ur e 3-2f
Becau se th e p eriod of this sinu soid is 12° and the period of the parent cosine
function is 360°, the horizontal dilation is
12° 1
y dilation = -- =-
360° 30
e The coefficient Bin the sinu soidal equation is the re cipro cal of lo,namel y, 30.
The horizontal translation is - 4°. Thus a parti cular equation is
y= -5 + 7 cos 30(8 + 4°)
Plotting the graph on your grapher confirms that this e~ ation produces the
Figure 3-2g
correct graph (Figure 3-~r .., (,6) \ 'J...
_ ':,) E£ -r -\ .....
..... EXAMPLE
2 For the sinuso id in Figure 3-2h, give the period, frequenc y, amplitude, pha se
disp laceme nt, and sinusoidal axis location. Write a particular equation of the
sinusoid. Check your equation by plotting it on your grapher . /
y
56
·- ·- - ·-·- ·- -- e
3° 23 °
- 38 ------- --------
Figur e 3-2h
Section
3-2: General
Sinusoidal
Graphs 99
Solution As you will see later, you can use either the sine or the cosine as the pre-image
function. Here, use the cosine function, because its "first" cycle starts at a high
point and two high points are known.
• To find the period, look at the cycle shown in Figure 3-2h. It starts at 3°
and ends at 23°, so the period is 23° - 3°, or 20°.
• The frequency is the reciprocal of the period, fcjcycle per degree.
• The sinusoidal axis is halfway between the upper and lower bounds, so
y = !(-38 + 56), or 9.
• The amplitude is the distance between the upper or lower bound and the
sinusoidal axis.
A=56 -9=47
• Using the cosine function as the parent function, the phase displacement
is 3°. (You could also use 23° or -17°.)
• The horizontal dilation is }l;o, 0
so B = 3260~ or 18 (the reciprocal of the

,
horizontal dilation). So a particular equation is

y= 9 + 47 cos 18(8- 3°)
Plotting the corresponding graph on your grapher confirms that the equation
is correct. ....
You can find an equation of a sinusoid when only part of a cycle is given. The
next example shows you how to do this.
~ EXAMPLE
3 Figure 3-2i shows a quarter-cycle of a sinusoid. Write a particular equation and
check it by plotting it on your grapher.
y
3
f)
17° 24 °
Figure 3-2i
Solution Imagine the entire cycle from the part of the

graph that is shown. You can tell that a low
point is at e = 24° because the graph appears
to level out there. So the lower bound is
at y = 3. The point at e = 17° must be an
inflection point on the sinusoidal axis
at y = 8 because the graph is a quarter-cycle.
So the amplitude is 8 - 3, or 5. Sketch the
lower bound, the sinusoidal axis, and the
upper bound. Next locate a high point.
Each quarter-cycle covers (24° - 17°), or 7°,
100 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
so the critical points and points of inflection are spac ed 7° apart. Thus a high
poin t is at 8 = 17° - 7°, or 10°. Sketch at least one complete cycle of the graph
(Figure 3-2j).
y
13 , - , ; ...
,, '' ,,
/ ' I
I ' I
I ' I
8 / __________ :~ _, / ,,,. -- - -- -
3
e
100 17° 24 °
Figur e 3-2}
The period is 4(7°), or 28°, because a quarter of the period is 7°. The horizontal
. 1s
dil anon . 2s . , or 7 . 0
360 90
The coefficient Bin the sinusoidal equation is the reciprocal of this horizontal
dilation. If you use the techniques of Example 2, a particular equation is
y =s+ (e - 10°)
s cos 9#1
Plotting the graph on your grapher shows that the equation is correct. <1111111
Note th at in all the examples so far a particular equation is used, not the. There
are many equivalent forms of the equation, depending on which cycle you pick
for the "fir st" cycle and whether you use the parent sine or cosine function . The
next example shows some po ssibiliti es .
.... EXAMPLE
4 For the sinusoid in Figure 3-2k, write a particular equati on using
a. Cosine, with a phase displacement other than 10°
b. Sine
c. Cosine, with a n egative vertical dilation factor
d. Sine, with a negative vertical dilation factor
Confir m on your grapher that all four equations give the same graph.
y
13
8 . · - · -·-· - - ·- ·- ·- · ·- ·- ·-
3 -------- ---------
e
30 100 17° 24° 31° 38°
Figur e 3-2k
Solution a. Notice that the sinusoid is the same one as in Example 3. To find a
different phase displacement, look for another high point . A convenient
Section
3-2: General
Sinusoidal
Graphs 101
one is at 8 = 38°. All the other constants remain the same. So another
particular equation is
y = 8 + 5 cos ~(8 - 38°)
b. The graph of the parent sine function starts at a point of inflection on the
sinusoidal axis while going up. Two possible starting points appear in
Figure 3-2k, one at 8 = 3° and another at 8 = 31°.
9
y=8+5sin ?(8-3°) or y=8+5sin~(8-31 °)
c. Changing the vertical dilation factor from 5 to -5 causes the sinusoid to be
reflected across the sinusoidal axis. If you use -5, the "first" cycle starts as
a low point instead of a high point. The most convenient low point in this
case is at e = 24°.
y= 8 - 5 cos 9
?(8- 24°)
d. With a negative dilation factor, the sine function starts a cycle at a point
of inflection while going down. One such point is shown in Figure 3-2k at
e = 17°.
y = 8 - 5 sin ~ (8 - 17°)
Plotting these four equatiQ..nSon your grapher reveals only one image. The
graphs are superimposed on one another. ~
Problem Set 3-2
Reading Analysis {1[fJ QI. How many cycles are there between
and e = 80°?
e = 20°
you consider to be the main idea? How are the Q2. What is the amplitude?
words period, frequency, and cycle related to one
Q3. What is the period?
another in connection with sinusoids? What is the
difference between the way 8 appears on the Q4. What is the vertical translation?
graph of a sinusoid and the way it appears in a
QS.What is the horizontal translation (for cosine)?
uv-coordinate system, as in Chapter 2? How can
there be more than one particular equation for a Q6. Find the exact value (no decimals) of sin 60°.
given sinusoid? Ql. Find the approximate value of sec 71°.
QB.Find the approximate value of cot - 1 4.3.

Quick Review
Q9. Find the measure of the larger acute angle of
Problems Ql - Q5 refer to Figure 3-21.
a right triangle with legs of lengths 11 ft and 9 ft.
y
Q10. Expand: (3x - 5)2
21
For Problems 1-4, find the amplitude, period,
13 phase displacement, and sinusoidal axis location.
Without using your grapher, sketch the graph by
e
20° 80°
Figure 3-21
102 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
locating critical points. Then check your graph 7. e = 70° and e = 491 °
using your grapher .
y
1. y = 7 + 4 cos 3(8 + 10°)
2. y= 3 + 5 cos!(8 - 240°) e
3. y= -10 + 20 sin!W - 120°)

4. y = -8 + 10 sin 5(8 + 6°)
8. e = 8° and e = 1776°
y
e
- 20 so
For Problems 5-8, -5.-J /c)

a. Find a particular equation for the sinusoid For Problems 9-14, find a particular equation of the
using cosine or sine, whichever seems easier. sinusoid that is graphed.
b. Give the amplitude, period, frequency, phase 9. y J/:)
displacement, and sinusoidal axis location .
c. Use the equation from part a to calculate y for . '?
the given values of e.Show that the result
agrees with the given graph for the first value .
5. e = 60° and e = 1234° 20
e
- 16°
y
10.
3
e
- 70° - 25 ° 20° 65° ll0 ° 155° 200°
e
6. e = 10° and e = 453°
y 11. y
1.7
e
-1.7
- 16°
Section
3-2: General
Sinusoidal
Graphs 103
12. y 18. y
e e
-~o I~ i; l l
y 19. If the sinusoid in Problem 17 is extended to
13. r e = 300°, what is the value of y? If the
sinusoid is extended to e = 5678°, is the point
on the graph above or below the sinusoidal
(){
axis? How far?
20. If the sinusoid in Problem 18 is extended to
-7 the left to e = 2.5°, what is the value of y?
If the sinusoid is extended to e = 328°, is
14. y
\ ? the point on the graph above or below the
sinusoidal axis? How far?
0.03 For Problems 21 and 22, sketch the sinusoid
describ ed and write a particular equation of it.
/3
- 100° 500° Check the equation on your grapher to make sure
it produces the graph you sketched.
- 0.0 3
21. The period equals 72°, amplitude is 3 units,
phase displacement (for y = cos 8) equals 6°,
and the sinusoidal axis is at y = 4 units.
In Problems 15 and 16, a half-cycle of a sinusoid is
shown. Find a particular equation of the sinusoid. 22. The frequency is / 0 cycle per degree, amplitude
equal s 2 units, phase displacement (for
15. y y = cos 8) equals - 3°, and the sinusoidal axis
& ~\\ is at y= -5 units .
~u ~C For Problems 23 and 24, write four different
e particular equations for the given sinusoid, using
30 50
v a. Cosine as the parent function with positive
vertical dilation
16. y b. Cosine as the parent function with negative
vertical dilation
c. Sine as the parent function with positive
verti cal dilation
e
d. Sine as the parent function with negative
vertica l dilation
In Problems 17 and 18, a quarter-cycle of a sinusoid Plot all four equations on the same screen on your
is shown . Find a particular equation of the sinusoid. grapher to confirm that the graphs are the same.
17. y
4
e
70° 200 °
-5
104 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
23. y 27 . Horizontal vs. Vertical Transformations
Prob lem: In the function
y = 3 + 4 cos 2(e - 5°)
the 3 and the 4 are the vertical transformations,
2 but the 2 and the -5 are the reciprocal and
e
-40 ° - 10° 20° 50° 80° ll0 ° 140°
opposite of the horizontal transformations .
a. Show that you can transform the given
24. y equation to
47 y~3 =cos(e1~r)
b. Examine the equation in part a for th e

ll
e transformations that are applied to the
-7 0 - 40 - 10 20 50 so 110 140 x- and y-variables. What is the form of
these transformations ?
c. Why is the original form of the equation
25. Frequency Problem: The unit for the period of a more useful than th e form in part a?
sinusoid is degrees per cycle. The unit for the
frequenc y is cycles per degree . 28. Journal Problem: Update your journal with things
you have learned about sinusoids. In particular,
a. Suppose that a sinusoid has period
explain how the amplitude, period, phase
todegree / cycle. What would the frequency displacement, frequenc y, and sinusoidal axis
b e? Why might people prefer to speak of the
location are related to the four constants in the
frequency of such a sinusoid rather than the
general sinusoidal equation. What is meant by
p eriod ?
critical points, concavity, and points of inflection?
b. For y = cos 300 e, wha t is the period? What
is the frequency? How can you calculate the
frequency quickl y, using the 300?
26. Infle ction Point Probl em: Sketch the graph of a
fun ction that has high and low critical points.
On the sketch, show
a. A point of inflection
b. A region where the graph is concave up
c. A region where the grap h is concave down
3-3 Graphs of Tangent, Cotangent, Secant,

and Cosecant Functions
If you enter tan go into your calculator, you will get an error message because
0
tangent is defined as a quotient. On the unit circle, a point on the terminal side
of a go angle has horizontal coordinate zero and vertical coordinate 1. Division
0
of a nonzero number by zero is undefined, which you'll see leads to ve rtical

asympt otes at angle measures for which division by zero would occur . In this
sectio n you'll also see that the graphs of the tangent, cotangent, secant, and
cosecant functions are dis continuou s where the function valu e would involve
division by zero.
~
Section
3-3: Graph
s ofTangent,
Cotangent,
Secant,
andCosecant
Functions 105
OBJECTIVEPlot the graphs of the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions,
. \
· showing their behavior when the function value is undefined.
~ '
You can plot cotangent, secant, and cosecant by using the fact that they are
reciprocals of tangent, cosine, and sine, respectively.
1 1 1
cote=-- sece =-- csce =--
\
tane cos e sine ..
Figure 3-3a shows the graphs of y = tan e and y =cote, and Figure 3-3b shows
e e,
the graphs of y = sec and y = csc all as they might appear on your grapher .
0
If you us e a friendly window that includes multiples of go as grid points, you'll
see that the graphs are discontinuous. Notice that the graphs go off to infinity
(positive or negative) at odd or even multiples of go exactly those places0
,
where the functions are undefined.
y = tan e y =co te
Figure 3-3a
u e
y= sec e y = csc e
Figure 3-3b
To see why the graphs have these shapes, it helps to look at transformations
performed on the parent cosine and sine graphs .
.... EXAMPLE
1 e.
Sketch the graph of the parent sine function, y = sin Use the fact that csc = si~ e e
to sketch the graph of the cosecant function . Show how the asymptotes of the
cosecant function are related to the graph of the
sine function. y
Solution Sketch the sine graph as in Figure 3-3c. Where the '
value of the sine function is zero , the cosecant ''
function will be undefined because of division by
1 ,,--,
1',_
I
"I'
...
I
I ,
36Qo:
zero . Draw vertical asymptotes at thes e values of e.
Figur e 3-3c
106 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Funct
ions
y Where the sine function equals 1 or -1, so does the cosecant function, because
'U'
I
I
I
I
I
1,. ,.... '
I
I
I
I
I
I e
the reciprocal of 1 is 1 and the reciprocal of -1 is - 1. · ark these points as in
Figure 3-3d. As the sine gets smaller, the cosecq11tgets bigger, and vice versa.
For instance, the reciprocal of 0.2 is 5. The reciprocal of -0.5 is -2. Sketch the
graph consistent with these facts, as in Figure }-3d. <1111111
:r-
\ :n'-
,
I
I
I
'
- :"'360
I
I
I
'
Figur e 3-3d
I °I
I
I
I
'
To understand why th e graphs of the tangent and cotangent functions have the
shapes in Figure 3-3a, it helps to examine how these functions are related to the
sine and cosine functions. By definition,
tan e = -V
u
Dividing the numerator and the denominator by r gives
tan e = v/ r
u/ r
By the definitions of sine and cosine, the numerator equaJs sine and the
e.
denominator equals cos As a result, these quotient properties are true .
,. PROPERTIES:
Quotient
Properties
forTangent
andCotangent
tane =--
sine
and
cos
cote=--
e
cos e sin e
The quotient properties allow you to construct the tangent and cotangent
graphs from the sine and cosine .
.... EXAMPLE
2 On paper, sketch the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x. Use the quotient property
to sketch the graph of y = cot x. Show the asymptotes and the points where the
graph crosses the 8 -axis.
Solution Draw the graphs of the sine and the cosine function s (dashed and solid,
y respective ly) as in Figure 3-3e. Because cot e =~~~:.show the asymptotes where
sine = 0, and show the e-intercepts where cos e = 0.
e
At = 45 °, and wherever else the graphs of the sine and the cosine function s
i
int ers ect each other, ~~1~ will equal l. Wherever sine and cosine are opposites of
i
each other, ~: will equa l -1. Mark these points as in Figure 3-3f. Then sketch
the cotangent graph through the marked points, consistent with the
asymptotes . The final graph is shown in Figure 3-3g.
Figure 3-3e
y y
Figur e 3-3{ Figur e 3-3g
Section
3-3: Graphs
ofTangent,
Co
tangent
, Secant,
andCosecant
Functions 107
Problem Set 3-3
Reading Analysis {Z9J 1. Secant Function Problem

From what you have read in this sect ion, what do a. Sketch two cycles of the parent cosine
you consider to be the main idea? What feature function y = cos 8. Use the fact that
do the graphs of the tangent, cotangent, secant, e
sec = co~ e to sketch the graph of
and cosecant functions have that sinusoids do not y = sec e.
have, and why do they have this feature? What b. How can you locate the asymptotes in the
algebraic properties allow you to sketch the grap h secant graph by looking at the cosine
of the tangent or cotangent function from two graph? How does your graph compare with
sinusoids? the secant graph in Figure 3-3b?
c. Does the secant function have critical
Quick Review points? If so, find some of them . If not,
explain why not.
Problems Ql -Q 7 refer to the equation
y = 3 + 4 cos 5(8 - 6°). d. Does the secant function have points of
inflection? If so, find some of them. If not,
QI. The graph of the equation is called a - ?-. explain why not.
Q2. The amplitude is - ?-. 2. Tangent Function Problem
03. The period is-?-. a. Sketch two cycles of the parent function
y = cos e and two cycles of the parent
Q4. The phase displacement with respect to function y = sin e on the same axes.
y= cos e is-? -.
b. Explain how you can use the graphs in part a
05. The frequency is-?-. to locate the 8-intercepts and the vertical
asymptotes of the graph of y = tan e.
06. The sinusoidal axis is at y = -?-.
c. Mark the asymptotes, intercepts, and other
Ql. The lower bound is at y = - ?- . significant points on your sketch in part a.
QB.What kind of function is y = x 5 ? Then sketch the graph of y = tan e.How
does the result compare with the tangent
09. What kind of function is y = 5x7 graph in Figure 3-3a?
010. The "If ... " part of the statement of a theorem d. Does the tangent function have critical
is called the points? If so, find some of them. If not,
A. Conclusion B. Hypothesis explain why not.
C. Convers e D. Inverse e. Does the tangent function have points of
inflection? If so, find some of them. If not,
E. Contrapositive
explain why not.
108 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Function
s
3. Quotient Property for Tangent Problem: Plot 15. Rotating Lighthouse Beacon Problem:
th ese three graphs on the same screen on your Figure 3-3h shows a lighthouse located 500 m
grapher. Explain how the result confirms the from the shore.
quoti ent prop erty for tangent.
Yi= sin 8 Spo< ofUg h\ \
Y2 = cos 8
)
Y3 = YilY2
Light ray (
4. Quotient Property for Cotang ent Problem: On I
the same screen on your grapher , plot these Lighthouse D Shore
beaco n
thr ee graphs. Explain how the result confirms
the quoti ent prop erty for cotangent.
Yi= sine
"' :oo m }
I
y 2 = cos 8
"' Other light ray I
(
Y3 = Y2I Y1
)
5. Without referring to Figure 3-3a, quickly sketch Figure 3-3h
e
th e graphs of y = tan and y = cot e.
6. Without referring to Figure 3-3b, quickly
sketch the graphs of y = sec e and y = csc e.
7. Explain why th e period of the functions
e e
y = tan and y = cot is only 180° instead of
360°, like the p eriod s of the other four
trigonom etric functions.
8. Explain why it is meaningless to talk about the
amplitude of the tangent , cotange nt, secant,
and cosecant functions.
9. What is the domain of the function y = sec 87 A rotating light on top of the lighthouse
What is its range? sends out rays of light in opposite directions .
10. What is th e domain of the function y = tan 8? As the beacon rotates, the ray at angle e
What is its range? mak es a spot of light that moves along the
shor e. As e increa ses beyond 90°, the oth er
For Probl ems 11-14, what are the dilation and ray makes the spot of light. Let D be th e
translation caused by the constants in the displacement of the spot of light from th e
equation? Plot the graph on your graph er and point on the shore closest to th e beacon ,
show th at these transformations are correct. with the displacement positive to the right
11. y= 2 + 5 tan3(8- 5°) and negative to the left as you face the
beacon from the shore.
~12 . y= -1 + 3 cot2(8- 30°)
a. Plot the graph of D as a function of e.
13. y= 4 + 6 sec !W+ 50°) Use a window with 0° to 360° for and e
-2000 to 2000 for D. Sketch the result.
\)14 . y= 3 + 2 csc4( 8 + 10°)
Section
3-3:Graphs
ofTangent
, Cotangent,
Secant
, andCosecont
Functions 109
b. Where does the spot of light hit the shore a. Use the properties of similar triangles to
when () = 55°7 When () = 91°7 explain why these segment lengths are
c. What is the first positive value of 8 for equal to the six corresponding function
which D equals 20007 For which D equals values.
-10007 PA =tan()
d. Explain the physical significance of the PB = cot 8
asymptote in the graph at e = 90°. PC = sin 8
16. Variation of Tangent and Secant Problem: PD = cos 8
Figure 3-3i shows the unit circle in a OA = sec ()
uv-coordinate system and a ray from the
OB= csc 8
origin, 0, at an angle, 8, in standard position.
The ray intersects the circle at point P. b. The angle between the ray and the v-axis
A line is drawn tangent to the circle at P, is the complement of angle 8, that is, its
inters ecting the u-axis at point A and the measure is 90° - 8. Show that in each
v-axis at point B. A vertical segment from P case the cofunction of 8 is equal to the
intersects the u-axis at point C, and a function of the complement of 8.
horizontal segment from P intersects the -
v-axis at point D. ::::::::: )-
c. Construct Figure 3-3i using dynamic
r
.B
geometry software such as The
Geometer's Sketchpad, or use the Variation
of Tangent and Secant Exploration at
www .keymath.com/precalc.
Observe what
happens to the six function value s as ()
changes. Describe how the sine and cosine
vary as 8 is made larger or smaller. Based
on the figure, explain why the tangent and
0.5 1 1.5 2 secant become infinite as 8 approaches
90° and why the cotangent and cosecant
Figure 3-3 i become infinite as () approaches 0°.
3-4 Radian Measure of Angles

With your calculator in degree mode, press sin 60°. You get
sin 60° = 0.86602 5403 ...
Now change to radian mode and press sin ( ;) . You get the same answer!
sin(;)= 0.866025403 ...
In this section you will learn what radians are and how to convert angle
measures between radians and degrees. The radian measure of angles allows
you to expand on the concept of trigonometric functions, as you'll see in the
next section. Through this expansion of trigonometric functions, you can model
real-world phenomena in which independent variables represent distance, time,
or any other quantity, not just an angle measure in degrees.
110 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
OBJECTIV
E • Given an angle measure in degrees, convert it to radians, and vice versa .
• Given an angle measure in radians, find trigono metric function valu es.
The degree as a unit of angular measure came from ancient mathematicians,

probably Babylonians. It is assumed that they divided a revolution into
360 parts we call degrees because there were approximately 360 days in a year
an d they used the base -60 (sexagesimal) number system. There is another way
to measur e angles, called radian measure. This mathematically more natural
unit of angular measure is derived by wrapping a number line around the unit
circle (a circle of radius 1 unit) in a uv-coordinate system, as in Figure 3-4a. Each
point on the number line corresponds to a point on the perimeter of the circle.
/
/
/
/
/
Excerpt from an old I
/ -- - 2
Baby lonian cun eiform text I
I
/
I /
/
I V
I
I
I V
I y - l
I
I
I
2
I
\
u u
I
/
/
/
Figure 3-4a
If you draw rays from th e origin to the points 1, 2, and 3 on the circle (right side
of Figure 3-4a), the corresponding central angles h ave radian measures 1, 2, and
3, res pectively.
But, you may ask, what happens if the same angle
is in a larger circle? Would the same radian
measure correspond to it? How would you calculate
th e radian measure in this case? Figures 3-4b and
3-4c answer thes e questions . Figure 3-4b shows an
angle of m easure 1, in radians , and the arcs it
subtends (cuts off) on circles of radius 1 unit and
x unit s. The arc subtended on the unit circle
ha s length 1 unit. By the properties of similar
geometric figures, the arc subtended on the circle
of radius x has length x units . So 1 radian subtends Figure 3-4b
an arc of length equal to the radius of the circle.
Section
3-4: Radian
Measure
ofAngles 111
For any angle measure, the arc length and the radius are proportional (~ = 'f;,as
~ ·, shown in Figure 3-4c), and their quotient is a unitless number that uniquely
corresponds to and describes the angle. So, in general, the radian measure of an
t:= r, ;,l__~ angle equals the length of the subtended arc divided by the radius.
Figure 3-4c
DEFINITION:
Radian
Measure
ofanAngle
arc length
radian measure = ct·
ra ms
For the work that follows, it is important to distinguish between the name
e
of the angle and the measure of that angle. Measures of angle will be written
this way:
e is the name of the angle.
m (8) is the degree measure of angle
0
e.
m R(8) is the radian measure of angle e.
Because the circumference of a circle is 2TTrand because r for the unit circle
is 1, the wrapped number line in Figure 3-4a divides the circle into 2 TTunits
(a little more than six parts). So there are 2TTradians in a complete revolution.
There are also 360° in a complete revolution. You can convert degrees to
radians, or the other way around, by setting up these proportions:
mR(B) 2TT TT m
(8) 360° 0
180°
or
m 0 (8) = 360°
180° =
Solving for mR((:}) and m 0(8), respectively, gives you
and
These equations lead to a procedure for accomplishing the objective of

this section.
PROCEDURE:
Radian-Degree
Conversion
TT
• To find the radian measure of 8, multiply the degree measure by .
1800
180°
• To find the degree measure of e,
multiply the radian measure by--.
TT
112 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
.....EXAMPLE
I Convert 135° to radians .
0
13S .x } 13S .x
Solution In order to keep the units straight, 360° Z1t :::::} 360 =Z1t
write each quantity as a fraction with
the proper units. If you have done the
work correctly, certain units will
cancel, leaving the proper units for the
answer .
13 5 .d.egfeeS TT radians 3
mR(e)= • = - TT=2.3561...radians
1 180 degrees 4
No tes:
• If the exact value is called for, leave the answer as ! TT. If not, you have the
choice of writing the answer as a multiple of TT or converting to a decimal.
• The procedure for canceling units used in Example 1 is called dimensio nal
analys is. You will use this procedure throughout your study of mathematics .
.....EXAMPLE
2 Convert 5.73 radians to degrees.
5.73 r.adianS"
. 180 degrees_ o
Solution l TT r.adianS"- 3 2 8.3 0 48 ...
.....EXAMPLE
3 Find tan 3.7.
Solution Unless the argument of a trigonometric function has the degree symbo l, it is
assumed to be a measure in radians. (That is why it has been important for you
to include the degree symbol until now.) Set your calculator to radian mode and
enter tan 3.7.
tan 3.7 = 0.6247 ...
.....EXAMPLE
4 Find the radian measure and the degree measure of an angle whose sine is 0.3.
Solution sin - 1 0.3 = 0.3046 ... radian Set your calculator to radian mode.
sin - 1 0.3 = 17.4576 .. :
0
Set your calculator to degree mod e.
To check whether these answers are in fact equivalent, you could convert one to
th e other.
. 180 degrees
0.3046 ... radian · di = 17.4576 ... 0 Use the 0.3046 ... already
TTra ans in your calculator, without
rounding off.
Radian Measures of Some Special Angles

It will help you later in calculus to be able to recall quickly the radian measures
of certain special angles, such as those whose degree measures are multiples of
30° and 45°.
Section
3·4: Radian
Measure
ofAngles 11 3
By the techniqu e of Example 1,
TT 1
30° -
6 radian, or
12 revolution
TT 1
45° -+ radian, or
4 8 revolution
If you rememb er these two, you can find others quickl y by multiplication.
For instanc e,
TT 1
/6) =
60° - 2(TT radians, or revolution
3 6
TT 1
/6 ) or 2(TT/4)=
go 0 -+ 3(TT
2 radian s, or 4 revolution
1
/6 ) or 4(TT/4)= TT radians, or
180° -+ 6(TT
2 revolution
For 180°, you can simply remember that a full revolution is 2TTradians , so half a
revolution is TT radians.
Figure 3-4d shows th e radian measures of some spec ial fir st -quadrant angles.
Figure 3-4e shows radian measure s of larger angles that are -!,f, and 1 revolution. t
The box summarizes this information.
V V
¥, goo f . +rev.
rr, f rev . 2rr, 1 rev. u
lf , f rev.
Figure 3-4d Figur e 3-4e
PROPERTY:
RadianMeasures
of SomeSpecial
Angles
Degrees Radians Revolutions
1
30° rr/6 u
1
45 ° rr/4 8
1
60° TT/3 6
goo l
rr/2 4
1
180° TT 2
360° 2rr 1
114 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
TT
5 Find the exact value of sec .
.... EXAMPLE
6 fee, e-_- 1 _ fr?poteKJMe,
- .
~f e adJttee.1tt
TT 1 1 2
Solution sec 6 = sec 30° = cos 30 = .../3/2 = .J3
0
Recall how to use the refere nce
triangle to find the exact value of
cos 30°.
Problem Set 3-4
Reading Analysis i:lfJ} 1. Wrapping Funct ion Problem : Figure 3-4f

shows the unit circle in a uv-coordinate
From what you have read in this section , what do
system. Suppose you want to use the angle
you consider to be the main idea? Is a radian
measure in radians as the independent
large or small compared to a degree? How do you
variable. Imagine the x-axis from an
find the radian measure of an angle if you know xy-coordinate system placed tangent to th e
its degree measure? How can you remem b er that
circle . Its origin , x = 0, is at the point (u, v) =
there are 2 TT radians in a full revolution?
(1, 0). Then the x-axis is wrapp ed around
the circle .
a. Show where the points x = 1, 2, and 3 on the
number line map onto the circle .
b. On your sketch from part a, show angles of
Q2. Sketch the graph of y = sec 8.
1, 2, and 3 radians in standard position.
Q3. What is the first positive value of 8 at which c. Explain how the length of the arc of the unit
the graph of y = cot ehas a vertical asymptote? circle subt ended by a central angle of the
Q4. What is the first positive value of 8 for which circle is related to th e radian measure of
the graph of csc 8 = O? that angle. ---------
Q5. What is the exact value of tan 60°?
Q6. What transformation of function fis

---- 3
X
represented by g(x) = 3 f(x)?

Ql. What transformation of function f is 2
represented by h(x) = f(lOx)? V
QB.Write the general equation of a quadratic

function .
09. 3 200s 7 3 2001 = - ?-
u
Q10. The "then" part of the statement of a theorem
is called the
A. Converse B. Inverse
C. Contrapositive D. Conclusion
Figure 3-4(
E. Hypothesis
Section
3-4: Radian
Measure
ofAngles 115
For Problems 11- 14, find the radian measure of the
r =3 angle in decimal form .
r =2 11. 3 7° 12. 54°
arc
arc 13. 123° 14. 258 °
For Problems 15-24, find the exact degree measure
of the angle given in radians (no decimals). Use the
most time-efficient method.
15. 1~ radian 16. ¥ radians
17. f radian {ii3.)
:[ radian
Figure 3-4g
19. 1~ radian 20. r radians
2
2. Arc Length and Angle Problem: As a result of

21. \rrradians 22. rr radians
the definition of radian, you can calculate the 23. t radians
3
& 5 77
6 radians
arc length as the product of the angle in
For Problems 25-30, find the degree measure in
radians and the radius of the circle. Figure 3-4g
decimal form of the angle given in radians.
shows arcs of three circles subtended by a
central angle of 1.3 radians. The radii of the 25. 0.34 radian 26. 0.62 radian
circles have lengths 1, 2, and 3 cm.
27. 1.26 radians W! .5 7 radians
29. 1 radian 30. 3 radians
For Problems 31-34, find the function value
(in decimal form) for the angle in radians.
31. sin 5 V os 2
33. tan (-2.3) 34. sin 1066
For Problems 35-38, find the radian measure
(in decimal form) of the angle.
a. How long would the arc of the 1-cm circle
be if you measured it with a flexible ruler?
Ll
b. Find how long the arcs are on the 2-cm
circle and on the 3-cm circle using the ta11,
- 1 S=x
properties of similar geometrical figures.
c. On a circle of radius r meters, how long
would an arc be that is subtended by an 1
angle of 1.3 radians?
d. How could you quickly find the length a
of an arc of a circle of radius r meters that is
35. sin- 1 0.3 e)i -15
37. coc 1 3 38. csc- 1 1.001
subtend ed by a central angle of e radians?
Write a formula representing the arc length. For Problems 39-44, find the exact value of the
indicated function (no decimals). Note that because
For Problems 3-10, find the exact radian measure the degree sign is not used, the angle is assumed to
of the angle (no decimals). be in radians.
3. 60°
5. 30°
4. 45°
6. 180°
6Dn¥ 40. cos rr
7. 120° 8. 450°
41. tan f 42. cot¥
43. sec 2rr
9. - 225° 10. 1080° ~ 11
116 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Function
s
For Problems 45-48, find th e exact value of the For Problems 51 and 52, find the length of the side
expr es sion (no decimals ). marked x in the right triangle.
~
4 5. sin¥ + 6 cos 1 ~
TT •
SC 6 Slll
TT
6 52.
4 7. cos 2
TT+ sin 2
TT 48. tan 2
¥- sec ¥ 2
For Problems 49 and 50, writ e a particular equation

17 cm
for th e sinusoid graph ed. 100 cm
49. y
12
5
e For Problems 53 and 54, find the degree measure of
20 angle e in the right triangle.
~
53 ~
50. y 3 ft
e 54.
15° 100 °
3-5 Circular Functions

In man y real-world situations , the independent variable of a periodic function
is tim e or distance, with no angle evident. For instance, the normal daily high
temp erature varies periodically with the day of the year. In this section you
will learn about circular functi ons, periodic functions whose independent
variable is a real number without any units. These functions, as you will see,
ar e identical to trigonometric functions in every way except for their argument.
The normal human EKG Circular functions are more appropriate for real-world applications. They also
(electro cardio gram ) is have some advantages in later courses in calculus, for which this course is
periodi c. pr eparing you.
OBJECTIV
E Learn about the circular functions and their relationship to trigonometric
functions.
Section
3-5: Circular
Functions 117
Two cycles of the graph of the parent cosine function are completed in 720°
(Figure 3-Sa, left) or in 4 TT units (Figure 3-Sa, right), because 4 TT radians
correspond to two revolutions.
y= cos 8 y = COS X
e X
720 °
Figure 3-Sa
To see how the independent variable can represent a real number, imagine
the x-axis from an xy-coordinate system lifted out and placed vertica lly tangent
to the unit circle in a uv-coordinate system with its origin at the point
(u, v) = (1, 0), as on the left side in Figure 3-Sb. Then wrap the x-axis around the
unit circle . As shown on the right side in Figure 3-Sb, x = 1 maps onto an angle
of 1 radian, x = 2 maps onto 2 radians, x = TT maps onto TT radians, and so on.
x-axis 77
3
/
/
/
Wrapped x-axis
I
/
I
I
2
I
I /
I I
I V
'
I
I
I
I - - X \
\
I \
I \
\ u
\
\
u 0
0
-1
-1
Figure 3-Sb
The distance x on the x-axis is equal to the arc length on the unit circle. This arc
length is equal to the radian measure for the corresponding angle. Thus the
functions sin x and cos x for a number x on the x-axis are the same as the sine
v (cos x, sin x) = and cosine of an angle of x radians.
(u, v)
Figure 3-Sc shows an arc of length x on the unit circle, with the corresponding
angle. The arc is in standard position on the unit circle, with its initial point at
(1, 0) and its terminal point at (u, v). The sine and cosine of x are defined in the
same way as for the trigonometric functions .
COS X = = - = U
radius 1
. vertical coordinate v
Figure 3-Sc SlnX = = - = V
radius 1
118 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonomet
ricandCircular
Function
s
The name circular function comes from the fact that x equals the length of an
arc on the unit circle. The other four circular functions are defined as ratios of
sine and cosine.
DEFINITION:
Circular
Functions
If (u, v) is the terminal point of an arc of length x in standard position on the
unit circle, then the circular functions of x are defined as
Sin X =V COS X = U
sinx COS X
tanx=-- cotx=--
cos X sinx
1 1
secx=-- CSCX=--
cos X SinX
Circular functions are equivalent to trigonometric functions in radians. This

equiva lency provides an opportunity to expand the concept of trigonometric
functions. You have seen trigonometric functions first defined using the angles
of a right triangle and later expanded to include all angles. From now on, the
concept of trigonometric functions includes circular functions, and the functions
can have both degrees and radians as arguments. The way the two kinds of
trigonometric functions are distinguished is by their arguments. If the argument
is measured in degrees, Greek letters represent them (for example, sin 8). If the
argument is measured in radians, the functions are represented by letters from
the Roman alphabet (for example, sin x) .
... EXAMPLE
1 Plot the graph of y = 4 cos Sx on your grapher, in radian mode. Find the period
graphica lly and algebraically . Compare your results .
Solution Figure 3-Sd shows the graph.

Tracing the graph, you find that the first high point beyond x = 0 is between
x = 1.25 and x = 1.3. So graphically the period is between 1.25 and 1.3.
To find th e period algebraically, recall that the 5 in the argument of the cosine
function is the reciprocal of the horizontal dilation. The period of the parent
cosine function is 2 TT,because there are 2 TTradians in a complete revolution.
Thus the period of the given function is
Figure 3-Sd
5(2TT)= 0.4TT = 1.2566 ...
The answer found graphically is close to this exact answer.
Section
3-5: Circular
Functions 119
.....EXAMPLE
2 Find a particular equation for the sinusoid function graphed in Figure 3-5e.
Notice that the horizontal axis is labeled x, not e,
indicating that the angle is
measured in radians. Confirm your answer by plotting the equation on your
grapher .
y
. 1
X
10
Figur e 3-Se
Solution y = C + A cos B(x - D) Write th e general sinusoidal equation, using x

inst ead of e.
• Sinusoidal axis is at y = 3, so C = 3. Find A, B, C, and Dusing

information from the graph.
• Amplitude is 2, so A= 2.
• Period is 10. From one high point to the
next is 11 - l.
10 5 TT
• Dilation is - or-, so B = -. B is the reciprocal of the
2TT TT 5 hori zontal dilation.
• Phase displacement is 1 (for y = cos x), Cosine starts a cycle at a

so D = 1. high point.
y = 3 + 2 cos f (x- 1) Write the particular equat ion.
Plotting this equation in radian mode confirms that it is correc t .
.....EXAMPLE
3 Sketch the graph of y = tan ffx .
Solution In order to graph the function, you need to identify its period, the locations of
its inflection points, and its asymptotes.
6
Period = - • TT = 6 Horizontal dilation is the reciprocal of~; the p eriod of the
TT tangent is rr. 6
For this function, the points of inflection are also the x-intercepts, or the points
where the value of the function equals zero. So
TT
6 x = 0, ±TT, ±2TT,.. .
X= 0, ±6, ±12, . . .
120 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
y I Asymptotes are at values where the function is undefined. So
I
I
I
I TT TT TT 3 TT 5TT
I
X
E?=-2·2·2·2· · · ·
X = -3, 3, 9, 15, ...
Recall that halfway between a point of inflection and an asymptote the tangent
equals 1 or -1. The graph in Figure 3-5f illustrates these features. ~
Figure 3-5{
Note that in the graphs of circular functions the number TT appears either
in the equation as a coefficient of x or in the graph as a scale mark on the
x-axis .
Problem Set 3-5
Reading Analysis i:l!J} For Problems 1-4, find the exact arc length on the
unit circle subtended by the given angle (no decimals).
From what you have read in this section, what
do you consider to be the main idea ? As defined 1. 30° 2. 60°
in this text, what are the differences and the
3. 90° 4. 45°
similarities b etween a circular function and a
trigonom etri c function? How do angle measur es For Problems 5-8, find the exact degree measur e of
in radians link the circular functions to the the angle that subtends the given arc length of the
trigonometric functions ? unit circle .
5. ¥ units 6. l unit
Quick Review
7. 1 unit 8. ¥ units
QI. How man y radians are in 180°?
For Problems 9-12, find the exact arc length on the
02. How many degrees are in 2TTradians? unit circle subtended by the given angle in radians.
03. How many degr ees are in 1 radian? 9. ¥radians 10. TT radians
04. How man y radians are in 34 °? 11. 2 radians 12. 1.467 radians
05. Find sin 4 7°. For Problems 13-16, evaluate the circular function
in decimal form.
06. Find sin 4 7.
13. tan 1 14. sin 2
Ql. Find the period of y = 3 + 4 cos 5(8 - 6°).
15. sec 3 16. cot4
. Find the upper bound for y for the sinusoid
QB
in Problem Q7. For Problems 17-20, find the inverse circular
function in decimal form.
09. How long does it take you to go 300 mi at an
average speed of 60 mi/h ? 17. cos- 1 0.3 18. tan - 1 1.4
QIO. Write 5% as a decimal. 19. csc 1 5 20. sec- 1 9
For Problems 21-24, find th e exact value of the
circular function (no decimals).
21. sin¥ 22. cos J
23. tan l 24. CSC TT
Section
3-5: Circular
Function
s 121
For Problems 25-28, find the period, amplitude, 36. y
phas e displac ement, and sinusoidal axis location. --- --,-0.3
Use th ese features to sketch the graph. Confirm
your graph by plotting the sinusoids on your 0.2
grapher.
25 . y= 3 + 2 cos f (x - 4)
X
~ - Y= -4 + 5 sin \rr (x+ 1) -3 -2 -1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

27. y= 2 + 6 sin-;f(x+ 1)
'U'
28. y = 5 + 4 cos f (x - 2) 37.
5
Y
I
I
I
I
,
I I
For Problems 29-32, find th e period, asymptotes, I
I
I
I
I I
and critical points or points of infl ection, then
lnl
I I
I I
sketch the graph. I I X
6 12 18
29. y = cot-;[x 30: y = tan 2rrx
I I
I I
31. y = 2 + sec x 32. y= 3 cscx I
I
I
I
I I
I I
For Problems 33-42, find a particular equation for -5 I I ; ,
I I
th e circular function graphed.
38. y
33. y
5
8
X
4
3
. 2
i X
2 3 4 6 7 8 -5
34. y 39.
13
4
X
X
'.
35. y
40. y
X
5
I
I X
,,.
122 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
1::,T'
/
41. z c. Name a positive and a negative translation

that would make the sine graph coincide
-0.13 0.07 0.27 0.47 with itself.
d. Explain why sin (x - 2rrn) = sin x for any
' \
-6 /
1 integer n. How is the 2rr related to the sin e
,- 10
·7 ·- ·-·- ·- I C
function?
::.
•:•::u: :.
e. Using ·dynamic geom etry software such

42. E
4.8c-- -~
as The Geometer's Sketchpad, plot two
sinusoids with different colors illustrating
the concept of this problem, or use the
100 · 300 900
Sinusoid Translation Exploration at
- 2.4 www.keymath .com/precalc.
One sinusoid should
be y = cos x and the other y = cos (x ~ k),
where k is a slider or parameter with
values between -2 rr and 2 rr. Describe
-9 .6 what happens to the transformed graph
as k vari es.
.. 43. For the sinusoid in Problem 41, find the value 46. Sinusoid Dilation Problem: Figure 3-Sh shows
of z at t = 0.4 on the graph. If the graph is
the unit circle in a uv-coordinate system
extended to t = 50, is the point on the graph with angles of measure x and 2x radians.
above or below the sinusoidal axis? How far The uv-coordinate system is superimposed
above or below ? on an ·xy-coordinate system with sinusoids
.,/
44. For the sinusoid in Problem 42, find the value y = sin x (dashed ) and an image graph
of Eat r = 1234 on the graph. If the graph is y = sin 2x (solid).
extended to r = 10,000, is the point on the vor y
graph above or below th e sinusoidal axis? How
far above or below ?
~ id Translation Probl em: Figure 3-Sg u or x
shows th e graphs of y = cos x (dashed) and 4 5
,
y = sin x (solid). Note that the graphs are ,,
...____... ,
con gruent to each other (if superimposed,
they coincide), differing only in horizontal Figur e 3-5h
translation .
a. Explain why the value of v for each angl e
y
is equal to the value of y for th e /
corresponding sinusoid.
;
:u::u::
t
-,_ t, b. Create Figure 3-Sh with dynamic geometry
Figur e 3-5g software such as Sketchpad, or go to
and use the Sinusoid
a. What translation would make the cosine Dilation Exploration. Show the whole unit /
graph coincide with th e sine graph? circle, and extend the x-axis to x = 7. Use a
Complete the equation : sin x =cos( - ?- ).. slider or parameter to vary the value of x. Is
b. Let y = cos (x - 2rr). What effect does this the second angle meas.ure double the first
translation have on th e cosine graph? one as x varies? Do the moving points on
the two sinusoids have the same value of x?
· Section
3-5: Circular
Functions 123
c. Replace the 2 in sin 2x with a variable a. Based on the definition of radians, explain
factor, k. Use a slider or parameter to why x is also the radian measure of
vary k. What happens to the period of the angle AOB.
(solid) image graph as k increases ? As k b. Based on the definitions of sine and
decreases? tangent, explain why BC and AD equal
47. Circular Function Comprehension Problem: sin x and tan x, respectively.
For circular functions such as cos x, the c. From Figure 3-Si it appears that
independent variabl e, x, represents the length sin x < x < tan x. Make a table of values
of an arc of the unit circle. For other functions to show numerically that this inequality
you have studied, such as the quadratic is true even for values of x very close
function y = ax 2 + bx + c, the independent to zero .
variable, x, stands for a distance along a
horizontal number line, the x-axis. ' ~ -
- ::r::u:: Y
a. Explain how the concept of wrapping the d. Construct Figure 3-Si with dynamic
x-axis around the unit circle links the two geometry software such as Sketchpad,
kinds of functions. or go to www .keymath.com/precalc
and
b. Explain how angle measures in radians link use the Inequality sin x < x < tan x
the circular functions to the trigonometric Exploration. On your sketch, display the
functions. values of x and the ratios (sin x)/x and
(tan x)/ x. What do you notice about the
48 . The Inequality sin x < x < tan x Problem : In this
relative sizes of these values when angle
problem you will examine the inequality
AOB is in the first quadrant? What value do
sin x < x < tan x. Figure 3-Si shows angle AOB in
the two ratios seem to approach as angle
standard position, with subtended arc AB of
AOB gets close to zero?
length x on the unit circle.
49. Journal Problem: Updat e your journal
with things you have learn ed about the
D relationship betw een trigonometric functions
and circular functions.
X
0 C A
Figure 3-Si
3-6 Inverse Circular Relations:

Given y, Find x
A major reason for finding the particular equation of a sinusoid is to use
it to evaluate y for a given x-value or to calculate x when you are given y.
Functions are used this way to make predictions in the real world. For
instance, you can express the time of sunrise as a function of the day
of the year. With this equation, you can predict the time of sunrise on
a given day by simply evaluating the expression. Predicting the day(s)
124 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Function
s
on which the Sun rises at a given time is more
comp licated. In this section you will learn graphical,
numerical, and algebra ic ways to find x for a
given y-valu e.
OBJECTIVEGiven the equation of a circular function or

trigonometric function and a particular value
of y, find spe cified values of x or e:
• Graphically
• Numerically
• Algebraically
Radar speed guns use

inverse relations to
The Inverse Cosine Relation calculate the speed of a car
The symbol cos- 1 0.3 means the inverse cosine from tim e m eas urem ents.
functio n evaluated at 0.3, a particular arc or
angle whose cosine is 0.3. By calculator, in
radian mode, V
cos- 1 0.3 = 1.2661...

x = cos· • 0.3
The inverse cosine relation includ es all = 1.2661...
arcs or angles whose cosine is a given u
number . The term that you'll use in this text
is arccosine, abbreviated arccos. So arccos u = 0.3
0.3 means any arc or angle whose cosine is x = - cos· ' 0.3
0.3, not just the function value. Figure 3-6a = - 1.2661...
shows that both 1.2661... and - 1.2661...
have cosines equal to 0.3. So - 1.2661.. . is Figure 3-6a
also a value of arccos 0.3.
The general solution for the arccosine of a number is writte n this way:
arccos 0.3 = ±cos- 1 0.3 + 2 rrn General so lution for arccos 0.3.
where n stands for an integer. The ± sign tells you th at both the value from th e
calculator and its opposit e are valu es of arccos 0.3. The 2 rrn tells you that any
arc that is an integer number of revolutions added to th ese values is also a
value of arccos 0.3. If n is a negati ve integ er, a numb er of revolutions is bein g
subtrac ted from these values . Note that there are infinit ely many such value s.
The arcs ine and arctangent relations will b e defined in Section 4-4 in connection
with solving more general equation s.
DEFINITION:
Arccosine,
theInverse
Cosine
Relation
arccos x = ±cos- 1 x + 2rrn or arccos x = ±cos- 1 x + 360°n,
where n is an integer
Verbally: Inverse cosines come in opposite pairs with all their coterminals.
Section
3-6: Inve
rseCircular
Relations y,Findx
: Given 125
E .
X
Note: The function value cos - 1 xis called the principal value of the inverse
cosine relation. This is the value the calculator is programmed to give you . In
Section 4-6, you will learn why certain quadrants are picked for these inverse
function values .
.....EXAMPLE
1 Find th e first five positive values of arccos (- 0.3).
Solution Assume that the inverse circular function is being asked for.
arccos (- 0.3) = ±cos - 1 (-0.3) + 2rrn
= ±1.8754 .. . + 2rrn By calculator.
= 1.8754 ... , 1.8754 ... + 2rr, 1.8754 ... + 4rr Use cos- 1 (-0.3).
or
-1.8754 ... + 2rr, - 1.8754 ... + 4rr Use - cos- 1 (-0.3).
= 1.8754 .. ., 8.1586 ... , 14.4418 ...

or 4.4076 ... , 10.6908 ...
= 1.8754. , 4.4076 ... , 8.1586 ... ,
10.6908 ... , 14.4418 ...
Arrange in ascending order .
...
Note: Do not round the value of cos - 1
(-0.3) before adding the multiples of
2 rr. An efficient way to do this on your calcu lator is
Press cos - 1 (-0.3) =, getting 1.8754 .. ..
Press Ans + 2rr =, getting 8.1586 .. ..
Press Ans + 2rr =, getting 14.4418 .... Or just press = to repeat the
step before.
Press -cos - 1 (-0.3) + 2rr =, getting 4.4076 ....

Press Ans + 2rr = , getting 10.6908 ....
Finding x When You Know y

Figure 3-6b shows a sinusoid with a horizontal line drawn at y = 5. The
horizontal line cuts the part of the sinusoid shown at six different points. Each
point corresponds to a value of x for which y = 5. The next examp les show how
to find the values of x by three methods.
y
16
5 10 15
Figure 3-6b
.....EXAMPLE
2 Find graphically the six values of x for which y = 5 for the sinusoid in
Figure 3-6b.
126 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
Solution On the graph, draw lines from the intersection points down to the x-axis
(Figure 3-6b). The values are
X ~ -4 .5, -0.5, 8.5, 12.5, 21.5, 25 .5
.... EXAMPLE
3 Find numerically the six values of x in Example 2. Show that the answers agree
with those found graphically in Example 2.
Solution Y1 = 9 + 7 cos i; (x - 4) Write the particular equation

using the techniques of
Section 3-5.
Y2 = 5 Plot a horizontal line at

y= 5.
X ~ 8.5084 ... and X ~ 12.4915 ... Use the intersect or solver

feature on your graph er to
find two adjacent x-values.
x~ 8.5084 ... + 13(-1) = -4 .4915 .. . Add multiples of the period

to find other x-values.
x~ 12.4915 ... + 13(-1) = -0.5085 ...

x~ 8.5084 ... + 13(1) = 21.5084 .. .
X ~ 12.4915 ... + 13(1) = 25.4915 .. .
These answers agree with the answers found graphically in Example 2. _,...
Note that the ~ sign is used for answers found numerically because the solver or
intersect feature on most calculators gives only approximate answers .
.... EXAMPLE
4 Find algebraically (by calculation) the six values of x in Example 2. Show that
the answers agree with those in Examples 2 and 3.
Solution 9 + 7 cos ~; (x - 4) = 5 Set the two functions equal to each

other.
2 rr(
cos IT ·
X - 4) = --
4 Simplify the equation by isolating the
7 cosine expr essio n (start "peeling"
constants away from x).
13 (x -
2rr 4) = arccos ( - 4)
7
Take th e arccosine of both sides.
x = 4 + -2rr
13 arccos ( -- 4)
7
Rearrange the equation to isolate x
(finish "peeling" constants away from x).
Substitute for arccosine .
Distribute the ~!over both terms.

X= 4 ± 4 .5084 ... + 13n
Section
3-6:Inverse
Circular
Relations:
Given x
y,Find 127
x = 8.5084 ... + 13n or -0.5084 ... + 13n
X = -4.4915 ... , -0 .5084 ..., 8.5084 .. ., 12.491°5... ,
21.5084 ... , 25.4915 .. . Let n be 0, ±1, ±2.
These answers agree with the graphical and numerical solutions in

Examples 2 and 3.
Notes:
• In the term 13n, the 13 is the period. The 13n in the general solution
for x means that you need to add multiples of the period to the values
of x you find for the inverse function.
• You can put 8.5084 ... + 13n and -0 .5084 ... + 13n into the y= menu of
your grapher and make a table of values . For most graphers you will
have to use x in place of n.
• The algebraic solution gets all the values at once rather than one at a
time numerically .
Problem Set 3-6
Reading Analysis a[J} QB.x 2 + y 2 = 9 is the equation of a(n) -?-.

From what you have read in this section, what do Q9. What is the general equation of an exponential
you consider to be the main idea? Why does the function?
arccosine of a number have more than one value
QIO.Functions that repeat themselves at regular
while cos- 1 of that number has only one value?
intervals are called-?- functions.
What do you have to do to the inverse cosine
value you get on your calculator in order to find
other values of arccosine? Explain the phrase For Problems 1-4, find the first five positive' values
"Inverse cosines come in opposite pairs with all of the inverse circular relation.
their coterminals" that appears in the definition l. arccos 0.9 '-......
. 2. arcccos 0.4
box for arccosine.
3. arccos (-0.2) 4. arccos (-0.5)
Quick Review~ For the circular sinusoids graphed in

~ Problems 5-10,
QI. What is the period of the circular function
a. Estimate graphically the x-values shown for
y= cos4x?
the indicated y-value.
02. What is the period of the trigonometric b . Find a particular equation of the sinusoid .
function y = cos 4 8?
c. Find the x-values in part a numerically,
Q3. How many degrees are in {I radian? using the equation from part b.
04. How many radians are in 4 5°? d. Find the x-values in part a algebraically.
e. Find the first value of x greater than 100 for
as. Sketch the graph of y =sine.
which y = the given y-value.
06. Sketch the graph of y = csc 8.
Ql. Find the smaller acute angle in a right triangle
with legs of lengths 3 mi and 7 mi .
128 Chapter
3: Applicationsof Trigonomet
ricandCirc
ularFunctions
5. y= 6 10. y= -4
y y
3 23 ,
-3
......
6. y= 5 For the trigonometric sinusoids graphed in
Problems 11 and 12,
y a. Estimate graphicall y the first three positi ve
valu es of e for the indicated y-value .
b. Find a particular equation for the sinusoid.
X
c. Find the 8-valu es in part a numerically,
using the equation from part b.
d. Find the 8-values in part a algebraica lly.
7. y= -1
11. y = 3
y
y
X
-6 e
8. y= - 2
12. y = 5
y
y
X
6.7
2
-4 e
100 100°
9. y= 1.5
13. Figure 3-6c shows the graph of the parent
y
4
cosine function y = cos x.
a. Find algebraically th e six values of x shown
on the graph for which cos x = - 0.9 .
X
b. Find algebraically th e first value of x greater
than 200 for which cos x = -0.9.
y
\_ r L Figur e 3-6c
Section
3-6: Inverse
Circular
Relations
: Given
y,Find
x 129
3-7 Sinusoidal Functions as
Mathematical Models
A chemotherapy treatment
destroys red blood cells
along with cancer cells .
The red cell count goes
down for a while and then
comes back up again. If
a treatment is taken every
three weeks, then the red
cell count resembles a
periodic function of time
(Figure 3-7a). If such a
function is regular enough,
you can use a sinusoidal
function as a mathematical model.
In this section you'll start with a verbal description
of a periodic phenomenon, interpret it graphically,
find an algebraic equation from the graph, and use 3 6 9
Time (wk)
the equation to calculate numerical answers . Figure 3-7a
OBJECTIVEGiven a verbal description of a periodic phenomenon, write an equation

using the sine or cosine function and use the equation as a mathematical
model to make predictions and interpretations about the real world .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Waterwheel Problem: Suppose that the waterwheel in Figure 3-7b rotates at
6 revolutions per minute (rev/ min). Two seconds after you start a stopwatch ,
Waterwheel point P on the rim of the wheel is at its greatest height, d = 13 ft, above the
\ surface of the water. The center of the waterwheel is 6 ft above the surfac e.
a. Sketch the graph of d as a function of time t, in seconds, since you started
the stopwatch .
b. Assuming that dis a sinusoidal function of t, write a particular equation.
Water
surface Confirm by graphing that your equation gives the graph you sketched in
part a.
Figure 3-7b c. How high above or below the water's surfac i; will point P be at time
t = 17.5 s? At that time, will it be going up or down ?
d. At what positive time twas point P first emerging from the water?
130 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
Solution a. From what's given, you can tell the location of the sinusoidal axis, the
"high" and "low" points, and the period.
Sketch the sinusoidal axis at d = 6 as shown in Figure 3-7c.
d (ft )
13 -
Sketch the upper bound at d = 6 + 7 = 13 and the lower bound at
d=6-7=-l.
Sketch a high point at t = 2.
t (s)
Because the waterwheel rotates at 6 rev/ min, the period is 6
°= 10 s. Mark
6
-1 the next high point at t = 2 + 10, or 12.
7 12
Figur e 3-lc Mark a low point halfway between the two high points, and mark the
points of inflection on the sinusoidal axis halfway between each
consecutive high and low.
Sketch the graph through the critical points and the points of inflection.
Figure 3-7c shows the finished sketch.
b. d = C + A cos B(t - D) Write the general equation. Use d and t for the
variables.
From the graph, C = 6 and A = 7.

D=2 Cosine starts a cycle at a high point.
10 5
Horizontal dilation: - = - The period of this sinusoid is 10; the period of the
2TT TT circular cosine function is 2 rr.
TT
B=- B is the reciprocal of the horizontal dilation.
5
:. d = 6 + 7 cos f (t- 2) Write the particular equation.
Plotting on your grapher confirms that the equation is correct

(Figure 3-7d).
c. Set the window on your grapher to include 17.5. Then trace or scroll to
this point (Figure 3-7d) . From the graph, d= -0.657 3 ... , or"" -0 .7 ft, and is
going up .
d. Point Pis either submerging into or emerging from the water when d = 0.
At the first zero for positive t-values, shown in Figure 3-7d, the point is
going into the water. At the next zero, the point is emerging. Using the
Figure 3-7d intersect, zeros, or solver feature of your grapher, you'll find that the point
is at
t = 7.8611 ... "" 7.9 s
If you go to www.keymath.com/precalc
, you can view the Waterwh eel Exploration for a
dynamic view of the waterwheel and the graph of d as a function of t.
Note that it is usually easier to use the cosine function for these problems ,
b ecause its graph starts a cycle at a high point.
Section
3-7:Sinusoidal
Functions
asMathematical
Models 131
Problem Set 3-7
Reading Analysis Of!} c. Find a particular equation for distance as a

function of time.
you consider to be the main idea? What is the
first step in solving a sinusoidal model problem
that takes it out of the real world and puts it into
the mathematical world? After you have taken this
step, how does your work in this chapter allow
you to answer questions about the real-world
situation?
Quick Review~ ~~
Problems Ql -Q8 concern the circular function
y = 4 + 5 cos f (x - 7).
01. The amplitude is-?- .
02. The period is-? - .
d. How far above the surface was the point
Q3. The frequency is - ?- .
when Mark's stopwatch read 17 s?
04. The sinusoidal axis is at y = -?- . e. What is the first_positi_yevalue of tat which
05. The phase displacement with respect to the the point was at the water's surface? At that
parent cosine function is-? - . time, was the point going into or coming out
of the water? How can you tell?
Q6. The upper bound is at y = -? - . f. "Mark Twain" is a pen name used by Samuel
Ql. If x = 9, then y = - ?- . Clemens. What is the origin of that pen
name ? Give the source of your information.
QB. The first three positive x-values at which low
points occur are-? - ,-?-, and - ?-. 2. Fox Population Problem: Naturalists find that
populations of some kinds of predatory
Q9. Two values of x = arccos 0.5 are-?- and
animals vary periodically with time . Assume
- ?-.
that the population of foxes in a certain
010. If y = 5 · 3X, adding 2 to the value of x forest varies sinusoidall y with time. Records
multiplies the value of yby -? - . started being kept at time t = 0 yr. A minimum
number of 200 foxes appeared at t = 2.9 yr.
1. Steamboat Problem: Mark Twain sat on the The next maximum, 800 foxes, occurred at
deck of a river steamboat. As the paddle wheel t = 5.1 yr.
turned, a point on the paddle blade moved so a. Sketch the graph of this sinusoid.
that its distance, d, from the water's surface b. Find a particular equation expressing the
was a sinusoidal function of time. When number of foxes as a function of time .
Twain's stopwatch read 4 s, the point was at its
c. Predict the fox population when t = 7, 8, 9,
highest, 16 ft above the water's surface. The
and 10 yr.
wheel's diameter was~8 ft, and it completed a
revolution every 10 s. d. Foxes are declared an endangered species
when their population drops below 300.
a. Sketch the graph of the sinusoid.
Between what two nonnegative values of t
b. What is the lowest the point goes? Why is it did the foxes first become endangered?
reasonable for this valu e to be negative?
132 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
4. Rope Swing Problem: Zoey is at summer camp.
One day she is swinging on a rope tied to a tree
branch, going back and forth alternately over
land and water . Nathan starts a stopwatch.
When x = 2 s, Zoey is at one end of her swing,
at a distance y = -23 ft from th e riverbank (see
Figure 3-7f). When x = 5 s, she is at the other
end of her swing, at a distance y = 17 ft from
the riverbank. Assume that while she is
swinging, y varies sinusoidally with x.
a. Sketch the graph of y versus x and write a
e. Show on your graph in part a that your particular equation.
answer to part d is correct . b. Find y when x = 13.2 s. Was Zoey over land
or over water at this time ?
3. Bouncing Spring Probl em: A weight attached to
the end of a long spring is bouncing up and c. Find the first positive time when Zoey was
down (Figure 3-7e). A,_sit bounces, its dist~ce ') directly over the riverbank (y = 0).
from the floor varies sinusoidally with time. 6 ../ \.) \ d. Zoey lets go of the rope and splashes
You start a stop watch. When the stopwatch into th e water. What is the value of y for
reads 0.3 s, the weight first reaches a high the end of th e rope when it comes to rest ?
point 60 cm above the floor. The next low What part of the mathemati cal model tells
point , 40 cm above the floor , occurs at 1.8 s. you this ?
a. Sketch the graph of this sinusoidal function.
b. Find a particular equ ation for distance from
the floor as a function of tim e.
c. What is the distan ce from th e floor when
th e sto pwatc h reads 17.2 s?
d. What was the distance from th e floor when
you star ted the stopwatc h?
e. What is the first positive value of time when
the weight is 59 cm above the floor? River
V Riverbank
Figur e 3-7f
5. Roller Coaster Problem: A theme park is

building a portion of a roller coas ter track in
the shape of a sinusoid (Figur e 3-7g). You have
been hired to calculate the lengths of the
horizontal and vertical support beams.
a. The high and low points of the track are
separated by 50 m horizontall y and 30 m
vert ically. The low point is 3 m below the
60cm
-t ground . Let y be the distance (in meters) a
40 cm
point on the track is above th e ground . Let
Floor i x be the horizontal distance (in meters) a
point on the track is from the high point .
Figure 3-7e Find a particular equation for y as a
function of x.
Section
3-7: Sinusoidal
Function
s asMathematical
Models 133
b. The vertical support beams are spaced 2 m The valley to the left is filled with water to a
apart, starting at the high point and ending depth of 50 m, and the top of the mountain is
just before the track goes below the ground. 150 m above the water level. You set up an
Make a table of values of the lengths of the x-axis at water level and a y-axis 200 m to the
beams. right of the deep est part of the water. The top
c. The horizontal beams are spaced 2 m apart, of the mountain is at x = 400 m.
starting at ground level and ending just a. Find a particular equation expressing y for
below the high point. Make a tabl e of values points on the surface of the mountain as a
of horizontal beam lengths. function of x.
b. Show algebraically that the sinusoid in
part a contains the origin, (0, 0).
c. The treasure is located beneath the
surface at the point (130, 40), as shown in
Figure 3-7h. Which would be a shorter way
to dig to the treasure, a horizontal tunnel
or a vertica l tunn el? Show your work.
y
Mountaintop
150
Surface
"'
• Treasure
X
400
Figure 3-7 h
7. Sunspot Problem: For several hundred years,

astronomers have kept track of the number of
solar flares, or "sunspots," that occur on the
surface of the Sun. The number of sunspots
d. The builder must know how much support in a given year varies periodically, from a
beam material to order. In the most time-
minimum of about 10 per year to a maximum
efficient way, find the total length of the
of about llO per year. Between 1750 and 1948,
vertical beams and the total length of the there were exact ly 18 complete cycles.
horizontal beams.
y
,,
,, --- ~, Track
=-------------------,----
/
Support< 30 m
beams
~
3m
Ground "" I
' ......._,. ___+!
X
50 m I t
Figure 3-7g
6. Buried Treasure Problem: Suppose you seek

a treasure that is buried in the side of a
mountain. The mountain range has a
a. What is the period of a suns pot cycle?
sinusoidal vertical cross section (Figure 3-7h).
134 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
b. Assume that the number of sunspots per d. What is the earliest time on August 3 that
year is a sinusoidal function of time and the water depth will be 1.27 m?
that a maximum occurred in 1948. Find a e. A high tide occurs because the Moon is
particular equation expressing the number pulling the water away from Earth slightly,
of sun spots p er year as a function of the making the water a bit deeper at a given
year . point. How do you explain the fact that
c. How many sunspots will there be in the there are two high tides each day at most
year 2020? This year ? places on Earth? Provide the source of
d. What is the first year after 2020 in which your information.
there will be about 3 5 sunspots? What is the 9. Shock Felt Round the World Problem: Suppose
first year after 2020 in which there will be a that one day all 200+ million people in the
maximum number of sunspots? United States climb up on tables . At time t = 0,
they all jump off. The resulting shock wave
starts the earth vibrating at its fundamental
e. Find out how clos ely th e sunspot cycle period, 54 min. The surface first moves down
resembles a sinu soid by looking on the from its normal position and then moves up an
Internet or in another reference. equal distance above its normal position (Figure
8. Tid e Problem: Suppo se that you are on the 3-7i). Assume that the amplitude is 50 m.
beach at Port Aransa s, Texas, on August 2. At
2:00 p.m., at high tid e, you find that the depth
of the water at the end of a pier is 1.5 m. At
7:30 p .m. , at low tid e, th e depth of the water
is 1.1 m . Assum e that th e depth varies
sinusoidally with tim e.
Jump ! Down 50 m Up 50m
Figure 3-li
\ C..
\ a. Sketch the graph of the displacement of
~ the surface from its normal position as a
function of time elapsed since the people
jumped.
b . At what time will the surface be farthest
above its normal position?
c. Write a particular equation expressing
displacement above normal position as a
function of time elapsed since the jump .
d. What is the displacement at t = 21?
e. What are the first three positive times at
a. Find a particular equation expressing depth
which the displacement is - 3 7 m?
as a function of th e time that has elapsed
since 12:00 midnight at the beginning of 10. Island Problem: Ona Nyland owns an island
August 2. several hundred feet from the shore of a lake.
b. Use your mathematical model to predict the Figure 3-7j shows a vertical cross section
depth of th e water at 5:00 p.m. on August 3. through the shore, lake, and island. The island
c. At wh at time does th e first low tide occur
was formed millions of years ago by stresses
that caused the earth's surface to warp into
on August 37
the sinusoidal pattern shown . The highest
point on the shore is at x = -150 ft. From
measurements on and near the shore
Section
3-7:Sinusoidal
Functions
asMathematical
Models 135
(solid part of the graph), topograp hers find f. Find algebraically the interval of x-values
that an equation of the sinusoid is between which the island is at or above the
water level. How wide is the island, from the
y= -70 + 100 cos 6~ 0 (x+ 150)
water on one side to the water on the other?
where x and y are in feet . Ona consults you to
11. Pebble in the Tire Problem: As you stop your
make predictions about the rest of the graph
car at a traffic light, a pebble becomes wedged
(dotted) .
between the tire treads. When you start
moving again, the distance between the pebble
X
and the pavement varies sinusoidally with the
distance you have gone . The period is the
circumference of the tire. Assume that the
diameter of the tire is 24 in.
a. Sketch the graph of this sinusoidal function .
Figure 3-lj
b. Find a particular equation of the function.
a. What is the highest the island rises above (It is possible to get an equation with zero
the water level in the lake? How far from the phase displacement.)
y-axis is this high point? Show how you got
c. What is the pebble's distance from the
your answers. pavement when you have gone 15 in.?
b. What is the deepest the sinusoid goes below d. What are the first two distances you have
the water level in the lake? How far from the gone when the pebble is 11 in. from the
y-axis is this low point? Show how you got pavement?
your answers .
c. Over the centuries silt has filled the bottom 12. Oil Well Problem: Figure 3-7k shows a vertical
of the lake so that the water is only 40 ft cross section through a piece of land . The
deep. That is, the silt line is at y = -40 ft. y-axis is drawn coming out of the ground at
Plot the graph. Use a friend ly window for x the fence bordering land owned by your boss,
and a window with a suitable range for y . Earl Wells. Earl owns the land to the left of the
Then find graphically the interval of fence and is interested in acquiring land on the
x-values between which Ona would expect to other side to drill a new oil well. Geologists
find silt if she goes scuba diving in the lake . have found an oil-bearing formation be low
Earl's land that they believe to be sinusoidal
d. If Ona drills an offshore well at x = 700 ft, in shape. At x = -100 ft, the top surface of the
through how much silt would she drill formation is at its deepest, y = -2500 ft.
before she reaches the sinusoid? Show how A quarter-cycle closer to the fence, at
you got your answer. x = -65 ft, the top surface is only 2000 ft deep .
e. The sinusoid appears to go through the The first 700 ft of land beyond the fence is
origin . Does it actually do so, or does it just inaccessible. Earl wants to drill at the first
miss? Justify your answer . convenient site beyond x = 700 ft.
y Fence
- 100 -65 -30 ~ -- -- - -- - Inaccess ible land -- --- -- - -- -+-< Available land X
X = 700 ft
y = - 2000 ft
Top surface
/
Oil-bearing
formation
Figur e 3-lk
136 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometr
icandCircu
larFunctions
a. Find a particular equ ation expressing y as a a. Is 60 cycles per second the period, or is it
fun ction of x. the frequency? If it is the period, find the
b . Plot th e graph on your grapher. Use a frequency. If it is the frequency, find the
window with an x = range of about [- 100, period.
900). Describ e how the graph confirms that b. The wavelength of a sound wave is defined
your equation is corr ect . as the distance the wave travels in ii ti10e
c. Find graphi cally the firs t int erval of x-values interval equal to one perioq. If sound travels
in th e availabl e land for which the top at 1100 ft/ s, find the wavelength of the
sur face of th e formati on is no more than 60-cycle-per-second hum.
1600 ft deep. c. The lowest musical note the human ear
d. Find algebrai cally the values of x at the ends can hear is about 16 cycles per secorn:L.Jr1
of th e inte rval in part c. Show your work. order to play such a note, a pipe on an
organ must be exactly ba)f ai. loug as .tbe
e. Suppo se that th e original mea surements
wavelength . What length organ pipe would
were slightl y ina ~curate and that the value
be needed to generate a 16-cycle-per-
of y shown at - 65 ft ins tead is at x = -64.
second note?
Would this fact m ake much difference in
the an swer to part c? Use th e most time- 14. Sunrise Project: Assume that the time of sunrise
efficient met hod to arrive at your answ er. varies sinusoidally with the day of the year. Let t
Explain what you did. be the time of sunrise. Let d be the day of the
year, starting with d = 1 on January l.
13. Soun d Wave Pro bl em: The hum you hear on
some radios wh en th ey are not tuned to a -' ::,::m:
~ -
J,." . -
station is a sound wave of 60 cycles p er

seco nd . a. On the Internet or from an almanac, find for
your location the time of sunrise on the
longest day of the year, June 21, and on the
shortest day of the year, December 21. If
you choose, you can use the data for San
Antonio, 5:34 a.m. and 7:24 a.m., CST,
respectively. The phase displacement for
cosine will be the value of d at which the
Sun rises the latest. Use the information
to find a particular equation expressing
time of sunrise as a function of the day
number.
b. Calculate the time of sunrise today at
the location used for the equation in
i;irt a. Compare the answer to your data
source.
c. What is the time of sunrise on your
birthday, taking daylight saving time into
\\j account if necessary?
d. What is the first day of the year on which
the Sun rises at 6:07 a.m. in the location in
Bats navigate and communi cate using part a?
ultrasonic sounds with frequencies of 20- 100 e. In the northern hemisphere, Earth moves
kilohertz (kHz), which are undetectable by
the human ear. A kilohertz is 1000 cycles per faster in wintertime, when it is closer to the
second.
(\, lf\
Section3-7: Sin
usoidalFunc
tionsasMathematica
l Model
s 137
Sun, and slower in summertime, when
it is farther from the Sun. As a result, the Ceiling
I
actual high point of the sinusoid occurs I
I
later than predicted, and the actual low I

I
point occurs earlier than predicted

(Figure 3-71).A representation of the actual Wall ,'
I \
graph can be plotted by putting in a phase I

I \
\
, !.. ~'
displacement that varies. See if you can
duplicate the graph in Figure 3-71 on your ,, '------o--'-
I l l J
grapher. Is the modified graph a better fit -y-J

for the actual sunrise data for the location
in part a? Figure 3-7m
Find its period by measuring the time for

Maximum occur s after pr edicted. 10 swings and dividing by 10. Record the
/ ,- Actu al amplitude when you first start the pendulum,
,, ' ., ' /" ,, ''
I ' ,/,I ' /" and measure it again after 30 s. From these
I
'
Cl!
measurements, find the constants a, b, and B
.g
Cl!
',, ,''\ ',, ,'
and write a particular equation expressing the
\ - Pur e sinusoid
-~ position of the pendulum as a function of
<J) Minimum occur s befor e pr edicted. tim e. Test your equation by using it to predict
d
Day
the displacement of the pendulum at time
t = 10 s and seeing if the pendulum really is
Figur e 3-71
where you predicted it to be at that time.
15. Variable Amplitude Pendulum Project: If there Write an entry in your journal describing
were no friction, the displacement of a this experiment and your results.
pendulum from its rest position would be a
sinusoidal function of time,
y= A cos Et
To account for friction, assume that the
amplitude A decreases exponentially with
time,
Make a pendulum by tying a weight to a

string hung from the ceiling or some other
convenient place (see Figure 3-7m).
3-8 Rotary Motion

When you ride a merry-go-round, you go faster when you sit nearer the outside .
As the merry-go-round rotates through a certain angle, you travel farther in the
same amount of time when you sit closer to the outside (Figure 3-8a).
138 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
-
Rotation
Farth er
(so faster)
Short er
(so slower)
Figur e 3-Ba
However, all points on the merry-go-round turn through the same number of
degrees per unit of time. So there are two different kinds of speed, or velocity,
associated with a point on a rotating object . The angular velocity is the number of
-0 degrees per unit of time, and the linear velocity is the distance per unit of time.
OBJECTIVEGiven information about a rotating object or connected rotating objects, find

lin ear and angular velocities of points on the objects.
To re duce rotary motion to familiar algebraic terms, certain symbols are usually
u sed for radius, arc length, angle measure, linear velocity, angular velocity, and
tim e (Figure 3-8b). They are ·
r Radius from the center of rotation to the point in question

a Number of units of arc length through which th e point moves
e Angle through which the point rotates (usuall y in radians, but
not always)
v Linear velocity, in distance per time
w Angular velocity (often in radians per unit of time; Greek "omega" )
t Length of time to rotate through a particular angle e
Arc
t = tim e to
rot ate by e
V= a/ t
w = 8/ t
Figur e 3-Bb
Section
3-8: RotaryMotion 139
These definitions relate the variables.
DEFINITIONS: Angular Velocity andLinear Velocity

The angular velocity, w, of a point on a rotating object is the number of degrees
(radians, revolutions, and so on) through which the point turns per unit of time.
The linear velocity, v, of a point on a rotating object is the distance the point
travels along its circular path per unit of time.
.
Algebraically: w = -
e and v=-
a
t t
Properties of linear and angular velocity help you accomplish this section's
objecti ve. First, by the definition of radians, the len gth of an arc of a circle
is equal to the radius multiplied by the radian measure of the central angle.
In physics, e is used for angles, even if th e angle is measured in radi ans .
Because you might study rotary motion elsewhere , you'll see the same
notation here.
a= re e must be in radians.
a
-=
re
- =r·-
e Divide both sides of the equation by time.
t t t
By definition, the left side equals th e linear velocity, v, and the right side is r
multiplied by th e angular velocity, w . So you can write the equation
V=rW w must be in radians per unit of time.
PROPERTIES:
LinearVelocityandAngularelocity
If e is in radians and w is in radians per u ·t of time, th en
a= re
v=rw
Analysis of a Single Rotating Object

~ EXAMPLE
1 An old LP ("long play") record, as in Figure 3-8c,
rotat es at 33i
rev/min.
a. Find the angular velocity in radians per
second.
b. Find the angular and linear velocities of
the record (per second) at the point at which
the needle is located when it is just starting to
play, 14.5 cm from the center.
c. Find the angular and linear velocities (per
second) at the center of the turntable. Figure 3-Bc
140 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
Solution a. The 33! rev/ min is already an angular velocity becaus e it is a number of
revolutions (angle) per unit of time. All you need to do is change to the
desired units. For this purpos e, it is helpful to us e dimensional analysis.
There ar e 2 rr radians in one r evolution and 60 secon ds in 1 minut e. Write
the convers ion factors thi s way:
33! rev 2rr rad 1 min 1

w= · · -- = 1-rr
9 = 3.4906 ... ""3.49 rad/s
min rev 60 s
Notice that th e revolutions and minut es cancel, leaving radians in th e
numerator and seconds in the deno minator .
b. All points on the same rotating object have the same angular velocity. So
the point 14.5 cm from the center is also rotating at w = 1! rr radians per
secon d. The computation of linear velocity is
14.5 cm 1lrrrad
v= rw = d · 9 = 50.6145 ... "" 50.6 cm/ s
ra s
Note that for the purpo se of dimensional analysis, the radius has the unit s
"cm/ rad ." A point 14.5 cm from the cent er moves 14.5 cm along the arc for
each radian the record rotates .
c. The turntabl e and record rotate as a single obj ect. So all point s on th e
turntab le have the same angular velocity as the record, even the point that
is the center of the turntabl e. The radius to the cent er is, of cours e, zero. So
w = l i rr ""3.49 rad / s
v = rw = (O)(lbrr) = 0 cm/ s ~
Interestingly, the cen ter of a rotating object has zero linear velocity, but it still
rotates with the same angular velocity as all other point s on th e object.
Analysis of Connected Rotating Objects

Figure 3-8 d shows the back wheel of a
bicycle. A small spro cket is connected
to the axle of the wheel. This sprocket
is connecte d by a chain to the large
sprocket to which th e pedals are
attached. So there are several rotating
objects whose motions are relat ed to
each other. Example 2 shows you how
to analyze the motion.
Figure 3-Bd
~ EXAMPLE
2 A cyclist turns the pedals of her bicycle
(Figure 3-8d) at 8 rad / s. The front sprocket has diam eter 20 cm an d is
connecte d by the chain to th e back sprocket, which has diameter 6 cm. The
rear wheel has radius 3 5 cm and is connec ted to the ba ck sprocket.
a. What is the angular velocity of the front sprocket?
b. What is the linear velocity of points on the chain?
Section
3-8: Rotary
Motion 141
I
c. What is the linear velocity of points on the rim of the back sprocket?
d. What is the angular velocity of the center of the back sprocket?

e. How fast is the bicycle going in kilometers per hour ?
Solution a. w = 8 rad / s
Because the pedals and the front sprocket are connected at their axles,
they rotate as one object. All points on the same rotating object have the
same angular velocity.
10 cm 8 rad
b. v= rw =-- · --= 80 cm/s
rad s
The linear velocity of points on the chain is the same as the linear velocity
of points on the rim of the front sprocket. The radius of the front sprocket
is 20/2, or 10 cm.
c. v= 80 cm/s
The back sprocket's rim has the same linear velocity as the chain and the
front sprocket's rim.
v 80 cm rad
d. v = rw =} w = - = -- · -- = 26-23 rad / s
r s 3 cm
The angular velocity is the same at every point on the same rotating object,
even at the center. So th e angular velocity at the center of the back
sprocket is the same as at the rim. You can calculate this angular velocity
using the equation v = rw. The radius is 3 cm, half the diameter.
35 cm 26~ rad 3,600 s
e. v= rw =-- · · --- l km = 33 .6 km / h
rad s h 100,000 cm
The wheel is connecte d by an axle to the back sprocket, so it rotates
with the same angular velocity as the sprocket . Unless the wheel is
skidding, the speed the bicycle goes is the same as the linear velocity of
points on the rim of the wheel. You can calculate this linear velocity using
th e equation v = rw. <111111
From Example 2, you can draw some general conclusions about rotating objects
connected either at their rims or by an axle.
CONCLUSIONS:
Connected
RotatingObjects
l. Two r:otating objects connected by an axle have the same angular
velocity.
2. Two rotating objects connected at their rims have the same linear
velocity at their rims.
142 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
Problem Set
Reading Analysis t:l[/j 2. Ship's Propeller Problem: The propeller

on a freighter has a radius of about 4 ft
(Figure 3-8e). At full speed, the propeller turns
do you consider to be the main idea? Give a
at 150 rev/ min.
real-world example involving rotary motion. What
is the difference between linear velocity and a. What is the angular velocity of the propeller
angular velocity? Explain why it is possible for in radians per second at the tip of the
one type of velocity to equal zero when the other blades ? At the center of the propeller?
does not equal zero. b. What is the linear velocity in feet per second
at the tip of the blad es? At the center of the
propeller?
Quick Review
02. A skater rotate s 3000 deg in 4 s. How fast is he

rotating?
Q3. If one value of e = arccos xis 3 7°, then
another value of e in [0°, 360°] is -?-.
04. If one value of y = arccos xis 1.2 radians, then
th e first negativ e value of y is -?- . Figure 3-Be
05. What is the period of the function
y = 7 + 4 cos 2(x - 5)? 3. Lawn Mower Blade Problem: The blade on a
rotary lawn mower is 19 in. long. The cutting
Q6. What transformation of function f is edges begin 6 in. from the center of the blade
g(x) = f(0.2x)? (Figure 3-8f). In order for a lawn mower blade
07. Sketch a right triangl e with hypotenuse 8 cm
to cut grass, it must strike the grass at a speed
and one leg 4 cm. How long is the other leg? of at least 900 in./s .
a. If you want the innermo st part of the
. What are the measures of the angles of the
QB cutting edge to cut grass, how many radians
triangle in Problem Q7? per second must the blade turn? How many
09. Factor: x2 - llx + 10 revolutions per minute is this ?
010. Find the next term in the geometric sequence
b. What is the linear velocity of the outermost tip
3, 6, .. . . of the blade while it is turning as in part a?
c. If the outermost tip of the blade strikes a
1. Shot Put Problem: An athlete spins around in stone while it is turning as in part a, how
the shot put event to prop el the shot. In order fast could the sto ne be propelled from the
for the shot to land wh ere he wants, it must mower ? How many miles per hour is this?
leave his hand at a speed of 60 ft/ s. Assume
that the shot is 4 ft from his center of rotation. r- 6 in.-j ~-7
a. How many radians per second must he 0 =-3
rotate to achieve his obj ective? i----1 9 in. ----~
b. How many revolution s per minute must he Figure 3-Bf

rotate?
Section
3-8: Rotary
Motion 143
b .
X
4. Bicycle Problem: Rhoda rides a racing bike at a c. !ma's outstretched fingertips are 70 cm
speed of 50.4 km/ h. The wheels have diameter from th e central axis of her body (around
70 cm. which she rotates) . What is the linear
a. What is the linear velocity of the points velocity of h er fingertips?
farthest out on the wheels? d. As Ima spins ther e are points on her body
b. Find the angular velocity of the wheels in that have zero linear velocity. Where are
radians per second. th ese points? What is her angular velocity
at thes e points?
c. Find the angular velocity of the wheels in
revolutions per minute. e. Ima pulls her arms in close to her body, just
15 cm from her axis of rotation . As a result,
\ __..,..5. Dust Problem: A speck of dust is sitting 4 cm her angular velocity incr eases to 10 rad /s.
from the center of a turntable. Phoebe spins Are her fingertips going faster or slower than
the turntable through an angle of 120°. they were in part c? Justify your answer .
r
a. Through how many radians does the speck
( 8. ,Paper Towel Problem: In 0.4 s, Dwayne pulls
of dust turn?
1 from the roll thr ee paper towels with total
b. What distanc e does it travel? V length 45 cm (Figure 3-8g).
c. If Phoeb e rotates the turntabl e 120° in 0.5 s,
what is the dust speck's angular velocity?
What is its linear velocity?
6. Seesaw Problem: Stan and his older brother Ben
play on a seesaw. Stan sits at a point 8 ft from
the pivot. On the other side of the seesaw, Ben,
I~ Figure 3-Bg
who is heavier, sits ju st 5 ft from the pivot. As a. How fast is he pulling the paper towels?
Ben goes up and Stan goes down, the seesaw b. The roll of towels has diam eter 14 cm. What
rotates through an angle of 37° in 0.7 s. is the linear velocity of a point on the
a. What are Ben's angular velocity in radians per outsid e of the roll?
second and linear velocity in feet per second? c. What is the angular velocity of a point on
b. What are Stan's angular and linear velocities? the outside of the roll?
d. How many revolutions per minute is the roll
7. Figure Skating Problem: Ima N. Aspin goes
of towels spinning?
, figure skating. She goes into a spin with her
arms outstretched, making four complete e. The next da y Dwayne pulls th e last few
revolutions in 6 s. towels off th e roll. He pulls with th e same
linear velocity as before, but this time the
a. How fast is she rotating in revolutions roll's diamet er is only 4 cm. What is the
per second?
angular velocity now?
b. Find Ima' s angular velocity in radians
per second .
144 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
9. Pulley Problem: Two pulle ys are connected by a f. If you double an angular velocity by using
pulley belt (Figure 3-Sh). gears, what is the ratio of the diameters of
the gears? Which gear does the driving, the
large gear or the small gear?
11. Tractor Probl em: The rear wheels of a tractor
(Figure 3-Sj) are 4 ft in diameter and are
turning at 20 rev/ min.
Figure 3-Bh
a. The small pulley has diame ter 10 cm and

rotates at 100 rev / min. Find its angular
velocity in rad / s.
b. Find the linear velocity of a point on the rim
of the 10-cm pulley. Figure 3-Bj
c. Find the linear velocity of a point on the belt a. How fast is the tractor going in feet per
connecting the two pulleys. second? How fast is this in miles per hour?
d. Find the linear velocity of a point on the rim b. The front wheels ha ve a diameter of only
of the large pulley, whlch has diameter 30 cm. 1.8 ft. How fast are the tread points moving
e. Find the angular velocity of a point on the in feet per second? Is this an angular
rim of the 30-cm pulley. velocity or a linear velocity ?
f. Find the angular and linear velocities of a c. How fast in revolutions per minute are the
point at the center of the 30-cm pulley. front wheels turning ? Is this an angular
velocity or a linear velocity ?
10. Gear Problem: A gear with diameter 30 cm is
revolving at 45 rev/ min. It drives a smaller gear 12. Wheel and Grindstone Problem: A waterwheel
that has diamet er 8 cm (similar to Figure 3-8i). with diam eter 12 ft turn s at 0.3 rad / s (Figure
3-Sk).
a. What is the linear velocity of points on the
rim of the waterwh eel?
b . The waterwheel is connected by an axle to
a grindstone with diameter 3 ft. What is the
angular velocity of points on the rim of the
grindstone?
Figure 3-Bi c. What is the fastest velocity of any point on
the grindstone? Where are these points?
a. How fast is the large gear turning in radians
per minute?
b. What is the linear velocity of the teeth on
the larg e gear?
c. What is the linear velocity of the teeth on
the small gear?
d. How fast is th e sma ll gear turning in radians
per minut e?
e. How fast is the small gear turning in
revolutions p er minute?
Figure 3-Bk
Section
3-8: Rotary
Motion 145
13. Three Gear Problem: Three gears are connected
as depicted schematically (without showing
their teeth) in Figure 3-81.
a. Gear 1 rotates at 300 rev /min. Its radius is
8 in. What is its angular velocity in radians
per second? ·\
.............
/ Chain
b. Gear 2 is attached to the same axle as
Gear 1 but has radius 2 in. What is its
angular velocity?
20-in.-di ameter
c. What is the linear velocity at a point on the 38-in.-di ameter whee l
wheel spro cket
teeth of Gear 2?
Figure 3-Sm
d. Gear 3 is driven by Gear 2. What is the linear
velocity of the teeth on Gear 3? 15. Marching Band Formation Problem: Suppose a
e. Gear 3 has radius 18 in. What is the angular marching band executes a formation in which
velocity of its teeth? some members march in a circle 50 ft in
diameter and others in a circle 20 ft in
f. What are the linear and angular velocities at
diameter. The band members in the sma ll
the center of Gear 3?
circle march in such a way that they mesh with
---~ Gear 3 the members in the big circle without bumping
I
into each other. Figure 3-8n shows the
formation. The members in the big circle
march at a normal pace of 5 ft/ s .
• • ••
••
Gear 2
Figure 3-81
14. Truck Problem: In the 1930s, some trucks

used a chain to transmit power from the
•
•
•
• •
50 ft
..t·
••
e
•
••
20 ft •
••
engine to the wheels (Figure 3-8m). Suppose • • •
•
••
the drive sprocket had diameter 6 in., the
••
wheel sprocket had diameter 20 in., and the
drive sprocket rotated at 300 rev /min. ••• Figure 3-Sn
a. Find the angular velocity-"61 the drive
sprocket in radians per second. a. What is the angu lar velocity of the big circle
in radians p er second?
b. Find the linear velocity of the wheel
sprocket in inches per minute. b. What is the angular velocity of the big circle
in revolutions per minute?
c. Find the angular velocity of the wheel in
radians per minute. c. Which is the same about the two circles,
their linear or their angular velocities at
d . If the wheel has diameter 38 in., find the
th e rims?
speed the truck is going, to the nearest mile
per hour .
146 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
d. What is the angular velocity of the sma ll 17. Gear Train Prob lem: When som ethin g that
circle? rotates fast, like a car's engine, drives
e. How many times faster does the small circle something that rotat es slower, like the car's
revolve? How can you find this factor u sing whe els, a gear train is used. In Figur e 3-8p,
only the two diam eters? Gear 1 is rotating at 2 700 rev / min . The teet h
on Gear 1 drive Gear 2, which is conn ected by
16. Four Pulley Problem : Four pulleys are an axle to Gear 3. Th e teeth on Gear 3 dri ve
connec ted to each other as shown in Figure Gear 4. The sizes of th e gears are
3-80 . Pulley 1 is driven by a motor at an
Gear 1: radius= 2 cm
angular velocity of 120 rev/ min . It is connecte d
by a belt to Pulley 2. Pulley 3 is on the same Gear 2: radius= 15 cm
axle as Pulley 2. It is conne cted by another b elt Gear 3: radius= 3 cm
to Pulley 4. The dimensions of the pull eys are Gear 4: radius = 18 cm
Pulley 1: radius = 10 cm
Pulley 2: radius = 2 cm
Pulley 3: diameter= 24 cm
Pulley 4: radius = 3 cm Gear 1
Gear 4
Fig ur e 3-Bp
a. What is th e angular velocity of Gear 1 in

radians per second ?
Figur e 3-Bo
b . Find the linear and angular velocities of the
a. What is the angular velocity of Pulley 1 in teeth on th e rim of Gear 2.
ra dian s per minute ? c. Find the linear and angular velocities of the
b . What is the linear velocity of the rim of teet h on th e rim of Gear 3.
Pulley l? d. Find the lin ear and angular velocities of the
c. Find th e linear and angular velocities of the teeth on th e rim of Gear 4.
rim of Pulley 2. e. Find the linear an d angular velocities at the
d. Find the linear and angu lar velocities of the cent er of Gear 4.
rim of Pulley 3. f. Find the angular velocity of Gear 4 in
e. Find the lin ear and angular velocities of the revolutions p er minut e.
rim of Pulley 4. g. The reduction ratio is the ratio of the
f. Find th e linear and angular velociti es of the angular velocity of the fastest gear to th e
center of Pulley 4. angular velocity of the slowest gear. What
g. Find the angular velocity of Pulley 4 in is the reduction ratio for the gear train
revolutions per minute. in Figur e 3-8p? Calculate this reduction
h. How man y times faster than Pulley 1 is Pulley ratio without workin g parts a-f of this
4 rotating? How can you find this factor probl em .
simply from the radii of the four pulleys?
\ ;\
Sectio
n3-8: Rotary
Motion 14 7
In this chapter you learned how to graph trigonometric functions . The sine and
cosine functions are continuous sinusoids, while other trigonometric functions
are discontinuous, having vertical asymptotes at regular intervals. You also
learned about circular functions, which you can use to model real-world
phenomena mathematically, and you learned how radians provide a link
between these circular functions and the trigonometric functions. Radians
also provide a way to calculate linear and angular velocity in rotary motion
problems.
Review Problems
RO.Update your journal with what you have R2. a. Without using your grapher, show that you
learned since the last entry. Include things understand the effects of the constants in
such as a sinusoidal equation by sketching the
• The one most important thing you have graph of y = 3 + 4 cos 5(8 - 10°). Give the
learned as a result of studying this chapter amplitude, period, sinusoidal axis location ,
and phase displacement.
• The graphs of the six trigonom etr ic
functions b. Using the cosine function, find a particular
equa tion of the sinusoid in Figure 3-9a. Find
• How the transfor mations of sinusoidal
another particular equation using the sine
graphs relate to function transformations in
function. Show that the equations are
Chapter 1
equivalent to each other by plotting them on
• How the circular and trigonometric the same screen. What do you observe about
functions are related the two graphs?
• Why circular functions usually are more
y
appropriate as mathematical models than
are trigonometric functions
e
Rl. a. Sketch the graph of a sinusoid. On the 10° 38°
graph, show the difference in meaning
between a cycle and a period. Show the
amplitude, the phase displacement, and the
sinusoidal axis.
b. In the equation y = 3 + 4 cos 5(8 - 10°),
what name is given to the quantity
Figure 3-9a
5(8 - 10°)?
148 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
c. A quarter-c ycle of a sinuso id is shown in d. Find the radian m easur e of cos- 1 0.8 and
Figure 3-9b. Find a particular equation of csc 1 2.
the sinu soid. e. How long is the ar c of a circle subtended by
y a central angle of 1 radian if th e radius of
120 the circle is 17 units ?
50 / e
RS. a. Draw the unit circle in a uv-coor dinat e
system. In this coordinate system , draw an
x-axis verti cally with its origin at the point
go 20 0
(u, v) = (1, 0). Show where th e points x = l,
2, and 3 units map onto th e unit circle as
Figure 3-9b
the x-axis is wrapped around it.
d. At what value of e shown in Figure 3-9b b. How long is the arc of the unit circle
does the graph have a point of inflection? subtended by a central angl e of 60°?
At what point do es the graph have a critical Of 2.3 radians?
point ? c. Find sin 2° and sin 2.
e. Find the frequency of the sinusoid in d. Find th e value of th e invers e trigonometric
Figure 3-9b. function cos- 1 0.6.
R3. a. Sketch the grap h of y = tan e. e. Find th e exact valu es (no decimals) of the
b. Explain why the p eriod of the tangent circula r functions cos f , sec If, and tan f.
function is 180° rath er than 360° like sine f. Sketch the graphs of the p aren t circula r
and cosine. functions y = cos x and y = sin x.
c. Plot the graph of y = sec e on your grapher . g. Explain ho w to find th e period of the
Explain how you did this. circul ar function y = 3 + 4 sin fri(x - 2) from
th e constan ts in the equat ion. Sketch th e
d. Use the relationship b etween sine and
graph. Confirrr:iby plotting on your grapher
coseca nt to explain why the cosecan t
th at your sketc h is correct .
fun ction has vertical asymp totes at e = 0°,
180°, 360°, . ... h. Find a parti cular equation of the circul ar
e. Explain why the graph of the cosecan t function sinusoid for which a half-cycle is
shown in Figure 3-9c.
funct ion ha s high and low points but no
points of infle ction . Explain why the graph y
of the cota ngent function has points of
X
inflection but no high or low poin ts.
- 10
13 33
f. For th e fun ction y = 2 + 0.4 cot ! (8 - 40 °),
give th e vertical and horizontal dilations
and th e vertical and horizontal translations.
Then plot the graph to confirm that your
answers are correct. What is th e period of
- 45 V
Figur e 3-9c
this function ? Why is it not m eaningful to R6. a. Find th e general solu tion of the inverse
talk about its amplitud e? circul ar relation arc cos 0.8.
R4. a. How man y radians are in 30°? In 45°? In 60°? b . Find the first three positive values of th e
Give the answers exactly, in terms of rr. inverse circular relation arccos 0.8.
b. How many degrees are in an angle of c. Find the least value of arccos 0.1 that is
2 radians? Write the answer as a decimal. greater than 100.
c. Find cos 3 and cos 3°.
Section
3-9:Chapter
Review
andTest 149
d. For the sinusoid in Figure 3-9d, find the four submarine communicate? How did you
values of x shown for which y = 2 arrive at your answer?
• Graphically, to one decimal place d. Between what two nonnegative times is your
• Numerically, by finding th e particular submarine first unabl e to communicate?
equation and plotting the graph
RB. Clock Probl em: The "second" hand on a clock
• Algebraically, using the particular
rotates through an angle of 120° in 20 s.
equation
a. What is its angular velocity in degrees per
e. What is the next positive value of x for
second?
which y = 2, beyond the last positive value
shown in Figure 3-9d? b. What is its angular velocity in radians per
second?
y
c. How far does a point on the tip of the hand,
11 cm from th e axle, move in 20 s? What is
the linear velocity of th e tip of the hand? How
can you calculate this linear velocity quickly
y= 2 from the radius and the angular velocity?
X
-6 2 10 Three WheelProblem: Figure 3-9e shows Wheel 1

Figure 3-9d with radius 15 cm, turning with an angular
velocity of 50 rad/s. It is connected by a belt to
R7. Porpoising Probl em: Assume that you are Wheel 2, with radius 3 cm. Wheel 3, with radius
aboard a resea rch submarine doing 25 cm, is connected to the same axle as Wheel 2.
submerged training exercises in the Pacific
Ocean. At time t = 0, you start porpoising
(going alternately deep er and shallower). At
tim e t = 4 min you are at your deepest,
y = -1000 m. At tim e t = 9 min you next reach
your shallowest, y = -2 00 m. Assume that
y varies sinusoidally with time.
Figure 3-9e
d. Find the linear velocity of points on the belt

connecting Wheel 1 to Wheel 2.
e. Find the linear velocity of points on the rim
of Wheel 2.
f. Find the linear velocity of a point at the
cen ter of Wheel 2.
g. Find th e angular velocity of Wheel 2.
h. Find the angular velocity of Wheel 3.
a. Sketch th e graph of y versus t. i. Find the linear velocity of points on the rim
b. Write an equation expressing y as a of Wheel 3.
function of t. j. If Wheel 3 is touching the ground, how fast
c. Your submarine can't communicate with (in kilometers per hour) would the vehicle
ships on the surface when it is deeper than connected to the wheel be moving?
y = -300 m. At tim e t = 0, could your
150 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
Concept Problems
Cl. Pump Jack Problem: An oil well pump jack is d. Suppose that the pump is started at time
shown in Figure 3-9f. As the motor turns, the t = 0 s. One second later, Pis at its high est
walking beam rocks back and forth, pulling the point above the ground. Pis at its next low
rod out of the well and letting it go back into point 2.5 s after that . When the walking
the well. The connection between the rod and beam is horizontal, point Pis 7 ft above the
the walking beam is a steel cable that wraps ground. Sketch the graph of this sinusoid.
around the cathea d. The distance d from the e. Find a particular equation expressing d as a
ground to point P, where the cable connects to function of t.
the rod, varies periodically with time.
f. How far above the ground is Pat t = 9?
a. As the walking beam rocks, the angle e it
g. How long does P stay more than 7.5 ft above
makes with the ground varies sinusoidally
the ground on each cycle?
with time. The angle goes from a minimum
of -0.2 radian to a maximum of 0.2 radian . h. True or false? "The angle is always the
How many degrees correspond to this range independent variable in a periodic
of angle (8)? function ."
b. The radius of the circular arc on the cathead C2. Inverse Circular Relation Graphs: In this
is 8 ft. What arc length on the cathead problem you'll investigate the graphs of th e
corresponds to the range of angles in part a? inverse sine and inverse cosine functions and
c. The dist ance, d, between the cable-to-rod the general inverse sine and cosine relations
connector and the groun d varies from which they come.
sinusoidall y with time. What is the a. On your grapher, plot the inverse circular
amplitude of the sinu soid? function y = sin- 1 x. Use a window with an
x-range of about [-10, 10] that includes x = 1
Cable and x = -1 as grid points. Use the same
wraps on
/ cathead. scales on both the x- and y-axes. Sketch the
result.
Walking beam b. The graph in part a is only for the inverse
"" sine function. You can plot the entire inverse
sine relation, y = arcsin x, by putting your
grapher in parametric mode . In this mode,
Coupling Cable both x and y are functions of a third
variable, usually t. Enter the parametric
"" p
equations this way:
Motor T
d
Rod X
y=t
= Sin t
j Well
Plot the graph, using a window with a
t-range the same as the x-range in part a.
Sketch the graph.
Figure 3-9{ c. Describe how the graphs in part a and
part b are related to each other.
d. Explain algebraica lly how the parametric
functions in part b and the function
y = sin- 1 x are related .
Section
3-9:Chapter
Review
andTest 151
e. Find a way to plot the ordinary sine
function, y = sin x, on the same screen, as in
part b. Use a different style for this graph so
that you can distinguish it from the other
one. The result should look like the graphs
in Figure 3-9g.
Merry-go-round
3 ft
Fence
Figure 3-9h
Figure 3-9g
a. Find your linear velocity, in feet per second,
f. How are the two graphs in Figure 3-9g due to the combined rotations of the seats
related to each other? Find a geometric and the merry-go-round when your seat is
transformation of the sine graph that gives • Farthest from the center of the merry-go-
the arcsine graph. round.
g. Explain why the arcsine graph in Figure 3-9g • Closest to the center of the merry-go-
is not a function graph but the principal round.
value of the inverse sine you plotted in b. In what direction are you actually moving
part a is a function graph . when your seat is closest to the center of
h. Using the same scales as in part b, plot the the merry -go-round?
graphs of the cosine function, y = cos x, and c. As your seat turns, your distance from the
the inverse cosine relation. Sketch the fence varies sinusoidally with time. As the
result. Do the two graphs have the same merry -go-round turns, the axis of this
relationship as those in Figure 3-9g? sinusoid also varies sinusoidally with time,
i. Repeat part h for the inverse tangent but \Vith a different period and amplitude .
function . Suppose that at time t = 0 s your seat is at
j. Write an entry in your journal telling what its farthest distance from the fence, 23 ft.
you have learned from this problem . Write an equation expressing your distance
from the fence as a function of time, t.
C3. Merry-Go-Round Problem: A merry-go-round
rotates at a constant angular velocity while d. Plot th e graph of the function in part c.
Sketch the r esult.
rings of seats rotate at a different (but
constant) angular velocity (Figure 3-9h). e. Use the answers above to explain why
Suppose that the seats rotate at 30 rev/ min many people don't feel well after riding on
counterclockwise while the merry-go- round is this type of ride.
rotating at 12 rev / min counterclockwise.
152 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Functions
.
Chapter Test
L
allowed(Tl-19) A gear with radius 5 in. rotates so that its teeth
have linear velocity 40 in./s. Its teeth mesh
Tl. Figure 3-9i shows an x-axis drawn tangent to with a larger gear with radius 10 in. What
the unit circle in a uv-coordinate system. On a is the linear velocity of the teeth on the
copy of this figure, show approximately where larger gear?
the point x = 2.3 maps onto the unit circle
when the x-axis is wrapped around the circle.
T2. Sketch an angl e of 2.3 radians on the copy of
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(Tl0-124)
Figure 3-9i. Ono. A long pendulum hangs from the ceiling. As it
swings back and forth, its distance from the
X wall varies sinusoidally with time. At tim e
3 x = 1 s it is at its clos est point, y = 50 cm.
Three secon ds later it is at it s farthest point,
y = 160 cm. Sketch the graph.
2
Tll. Figure 3-9j show.s a half-c~de of a circular
V
function sinusoid. Find a particular equation
of this sinusoid .
y
u
\"l...
10 X
-20
Figur e 3-9 i
Figur e 3-9}
T3. What are the steps needed to find a decimal
approximation of the degree measure of an For Problems Tl2-Tl8, Figure 3-9k shows the
angle of 2.3 radians ? In what quadrant would depth of the water at a point near the shore as it
this angle terminate ? varies due to the tides . A particular equation
T4. Give the exact numb er of radians in 120° (no relating d, in feet, to t, in hours after midnight on
decimals). a given day, is
TS. Give the exact number of degrees inf radian d = 3 + 2 cos ,rr6(t - 4)
(no decimals).
T6. Give the period, amplitud e, vertica l translation,
and phas e displacement of this circular ..c::
function: C.
Cl)
a
f(x) = 3 + 4 cos f(x-1)
T7. Sketch at leas t two cycles of the sinusoid in Time
Problem T6. Figure 3-9 k
~An object rotates with angular velocity
Tl2. Find a time at which the water is deep est. How
w = 3 rad /s. What is the linear velocity of a
deep is it at that time?
point 20 cm from the axis of rotation?
Section
3-9: Chapter
Review
andTest 153
T13. After the time you found in Problem Tl2, when
is the water next at its shallowest? How deep is
it at that time?
Tl4. What does t equal at 3:00 p.m.? How deep is
the water at that time?
Tl5. Plot the graph of the sinusoid in Figure 3-9k
on your grapher. Use a window with an Figure 3-91
x-range (actually, t) of about [O, 50] and an
Tl9. What is the angular velocity of the pedals in
appropriate window for y (actually, d).
radians per second?
Tl6. By tracing your graph in Problem Tl5, find,
T20 . What is the linear velocity of the chain in
approximately, the first interval of
centimeters per second?
nonnegative times for which the water is
less than 4.5 ft deep. T21. What is the angular velocity of the back wheel?
Tl?. Set your grapher's table mode to begin at T22. How fast is Anna's bike going, in kilometers
the later time from Problem Tl6, an d set the per hour?
table increment at 0.01. Find to the nearest
T23. The pedals are 24 cm from the axis of the large
0.01 h the latest time at which the water is still
sprocket. Sketch a graph showing the distance
less than 4.5 ft deep.
of Anna's right foot from the pavement as a
Tl8. Solve algebraically for the first positive time at function of the number of seconds since her
which the water is exactly 4.5 ft deep. foot was at a high point. Show the upp er and
lower bounds, the sinusoidal axis, and the
Bicycle Problem: For Problems Tl9-T23, Anna Racer
location of the next three high points.
is riding her bike. She turns the pedals at 120
rev / min. The dimensions of the bicycle are shown T24. What did you learn as a result of taking this
in Figure 3-91. test that you did not know before?
154 Chapter
3: Applications
ofTrigonometric
andCircular
Function
s
Trigonometric Function
Properties, Identities, and
Parametric Functions 4
The Foucault pendulum shown in the photograph provided

physical proof in the middle of the 19th century that Earth is
rotating about its axis. Pendulums can have many different
paths in different planes. A pendulum's path is a two-dimensional
curve that you can describe by x- and y-displacements from its
rest position as functions of time. You can predict a pendulum's
position at any given time using parametric equations.
Pythagorean properties of trigonometric functions allow you to
conclude whether the path of a pendulum is an ellipse or a circle.
155
Three kinds of algebraic properties relate different trigonometric
functions of one argument. For example, the graphs of y = cos 2 x
and y = sin 2 x are sinusoids. If you add these two functions, the
result is always 1. In this chapter you'll learn properties you can
apply to proving identities and solving trigonometric equations.
You'll gain this knowledge in four ways.
Algebraically Pythagorean property: cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1
Graphically y
1
X
,\ rr I
, 2TT 3TT
\
\ ,I
-1 "·'
Numerically cos 2 37° + sin 2 37° = 0.6378 ... + 0.3621. .. = 1
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15 6 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Properties,
Identities
, andParametric
Functions
4-1 Introduction to the Pythagorean Property
Figure 4-la shows the graphs of y = cos 2 x (on th e left) and y = sin 2 x (on the
right). Both graphs are sinusoids, as you will see in th e next chapt er. In this
section you'll learn that the sum of the two functions always equals 1.
y y = cos' x y y = sin' X
/ '\
'\ \
\
\
X \ X
\
\ TT
I
I 2rr , 3rr rr , 3rr
\
\
\
I \
\
I ' \
\ '
\
-1 '' ' ' ',, ,,/ .....___y = sinx

/
y = COS X -1
Figur e 4 -la
OBJECTIVEInvestig ate the sum of the squares of the cosine and sine of the same
argument.
1. If you ente r cos 2 0.7 and sin 2 0. 7 into your independent of whether xis measured in
calculator, you get these numbers: degrees or radians ?
cos 2 0.7 = 0.5849835715 5. Figure 4-lb shows the unit circle in a
sin 2 0.7 = 0.4150164285 uv -coordinat e system and an angl e of 50° in
standard position . Use the definitions of
Without usin g your calculator , add th e cosine and sin e to explain why cos 50° = u
numbers . What do you notice?
and sin 50° = v.
2. Enter y 1 = (cos (x))2 and y2 = (sin (x))2 into your
V
grapher. (This is how your gra pher recogni ze s
,,'
cos 2 x and sin 2 x.) Enter y 3 = y 1 + y 2 and th en ...- - - ...'' /
,
mak e a table of valu es of the three functions ,,
I I '\\
for each 0.1 radian, starting at 0. What do you I
I
500 V \
I u
noti ce about y 3 ? / u
I I
I I
3. Plot the three functions on the same screen . \
, I
Do the graphs of y 1 and y2 agree with those in '' , ,,

'
Figure 4-la? How do es the rela tionship between
y 1 and y 2 give you graphical eviden ce that
cos 2 x + sin 2 xis equal to 1, no matter what xis? Figur e 4-lb
4. Remake the table of Problem 2 with your 6. Show numericall y that cos 2 50° + sin 2 50° = 1.
grapher in degree mod e. Does your conclusion Explain graphica lly why this Pythag orean
in Problem 3 app ly to trigonometric functions property is true.
Section
4-1: Introduction
tothePythagorean
Property 157
4-2 Pythagorean, Reciprocal, and
Quotient Properties
In Section 4-1, you discovere d the Pythagorean prop erty
cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1
for all values of x. You also know that secant, cosecant, and cotangent are
reciprocals of cosine, sine, and tangent, respectively. In this section you will
prove th ese properties algebraically, alon g with the quotient properties, such as
sin x
tan x
COS X
OBJECTIVEDerive algebr aically three kinds of properties expressing relations hip s amo ng
trigonometric funct ion s.
Because the properties you'll learn in this section apply to all trigonometric
functions, the argum ent x will be used both for degrees and for radians .
Reciprocal Properties
V In Chapter 2, in order to find values of the secant, cosecant, and tang ent
1
secx= --
cos X
functions, you took advantage of the fact that each is the reciprocal of one of
the functions on your grapher. For instanc e,
1
Hypotenus e secx = --
Opposite cos X
x radians because, in the reference triangle (Figure 4-2a),

u
Adjacent hypotenuse adjacent leg
secx =----- and cosx =-----
Figure 4-2a adjacent leg hypotenuse
This relationship betw een secant and cosine is called a reciprocal property. As
you can see from the graphs in Figure 4-2b, each y-value for the secant graph is
y '
, Secant the reciprocal of the corresponding y-value for th e cosine graph . For instance,
, Cosine because cos (¥) =t it follows that sec(¥)= 2. As you saw in Section 3-3, the
-A X
asymptotes for the graph of th e secant function
occur at IfCIJsX = 0,
1 1
Se& X = C()fX = 0 '
where the value of the cosine function is whiJvu~1

Figure 4-2b
zero.
158 Chapt
er 4: Trig
onometr
ic FunctionPropert
ies,Identities,
andParametric
Functions
This box summarizes the three reciprocal properties.
PROPERTIES:
TheReciprocal
Properties
1 1 1
secx= - - CSCX= -- cotx= - -
cosx SinX tanx
The domain excludes those valu es of x that produce a denominator equal to zero.
Quotient Properties
If you divide sin x by cos x, an interesting result appears .
oppos ite leg
Sin X hypotenuse
--- Definition of sine and cosine.
COSX adjacent leg
hypotenuse
oppos ite leg hypotenuse
Multiply the numerator by the
hypotenuse adjacent leg reciprocal of the denomin ator.
opposite leg
Simplif y.
adjacent leg
= tan x Definition of tan gent.
Sin X
tanx=-- Transitivity and symmetry.
cos X
This relationship is called a quotient prope rty. If you plot
Y1 = sin(x)
Y2 = cos (x)
X
Y3 = YifY 2
y 4 = tan (x)
the graphs of y 3 and y4 will be superimposed (Figure 4-2c).
Figure 4-2c Because cotangent is the reciprocal of tangent, another quotient property is
COSX
cotx=--
sin X
Each of these quotient pro p erties can b e expressed in terms of secant and
cosecant. For instance,
sin x
tanx = --
cos X
1
CSCX
Use th e reciprocal properties for sine and cosine.
1
sec x
Section
4-2: Pythagorean,
Reciprocal
, andQuotient
Properties 159
sec x
Simplify.
CSC X
sec x
tanx = --
csc X
Using the reciprocal property for cotangent gives
CSC X
cotx=--
sec x
This box records the two quotient properties in both of their forms. The
properties apply unless a denominator equals zero.
PROPERTIES:
TheQuotient
Properties
sin x sec x rr
tanx=--=-- Domain: x .o
cos X CSC X 2 + rrn, where n is an integer.
COS X CSC X
cotx=--=-- Domain: x .o rrn, where n is an integer.
sin x sec x
Pythagorean Properties
Figure 4-2d shows an arc of length x in standard position on the unit circle in a
uv-coordinate system. By the Pythagorean theorem, point (u, v) at the endpoint
of arc x has the property
u2 + v 2 = 1
This property is true even if x terminates in a quadrant where u or vis negative,
because squar es of negative numbers are th e same as the squares of their
absolute values.
V
This diagram shows one

possible reconstruction of
the geometrical figure in (u, v) = (cos x, sin x)
Liu Hui's 3rd-century A .D .
proof of the Pythagorean
theorem.
u
u
Figure 4-2d
By the definitions of cosine and sine,

U V
U = COS X and v = sinx u = - and v= -
1 1
Substitution into the equation u 2 + v 2 = 1 gives the Pythagorean property for
sine and cosine.
cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1
160 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Properties,
Identities,
andParametric
Functions
Two other Pythagorean properties can be derived from this one.
Start with the Pythagor ean property for cosine
and sine.
cos 2 x sin 2 x 1
--+--=-- Divide both sides of the equation by cos 2 x.
cos2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x
2
1 + tan 2 x = sec 2 x sin x = (sinx)
-- -- 2 = tan 2 x and -- 1 = sec 2 x
cos 2 x cos x cos 2 x
Dividing by sin 2 x instead of by cos 2 x results in the propert y
cot 2 x + 1 = csc 2 x
This box records the three Pythagorean properties.
PROPERTIES:
TheThree
Pythagorean
Properties
cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1 Domain: All real values of x.
IT
1 + tan 2 x = sec 2 x Domain: x *
2 + rrn , where n is an integer.
2
cot 2 x + 1 = csc x Domain: x"' rrn, where n is an integer .
Problem Set 4-2

Q9. From the answers to Q5-Q8, what relationship
Reading Analysis t:l!;J/ exists between the values of sine and cosin e?
From what you have read in this section, what do What about between secant and cosecant?
you consider to be the main id ea? Name the three QIO. The period of the circular function
kinds of properties, and give an examp le of each y = 3 + 4 cos S(x - 6) is
kind. If (u, v) is a point where the terminal side of A. 3 B. 4 C. 5
an angl e e in standard position intersects the unit
circle centered at the origin, explain why sin 13= v D. 6 E. None of these
and cos 13= u.
1. What is the reciprocal property for sec x?
Quick Review 2. Explain why cot x · tan x = 1.

3. Write tan x in terms of sin x and cos x.
Q2.What is the exact value of sin {f)? 4. Show how you can transform the reciprocal
property cot x = ~fi;algebraically to express
Q3.What is the exact value of tan 60°? cot x in terms of sec x and csc x.
Q4. What is the exact value of cot(¥)? 5. Explain geometrically why the property
QS.Write cos 5 7° in decimal form. cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1 is called a Pythagorean
property.
Q6. Write sin 33° in decimal form.
6. By appropriate operations on the Pythagor ean
Ql. Write sec 81° in decimal form. propert y cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1, derive the
QB.Write csc 9° in decimal form. Pythagorean property cot 2 x + 1 = csc 2 x.
Section
4-2: Pythagorean,
Reciprocal,
andQuotient
Properties 161
7. Sketch th e graph of the trigonometric function For instan ce, cos 70° = sin 20°, as you can check
y = sin e.On the same axes, sketch the graph by your calculator. Each of the properties of this
e
of th e function y = csc using the fact that section has a dual, a property in which each
the y-value for csc e is the reciprocal of the function in the original property has be en
corresponding y-value for sin e.Where do the replaced by its cofunction. For example,
asymptotes occur in the graph of th e cosecant
sinx COS X
fun ction ? tanx= -- --+ cotx =--
COS X sin x
8. On your grapher, make a table with columns
showing th e values of the trigonometric Show that each of the properties in this
express ion s tan 2 e and sec 2 e for 0°, 15°, section has a dual that is also a valid property.
30°, .... What relationship do you notice Explain how this duality prop erty can help you
betw een th e two columns ? How do you explain m emoriz e the properti es .
this relationship ? How do you explain what 14. Other Quadrant s Problem : The text on page 160
happ ens at 90°? above Figure 4-2d states that u 2 + v 2 = 1 would
9. Show algebraically that sin 2 x = 1 - cos 2 x. be true even if angle e terminates in another
quadrant. Sketch a copy of Figure 4-2d with
10. Show algebraically that cot 2 x = csc 2 x - 1. the angle terminating in Qu adrant II, where the
11. Many trigonometric prop erties involve the displacement u is negative. Would cos e equal
numb er l. Use th ese prop erti es to write six u or would it equal - u in this case? Why would
trigonometric expr ess ions that equal l. it still b e true that u2 + v2 = 1?
12. Use the Pythagorean properties to write

expr ess ions equivalent to each of th ese
expr ess ions. 15. Dynamic Unit Circle Properties Problem: Open
a. sin 2 x b. cos 2 x c. tan 2 x th e Unit Circle Properties Exploration at
d. cot 2 x e. sec 2 x f. csc 2 x www.keymath.com/precalc.
Explore the relationships
you noti ce as you move point P around the
13. Duali ty Property of Trigonometric Functions: The circle. Use the action buttons that illustrate the
cosine of an angle is th e sine of the complement Pythagorean prop er ties. Explain in writing
of that angle . Two functions that satisfy this what you learned from doing this dynamic
proper ty are called cofunctions of each other. exploration.
4-3 Identities and Algebraic Transformation

of Expressions
y Figure 4-3a shows th e graphs of these functions:
Yi = cos 2 x - sin 2 x
X
y2 = 1 - 2 sin 2 x
The first graph is a thin, solid line, and the second is a thick, dotted line. As you
can see, the two graph s are id en tical. The equation
Figure 4- 3a cos 2 x - sin 2 x = 1 - 2 sin 2 x

is called an identity becaus e the two sides of the equation represent identical
numb ers for all values of x for which the expressions are defined. In this section
you will gain fluency with the properties from the last section by using them to
162 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Propertie
s,Identities,
andParametric
Functions
transform one trigonometric expression into another one, such as the left side
of the identity into the right side.
OBJEGIVE Given a trigonometric expression, transform it into an equivalent form that is

perhaps simpler or more useful.
Transformations
Here are examples of transforming one expression into another .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Transform sin x cot x into cos x.
Solution Your thought process should be : "The pro duct sin x cot x has two factors, and
the result has only one factor. Can I convert one of the factors into a fraction
and cancel?"
sinx cot x Start by writing th e given expre ssion .
. cosx
= SlllX • -- Substitut e using the quoti ent properties to get
SinX cos x into the expr ess ion .
= COS X Simplify.
... sin X cot X = cos x, Q.E.D. Use the transiti ve prop erty for
compl eteness .
.... EXAMPLE
2 Transform cos 2 x - sin 2 x into 1 - 2 sin 2 x.
Solution Your thought process should be:

• The result has only sine in it, so I need to get rid of cosine.
• The expressions involve squares of functions, so I'll think of the
Pythagorean properties.
• I can write the Pythagorean property cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1 as
cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x.
cos 2 x - sin 2 x Start by writing the given
expr ess ion.
= (1 - sin 2 x) - sin 2 x Substitut e 1 - sin 2 x for cos 2 x

using the Pyth agorean prop er ty.
= 1 - 2 Sin2 X Combine like term s.
... cos 2 X - sin 2 X =1- 2 sin 2 X, Q .E.D. Use the transiti ve pr operty. <111111
Identities
To pro ve that a given trigonometric equation is an identi ty, start with th e
expr ession on one side of th e equation and transform it into th e oth er. The only
difference between this example and the previous ones is that you can pick
eith er side of the equation to work on.
Section
4·3: Identities
andAlgebraic
Transforma
tionofExpressi
ons 16 3
~ EXAMPLE
3 Prove algebraically that (1 + cos x)(l - cos x) = sin 2 xis an identity.
Solution Proof:
(1 + cos x)(l - cos x) Start with one memb er of th e equat ion, usually the
more complicated one .
= 1 - cos 2 x Complete the multiplication.
= sin 2 X Look for familiar expressions. Because the functions

are squared, think Pythagorean!
.'. (1 + cos x)(l - cos x) = sin 2 x, Q.E.D.
Use the transitive property.
Notes:
• Start by writing "Proof." This word tells the reader of your work that you
have stopped stating the problem and started solving it. Writing "Proof"
also gets your pencil moving! Sometimes you don't see how to prove
something until you actually start doing it.
• It is tempting to start with the given equation, then work on both sides
until you have a statement that is obviously true, such as cos x = cos x.
What this actually does is prove the converse of what you were asked to
prove. That is, "If the identit y is true, then the reflexive axiom, such as
y = y, is true." This is circular reasoning. It is dangerous because you might
actually "prove" something that is false by taking an irreversible step, such
as squaring both sides of the equation .
• You can never prove graphically or numerically that an identity is true for
all values of x. However, you can confirm the validity of an identity for a
set of values graphically by plotting both sides and showing that the
graphs coincide, or numerically by generating a table of values. Figure 4-3a
at the beginning of this section shows you an example of a graphical
verification .
~ EXAMPLE
4 Prove algebraically that cot A + tan A = csc A sec A is an identity.
Solution Proof:
cot A+ tan A Pick one memb er of the equation to

start with.
cos A sin A
=--+-- The result has only one term. Try
sin A cos A writing fractions to add together.
cos 2A+ sin 2 A

Find a common denominator and add
sin A cos A the fractions .
1
Recognize th e Pythagorean property,
sin A cos A and use it to simplify the numerator.
1 1
The result has two factors, so make
sin A cos A two factors .
164 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Pro
perties,
Identities,andParametric
Function
= csc A sec A Use the reciprocal properties to get the
csc A and sec A that appear in th e
answer .
.·. cot A + tan A = csc A sec A, Q.E.D. Use the transitive property.
Note: Avoid the temptation to use a shortcut by writing only cos or sec . These
are the names of the functions, not the values of the functions. Equality applies
to numbers, not to names.
1 - cos B sinB
.._ EXAMPLE
5 Prove algebraically that--. -- ---- is an identity. Confirm it
sm B 1 + cos B
graphica lly on a reasonable interval.
Solution Proof:
sinB
Start with the more complicated side of
1 + cos B the equa tion (binomial denominator).
sin B 1 - cos B
Multiply by a clever form of 1 (see the note
1 + cos B 1 - cos B following this examp le).
sin B (1 - cos B)
Distribute in the denominator but not in
1 - cos 2 B the numerator . You want (1 - cos B) in
your result.
sin B (1 - cos B)
Recognize the Pythagorean prop erty, and
sin 2 B us e it to get a denominator with one term .
1 - cos B
Cancel sin Bin the numerator with one
sin B sin Bin th e denominator.
1 - cos B sinB
Q.E.D. Use the transitiv e property.
sinB 1 + cos B'
Enter y 1 = (1 - cos(x))/sin(x) and y2 = sin(x)/ (1 + cos(x)) into your grapher. Plot
the graphs using different styles, such as dashed for one and solid or path style
for the other. Figure 4-3b shows the result, using a friendly window for x
containing multiples of rr as grid points.
Figure 4-3b
Note: There are two ways to think up the form of 1 to multiply by in the
secon d line of Example 5. First, the expressions (1 + cos B) and (1 - cos B) are
conjugate binomials, or conjugates. When you multiply conjugates, you get a
Section
4-3:Identities
andAlgebraic
Transformation
ofExpress
ions 165
difference of two squares (no middle term). This allows you to use the
Pythagorean property in the next step. Second, you want the quantity (1 - cos B)
in the result, so you put it there by multiplying by a form of 1 that contains it.
This box summarizes useful techniques from the examples in this section .
PROCEDURE:
Transforming
Trigonometr
ic Expression
s andProving
Iden
tities
1. Start by writing the given
expression or, for an
identity, by picking the
side of the equation you
wish to start with and
writing it down. Usually it
is easier to start with the
more comp licated side.
2. Look for algebraic things
to do.
a. If there are two terms
and you want only one
term, then
i. Add fractions, or
ii. Factor something out.
b. Multiply by a clever form of 1 in order to
i. Multiply a numerator or denominator by its conjugate binomial, or
ii. Get a desired expression into the numerator or denominator .
c. Perform any obvious calculations (distribute, square, multiply
polynomials, and so on).
d. Factor out an expression you want to appear in the result.
3. Look for trigonometric things to do .
a. Look for familiar trigonometric expressions you can transform.
b. If there are squares of functions, think of Pythagorean properties.
c. Reduce the number of different functions, transforming them into
ones you want in the result.
d. Leave unchanged any expressions you want in the answer.
4. Keep looking at the result and thinking of ways you can get closer to it.
Problem Set 4-3
Reading Analysis t:Z!;Jj

From what you have read in this section, what do that an equation is an identity? Why can't you start
you consider to be the main idea? What are the proving that an equation is an identity by writing
similarities and differences between transforming down the given equation?
one expression into another expression and proving
166 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Prope
rties,Identit
ies,andParametric
Functions
Quick Review @(cos k - sec k) 2 to tan 2 k - sin 2 k
01. Write the Pythagorean property for cosine csc 2 x - l
19. to cot x csc x
and sine. COS X
Q2. Write the quotient property for tangent in 1 - cos 2 x

terms of sine and cosine. 20. to sinx cos x
tanx
03. Write th e quotient property for tangent in 2
Qsec 8- l
terms of secant and cosecant. .e
Sill
to tan e sec e
04. Write the reciprocal property for secant.
22.
1 + cot 2 e to cot 2 fl
05. Why do es (tan x)(cot x) equal 1? sec 2 fl
06. Sketch the graph of the parent cosine function
y = cos X.
Ql. Sketch the graph of the parent sine function

y =sin e.
QB.What is the vertical dilation for
y = 2 + 3 cos 4(x - 5)?
09. The reference angle for 260° is-?- .
OTO.y = 3(1.06x) is an example of a(n) -?- function .
For Problems 1-26, show the ste ps in transforming

the expression on th e left into the one on the right.
1. cos x tan x to sin x
2. csc x tanx to sec x
sec A sin A
~ sec A cot A sinA to 1
23 . -----
sin A cos A
to cot A
4. csc B tan B cos B to 1 ~ cscB _ cosB

to tanB
5. sin 2
e sec e csc e - to tane cos B sin B
0cos 2
()( csc ()( sec()( to cot ()( 1 1
25. + to 2 csc 2 x
1- COS X 1 + COS X
7. cotR + tanR to cscR secR
1 1
f8i cot D cos D + sinD to csc D 26. +----- to 2 secD
sec D - tan D sec D + tan D
''-91
csc x - sin x to cot x cos
, x
For Problems 27-36, prove algebraically that the
10. sec x - cos x to sinx tanx given equation is an identity .
(1). tan x(cot x cos x + sin x) to sec x 27. sec x(sec x - cos x) = tan 2 x
Y2.cos x(sec x + cos x csc 2 x) to csc 2 x 28. tan x(cot x + tan x) = sec 2 x
13. (1 + sinB)(l - sinB) to cos 2 B 29. sinx(csc x - sin x) = cos 2 x
A (sec E - l)(sec E + l) to tan 2 £ 30. cos x(sec x - cos x) = sin 2 x
(~ (coscp- sincp) 2 to cpsin cp
1 - 2 cos 31. csc 2 e - cos e csc e = l
2 2
16. (1 - tan cp
)2 to sec cp- 2 tan cp
2
32. cos 2e + tan e cos e = l
2 2
17. (tan n + cot n) 2 to sec 2 n + csc 2 n 33. (sec e + l)(sec e - l) = tan 2 e
Section
4-3: Identities
andAlgebraic
Transformation
ofExpressions 167
34. (1 + sin e)(l - sine)= cos 2 e
35. (2 cosx+ 3 sinx) 2 + (3 cosx- 2 sin x)2 = 13
n nx
~
+ cosx= l
secx
1
36 . (5 cos x - 4 sin x)2 + (4 cos x + 5 sin x)2 = 41 47. =csc 2 p-cscpcotp
1 + cos p
37. Confirm that the equation in Problem 33 is an
COS X COS X
identity by plotting the two graphs on the 48. - -- - cot 2 x
same screen . sec x - I tan 2 x -
38. Confirm that the equation in Problem 34 is an 1 + sin x
49 . = 2 sec 2 x + 2 sec x tan x - 1
identity by plotting the two graphs on the 1 - Sin X
same screen .
50. sin 3 z cos 2 z = sin 3 z - sin 5 z
39. Confirm that the equation in Problem 35 is an
identity by making a table of values.
51. sec 2 e + csc e = sec e csc e
2 2 2
1
40. Confirm that the equation in Problem 36 is an 52. sec()+ tan() = ()
identity by making a table of values . sec - tan
C,\ Prove that the equation cos x = 1 - sin xis not 1 - 3 cos x - 4 cos 2 x 1 - 4 cos x
53. 2
Q an identity. sin x I - cos x
42 . Prove that the equation tan 2 x - sec 2 x = l is sec 2 x - 6 tan x + 7 tan x - 4
54. 2
not an identity. sec x - 5 tan x + 2
Problems 43-54 involve more complicated algebraic 55. Journal Problem: Update your journal with
?\hniques. Prove that each equation is an identity. what you have learned recently about
transforming trigonometric expressions
~ sec 2 A + tan 2 A sec 2 A = sec 4 A
algebraically. In particular, show how you can
44. cos 4 t - sin 4 t = 1 - 2 sin 2 t use the three kinds of properties from
Section 4-2 to transform an express ion
1 COS X
4 5. - -- = tan x into a different form.
sin x cos x sin x
4-4 Arcsine, Arctangent, Arccosine, and

Trigonometric Equations
In Section 3-6, you learned how to solve equatio ns that reduce to the form
COS X = a, where a is a constant
You learned that the general solution is
x = arccos a = ±cos- 1 a+ 2rrn
where n is an integer representing a number of cycles or revolutions. In this
section you will solve trigonometric equations involving sine or tangent rather
than just cosine, and where the argument may be in degrees or in radians.
OBJECTIVE
Find algebraically or numerically the solutions to equations involving circular
or trigonometric sines, cosines, and tangents of one argument.
168 Chapter
4: Trigonomet
ricFunction
Propertie
s,Identities,
andParametric
Functions
Arcsine, Arctangent, and Arccosine
You recall from Section 3-6 that arccos x means any of the angles whose cosine
is x. Arcsin x and arctan x have the analogous meaning for sine and tangent .
Within any one revolution there are two values of the inverse trigonometric
relation for any given argument. Figure 4-4a shows how to find th e values of
t
arcsin }, arccos and arctan }. Sketch a referenc e triangle with appropriate side
lengths 3 and 5, then look for a reference triangle in another quadrant for which
l
the sides have displacements in the ratio You find the general solution by
adding integer numbers of revolutions, 360°n or 2 rrn radians .
V V
V
I 5 5 I u
3:
I
:3
I
:3
' u 5 I U
arcsin f arccos f arctan f

Supplem entary pairs Half-revoluti on apa rt
Opposite pairs
Figure 4-4a
The second angle involves a reflection of the reference triangle across an axis.
To remember which axis, recall the definition of the trigonometric functions .
vertica l coor dinat e v
arcsine: Sin X = ------- - Reflect across th e vertical
radius r axis (Figure 4-4a, left).
arccosine: COS X= Reflect across the hori zontal
radius r axis (Figure 4-4a, middle).
ver tical coordinate v

arctangent: tan X= = - Reflect across both axes
horizontal coordinate u (Figure 4-4a, right).
IJlii,.EXAMPLE
1 Solve the equation 10 sin (x - 0.2) = - 3 algebraicall y for x in th e domain [O, 4 rr].
Verify the solut ion s graphically .
Solution 10 sin (x - 0.2) = -3 Write the given equa tion .
sin (x - 0.2) = -0.3 Redu ce to the form ((argument) = constant.
x - 0.2 = arcsin (-0.3) Take the arcsine of both sides.
x = 0.2 + arcsin (-0.3) Isolat e x.
x = 0.2 + sin- 1 (-0.3) + 2rrn Substitute suppl ementary pairs for arcs ine.
or 0.2 + [rr - sin- 1 (-0.3)] + 2rrn
x= -0 .1046 ... + 2rrn or 3.6462 ... + 2rrn
X = 3.6462 ... , 6.1784 ... , 9.9294 ... , 12.4616 ...
Choos e the values of n that give solu tion s
in the given domain.
4-4:Arcsine,
Section Arctangent,
Arccosine,andTrigonometric
Equations 169
The graph in Figure 4-4b sho ws y 1 = 10 sin (x - 0.2) with the line y 2 = -3 . Use
the intersect feature of your grapher to show that the lines do intersect at the
points in the solution . (Some intersections are out of the domain.) .....
Notes:
• You can enter y 1 = 0.2 + sin - 1 (-0 .3) + 2TTn and
y 2 = 0.2 + [TT- sin - 1 (-0.3)] + 2 TTninto your graphe r, using x in place of n,
Figure 4-4b and u se the table feature to find th e particular values.
V • The function valu e sin - 1 (-0. 3) = -0 .1046 ... terminates in Quadr ant IV.
TT - Siff 1 (- 0 .3) The other value is the supplement of this number. Figure 4-4c shows that
= 3.6462 ...
subtracting - 0.1046 .. . from TTgives an angle in Quadrant III, where the
other value must be if its sine is negative.
u
TT- (-0.1046 ... ) = TT+ 0.1046 .. . = 3.6462 ...
Interval Notation
A compact way to write a domain su ch as O s x s 4TTis [O, 4TT].This set of
Figure 4-4 c values of xis called the closed interval from x = 0 to x = 4TT. The open interval
from x = 0 to x = 4TTis written (0, 4rr) and mea n s O < x < 4rr. The symbol E from
set terminology is used to show that xis an "elem ent of" or is in a given
interval. So you can write the domain for the closed interval
x E [O, 4TT]
which is pronounced "xis an element of the closed interval from Oto 4TT."The
various interval notations are summa ri zed in this box.
DEFINITIONS:
Interval
Notation
WRITTEN MEANING NAME VISUALLY
XE [0, 4TT] 0S XS 4TT Closed interval 0 4TT
XE (0, 4TT) 0 < X < 4TT Open interval
0 4TT
XE [0, 4TT) 0 S X < 4TT Half-open interval
0 4TT
XE (0, 4TT] 0 < XS 4TT Half-open interval
0 4TT
... EXAMPLE
2 Solve the equation 4 tan 28 = -5 algebraically for the first three positi ve valu es
of e.Verify the soluti ons graphically.
Solution 4 tan28 = -5
tan 2e= -1.25
28 = arctan (-1.25) = tan - 1 (-1.25) + 180°n Write th e general soluti on for
28, angles a half-revolu tion
apart (Figure 4-4d).
170 Chapt
er 4: Trigonometri
c Function
Properties,
Identities,
andParam
etricFunctions
V
Solve fore; divide both terms
180° apart on th e right side of the
I
1.2s: equ ation by 2.
- -( 2e
u 8 = - 25.6700 ... 0 + 90 °n
e = 64.32 ... 0
, 154.32 ...0 , 244.32 ...0 Choose the values of n th at give
the first three positiv e answers .
The graph in Figure 4-4e shows y = 4 tan 2 e and

y = -5, with inters ections at the three po sitive
Figure 4-4d values that are in the solution.
Figur e 4-4e .....
PROPERTIES:
GeneralSolutions
forArcsine,Arccosine,
andArctangent
Let A stand for the argument of the inverse sine, cosine, or tangent, and let n
represent an integer.
e = arcsin A= sin- 1 A+ 360°n or (180° - sin- 1 A)+ 360°n
x = arcsin A= sin- 1 A+ 2rrn or (rr - sin- 1 A)+ 2rrn
Verbally: Inverse sines come in supplementary pairs (plus coterminals) .
Graphically: Reflect the reference triangle across the vertical axis.
8 = arccos A= ±cos- 1 A+ 360°n

x = arccos A= ±cos- 1 A+ 2rrn
Verbally: Inverse cosines come in opposite pairs (plus coterminals).
Graphically: Reflect the reference triangle across the hori zontal axis.
8 = arctan A= tan- 1 A+ 180°n

x = arctan A= tan- 1 A+ rrn
Verbally: Inverse tangents come in pairs a half-revolution apart.
Graphically: Reflect the reference triangle across both axes.
Section
4·4: Arcsine,
Arctangent
, Ar
ccosi
ne, andTrigonometric
Equations 171
trr\
~7\7
~
Quadratic Forms
You may need to us e the quadratic formula or factoring to solve algebraicall y an
equation that has squares of trigonometric functions.
~ EXAMPLE
3 Solve algebraically cos 2 8 + sin 8 + 1 = 0, 8 E [-90°, 270°).
Solution cos 2 8 + sin 8 + 1 = 0

(1 - sin 2 8) + sin 8 + 1 = 0 Use the Pythagorean property to change
all terms to one trigonometric function.
sin 2 e - sin e - 2 = 0 Write the equation in ax 2 + bx+ c = 0 form .

No solution
~ or sin 8 = -1 Use the quadratic formula. Discard
impossible solutions .
e = arcsin (-1) = -90° + 360°n 180° - (-90 °) = 270° is cotermina l

with - 90° .
e = -90° The 270° when n = 1 is out of the

domain (ha lf open interval) .
Note that in this case you could have factored to solve the quadratic equation.
(sin 8 - 2)(sin 8 + 1) = 0
sin 8 - 2 = 0 Ij a,product:if zero,
or sine+ l =0 then_,0/te, ofit, factor,
sin 8 = 2 luu to be,zero!

or sin 8 = -1
Numerical Solutions
Some trigonometric equations cannot be solved algebraically. This is true if the
variab le appears both transcendentally (in the argument of the function) and
algebraically (not in the argument), suc h as
0.2x + sin x = 2
There is no algebraic solution because you cannot transform the equation into the
form {(argument) = constant. In other cases, the algebraic solution may be difficult
to find. In such cases, a numerical solution with th e help of graphs is appropriate.
~ EXAMPLE
4 Solve 0.2x + sin x = 2 for all real valu es of x.
Solution The graph in Figure 4-4f shows y 1 = 0.2x + sin x

and y 2 = 2 intersecting at the three points
x"' 7.0, 9.3, and 12.1.
X
X = 6.9414 .. ., 9.2803 ... , 12.1269 ...

Use the intersect or
solver feature on Figure 4-4{
your grapher.
172 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Properties,
Identitie
s,andParametric
Function
s
,l_
Problem Set 4-4
8 E [0°, 720°]
Reading Analysis tZ!;fJ 7. x = arctan 10 x E [O,4rr]
you consider to be the main idea ? Why can you ~= arctan (-0 .9) xE (0, 4rr]
write arccos A= ±cos- 1 A, but you can't write 9. 8 = arccos 0.2 8 E [0°, 720°]
arctan A= ±tan - 1 A? What is the difference
betw een a closed interval and an open interval ? (!!}x = arccos (-0.8) x E (0, 4rr]
Give an example of a trigonometric equation 11. Confirm graphically that the solutions to
that cannot be solved algebrai cally. Probl em lb are correct .
Quick Review
1v 5 ,,,.,;.
1~,, .,
f;).Probl
Confirm graphically that the solutions to
em Sb are correct.
QI. Write the particular equation of the sinusoid 13. Explain why there are no solutions to
with amplitud e 2, period 120°, sinusoid al axis x = arccos 2 but th ere are solutions to
at y = 5, and phase displacement 17° with x = arctan 2.
respect to y = cos x.
/j Explain why there are no solutions to
Q2. Sketch a reasonabl e graph depicting the time ~ e = arcsin 3 but there are solutions to
of sunset as a function of the day of th e year. e = arctan 3.
Q3. Sketch the graph of y = sec x. 15. If one value of arctan A is 37°, find another
Q4. What is the exact value (no decimals) of value of arctan A in the interval [0°, 360°).
cos 30°? '16\fone value of arctan A is ¥,find another
Q5. What is the exact value (no decimals) of sin f? l~alue of arctan A in the interval (0, 2rr).
Q6. Sketch th e refer ence angle for 260°. 17. If one value of arcsin A is 561\ find another
value of arcsin A in th e interval [O,2rr ).
Ql. Right triangle X YZ has right angle Y. Side xis
opposite angle X, and so on . Find csc X. ~on e value of arcsin A is 143;, find anoth er
value of arcsin A in th e interval (0°, 360°).
. Find the degree mea sur e of the acu te angle
QB
cot - 1 3. 19. If one value of arccos A is 2, find another valu e
of arccos A in the inter val (0, 2rr).
Q9. What is th e value of n if log 32 = n log 2?
~f one value of arccos A is -50 °, find a value of
010. The graph of y = 3x 2 + 2x - 7 is called a(n) l~ ccos A in the interval [0°, 360°).
-?-
For Problems 21- 26, solve th e equation in the
given domain .
For Probl ems 1- 10,
a. Find the general solution for e or x. 21. tan e+ A =o 8 E [0°, 720°]
b. Find the particular solutions that are in the
given domain.
'6J. cos e + A = o
23. 2sin(8+47°)=1
8
8
E
E
[0°, 720°)
(- 360°, 360°]
1. 8 = arcsin 0. 7 8 E (0°, 720°]
~tan W- 81°) = 1 8 E (-180 °, 540°]
~ = arcsin (-0.6) 8 E [0°, 720°]
A 3 cos rrx= 1 XE [O, 6]
3. x = arcsin (-0.2) XE [0, 4 rr)
l 2µ Sin 1TX = 2 XE [- 2, 4]
yx'= arcsin 0.9 XE [0, 4 rr)
27. Confirm graphically that the solutions to
5. 8 = arct an (-4) 8 E [0°, 720°] Problem 23 are correct.
Section
4-4: Arcsine
, Arctang
ent,Arccosine
, ondTrigonome
tricEquations 173
28. Confirm graphically that the solutio n s to y
Problem 24 are correct.
29. Figure 4-4g shows the graph of
y = 2 cos 2 e-cos e-1. Calculate algebraically
th e 8-interc epts in the domain 0° ::; e ::;720°,
and show that they agree with th e graph. e
-1 180 ° 360° 540° 720 °
y
Figure 4-4)
For Problems 33-36,
e
·a. Solve th e equation graphicall y usin g the ~
720 ° intersect feature of your grapher.
-2 I lo~
- -
Figur e 4-4g
b. Solve th e equation algebrai cally, confirming
~ 3 cos 2
the graphical solution.
e = 2 cos e 8 E [0°, 360°)
30. Figure 4-4h shows the graph of 34. tan 2 e = 2 tan e 8 E [0°, 360°)
y = 2 sin 2 8 - 3 sin 8 + 1. Calculate
algebraically the 8-intercepts in th e domain @ 4 cos 2 x+ 2 sinx= 3 XE [0, 2rr)
0°::; e:,;720°, and show that the y agree with 36. 5 sin 2 X - 3 cos X = 4 XE (0, 2rr)
the graph.
@ Rotat ing Beacon Problem: Figure 4-4k shows a
y rotating beacon on a lighthous e 500 yd
offshore. The beam of light shines out of both
sides of the beacon, making a spot of light that
moves along the beach with a displacement y,
m easured in yards, from the point on the
e b each that is closest to the lighthous e.
r Beach
Figur e 4-4h Hous e t
600 yd
31. Figure 4-4i sh ows the graph of
y = 2 sin 2 8 - 3 sin 8 - 2. Calculate
algebraically the 8-intercepts in the domain T
0°::; e::;720 °, and show that the y agree with
the graph.
Rotating
beacon
je
- ----------
ll
y
500 yd
y
Offshore
Figure 4-4 k
Figure 4-4 i a. Write an equation for yin terms of e.
32. Figure 4-4j shows the graph of b. The beacon rotates with an angular velocity
y = cos 2 8 + 5 cos 8 + 6. Calculate the of 5 deg/s . Let t be the time, in seconds, since
8-int ercept s algebraicall y. Tell why the results the beam was perpendicular to the b each
you got agree with the graph. (that is, y = 0). By appropriate substitution,
write an equation for y as a function of t.
174 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Functio
nProperties,
Identities,andParamet
ricFunctions
c. A hous e on the beach is at a displacement a. Read from the graph the first three values
y = 600 yd . Find the first four positive of x for which tan rrx = x.
values of t when the spot of light b. Solve numerically to find the three precise
illuminates the hous e. values in part a.
c. Explain why the equation tan rrx = x cannot
be solved algebraically.
40. Numerical Solution of Equation Problem 3:
Figure 4-4n shows the graphs of y = x and
y = S sin ¥x.
a. Find numerically th e greatest value of x for
which S sin ¥x= x.
b. Find numerically th e next-to-greatest value
of x for which S sin ¥x= x. The zoom
feature of your grapher may help.
c. Explain why the equation S sin ¥x= x
cannot be solved algebraically.
~umerical Solution of Equation Probl em 1:
~gur e 4-41 shows th e grap hs of y = x and y
y = cos x as they might appear on your grapher.
y X
Figure 4-4n
41. Trigonometric Inequality Problem 1:

Figure 4-4 1 Figure 4-40 shows the region of points that
satisfy the trigonometric inequality
a. Read from the graph a value of x for which
COS X "" X.
b. Solve numerically to find a more precise

value of x in part a.
y
c. Are th ere other values of x for which
cos x = x? How did you reach your
conclusion?
d. Explain why the equation cos x = x cannot be
solved algebraically.
39. Numerical Solution of Equation Problem 2: Figure
4-4m shows the graphs of y = x and y = tan rrx. ) Figur e 4-40
y ,.{<3 a. Duplicate the figure on your grapher. Use

-I
~ the appropriate style to shade the region
below the boundary curve .
3 ......
/
~
2 b . On the same screen, plot the graph of y :2'..0.
Use the appropriate style so that the
X grapher will shade the region. Sketch the
intersection of the two regions.
Figur e 4-4m
Section
4·4: Arc
sine,Arctangent,
Arccosine
, andTrigonometric
Equations 175
c. Find the interval of x-values centered at a. Duplicate the figure on your grapher. Use
x = 12 in which both inequalities are the appropriate style to shade the region.
sat isfied. b. On the same screen, plot the region of
42. Trigonometric Inequality Problem 2: points that satisfy the inequality y ?. 0.3x.
Figure 4-4p shows the region of points Sketch the intersection of the two regions
that satisfy the trigonometric inequality for X?. 0.
c. Find all intervals of x-values for x?. 0 for
TT
y < 5 sin-x which both inequalities are satisfied.
- 4
43. Surprise Problem: Try solving this equation
algebraically . Show how to interpret the results
y
graphically. In particular, what do the graphs
of the two sides of the equation look like?
X 1 - sinx COS X
cos x 1 + sin x
Figure 4-4p
4-5 Parametric Functions

If two related variables x and y both depend on a third, independent variab le t,
the pair of equations in x and t and y and tis called a parametric function. For
instance, if a pendulum is swinging in a rotating path as in Figure 4-Sa, then
both the x- and y-coordinates of the pendulum bob depend on the time, t. In
this section you'll apply the Pythagorean properties to prove that the graphs of
certain parametric functions are ellip ses.
Pendulum
Path x
Figure 4-Sa
OBJECTIVEGiven equations of a parametric function, plot the graph and make

conclusions about the geometrical figure that results.
176 Chapter
4: Trigonom
etricFunction
Properties,
Identitie
s,andParametri
cFunction
s
Suppose that the pendulum illustrated in Figure 4-5a has two displacements,
measured in centimeters from its rest position. Its displacement is x in the
direction parallel to the wall with the door and yin the direction perpendicular
to that wall. Neglecting the effects of air friction on the pendulum, x and y will
be sinusoidal functions of time t, measured in seconds. For instance, th e
equatio ns might be
TT
x = 30 cos-t
1.5
TT
y = 20 sin-t
1.5
These are the parametric equati ons that describe the position of the moving
pendulum. The independent variable tis called the parameter. (The prefix para-
is a Greek word meaning "beside" or "near," as in parallel, and the suffix -meter
means "measure.") Because x and y are often functions of time, the variable tis
usually used for the parameter.
This example shows you how to plot a pair of parametric equations when both
are sinusoids, as they would be in the pendulum example. So that you may
more easily see some properties of parametric function s, some equations will
be graphed in degree mode .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Plot the graph of this parametric function in degree mode.
X = 5 COS t
y = 7 sin t
Solution Set your grapher to parametric mode and enter the two equations. Choose a
wind ow that uses equal scales on both axes. Because th e amplitudes of x and y
are 5 and 7, respectively, the window will have to be at least -5 to 5 in the
x-direction and -7 to 7 in they -direction. Set the t-range for at least 0° to 360°.
Use a t-step of 5°. Figure 4-5b shows the graph. <1111111
Note that the parameter tis not an angle in standard position. Figure 4-5b
shows that when t = 45°, the angle measure is considerably larg er than 45°. In
Chapter 13, you'll learn graphical properties of parametric functions that reveal
Figure 4-Sb how the angle is related to points on the path.
Pyth agorean Properties to Eliminate the Parameter

You can ·sometimes discover properties of a graph by eliminating the parameter,
reducing the function to a single Cartesian equation with only x and y. The next
examp le shows you how .
.... EXAMPLE
2 For the parametric function x = 5 cos t, y = 7 sin tin Example 1, eliminate the
parameter to get a Cartesian equation re lating x and y. Describe the graph.
Solution Because cos 2 t + sin 2 t = 1, you can eliminate the parameter by solving the given
equations for cos t and sin t, squaring both sides of each equation, and then
adding.
Section
4-5: Parame
tricFunctions 177
x = 5 cost::::::,x =cost::::::, (x)z
= cos 2 t
5 5
.
y = 7 Slil t ::::::,
(y)z
?y = Slil. t ::::::,?
=
. ztSlil
(i)2
+ (~)2
= cos
2 2
t + sin t Add the two equations, left side to
left side, right side to right side.
Use the Pythagorean property for

cosine and sine.
The graph is an ellipse. The unit circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 is dilated

horizontally by 5 and vertically by 7.
...
.... EXAMPLE
3 Plot the graph of the parametric equations y
X = 6 + 5 COS t
y = -3 + 7 sin t X
6
Describe the effect of the constants 6 and -3 -3 ----
I
-,-----
on the graph. 'I
I
Solution The graph in Figure 4-Sc shows that the

constants 6 and -3 are horizontal and vertical
translations, respectively, and give the Figure 4-Sc
coordinates of the center of the ellipse.
Parametric Equations from Graphs

From the previous examples you can generalize the parametric equations of
an ellipse .
PROPERTY:
Parametric
Equations
foranEllipse
The general parametric equations for an ellipse are
X = h + a COS t
y= k + b sin t
where a and b are called the x- and y-radii, respectively, and h and k are the
coordinates of the center. If a = b, the figure is a circle.
Note: The coefficients a and b are also the horizontal and vertical dilation s of
the unit circle
X = COS t
y = sin t
Also, the constants hand k are the horizontal and vertical translations,
respectively, of the center of the unit circle.
178 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Properties,
Identities,
andParametric
Functions
If you know this property, you can use parametric functions to plot pictur es of
solid objects such as cones and cylinders on your graph er. The next examp le
shows you how to do this .
..... EXAMPLE
4 Figure 4-5d shows the outlin es of a cylinder. Duplicat e this figure on your
grapher by finding parametri c equations of ellipses to represent the ba ses and
then drawing lines to represent the walls.
y
10
'\
I
I
I
I
I
I
5
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
5 10 15
Figur e 4-Sd
Solution The bases are ellipses becaus e the cylinder is shown in perspective. The right
ellipse is centered at the point (11, 5), with an x-radius about 1.3 and a y-radius 4.
The left ellipse is congruent with the right one, with the cent er at the point
(2, 5). Half of the left ellipse is hidden by the cylind er.
X1 = 11 + 1.3 COS t Parametric equ ations
Y1 = 5 + 4 sin t representing th e right ellipse.
x2 = 2 + 1.3 cos t I (90 s t and t s 270) Solid half of th e left ellipse .

y 2 = 5 + 4 sin t
x3 = 2 + 1.3 cost / (t s 90 or t "2:.270) Dash ed half of the left ellipse .

y 3 = 5 + 4 sin t Use dot style.
Plot these functions on your grapher in param etric mod e, u sing degrees, with
equal scales on the two axes. Use a t-range of 0° to 360° to get a comp lete
revolution for each ellipse . Use the draw command to dr aw lines from the
point (2, 9) to the point (11, 9) and from the point (2, 1) to the point (11, 1),
representing the walls of th e cylinder. ~
Problem Set 4-5
Reading Analysis t:l!J/

From what you have read in this section, what do circle. Look ba ck at the dis cu ssion of dilations in
you consider to be the main idea? The last Section 1-3, and then explain in your own words
statem ent in the solution to Example 2 defines an why the Cartesian equation at the end of Example 2
ellips e in terms of transformations on the unit defin es an ellipse .
Section
4·5: Parametric
Functions 179
Quick Review~ ,w.,~ 3. X = 3 COS t
y = 5 sin t
4. X = 6 COS t
y = 6 sin t
QI. What is the Pythagorean property for cosine
and sine? 5. X = 5 + 7 COS t 6. X = 4 + 3 COS t
y = 2 + 3 sin t y = -1 + 6 sin t
Q2. What is the Pythagorean property for secant
and tangent?
Q3. If cos- Ix= 1.2, what is the general solution for
arccos x?
Q4. If sin- I x= 56°, what is the general solution for
arcsin x?
QS. For right triangle ABC, if angle B is the right
angle, then sin A=-?-.
Q6. For right triangle ABC in Q5, side a2 =-?-in
terms of sides b and c. The truncated cylindri cal tower of
Ql. If y = cos B8 has a period 180°, what does the Museum of Modern Art in
San Francisco, California , has an
B equal? elliptical cross section.
QB.What is the period of the parent sine function Problems 7-14 show solid three-dim ensional
y = sinx? figures. The ellipses represent circular bases of the
Q9. If an angle has measure i radian, what is its solids. The dashed lines represent hidden edges.
degree measure? a. Write parametric equations for the ellipses .
Q10. The exact value of cos 1 is b . Plot th e figure on your grapher using draw
commands for the straight lines.
A. 0 B. F2 C. !
7. Cone
D. .fi2 E. 1
y
Problems 1 and 2 show the relationship among x, y,

and tin parametric functions . For each problem,
a. Make a table of x- and y-values for a range
of t-values. Include negative values of t.
b. Plot the points (x, y) on graph paper and
connect them with a line or a smooth curve.
c. Confirm that your graph is correct by X
plotting it on your grapher using parametric 5 10 15

mode.
8. Cone
l.x=3t+l 2. X= 1 + t2
y = 2t- 1 y= t+ 2 y
For Problems 3- 6,
a. Plot the graph on your grapher. Sketch the
results.
b . Use the Pythagorean property for cosine and
sine to eliminate the parameter t.
c. Explain how you know that the graph is an
+
ellipse or a circle. X
10 15
180 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Properties,
Identities,
andParametric
Functions
9. Cylind er 13. Hemisph er e
Includ e th e equ ation of th e semicircl e.
y
10 y
10 r-- - - - ,r.-,~- ---. - ----,
I
I
I
5
., I
I
I
.
I
5 10 15
10 15
10. Cylind er
14. Hemi spher e
y
l Of--- --~---~---~ Include th e equation of the semicircle.
y
lOt-- - --~- - -~-- - ~
5 1-------,1-----+--- ----+ ----+-----1
----
X
10 15
X
11. Fru stum of a cone 5 10 LS
15. Projectile Problem: If a ball is thrown throu gh

th e air, its motion in th e hori zontal and
verti cal dir ections is modeled by two differe nt
ph ysical laws. Hori zon tally, th e b all mov es at a
constant rat e if you ignore air resistan ce.
Verti cally, th e ball accelerat es downward due
to gravity. Let x be th e ball' s hori zontal
displacement in m eter s from it s starting point
X
and let y b e the verti cal displa cement in
5 10 15 meter s above its startin g point . Suppos e a ball
is thrown with a hori zo ntal velocity of 20 m/ s
12. Two-napp ed con e and an initi al upward velocity of 40 m/ s. The
y
param etric equation s for its po sition (x , y ) at
10 1--------- -- - ~ ---~ tim e t second s are
X = 20t
y = 40t - 4.9t2
5 10 15
Section
4-5: Parametric
Funct
ions 181
The graph of x and y as functions of tis sh own d. You can plot the Cartesian equation in
in Figure 4-Se. part c in parametric mode this way:
y (m ) X2 = t
100 Y2 = f(t)
Path
Ball
The equation y = f(t) is the Cartesian
so ''
'' equati on you found in part c, with tin place
x(' m ) of x. Plot the graph . Compare the x-domain
so 100 l SO
and y-range of the Cartesian equ ation to
Figur e 4-Se
those of the parametric equations . Describe
your observations.
a. What is the po sition of the ball at time Problems 17-20 involve parametric functions that
t = 3 s? have int erest ing graphs . Plot the grap hs on your
b. When is the ball at a hori zonta l grapher and sketch the results. Use radian mode.
displacement of x = 100 m? How high is
17. Asteroid Problem : x = 8 cos 3 t
it at that time?
y = 8 sin 3 t
c. At what two times is th e ball 30 m above the
ground? Find x at these times . This curve is also called a hypocycloid of
four cusps.
d. A fence 2 m high is at x = 160 m. Accordin g
to this parametric function, will the ball go 18. Cycloid Problem : x = t + sin t
over the fence, hit the fence, or hit the y = 1 - cost
ground before reaching the fence? How can
19. Conch oid of N icom edes Problem:
you tell?
e. Elimin ate the parameter t, showing that y is x = tan t + 5 sin t
a quadratic function of x. y = 1 + 5 cost
16. Parametri c Fun ctio n Domain Problem: 20. Invo lute of a Circle Prob lem:
Sometimes when you eliminate the parameter, x = cos t + t sin t
the Cartesian function has a domain different y = sin t - t cos t
from that of the parametric function . In this
problem you will investigate the parametric
function
x 1 = 3 cos 2 t
y 1 = 2 sin 2 t
a. Set your grapher to radian mode . Plot the
graph using a t-range of [- 2rr, 2rr] and a
window that includes po sitive and negative
values of x and y. Sketch the result.
b. Based on your graph, make a conj ecture
about what geometr ic figure the grap h is.
c. Elimin ate the parameter t with the help of
the Pythagorean properties. Solve the
equation for yin terms of x; that is, find Th e motion of Mar s. A dapt ed
y = f(x). Does th e Cartesian equation from Johann es Kepler 's
confirm or refute your conjecture in part b? Astronornia Nova (1609) .
182 Chapter
4: Trigonom
etricFunction
Proper
ties,Identitie
s,andParametric
Function
s
21. Sine Curve Tracer Problem: Figure 4-Sf shows
two parametric functions plotted in radian
mode, X
X1 = COS t X2 =t
y 1 = sin t Y2 = sin t
The first is a unit circle centered at the
origin, and the second is the parent sine Figure 4-Sg
function. Enter these functions into your
grap her. Use simultaneous mode so that
both graphs will be plotted at the same time.
Use a window with an x-range of (-1, 2rr] and
equal scales on the x- and y-axes. Use a t-range
of [O,2rr] and a small t-step such as 0.02 so
that the graphs are plotted slowly and you can
observe the relationship between the graphs as
they develop. Using path style will help you see
the ends of the graphs as they are being plott ed.
y or v
x 1 = COS t X = t a. With your grapher in function mode, plot
1 /y 1
= sm t 2
y2 = sin t y = sin- 1 x (radian mode). Use a friendly
x or u window with x = -1 and x = 1 as grid points,
a y-range of at least - 7 ~ y ~ 7, and
approximately equal scales on both axes.
Why does the grapher show only part of the
graph in Figure 4-Sg?
Figure 4-Sf
b. Set your grapher to parametric mode . Enter
a. Does your graph resemble Figure 4-Sf at the parametric equations
some time as it is being plotted? If not, go
X1 = Sin t
back and check your work.
Y1 = t
b. In what way does observing the graph being
plotted clarify in your mind the relationship Use at-range as larg e as they-window.
between sin x for x as an angle in standard Describe the results. Based on the definition
position in uv-coordinates and sin x plotted of arcsine, explain why these parametric
in an xy-coordinate system? equations generate the grap h of the entire
inverse sine relation.
c. What changes would you need to make to
the parametric equations in order to trace c. With the first param etric equations still
the cosine curve? active, enter the equations
Problem 22 prepares you for the next section. X2 =t
y2 = sin t
22. Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Relations by
Parametrics: Figure 4-Sg shows the graph of Use a t-range as larg e as the x-window.
the relation y = arcsin x. Note that this is not a Sketch the resulting graphs . How are the
function, because there is more than one value two graphs related to each other?
of y corresponding to the same value of x. In d. Repeat parts b and c for y = arccos x and
this problem you will learn how to duplicat e y= cosx.
the graph on your grapher.
e. Repeat parts b and c for y = arctan x and
y= tan x.
Section
4-5: Parametric
Functions 183
4-6 Inverse Trigonometric Relation Graphs
You have learned that an inverse trigonometric relation, such as arcsin 0.4, has
many values; but when you enter sin- 1 0.4 into your calculator, it gives you only
one of those values. In this section you 'll learn which value the calculator has
been programmed to give. You'll also learn how to calculate exact values of
inverse trigonometric functions.
OBJECTIVES
• Plot grap h s of inverse trigonometric functions and relations.
• Find exact values of functions of inverse trigonometric functions.
Graphs and Principal Branches

Figure 4-6a shows the graph of y = tan - 1 x, the inverse trigonometric function. It
is a reflection of one branch of the graph of y = tan x across the line y = x
(Figure 4-6b).
y >: ,
5 : ///..._y= X
I ,
----- y= f r,.,-
-..:;.;=-==~ x ~,'::-
/ .,----- x
~~- -e-=
_:-::::/__ __ 5 ___ _
Y= -T
Figure 4-6a Figur e 4-6b
The inverse tangent function is called the principal branch of the inverse
tangent relation, y = arctan x. Using parametric mode, you can plot the graph of
y = arctan x. Enter
x = tan t
y=t
The definition of arctangent tells you that
y = arctan x if and only if x = tan y. So, if you set
y = t, you can think of parametric mode as an
x= menu . The graph will have all branches of
y = arctan x that fit in the window you have Y= -f
chosen (Figure 4-6c).
The inverse circular function, y = tan - 1 x, is defined
by designating one of the branches of arctangent to Figure 4-6c
be the principal branch. Do this by restricting the
range of the arctangent to meet the criteria in this box.
184 Chapter4: Trigo

nometric
FunctionPropert
ies,Identit
ies,and Param
etric Fun
ctions
CriteriaforSelecting
Principal
Branches
of InverseTrigonometric
Functions
1. The principal branch must be a function.
2. It must use the entire domain of th e inverse trigonom etric relation .
3. It should b e one continuous graph, if possible .
4. It should b e centrally located, near th e origin .
5. If there is a choice betw een two pos sible branche s, u se the positiv e on e.
Figure 4-6d sho ws the results of applying these criteri a to all six inverse
trigonome tri c relations. The highlighted portion of each grap h shows the
inverse trigonometric function . The rest of each graph sho ws more of the
inverse trigonometric relation. Notice the ran ges of y that give the prin cipal
branc hes.
----5
y
ye_
y= TT
~5 ---------
X X X
y =O 5
~
y = sin- ' x (highlighted)
and y = arcs in x
y = tan -1 x (highlighted)
and y = arcta n x
y
c-
= sec ' x (highlighted)
and y = arcsec x
y y
Y'----
~5
y= TT __ y= lf _ ___
X X
X
5
y =O
-.If
c=
y=
~
y = cos-1 x (highlight ed)
and y = arccos x ----------
y = cor ' x (highlight ed)
and y = arccot x
y = csc-1 x (highli ghted)
and y = arccsc x
Figur e 4-6d
Section
4·6: Inverse
Trigonometric
Relation
Graphs 18 5
DEFINITIONS:
Ranges
andDomains
ofInverse
Trigonometric
Functions
FUNCTION RANGE (NUMERICALLY) RANGE (GRAPHICALLY) DOMAIN
y = sin- 1 x YE [-f, f] Quadrants I and IV XE (-1, 1]
y= cos- 1 x yE[O,TT] Quadrants I and II XE[-1,1]
y= tan - 1 x YE (-f, f) Quadrants I and IV XE(-00,00)
y= cor- 1x yE(O, TT) Quadrants I and II XE (-oo, oo)
y= sec x 1
yE (0, TT]and Y* f Quadrants I and II lxl ~ 1
y = csc- 1 x yE [-f, ¥1and Y* 0 Quadrants I and IV lxl ~ 1
To remember these ranges, it might help

you to think of y as an angle in radians in
a uv-coordinate system (Figure 4-6e). If the
u
argument is positive, the arc or angle
terminates in Quadrant I. If the argument
is negative, the arc or angle terminates in
sm- 1
tan- ' Quadrant II or Quadrant IV,depending on

csc ' which inverse function it is. None of the
Figure 4-6e inverse functions terminates in Quadrant Ill.
If you could perpendicularly project an

image of the railing in this spiral staircase
onto the wall behind it, you wou ld get a
curve that resembles the graph of arccosine.
(Compare to lower-left graph in
Figure 4-6d.)
Exact Values of Inverse Circular Functions

Recall that it is possible to find exact trigonometric and circu lar function values
for certain special angles or arcs. For instance, cos (-ff)
= If.
It is also possible to
find exact values of expressions involving inverse trigonometric functions.
~ EXAMPLE
1 Evaluate tan (sin- 1 (- i))geometrically to find the exact value. Check your answer
numerically.
Solution Draw an angle in standard position whose sine is -~ . V
The angle terminates in Quadrant IV because the

range of the inverse sine function is Quadrants I
and IV. Draw the reference triangle, as shown in u
Figure 4-6f, and find the third side . Then use the I
definition of tangent. I
,- 2
I
3 I
Figure 4-6f
186 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Properties
, Identities
, andParametric
Functions
Check: When you evaluate Js.you get -0.8844 ... ,
which agrees with tan (sin- I (-1))= tan(-0.7297 ... ) = - 0.8844 ....
.._ EXAMPLE
2 Evaluate y = sin (cos- 1 x) graphically to find th e value in radi cal form. Set this
value equal to y, and plot it togeth er with the original equation on the same
scre en to confirm that your answer is correct.
Solution Figure 4-6g shows the two possible quadrants for cos- 1 x.
V V
Figur e 4-6g
y By th e definition of cosine, you can label the horizontal leg of the reference
triangle x and the radius 1. The third side is given by the Pythagorean theorem.
Note that, in both Quadrants I and II, the third side is positive. So you use the
X
positive square root in both cas es. By the definition of sine,
y= sin(cos - I x) =
57 =~
1
Fig ur e 4-6h Figure 4-6h shows that the two graphs are both semicircles with radius 1.
The Composite of a Function and Its Inverse Function

If you apply the techniques of Examples 1 and 2 to a function and its inverse
function, an inter esting property reveals itself . Example 3 shows how this is done .
.._ EXAMPLE
3 Evaluate y = cos (cos- 1 x). Explain why th e answ er is reasonabl e. Set your answer
equal to y, and plot it together with the original function on the same scr een to
verify that the answ er is correct .
Solution cos- I x means "the angle whose cosine is x." So by definition,

y = cos (cos- Ix) = x
y ,, Draw a uv-diagram as in the earlier examples if you ne ed further convincing .

,
,, Figure 4-6i shows both the graphs of y = x and the graph of y = cos (cos- 1 x).
X Note that the graph of cos (cos-I x) has domain [-1, l] because the inverse
-1 cosine function is defined only for those values of x. <111111
, -1
,,
Example 3 illustrates a general property of the function of an invers e fun ction,
Figur e 4-6i which you may recall from Section 1-5.
Section
4-6: Inver
seTrigonometri
c Relation
Graphs 187
PROPERTY:
TheComposite
of a Function andIts Inverse
Function
and f - l(f(x)) = X
provided xis in the range of the outside function and in the domain of the
inside function.
In Problem 23, you will prove this property . To illustrate the restrictions in
the box,
cos- 1 (cos 10) = cos- 1 (-0.8390 ... )
= 2.5663 ..., not 10 10 is not in the range of cos- 1•
cos (cos- 1 3) is undefined, not 3. 3 is not in the domain of cos- 1•

In th e first case, 10 is not in the range of the inverse cosine function (principal
branch). In the second case, 3 is not in the domain of the inverse cosine function.
Problem Set 4-6
Reading Analysis il!J/ Ql. What geometric figure is the graph of the
parametric function x = 3 cos t and
From what you have read in this section, what do y = 5 sin t?
you consider to be the main idea? Why does the QB.Write the Pythagorean property that involves
graph of y = arctan x have more than one branch, tangent .
and how do you decide which of these branches is
the principal branch? How is the principal branch Q9. Without your grapher, evaluate cos rr.
related to the value of tan - 1 x your calculator gives Q10.Given A= arcsin x, write the genera l solution
you? Why can parametric mode be considered to for A in terms of sin- 1 x.
have an x= menu as well as a y= menu?
Quick Revie~ w.--

~~ 1. With your grapher in function mode, plot the
graphs of y = sin- 1 x, y = cos- 1 x, and y = tan- 1 x .
Use a friendly window that includes x = 1 and
01. The function y = 5 + 6 cos 7(x - 8) is a
horizontal translation of y = cos x by -?- . x = -1 as grid points. How do the graphs
compare with the graphs in Figure 4-6d?
02. The sinusoid in Ql is a vertical translation of
Specifically, does each graph have the same
y= cosxby - ?- units.
y-range as shown for the principal branch?
03. The sinusoid in Ql is a vertical dilation of
2. With your grapher in parametric mode, plot
y = cos x by a factor of-? - .
the graphs of y = arcsin x, y = arccos x, and
Q4. The sinusoid in Ql is a horizontal dilation of y = arctan x. Use a friendly window that
y = cos x by a factor of - ?-. includes x = 1 and x = -1 as grid points. Use
equal scales on both axes. To make the graph
05. The period of the sinusoid in Ql is - ?- .
fill the screen, the t-range should be the same
06. If f(x) = x 3 , then the inverse function as they-range. How do the graphs compare
r-1 (x) = - ?- . with the graphs in Figure 4-6d?
188 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Properties,
Identitie
s,andParametric
Functions
For Problems 3 and 4, with your grapher in a. Prove that f - 1 (f(x)) = x by letting y = f(x ),
parametric mode, plot the two graphs on the same applying the definition of f - 1 , and using a
screen. Use a window with a y-range of at least clever substitution.
[- 7, 7) and a window for x that makes the scales on b. Prove that f(f - 1 (x)) = x by letting y = f - 1 (x),
the two axes th e same. Use different styles for the applying th e definition of f - 1 , and using a
two graphs. Describe what you can do to show clever substitution .
that these two graphs are refl ections across the
line y = X. 24. Interpretation Problem - Composite of a
Function and Its Inverse: In Problem 23, you
3. y = arc sin x and y = sin x proved that the composite function of a
4. y = arctan x and y = tan x function and its inv~rse function is equal to x.
1n this problem you will see some surprises!
For Problems 5-14, calculate th e exact value of
a. Explain why the graph of y = tan (tan- 1 x) in
the inverse function geometrically. Assume the
principal branch in all cases . Check your answers Problem 22 is equivalent to the graph of
y = x for all values of x but the graph of
by direct calculation.
y = sin (sin- 1 x) in Problem 21 is equivalent
5. tan (cos - 1 t) 6. cos (tan - 1 1) to the graph of y = x for only certain
· (tan -1 5)
7 . Slll 12 8. sec (sin - 1 m values of x.
b. Figure 4-6j shows the result of plotting on
9. cos (sin - 1 (- 8
1 7 )) 10. cot (csc- 1 (-g)) your grapher
11. sec (cos - 1 t) (Surpris ed?) y = sin- 1 (sin x)
1
12. tan (coc 4) (Surpri sed?)
y
13. cos (cos- 1 3) 14. sec (arcsec 0)
15. Explain why cos (cos- 1 3) in Probl em 13 does
not equal 3.
16. Explain why sec (arcs ec 0) in Probl em 14 does -5
not equal 0.
For Probl ems 17- 22, evaluat e th e function Figure 4-6)
geometricall y to find th e an swer in radical form. Set
your ans wer equal to y, and plot it together with the Why is th e graph "saw-tooth ed" instead of
original equation on the same screen to show that linear?
your answer is correct . c. Plot y ='cos- 1 (cos x ). Sketch the result.
Explain why the graph is not equivalent to
17. y = cos (sin- 1 x) 18. y = tan(sin - 1 x)
the graph of y = x.
19. y = sin (tan- 1 x ) 20. y = cos (tan- 1 x) d. Plot y = tan - 1 (tan x). Use dot style rather
21. y = sin (sin- 1 x) 22. y = tan (tan- 1 x) than solid style. Sketch the result. Explain
why the graph is not equivalent to the graph
23. Composite of a Function and Its Inverse Of y = X.
Problem: 1n Problems 21 and 22, you found
that sin(sin - 1 x) = x and that tan(tan - 1 x) = x.
These are examples of a general property of
functions and their inver se functions, to which
you were introduced in Chapter 1. 1n this
problem you will pro ve th e property.
Section
4-6: Inverse
Trigonometric
Relation
Graphs 189
25. Tunnel Problem: Scorpion Gulch and Western track to the surface of the mountain or
Railway is preparing to build a new line valley as a function of x, in meters, from the
through Rolling Mountains. They have hired tunnel entrance . You can find the constants
you to do some calculations for tunnels and A, B, and C from the given information.
bridges needed on the line. Finding the phase displacement D requires
that you substitute the other three
constants and the coordinates (0, 0) for
(x, y), then solve for D.
b. How long will the tunnel be? How long will
the bridge be?
c. The railway company thinks it might be
cheaper to build the line if it is raised by
20 m. The tunnel will be shorter, and the
bridge will be longer. Find the new values
of x at the be ginning and end of the tunnel
and at the beginning and end of the bridg e.
How long will each section b e under these
You set up a Cartesian coordinate system with conditions?
its origin at the entrance to a tunnel through 26. Journal Problem: Update your journal with
Bald Mountain . Your surveying crew finds that things you have learned since the last entry.
the mountain rises 250 m above the level of Include things such as
the track and that the next valley descends
50 m below the level of the track. The cross • How to plot graphs of inverse trigonometric
section of the mountain and valley is roughly relations
sinusoidal, with a horizontal distanc e of 700 m • How the rang es of the inverse trigonometric
from the top of the mountain to the bottom of functions are chosen
the valley (Figure 4-6k).
• How to calculate values of inverse
a. Write a particular equation expressing the
vertical displacement y, in meters, from the trigonometric functions geometrically
Entrance
t
! Bald Mountain
250 m
Tunne l
l-- 700
m-------
Figure 4-6k
190 Chapter
4: Trigonometri
c Function
Prop
erties,Identities,
andParametric
Function
s
In this chapter you've learned how to transform trigonometric expressions and
solve equations using the Pythagorean, quotient, and reciprocal properties. The
Pythagore an properties help show that certain parametric function graphs are
circles or ellipses . The parametric functions let you plot graphs of inverse
trigo nometric relations . Analyzing these graphs and identifying the principal
branches give more meaning to the values the calculator gives for the inverse
trigonome tric functions.
Review Problems
RO. Update your journal with what you have d. Give a numerical example that confirms the
learned in this chapter. Include such topics as property in part c.
• Statements of the three kinds of properties e. Plot on the same screen y 1 = cos 2 e and
• How to prove that a trigonometric equation y2 = sin 2 e. Sketch the graphs. How do the
is an identity graphs support th e Pythagorean prope rty
• How to solve conditional trigonometric
e e
cos 2 + sin 2 = 1?
equations algebraically, numerically, and R2. a. Write equations expressing tan x and cot x in
gra phicall y terms of sin x and cos x.
• What a parametric function is, how to graph b . Write equations expressing tan x and cot x in
it, and how to eliminate the parameter to get terms of sec x and csc x.
a Cartesian equation c. Write three equations in which the product
• How to graph inverse trigonometric of two trigonometric functions equals 1.
relations and find ranges for inverse d. Make a table of values showing numerically
trigonometric functions that cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1.
Rl. Figure 4-7a shows th e unit circle and an e. Write equations expressing
e
angle in standard position. i. sin 2 x in terms of cos x
ii. tan 2 x in terms of sec x
V iii. csc 2 x in terms of cot x
''
'' f. Sketch the graph of the parent function
' ' y = cos x. On the same set of axes, sketch
I ' ' \
I
I V \ the graph of y = sec x using the fact that
I ' u secant is the reciprocal of cosine.
l U I
I I
\
\ I
I R3. a. Transform tan A sin A + cos A into sec A.
'' /
/ ' What values of A are excluded from the
domain ?
b . Transform (cos B + sin B)2 into
Figure 4-la
1 + 2 cos B sin B. What values of B are
excluded from the domain ?
a. Explain why u 2 + v 2 = 1.
c. Transform 1 + ~inc + 1 _ ~inc into 2 sec 2 C.
b. Explain why U = COS e an d V =Sine . What values of Care excluded from the
C. Explain why COS2 () + sin 2 = 1. e domain?
Section
4-7:Chapter
Review
andTest 191
d. Prove that this equation is an identity: R6. a. Using parametric mode on your grapher,
csc D(csc D - sin D) = cot 2 D. What values of duplicate th e graph of the circular relation
A are excluded from the domain? y = arccos x shown in Figure 4-7c.
e. Prove that this equation is an identity:
(3 cos£+ 5 sin£) 2 + (5 cos£- 3 sinE)2 = 34.
f. Show that the two expressions in part b are
equivalent by plotting each on your grap her. X
g. Make a table of values to show that the

equation in part e is an identity.
R4. a. Find the general solution for e = arcsin 0.3.
Figure 4-1c
b. Solve 1 + tan 2rr( x + 0.6) = 0 algebraically for
the first four positive values of x. Confirm b. Sketch the graph of the function y = cos- 1 x,
graphically that your solutions are correct . th e principal branch of y = arccos x. Explain
c. Solve (2 cos 8 - 1)(2 sin 8 + v3) = 0 the specifications used for selecting this
algebr aically in the domain 8 E [0°, 540°]. principal branch. What is the range of this
Confirm graphically that your solutions are inverse cosine function?
correct. c. How is the graph of y = arccos x related to
R5. a. Plot the graph of this parametric function the graph of y = cos x?
on your grap her. Sketch the result. d. Find geometrically the exact value (no
decimals) of sin (tan - 1 2). Check the answer
X = -2 + 5 COS t
by direct calcul ation .
y = 1 + 3 sin t
e. Write an equation for y = tan (cos- 1 x) that
b. Use the Pythagorean property for cosine and does not involve trigonometric or inverse
sine to eliminate the parameter in part a. trigonometric functions. Confirm your
c. How can you conclude from the answer to answer by plottin g it together with the given
part b that the graph is an ellip se? Where is function on the same screen. Sketch the
the center of the ellipse? What are the x- and result.
y-radii? f. Prove that cos (cos- 1 x) = x.
d. Figure 4-7b shows a solid cone in g. Show on a uv-diagram th e range of values of
p erspective. Write parametric equations for the functions sin- 1 and cos- 1 .
the ellipse that represents the circular base
h. Explain why the prefix arc- is appropriate in
of the cone. Draw the cone on your grapher .
the names arccos,arcsin, and so on.
y
10 15
Figur e 4-1b
192 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Propertie
s,Identities
, andParametric
Functions
Concept Problems
Cl. Pendulum Problem: Figure 4-7d shows a b. Where is the pendulum at time t = 5 s?
pendulum hanging from the ceiling. The c. Find the first thre e times when th e
pendulum bob traces out a counterclockwise pendulum bob has y-coordinate 10 cm.
circular path with radiu s 20 cm (which appears What are the x-coordinates at each of these
elliptical because it is drawn in perspective) . At times ?
any time t, in seconds, since the pen dulum was
d. Explain how this problem ties togeth er all
starte d in motion, it is over the point (x, y) on
the topics in this chapte r.
th e floor, where x and y are in centimeters. The
pendulum makes a complete cycle in 3 s. C2. Prove that each of the se equations is an
identit y.
1+ Sin X + COS X 1 + COS X

a.
1 + sin x - cos x sin x
1 + sin x + cos x
b. ~~~~~~ l + sin x
1 - Sin X + COS X COS X
C3. Squar e of a Sinusoid Problem: Figure 4-7e

shows the graphs of y 1 = cos x (dashed) and
y 2 = cos 2 x (solid). The squared graph seems to
be sinusoidal.
y y= cos' x
Figure 4-7d
X
a. Assuming that the pendulum bob was at the \ TT

/
I ,
\
3rr
point (20, 0) at time t = 0 s, write param etr ic \
\ I
I
' \
\
', .,~-...........
y = COS X
equation s for the circular path it trac es. -1 '
Figur e 4-7 e
a. Assuming that th e graph of y2 = cos 2 xis a

sinusoid, find its p erio d, amplitude,
sinusoidal axis location, and phas e
displacement from the graph of th e
function y = cos x.
b. Write the particular equation of the sinusoid
you described in part a.
c. Give numerical and graphi cal evidence
Leon Foucault demonstrates his that the sinusoid in part b is identical to
pendu lum and th e rotation of Earth at
y 2 = cos 2 x.
the Pantheon in Paris (1851).
Sect
ion4-7: Chapter
Review
andTest 193
Chapter Test
allowed(Tl-TB) Tl4. Find another angle between 0° and 360° whose
cosine is 0.6. Show it on the uv-coordinate
Tl. Write the Pythagorean property for cosine syst em in Tl3.
and sine.
TlS. Write the general solution for the inverse
T2. Write a quotient propert y involvin g cosine trigonometric relation e = arccos 0.6. Show
and sine. how you can use the± sign to simplify writing
T3. Write the reciproca l property for cotangent . this solution .
T4. Write the reciprocal property for secant. Tl6. Find the fifth positive value of e for which
cos e = 0.6. How many revolutions, n, do you
TS. The valu e of sin- 1 0.5 is 30°. Write the general have to make to get to that value of e in the
e
solution for = arcsin 0.5. uv-coordinate system ?
T6. The value of tan - 1 .J3is ff.Write the genera l Tl7. Find algebraically the general solution of
solution for x = arctan 13.
4 tan(G - 25°) = 7
T7. Explain why the range of y = cos- 1 xis [O, rr)
but th e range of y = sin- 1 xis [-¥, ¥]. Tl8. Write parametric equations for the ellipse in
Figure 4-7f.
T8 . Find geometrica lly the exac t value of
cos (tan- 1 2). y
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(19-120)
T9. Transform (1 + sin A)(l - sin A) into cos 2 A
What values of A are excluded from the
domain?
TlO. Prove that tan B + cot B = csc B sec B is an
identity. What values of B must be exclude d
from the domain? -5
Tll. Multiply the numerator and denominator of

Figure 4-lf
sin C
1 + cos C Tl9. Write the parametric equa tions you us e to plot
y = arctan x (Figure 4-7g).
by th e conj ugate of the denominator. Show
that the result is equivalent to
1 - cos C
sin C
Tl 2. Plot the graphs of both expressions in Tll
to confirm that the two expressions are
equivalent. Sketch th e grap hs. What values
of Care excluded from the domain ?
Figure 4-lg
Tl3. With your calculator in degree mod e, find
the value of cos- 1 0.6. Show the angle in a T20 . What did you learn as a result of this test that
uv-coordinate system. you did not know before?
194 Chapter
4: Trigonometric
Function
Properties,
Identities,
andParametric
Function
s
Properties of
Combined Sinusoids 5
When two vehicles are going nearly the same speed on the
highway, the combined sound of their engines sometimes seems
to pulsate. The same thing happens when two airplane engines are
going at slightly different speeds. The phenomenon is called beats.
Using the concept of beats, a vibrato sound can be generated on a
piano by tuning two strings for the same note at slightly different
frequencies. In this chapter you'll learn about combinations of
sinusoids so that you can analyze these harmonic phenomena.
195
In Chapter 4 you learn~d the Pythagorean , quotient, and reciprocal
properties of the trigonometric functions. Each of these properties
invplves functions of one argument . In this chap~~r you'll learn
properties in which functions of different arguments appear.
These properties allow you to analyze more complicated periodic
functions that are sums or products of sinusoigs. You'll learn this
in four ways.
Graphically A variable-amplitude
periodic function
Algebraically You can represent this graph by either a product of two sinusoids
or a sum (or difference) of two sinusoids.
y= 4 sinx · cos20x or y = 2 sin 2lx - 2 sin 19x
Numerically If x = 1, they ,value of either function equals L3735 ....
Verbally lf.the, aupli,tude,

var~ the, couwuted, of
3rap,h,u a,[U'pdud two
sUUf£oUU of
ora, SUU{,, two suu-uoidt.Forthe,pro~ the, suu-uoidt/w»e,•Y.
l4UlCfvdi/fa'M1±
periocu.Forthe, SUU{,,1 they/uwe, 1tear/y
equalperiocu. The,
sUUv CMv tra.Jt£jor11v
aJUlproductproper-tier one,,e--xprusion,,
utto the, other.
Tliifpropertye--x~ how-AMrat/,waJUlFM rat/,wworl.
196 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
5-1 Introduction to Combinations of Sinusoids
Music, like any other sound, is y
transmitted by waves. A "pure"

musical note can be represented
by a sine or cosine graph. The
frequency of the note is represented e
by the period of the graph, and the
loudness of the note is represented
by the amplitude of the graph.
Figure 5-la represents two musical
notes of the same frequency that -5
are played at the same time,
Figure 5-la
y = 3 cos 8 (dotted) and y = 4 sin 8
(dashed) . The solid graph represents
the sound wave formed by adding these two sounds, y = 3 cos e + 4 sine.
In this section you will explore this combined wave graph and show that it, too,
is a sin usoid.
OBJECTIVEInvestigate graphs formed by sums of sines and cosines.

1. Plot the graphs of y 1 = 3 cos 8, y 2 = 4 sin 8, of y3 . Does the graph of y 3 really seem to be a
and y 3 = Yt + y 2 on the same screen. Do your sinusoid?
graphs agree with the ones in Figure 5-la?
5. Make a table of values of y3 and y 4 for various
2. The gra ph of y 3 in Problem 1 seems to be a values of 8. Do the values confirm or refute
sinusoid . Estimate graphically its period, the conjecture that y3 is a sinusoid?
amplitude, and phase displacement with
6. See if you can find the constants A and Din
respect to y = cos x.
Problem 4 algebraically, using the factors 3
3. Find numerically the amplitude and phase and 4 from the equations for y 1 and y 2 .
displa cement of y3 by using the maximum
feature of your grapher to find the first high
7. Substitute two different angle measures for e
and D and show that cos (8 - D) does not
point. Do the results confirm your estimates in
Problem 2?
equal (cos e- cos D).
8. Based on your observation in Problem 7, what
4. Plot the sinusoid y 4 = A cos (8 - D), where
property of multipli cation and subtraction
A and Dare the amplitude and phase
does not apply to the operations cosine and
displacement you found numerically in
subtraction?
Problem 3. Use a different sty le for this graph
so that you can distinguish it from the graph
Section
5·l: Introduction
toCombinations
ofSinusoids 197
5-2 Composite Argument and Linear
Combination Properties
If you add two sin u soids su ch as y 1 = 3 sine and y 2 = 4 sine, you get another
sin u soid with amplitude equal to the sum of the two amplitudes (Figure 5-2a,
left side). These sinusoids are said to be in phase because their high and low
points occur at the same values of e.
y Y3 = 3 sin 8 + 4 sin 8 y y 3 = 3 cos 8 + 4 sin 8
7
/
4 ~
3
3
e e
Figure 5-2a
If you add two sinusoids with the same period that are not in phase (Figure 5-2a,
right side), the result is also a sinuso id, with amplitude less than the sum, as
you found in Section 5-1. In this section you will learn algebraic ways to find the
amplitude and phase displacement of such a linear combination of cosine and
sine, that is, an equation in th e form y = a cos + b sin e e.
With the help of the composite argument property, by which you can express
cos (A - B) in terms of cosines and sines of A and B, you will prove that any
linear combi nation of cosine and sine with equal periods is another sinusoid
with the same period. This principle governs the sound produced by musical
instruments. Two instruments playing middle C pr oduce th e sound of middle C
whether or not the sound waves are in phase.
OBJECTIVE
Derive a compo site argument property expressing cos (A - B) in terms of
cosines and sines of A and B, and us e it to express a lin ear combi nation of
cosine and sine as a single cosine with a phase displacement.
Linear Combination Property

As you will prove in Problem 32, the
graph of y = 3 cos 8 + 4 sin e is a
sinusoid that you can express in the
form
y = A cos (8 - D)
where A is the amplitude and Dis the
phase displacement for y = cos x. If
you plot th e graph and then use the
maximum feature on your grapher, you
will find that
A = 5 and When you "mix" sound, the principles of
D = 53.1301.. .0 linear combination of sound waves apply.
198 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoid
V Actuall y, Dis the angle in standard position with u = 3 (the coefficient of
cosine) and v = 4 (the coefficient of sine), as shown in Figure 5-2b. You can see
A= 5 = , 25
this relationship in the Linear Combination Exploration at www .keymath.com/preca.
Once you derive the~mposite argument property mentioned in the objective,
u you can prove that the amplitude A is the length of the hypotenuse of the
reference triangle for angle D. You can find A using the Pythagorean theorem
an d D by applying the concept of arctangent.
A= ) 32 + 4 2 = 5
Figure 5-2b
4 0 0
D = arctan
3 = 53.1301 .. + 180n° = 53.1301...
Choose n = 0 so that D terminates in Quadrant I.
So y = 5 cos (8 - ~ 3 .1301 ... is equivalent to y = 3 cos 8 + 4 sin 8. The graphical

0
)
solutio n confirms this .
.....EXAMPLE
1 Express y = -8 cos e + 3 sin e as a single cosine with a phase displacement .
Solution Sketch angle Din standard position with u = -8 and v = 3 (the coefficients of
cosine and sine, respectively), as shown in Figure 5-2c.
V
A= ,/ (-8) 2 + 3 2 = "1/73 Find A by the Pythagorean theorem.
3
D = arctan - = -20 .5560 ... + 180n ° 0
Find Du sing the definition of
-8 arc tan gent.
u
0
= 159.4439 .. . Choose n = 1 to place D in the
correct quadrant.
.·. y= m cos(e-159.4439 ... 0
)
Figure 5-2c
PROPERTY
: Linear
Combination
of Cosine
andSinewithEqual
Periods
0
b cos x + c sin x = A cos (x - D)
where
A= ) b 2 +c 2
and D=arctan!:..
b
i
The quadrant for D = arctan depends on the signs of b and c and may be
determined by sketching Din standard position. The length of the hypotenuse
of the reference triangle is A.
Composite Argument Property for Cosine (A - B)

In Section 5-1, you found that the cosine function does not distribute over
addition or subtraction . Consider this proof by counterexample:
cos (58° - 20°) = cos 38° = 0. 7880 .. .
cos 58° - cos 20° = 0.5299 ... - 0.9396 ... = -0.4097 ...
... cos (58° - 20°) * cos 58° - cos 20°
Section
5-2: Composite
Argument
andLinear
Combination
Properties 199
•
However, you can express cos (58° - 20°) exactly in terms of sines and cosines
of 58° and 20°. The result is
cos (58° - 20°) = cos 58° cos 20° + sin 58° sin 20°
Both sides equal 0. 7880 ....
Next you'll see how to generalize the results for any angles A and B. The left
side of Figure 5-2d shows angles A and Bin standard position and shows their
difference, angle (A - B). The coordinates of the points where the initial and
terminal sides of angle (A - B) cut the unit circle are
(cosA, sinA) and (cos B, sin B)
V V
s in A - sin B ---...:
'I d
~( cos B, sin B) i:-L __ _ (cosB ,s inB)
\ cos A- cos B
u u
1 '
Figure 5-2d
The chord between the initial and terminal points has length d, which can be calcu-
lated by the Pythagorean theorem. As shown on the right side of Figure 5-2d, dis the
hypotenuse of a right triangle with side lengths (cos A - cos A) and (sin A - sin B).
You may recall this as the distance formula from earlier courses you have taken.
d 2 = (cos A - cos B)2 + (sin A - sin B)2 By the Pythagorean theorem.
= cos A - 2 cos A cos B + cos B + sin A - 2 sin A sin B + sin 2 B

2 2 2
Expand the squares.

2 2 2
= (cos 2
A+ sin A)+ (cos B + sin B) - 2 cos A cos B- 2 sin A sinB
Commute and associate the
squared terms .
= 1 + 1 - 2 cos A cos B - 2 sin A sin B Use the Pythagorean property
for cosine and sine .
.'. d 2 = 2 - 2 cos A cos B - 2 sin A sin B
Now consider Figure 5-2e, which shows angle (A - B) rotated into standard position.
The coordinates of the terminal and initial points of the angle in this position are
(cos (A - B), sin (A - B)) and (1, 0)
V
A- B
u
(1, 0)
Figur e 5-2e
200 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
J
The chord still has length d. By the distanc e formula and subs equent algebra,
d2 = [cos (A - B) - 1)2 + [sin (A - B) - 0)2
= cos 2 (A - B) - 2 cos (A - B) + 1 + sin 2 (A- B)
Expand the squares .
= [cos 2 (A - B) + sin 2 (A - B)] + 1 - 2 cos (A - B)

Associate the squared terms .
.·. d 2 = 2 - 2 cos (A - B) Use the Pythagorean prop er ty.
2
Equate the two expressions for d to get
2 - 2 cos (A - B) = 2 - 2 cos A cos B - 2 sin A sin B
-2 cos (A- B) = -2 cos A cos B- 2 sin A sinB
cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
This is the prop ert y that was illustrated by num erical example with A = 58°
and B = 20°.
PROPERTY:
Composite
Argument
Property
forcos(A- BJ
\ Lcos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A ~
Verbally: Cosine of the difference of two angles is equal to cosine of first
angle times cosine of second angle, plus sine of first angle times sine of
secon d angle.
C/J,ilu,ofjint ~ ,ecortdi,
co,ilu,jint wt,U,£ co,ilu,,ecortd
pfa. ,ilu,fint wt,U,£ ,ilu, ,ecortd.
IJI,,,EXAMPLE
2 Express 7 cos (8 - 23°) as a linear combination of cos 8 and sin 8.
Solution 7 cos (8 - 23°) = 7 (cos e cos 23° + sine sin 23°)

Apply th e compos ite argum ent property.
= 7 cos e cos 23° + 7 sine sin 23°

= (7 cos 23°) cos e + (7 sin 23°) sine
Assoc iate the constant factors .
.'. 7 cos (8 - 23°) = 6.4435 ... cos e + 2.7351.. . sine

A linear combination of cos 8 and sin 8.
Section
5-2: Composi
teArgument
andLinear
Combination
Properties 201
Algebraic Solution of Equations
You can use th e linear combination property to solve certain trigonometric
equations algebraically.
~ EXAMPLE
3 Solve -2 cos x + 3 sin x = 2 for x E [-2 rr, 2 rr). Verify the solution graphi cally.
Solution -2 .cosx+ 3 sinx= 2 Write the given equ ation .
V Transform the left side, -2 cos x + 3 sin x, into the form A cos (x - D). Draw
angle Din standard position (Figure 5-2f).
A= -J(-2) 2
+ (3)2 = v'13 Use th e Pythagorean theorem to calculate A
3
D
u
-3
D = arctan - = - 0.9827 ... + rrn = 2.1587 ...
-2 2
Use n = 1 for the prop er arcta ngent value .
.'. v'l3 cos (x - 2.1 587 ... ) = 2 Rewrite the equ ation using A cos (x - D).
2
Figure 5-2f cos (x- 2.1587 ... ) = v'13
x- 2.1 587 .. . = arccos (}i)

x = 2.1587 ... ± 0.9827 ... + 2rrn
Rewrite the equat ion and evaluate the arccos ine.
x = 3.141... + 2rrn or 1.1760 ... + 2rrn

Evaluate 2.1587 ... + 0.9827 .. and
2.1587 ... - 0.98 27.
X = -5 .1071..., -3 .1415 ..., 1.1760 ... , 3.1415 .. .
Pick values of n to get x in the dom ain.
Figure 5-2g shows the graph of y

y = - 2 cos x + 3 sin x and the line 4
y = 2. Note that the graph is a
sinu soid, as you disco vered
algebraically while solving the
X
equation. By using the intersect
6
feature, you can see that the four
solutions are correct and that the y
are th e only solutions in the domain
[-2 rr, 2rr). The graph also shows th e -4
phas e displacement 2.1587 .. . and th e
amplitude m, or approximately 3.6. Figure 5-2g
202 Chapter
5: Propertie
s ofCombined
Sinusoid
s
Problem Set 5-2
Reading Analysis t:E/ 5. y = -8 cos 8 - 11 sin 8

6. y = - 7 cos 8 - 10 sin 8
you consider to be the main idea? Explain how you 7. y = 6 cos 8 - 6 sin 8
know that the cosine function does not distribute 8. y = cos e - sin 8
over subtraction, and tell what the cosine of the
difference of two angles does equa l in terms of 9. y = -J3cos 8 + sin 8
functions of the two angles. What does this 10. y = (../6+ 12)cos e + (../6- 12)sine
property allow you to prove about a linear (Surprising result?)
combin ation of two sinusoid s with equal periods ?
11. y = -3 cos x + 4 sin x (radian mode)
_....,
v s
Quick Review 1~,, "'4 12. y = -5 cos x - 12 sin x (radian mode)
QI. State the Pythagorean property for secant and 13. Confirm by graphing that your answer to
tangent. Problem 1 is correct .
Q2.State the reciprocal property for cosecant . 14. Confirm by graphing that your answer to
Problem 2 is correct.
Q3. State the quotient property for cotangent in
terms of sine and cosine. 15. Express the circular fun ction
y = cos 3x + sin 3x as a single cosine with a
Q4. Is cos 2 x = l - sin 2 x an identity? phase displacement . What effect does the 3
QS.Is cot x tan x = l an identity? have on your work?
Q6.Is cos x sin x = 1 an identity?

Ql. Find the exact valu e (no decimals) of cos f.
QB.Find the exact value (no decimals) of tan 30°.
Q9. Find the first three positive angles
8 = arccos 0.5.
QIO. Factor: x 2 - 5x - 6
For Problems 1- 12, write the linear combination of

cosine and sine as a single cosine with a phase
displacement.
M. C. Escher's Rippled Surface shows
1. y = 12 cos 8 + 5 sin 8 the reflection of branches in the water
waves, which hav e a sinusoida l pattern.
2. y = 4 cos e + 3 sin 8 (M. C. Escher's Rippled Surface
© 2006 Cordon Art B. V-Baarn-Holland.
3. y=-7cos8+24sin8 A ll rights reserved.)
4. y = -15 cos 8 + 8 sin 8
Section
5-2:Compos
iteArgument
andLinear
Combination
Properties 203
16. Figure 5-2h shows a cosine graph and a sine Use the result to solve this equation for
graph. Find equations of these two sinusoids. 8 E [0°, 360°]:
Then find an equation of the sum of the two
cos 58 cos 38 + sin 58 sin 38 = 0.3
sinusoids as a single cosine with a phase
displacement. Verify your answers by plotting 28. Musical Note Problem: The Nett sisters, Cora and
the equations on your grapher . Clara, are in a band. Each is playing the note A.
Their friend Tom is standing at a place where
y
the notes arrive exactly a quarter cycle out of
. 5 phase. If xis time, in seconds, the function
equations of Cora's and Clara's notes are
Cora: y = 100 cos 440rrx
X
Clara: y = 150 sin 440rrx
' v, ....- .,...I'/ ''
'
I
Figure 5-2h
17. Prove by counterexample that cosine does

not distribute over subtraction. That is,
give a numerical example to show that
cos (A - B) "*cos A - cos B.
18. Make a table of values to show numerically
that cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B. a. The sound Tom hears is the sum of Cora's
For Problems 19-22, express each equation as a and Clara's sound waves. Write an equation
for this sound as a single cosine with a
linear combination of cosine and sine.
phase displacement.
19. y = 10 cos (8 - 30°). Confirm graphically that b. The amplitudes 100 and 150 measure the
your answer is correct . loudness of the two notes Cora and Clara
20. y = 20 cos (8 - 60°). Confirm graphically that are playing . Is this statement true or false?
your answer is correct. "Tom hears a note 250 units loud, the sum
of 100 and 150." Explain how you arrived at
21. y = 5 cos (38 - 150°) your answer.
22. y= 8 cos(28-120°) c. The frequency of the A being played by Cora
For Problems 23-26, solve the equation and Clara is 220 cycles per second. Explain
algebraically. Use the domain x E [O, 2 rr] or how you can figure this out from the two
8 E [0°, 360°]. equations. Is this statement true or false?
"The note Tom hears also has a frequency of
23. 5 cos 8 + 7 sin 8 = 3 220 cycles per second."
24. 2 cosx+ 5 sinx= 4 Problems 29 and 30 prepare you for the next section.
2 5. -8 cos x - 3 sin x = 5 29. Cofunction Property for Cosines and Sines
Problem:
26. 7 cos 8 - 4 sin 8 = 6
a. Show that cos 70° = sin 20°.
27. Use the composite argument prop erty to show
that this equation is an identity: b. Use the composite argument property and
the definition of complementary angles to
cos 2 8 = cos 5 8 cos 3 8 + sin 5 8 sin 3 8 show in general that cos (90° - 8) = sin 8.
204 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
c. What does the prefix co- mean in the name a. Use the composite argument property to
cosine? show that
30. Even Property of Cosine Problem: A cos(8 - D)
a. Show that cos (-54 °) = cos 54° . = (A cos D) cos 8 + (A sinD) sin 8
b. You can write cos (-54 °) as cos (0° - 54°). b. Let A cos D = b, and let A sin D = c. Squar
Use the composite argument property to both sides of each equation to get
show algebraically that cos (-8) = cos 8.
A 2 cos 2 D= b 2
c. Recall that functions with the property
f(-x) = f(x) are called even functions. Show A 2 sin 2 D = c 2
why this name is picked by letting f(x) = x 6 Explain why A2 = b 2 + c 2 .
and showing that f(-x) = f(x).
1
c. Explain why D = arccos and D = arcsin ~
31. Composite Argument Property Derivation and thus why D = a~ctan E·
Problem: Derive the prop er
/!.11ournal Problem: Update your journal with
cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B / what you have learned since the last entry.
In particular, explain what the composite
Try to do this on your own, looking at t
only long enough to get yourself started argument property is and how you can use i
if you get stuck. to prove that a sum of cosine and sine with
equal periods is a single cosine with the san
32. Linear Combination of Cosine and Sine period and a phase displacement.
Derivation Problem: In this problem you'll see
how to prove the linear combination property.
5-3 Other Composite Argument Properties

In Section 5-2, you. used the composite argument property for cosine to show
that a linear combination of cosine and sine. with equal periods is a single
cosine with the same period but with a different amplitude and a phase
displacement. In this section you'll learn composite argument properties for
sine and tangent involving (A + B) as well as (A - B) . You'll learn the cofunctic
properties and odd-even function properties that allow you to derive these n,
composite argument properties quickly from cos (A - B).
OBJECTIVE
For trigonometric functions f, derive and learn properties for
• f(-x) in terms of f(x)
• f(90 ° - 8) in terms of functions of 8, or f(lf - x)in terms of functions of x
• f(A + B) and f(A - B) in terms of functions of A and functions of B
The Odd-Even Properties

If you take the functions of opposite angles or arcs, interesting patterns emer:
sin (-20°) = -0 .3420 .. . and sin 20° = 0 .3420 .. .
cos (-20°) = 0 .9396 .. . and cos 20° = 0.9 396 .. .
tan (-20°) = -0.3639 .. . and tan 20° = 0.3639 .. .
Section
5-3: Other
Composite
Argument
Propertie
s
These numerical examp les illustrate the fact that sine and tangent are odd
functions and cosine is an even function. Figure 5-3a shows graphically why
these properties apply for any value of e.
y y y
tan e -c--
e e e
-e, e -e, e
I
· -- ~ - sine
- ->- - tan e
sin (- e) = -s ine cos (-e>= cos e tan (- e)= -tan e

Figure 5-3a
The reciprocals of the functions have the same parity (oddness or evenness) as
the original functions.
PROPERTIES:
OddandEvenFunctions
Cosine and its reciprocal are even functions. That is,
COS (- X) = COS X and sec (-x) = sec x
Sine and tangent, and their reciprocals, are odd functions. That is,
sin (-x) = -sin x and CSC (-x) = -CSC X
izonta l reflection across
ical mirror is like the tan( - x) = -tan x and cot (-x) = -cot x
'ion of th e cosine graph
: the y-axis .
The Cofunction Properties:
Functions of (90° - 8) or(¥ - x)
The angles 20° and 70° are complementary angles because they sum to 90°.
(The word comes from "complete," because the two angles complete a right
angle.) The angle 20° is the complement of 70°, and the angle 70° is the
comp lement of 20°. An interesting pattern shows up if you take the function
and the cofunction of comp lementary angles.
cos 70° = 0.3420 .. . and sin 20° = 0.3420 .. .
cot 70° = 0.3639 .. . and tan 20° = 0.3639 .. .
csc 70° = 1.0641.. . and sec 20° = 1.0641 ...
You can verify these patt erns by using the right triangle definition s of the
b trigonometric functions. Figure 5-3b shows a right triangle with acut e angles that
70° measure 70° and 20°. The opposite leg for 70° is the adjacent leg for 20°. Thus,
\20° C adjac ent leg a . opposite leg a
Figure 5-3b cos 70 0 = =- and sm 20 0 = -----
hypotenuse c hypotenuse c
.'. cos 70° = sin 20°
)6 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinuso
ids
The prefix coin the names cosine, cotangent, and cosecant comes from
the word complement. In general, the cosine of an angle is the sine of the
comp lem ent of that angle. The same property is true for cotangent and
cosecant, as you can verify with the help of Figure 5-3b.
The cofunction properties are true regardless of the measure of the angle or
arc. For instance, if 8 is 234°, then the complement of 8 is 90° - 234°, or -144° .
cos 234° = -0.5877 ... and
sin(90 ° - 234°) = sin(-144 °) = -0.5877 ...
.·. cos 234° = sin(90 ° - 234°)
Note that it doesn't matter which of the two angles you consider to be "the
angle" and which you consider to be "the complement." It is just as true,
for example, that
sin 20° = cos (90° - 20°)
The cofunct ion properties for the trigonometric functions are summarized
verbally as
The cosine of an angle equals the sine of the complement of that angle.
The cotangent of an angle equals the tangent of the complement of
that angle .
The coseca nt of an angle equals the secant of the complement of
that angle .
PROPERTIES:
Co/unction
Properties
forTrigonometric
Functions
When working with degrees:
cos 8 = sin (90° - 8) and sin 8 = cos (90° - 8)
cot 8 = tan (90° - 8) and tan 8 = cot (90° - 8)
csc 8 = sec (90° - 8) and sec 8 = csc (90° - 8)
When working with radians:
cos x = sin (¥ - x) and sin x = cos (¥ - x)
cot x = tan (¥ - x) and tanx = cot(¥- x)
csc x = sec (If - x) and sec x = csc (If - x)
90°-e
n
rue,e = ( = C()f (90° - e)
y
e
X
Section
5-3: Other
Composite
Argument
Propertie
s 207
The Composite Argument Propert y for cos (A + B)
You can write the cosine of a sum of two angles in terms of functions of those
two angles. You can transform the cosine of a sum to a cosine of a difference
with some insightful algebra and the odd -e ven properti es.
cos (A + B)
= cos [A - (-B)] Change the sum into a differenc e.
= cos A cos(-B) + sinA sin( - B) Use the composite argument prop er ty for
cos (first - second).
= cos A cos B + sin A (-sinB) Cosine is an even function. Sine is an odd

function .
= cos A cos B - sin A sin B
.'. cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
The only difference between this property and th e one for cos (A - B) is the sign
between the terms on the right side of the equation .
The Composite Argument Prope rtie s

for sin (A - B) and sin (A + B)
You can derive composite argument properties for sin (A - B) with the help of
the cofunction property .
sin (A - B) = cos [90° - (A - B)] Transform into a cosine usin g the
cofun ction prop ert y.
= cos [(90° - A)+ B] Dis tribute the minus sign, then

associate (90° - A).
= cos (90° - A) cos B - sin (90° - A) sinB Use the composite argument
prop erty for cos (first+ second).
= sin A cos B - cos A sin B Use the cofunction property the
other way around .
.'. sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sinB

The composite argument property for sin (A + B) is
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
You can derive it by writing
sin (A+ B) as sin [A - (-B)] Cb, [ (90° - A) + B] =
and using the same u
fo,t S"ecl)i1A,
reasoning as for cos (A + B) .
Cb, (jint) · Cb, (,ecl)/td) -
,ii1,(ftr,t). ,t,11,(,ecl)itd)
208 Chapter
5: Propert
iesofCombi
nedSinusoids
The Composite Argument Properties
for tan (A - B) and tan (A + B)
You can write the tangent of a composite argument in terms of tangents of
the two angles. This requires factoring out a "common" factor that isn't
actually there!
sin(A- B) Use the quotient property for

tan (A - B) = - --- tan gent to "bring in" sines and
cos (A - B) cosines.
sin A cos B - cos A sin B Use th e composit e argument

prop ert ies for sin (A - B) and
cos A cos B + sin A sin B cos(A - B).
sin A cosB cos A sinB) Factor out (cos A cos B) in the

cos A cos B ( - --- -
cos A cos B cos A cos B numerator and denominator
to put cosines in the minor
cos A cosB sinA sinB)
cos A cos B ( + ---- denominators.
cos A cosB cos A cosB
sinA sin B
-----
cosA cos B
Cancel all common factor s.
sinA sinB
l+----
cosA cos B
tanA - tanB Use the quotient property to

1 + tanA tanB get only tangents .
tanA - tanB
.·. tan (A - B) = -----
1 + tan A tanB
, B Cl)f A Cl)f B , fut, A Cl)f B

A = · fut, A B= A B • -- -
fut, Cl)f
Cl)f AtCl)f B
Cl)f Cl)f
j Cl)f
Cl)f A Cl)f B
Muliipfy by1 FadoY out:
You can derive the composite argument property for tan (A+ B) by writing
tan (A+ B) as tan [A - (-B)] and then using the fact that tangent is an odd
function. The result is
tanA + tanB
tan (A+ B) = -----
1 - tan A tanB
The box on the next page summarizes the composite argument properties
for cosine, sine, and tangent . As with the composi te argument properties for
cos (A - B) and cos (A + B), notice that the signs between the terms chan ge
when you compare sin (A - B) and sin (A + B) or tan (A - B) and tan (A + B).
Section
5-3: Other
Composite
Argument
Properties 209
PROPERTIES:
Composite
Argument
Properties
forCosine,
Sine,andTangent
cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sinB
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sinB
tanA - tanB
tan (A - B) = ----- -
1 + tanA tanB
tan A+ tanB
ta n (A + B) = ------
1 - tanA tanB

You can use the composite argument properties to solve certain trigonometric
equations algebraically.
IJi-EXAMPLE
1 Solve the equation for x E [O,2rr]. Verify the solutions graphically.
1
sin 5x cos 3x - cos 5x sin 3x =
2
1
Solution sin 5x cos 3x - cos 5x sin 3x = - Write the given equ ation .
2
. 1
sm (5x - 3x) = - Use the compo site argum ent prop ert y
2 for sin (A - B).
1
sin 2x = -
2
1
2x = arcsin
2
= 0.5235 .. . + 2rrn or (rr- 0.523 5 ... ) + 2 rrn
Use the definition of arcsine to write
the general solution .
x = 0.2617 ... + rrn or 1.3089 ... + rr n
X = 0.2617..., 1.3089 ... , 3.4033 ..., 4.4505 ...
Use n = 0 and n = 1 to get th e
solution s in th e domain.
y
In this case, th e answers turn out to be simple multipl es of rr. See if you can
.
f1gureoutw h yx= rr , Srr , 13rr ,a n d 17rr .
X
12 12 12 12
Figure 5-3c shows the graphs of y = sin 5x cos 3x - cos 5x sin 3x and the
line y = 0.5. Note that the graph of y = sin 5x cos 3x - cos 5x sin 3x is
equivalent to the sinusoid y = sin 2x. By u sing the interse ct feature, you can
see that the four solutions are correct and that th ey are th e only solutions
Figur e 5-3c in the domain xE [O,2rr]. <111111
210 Chapter
5: Propert
iesofCombine
d Sinusoids
Problem Set 5-3
6. Make a table of values to confirm t
Reading Analysis {lf/J tan(-x) = -tanx.
From what you have read in this section, what do 7. Confirm graphically that cote = ta
differ ence between an odd function and an even 8. Confirm graphically that cos e = si
function? How can the composite argument 9. Odd -Eve n Prop erty Geometrical Pn
prop erty for cos (first - second) be used to derive a Figure 5-3d shows angles of e and
similar property for cos (first+ second)? What is the standard position in a uv-coordina
meaning of the prefix coin the name cosine? The u-coordinates of the points wh
Qu,c. k Review
. ...--,
i , 5 '% angles cut the unit circle are equal.
v-coordinates of these points are o:
\
of each other.
Ql. If one value of arcsin xis 30°, find another
positive value of arcsin x, less than 360° . V
Q2.The value 30 is what percentage of 1000?

Q3. 2 10 = -?-
u
Q4. cos 7 cos 3 + sin 7 sin 3 = cos -?-
Q5.What is the amplitude of the sinusoid

y = 8 cos 8 + 15 sin 87
Q6. If A cos (8 - D) = 8 cos e + 15 sin e,then D
could equal-? - . Figur e 5-3d
Ql. tan 2 47° - sec 2 47 ° = -? -

a. Based on the definition of sine, e
QB
. log 3 + log 4 = log -?- sin (- 8) = - sine.
b. Based on the definition of cosine
sec x
Q9. tan x = -- is called a - ?- property. why cos (-e) = cos e.
CSC X
c. Based on the definition of tanger
Q10. Sketch the gra ph of an expo nential function why tan(-8) = -tan e.
with base b etween O and 1.
d. Based on the reciprocal prop erti E
why secant, cosecant, and cotang
1. Prove by counterexample that the same odd-even properties as
sin (A + B) *- sin A.+ sin B. sine, and tan gent, respectiv ely.
2. Prove by counterexample that tangent 10. Odd-Even Property Proof Recall tha 1
does not distribute over addition. of y = - f (x) is a vertical refl ection of
3. Show by numeri cal example that across the x-axis and that the grap h
tanA - tanB is a hori zo nt al re flection across the
tan(A - B) = B. a. Figure 5-3e shows th e graph of~
1 + tan A tan
Sketch the graph resulting fror
4. Show by numerical examp le that of y = sin x across the y-axis,
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sinB. another graph resulting fro,
5. Make a table of values to confir m that y = sin x across the x-axis .
COS (- X) = COS X. results, explain why sin e
Section
5-3: Other
Composite
Argument
Properti
es
e 5-3f shows the graph of y = cos x. tan 8 + tan 27°
h the graph resulting from a reflection 26. =1
1 - tan 8 tan 2 7°
= cos x across the y-axis. From the
t, explain why cosine is an even Exact Function Value Problems: Figure 5-3g
:ion. shows angles A and Bin standard position in
a uv-coordinat e system . For Problems 27-32, use
y the information in the figure to find exact values I
(no decimals!). Check your answers by calculating
A and B, adding or subtracting them, and finding
the function values directly.
: 5-3e Figur e 5-3f 27. cos (A - B) 28. cos (A + B)
s 11-20, use the composite argument 29. sin (A - B) e;J.sin (A + B)
) show that the given equation is an
31. tan (A - B) e!}tan (A +B)
V
. 90°) = sin 8
f) = sinx
f ) = -COSX
· 90°) = csc 8 (Be clever!)
. 60°) - cos (8 + 30°) = sin 8
u
. 30°) + cos (8 + 60°) = cos 8
41---1
s-l
(x - f ) = cos x + sin x Figur e 5-3g
:os B - sin A sin B)2
l cos B + cos A sin B) 2 = 1 For Problems 33 and 34, use the composite
argument properties with exact values of functions
:os 4x + cos 3x sin 4x = sin 7x of sp ecial angl es (such as 30°, 45°, 60°) to show that
: cos 6x + sin lOx sin 6x = cos 4x these numerical expressions are exact valu es of
sin 15° and cos 15°. Confirm numericall y that the
ts 21-26, use the composite argument values are correct.
o transform the left side of the equation
./6 - v'2 ./6 + v'2
unction of a composite argument. Then
.uation algebraically to get
33. sin 15° = ---
4
u
n:;i)
cos 15° = 4
general solution for x or 8 For Problems 35 and 36, use the exact values of
particular solutions for x in the sin 15° and cos 15° from Problems 33 and 34 and
1ain x E [O, 2 rr) or for 8 in the domain the cofunction properties to find exact values (no
(0°, 360°) decimals) of the expressi~~
OS0.6 - sin x sin 0.6 = 0.9 35. sin 75° ~rns 75°
OS35° + COS8 Sin35 ° = 0.5 For Problems 37 and 38, use the values of sin 15°
and cos 15° from Problems 33 and 34, with
cos 8 - cos 38 sin 8 = 0.5\/'2 appropriate simplification, to show that th e
cosx + sin3xsinx = -1 numerical expressions are exact values of tan 15°
and cot 15°.
(- tanx = )3
12x tanx 3 7. tan 15° = 2 - )3 38. cot 15° = 2 + )3
Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
39. Cofunction Property for the Inverse Sine
Properties: Cofunction Properties for the
Funct ion Problem: In thi s pro blem you will
Inverse Circular Functions
prove that cos - 1 xis th e complement of sin - 1 x.
a. Let 8 = 90° - sin - 1 X. Use the composi te cos - 1 x = ¥ - sin - 1 x
argument property to prove that cos 8 = x . cot - 1 x = ¥- tan - 1 x
b . From part a, it follows that () = arccos x, the
inverse trigonometric relation. Use the fact
csc- 1 x = ¥- sec- 1 x
that -90 ° ~ Sin-l X ~ 90° to show that () is in
the interval (0°, 180°]. Triple Argument Prope rt ies Problems: The
c. How does part b allow you to conclude that composite argument properties ha ve sums of
() is cos - 1 x, the inverse trigono m etric two angles or arcs . It is possi ble to derive triple
function ? argument properties for three angles or arcs . For
Problems 41 and 42, derive pro perties expressing
40 . Cofunction Properti es for the Inverse Circular the given function in terms of sin A, sin B, sin C,
Functions Problem: Use the cofunction cos A, cos B, and cos C (start by associating two of
properties for the inverse circular functions to the three angles).
calculate these valu es . Show that each an swer
is in the range of the inverse cofunct ion. 41. cos (A+ B + C) 42. sin(A + B + C)
a. cos - 1 (-0.4)
b . coc 1 (-1.5)
c. csc 1
(-2)
5-4 Composition of Ordinates and

armonic Analysis
lh Sections 5-1 and 5~2. you learned that a sum of two sinusoids with
equal periods is another sinu soid with the same period, as shown in
Figure 5-4a. A product of sin~i ds with equal pe riods is also a sinu soi d,
as shown in Figure 5-4b . f
.•'
Y /Sum is a sinus oid . Y Produ ct is a sinu soid.

, - ....
......
. J
,- e e
'~:. }60°
·... · ....
y = cos e + sin e y = sin e . cos e

Sec
tion 5-4: Composition
ofOrdinates
andHarmon
icAnalysis
Figure 5-4c shows the result of adding two sinusoids with unequal periods,
which might happen, for example , if two musical notes of different frequencies
are played at the same time. In this section you will learn about composition of
ordinates, by which sinuso ids are added or multiplied, and harmonic analysis,
by which you reverse the process to find the parent sinusoids.
Time
Figure 5-4c
OBJECTIVES
• Given two sinusoids, form a new graph by adding or multiplyin g ordinates
(y-coordinates).
• Given a graph formed by adding or multiplying two sinusoids, find the
equations of the two sinusoids.
Sum of Two Sinusoids with Unequal Periods

Example 1 shows you how to sketch a graph composed of two sinusoids whose
periods are not equal.
y
. 5
~ EXAMPLE
1 Figure 5-4d shows the graphs of y 1 = 3 cose
y 1 = 3 cos 8 and Yz = sin 48. . . . ., _L :

',
·,, .y =s. iin4e.
2 I
I
On a copy of this figure, sketch the .··· . ', · ....·.: . ... ' . r.
~
I
·...-...· e
graph of ·. .'' ·. ] 80° ·. / ·.. 360 °
. · .. . . ', . · .... . ' ii' .
e + sin48 ' ,. ,
y= 3 cos '' , ,'
Then plot the function on your
grapher. How well does your sketch . -5
match the actual graph? Figure 5-4d
Solution Look for high points, low points,

.
I
/ Plot the su m .
:/ Add the ~dinate~.

and zeros on the two graphs . At 3 -- ,,__ 2.8' + 1.0 - 3.8
each e- value you chose, estimate th e I ',,,' .,,
ordinate of each graph and add them.
Put a dot on the graph paper at that 2.8 ''
'
e
value of with the appropriat e ''
''
ordinate. Figure 5-4e shows how you ''
' , e
might estimate the ordinate at one ' I
particular point. ''
Pick a convenient point .

Figure 5-4e
:14 Chapter
5: Propertie
sofCombined
Sinusoids
Figure 5-4f sh ows the dots plotted at places where the auxiliary graphs have
critical points or zeros. Once you see the pattern, you can connect the dots with
a smooth curve, as in Figure 5-4g.
y
·.
.
..
· . ......·•·.·. ...
. ....' .
I \
' Jr ·.....
, · . 1-, e
\
\ /. .' ...-1~0 0 .\. ../ . .\}~ 00 \
'-'
. .
:
·•. . . ·•.. .•
. -5
Figure 5-4(
y
5
-5
Figure 5-4g
Plotting the equation on your grap h er confirms that your sketch is correct. <11111
In Example 1, adding 3 cos 8 to sin 48, which has a smaller p eriod, produces
different vertica l translations at different points. The graph of y = 3 cos 8 is a
variable sinus oidal axis, which passes close to the points of inflection of the
composed graph.
Product of Two Sinusoids with Unequal Periods

Example 2 shows you how to combine the two sinu soids of Example 1 by
multiplying instead of adding .
.... EXAMPLE
2 Figure 5-4d shows the graphs of y 1 = 3 cos 8 and y2 = sin 48.
On a copy of Figure 5-4d, sketc h the graph of
y= 3 cos 8 · sin48
Then plot the function on your grapher . How well does your sketch match th e
actual graph?
Sec
tion5·4: Composition
ofOrdinates
andHarmonic
Analysis 215
Solution The thought process is the same as for Example 1, but this time you multiply
the ordinates instead of adding them . Figure 5-4h shows the results.
y
. 5
. -5
Figur e 5-4h
Plotting the equation on your grapher confirms that your sketch is correct. <1111
In Example 2, multiplying sin48 by 3 cos 8 gives sin48 a different dilation at

different points. The function y = 3 cos 8 sin 4 8 seems to have a variable
amplitude. Because y = sin 48 has amplitude l, the composed graph touches
the graph of y = 3 cos 8 wherever the graph of y = sin 48 has a high point. The
graph of y = 3 cos 8 forms an envelope for the composed graph. Note that at
each place where either graph crosses the 8-axis, the composed graph also
crosses the axis.
PROPERTIES:
SumsandProducts
ofSinusoids
withUnequal
Periods
If two sinusoids have greatly different periods, then
• Adding the two sinusoids produces a function with variable sinusoidal axis.
• Multiplying the two sinusoids produces a function with a variable amplitude.
Harmonic Analysis: The Reverse of Composition

of Ordinates
You can use the properties of
sums and products of sinusoids
with different periods to help you
"decompose" a complicated
graph into the two sinusoids that
formed it. The proc edure is used,
for example, by technicians when
their ship's sonar detects a
complicated wave pattern and
they want to find out if the
sounds are being generated by
another ship or by a whale.
216 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
~ EXAMPLE
3 The function in Figure 5-4i is a sum or a product of two sinusoids. Find a
particular equation, and confirm your answer by plotting the equation on
your grapher.
y
-5
Figur e 5-4i
Solution Your thought process should be

1. The amplitude varies, so it is a product of sinusoids .
2. Sketch the larger-period sinusoid, forming an envelope curve that is tangent
to the graph near the high points, as shown in Figure 5-4j. These points
indicate the ends of cycles of the shorter-period sinusoid . Where the
envelop e curve becomes negative, it is tang ent to the given curve near the
low points. If th e envelope curve crosses th e given curv e abruptly, such as at
180° in Figure 5-4j, it is nottangent and thus does not indicate the end of a
small er-sinusoid cycle.
Tangent; cycle begins here.
Y Count th e cycles.
\ ----~ ---
Figure 5-4j
3. Th e larger-period sinusoid has the equation y = 5 sine.

4. Let the amplitude of the smaller-period sinusoid be 1. Count the number
of cycles the given graph make s in one cycle of th e longer-period envelope,
11 in this case. To help you count cycles, look for points where the given
curv e is tangent to the envelope curve.
5. The smaller-period sinusoid app ears to be a cosin e. (The value of the
y
e
composed graph is 0, not 1, at = 0° because the value of the larger graph
is zero th ere .) So its equation is y = cos ll e.
e
6. Write th e equation for the composed function: y = 5 sin 8 · cos 118.
7. Plot the gra ph (Figure 5-4k) to check your answer. Use a window with an
x-range, such as [-20 , 200], that is small enough to separate the cycles and
include s the en ds where characteristic behavior occurs. If the plotted graph
Figure 5-4k doesn't agree with the given graph, go back and check your work. <11111
Section
5-4: Composition
ofOrdinates
andHarmo
nicAnal
ysis 217
The next example shows how to perform the harmonic analysis if the argument
is in radians .
.....EXAMPLE
4 The function in Figure 5-41is a sum or a product of two sinusoids . Find the
particular equation, and confirm your answer by plotting the equation on your
grapher .
y
Figur e 5-4/
Solution Your thought proc es s should be

1. The sinusoidal axis varies, so it is a sum of sinusoids .
2. Sketch the larger-period sinusoid as a sinusoidal axis through the points of

infle ction halfwa y b etween high points and low points (Figure 5-4m).
Count th e cycle s of the sma ll sinu so id
in one cycle of the compo site graph .
J
Figure 5-4m
3. The larger-period sinusoid has amplitude 4 and p eriod 10 and starts at a

high point, so its equation is y = 4 cos f x.
The coeffic ient of xis 2rr divid ed by the period.
4. The smaller -period sinusoid has amp litude 2. Because it is on the

var ying sinusoidal axis at x = 0, its function is sine. It makes 16 cycles
in on e period of th e larger-period sinusoid, 0 :::;x < 10. So its equ ation is
y= 2 sin
1
rx.
5. The equation of the composed function is y = 4 cos fx + 2 sin 1
irrx
.
6. Plotting th e equation on your grap her in radian mod e confirms that the
equation is correct.
218 Chapt
er5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
Problem Set 5-4
l. Product of Two Sinusoids Probl em:
Reading Analysis
a. Which graph corresponds to each function?
From what you have read in this section, what do b . Without using your graph er, sketch on a
you consider to be the main idea? How do you copy of Figure 5-4n the graph of
decid e whether a combination of two sinusoids
with much different p eriods is a sum or a product? y= 6 sin8 · cos68
What is the difference in meaning between c. On your grapher, plot th e graph of
composition of ordinates and harmonic analysis? y 3 = y1
• Y2· Use a window with an x-range of
at least [0°, 360°] and an appropriate
Quick Review y-range. How clos ely does your composed
graph in part b resemble the actual graph
1 on your grapher?
QI. If cos A= 0.6, sin A = 0.8, cos B = -/2' and
-1 d. Th e graph of y = A cos 68 is a sinusoid with
sin B = -12.
' then cos (A - B) = - ?-. a fixed amplitude A. How would you
describe the graph of y = 6 sine · cos 68?
Q2.In genera l, cos (x + y) = - ?-in terms of
cosines and sines of x and y.
Q3. sin 5 cos 3 + cos 5 sin 3 = sin (- ?-)
Q4. sin(90 ° - 8) = cos( - ?- )
Q5. How do you tell that sine is an odd function?
Q6. cos (x + x) = - ?- in terms of cos x and sin x.

Ql. If the two legs of a right triang le are 57 and 65,
find th e tangent of the smalles t angle.
. The p eriod of the sinusoid
QB
y = 5 + 7 cos;}(x- 6) is -?- .
The Tacoma Narrow s Bridge in Tacoma,
Q9. x = 3 + 2 cos t and y = 5 + 4 sin t are parametric Washington, collap sed on Novemb er 7, 1940,
equations of a(n) -? - . du e to w ind that caused v ibration s of
in creasing amp litud e.
Q10. If g(x) = f(x - 7), what transformation is done
on function f to get function g?
2. Sum of Two Sinusoids Problem:
Problem s 1 and 2 refer to Figure 5-4n , which shows a. Without using your graph er, sketch on a
th e graphs of copy of Figure 5-4n the graph of
y 1 = 6 sin 8 and Y2 = cos 68 y= 6 sin8 + cos68
y b. On your grapher, plot the graph of
Y3 = y 1 + Y2· Use a window with an x-range
6
of at leas t [0°, 360°] and an appropriate
- ()
y-range . How closel y does your compos ed
graph in part a resemble the actual graph on
" 360 °
your grapher?
-6
Figur e 5-4n
Section
5-4:Composition
ofOrdinates
andHarmonic
Analy
sis 219
c. The graph of y = C + cos 6e is a sinusoid Harmonic A nal ysis Problems: For Problems 3-12,
with a fixed vertical tr anslation C. find the particular equation of the grap h shown .
How would you describe the graph of Each is the sum or the product of sinusoids with
y= 6 sine+ cos6e? unequal periods. Make note of whether the
argument is in degrees or radians.
3. y
4. y
5. y
6. y
7. y
220 Chapter
5: Properti
esofCombined
Sinusoids
8. y
9. y
10. y
11. y
51--------- ---- ---------+---------------------+-
......
- -5 >----------------------+---------------------+-
12. A combination of three sinusoids!

y
Section
5-4:Composition
ofOrdinates
andHarmonic
Analysis 221
13. Submarine Sonar Problem: The sonar on a is a sum of two sinusoids . The first sinusoid
surface ship picks up sound being generated is caused by the rotation of Earth about its
by equipment on a submarine. By performing own axis. In San Antonio this sinusoid has
harmonic analysis on the sound wave, it is period 1 day and amplitude 61° (the
possible to identify the national origin of the complement of the 29° latitude on which San
submarine. Antonio lies). The sinusoid reaches a minimum
a. Figure 5-40 shows the p att ern of a sound at midni ght on any day. The other sinusoid is
wave, where x is time, in seconds. Find an caused by the rotation of Earth around the
equation for this graph. Observe that the Sun. That sinusoid has period 36 5.25 days and
longer-wa ve sinusoidal axis completes three amplitud e 23.5° (equal to the tilt of Earth's
cycles before the wave pattern starts axis with respect to the ecliptic plane). This
repeating itself. second sinusoid reaches a minimum at day
-10 (December 21). Part of the graph of this
b. What is the period of the longer sinusoid?
composed function is shown in Figure 5-4p. On
What is the period of the shorter sinusoid?
this graph, y is th e angle of elevation on day x.
c. Recall th at the frequency of a sinusoid is Note that x = 1 at the end of day 1, x = 2 at the
the recipro cal of the period. What are the end of day 2, and so on.
frequencies of the two sinusoids in part b?
a. Write a particular equation of this
d. Unit ed States submarines have electrical composed graph. Use radians as the
generators that rotat e at 60 cycles per argument of the function. Use the equation
second and other electrical generators that to show that the maximum angle of
rotate at 400 cycles per second . Based on elevation on day 1 (x = 0.5) is lower than
your re su lts in part c, could the sound have the maximum angle of elevation on day
b een corning from the generators on a U.S. 30. Confirm that this is tru e by direct
submarine? measurement on Figure 5-4p.
14. Sunrise Project: The angle of elevation of th e b. Find the maximum angle of elevation on the
Sun at any tim e of day on any day of the year longest day of the year, June 21.
y
Figur e 5-40
y
goo
·
End of day 30
End of day I End of day 10
• ~ j (\n • n (\ n • n (\j n ' ~ (\ n • I (\ n • ~ (\ n n (\ (\ • n (\
(\ [n r
X
V V V V V V V i V V V ~ V V V V V V V V V V V ~ V V V i V V V i \
-'goo
Figure 5-4p
222 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
c. Sunrise occurs at the time when the angle of
elevation equals zero, as it is increasing.
Find the time of sunrise on day 1 by solving
numerically for th e value of x close to 0.2 5
when y = 0. Then convert your answer to
hours and minutes. Show that the Sun rises
earlier on day 30 than it does on day l. How
much earlier7
d. How do you interpret the parts of the graph
that are below th e x-axis?
15. Journal Problem: Update your journal with
thin gs you ha ve learn ed since the last entry. In
particular, mention how you decide wheth er a
composed graph is a sum or a product of
sinusoids. You might also mention how
comfortable you are getting with the
amplitudes and periods of sinusoidal graphs
and whether and how your confidence in
working with these concepts has grown since
you first encountered them in Chapter 2.
Mariners ' astrolabe from around 1585 . A n astro labe

mea sured the eleva tion of the Sun or another star to
predict the time of sunrise and suns et.
5-5 qflj~sumand ~ Propert ies

Figure 5-Sa shows the graphs of two sinusoids with very different periods.
Figure 5-5b shows two sinusoids with nearly equal periods. The product of the
two sinusoi ds in Figure 5-5a is the variable-amplitude function shown in Figure
5-5c. Surprisingly, the sum of the two nearly equal sinusoids in Figure 5-5b also
produ ces the wave pattern in the third figure! The y-values of th e sinusoids in
Figure 5-5b add up where the waves are in phase (i.e., two high points coincide)
and cancel out where the waves are out of phase . This ph enomenon is heard as
wha t are called beats . For example, two piano strings for the same not e '2m.1ie
~ ed at slightly different frequenci es to produ ce a vibrato effect. This is what
piano tuners listen for.
y
---- ---
e
---------
y 1 = cos ll eand y2 = 2 cos 8
Figure 5-5a
Section
5-5: TheSumandProduct
Properties 223
y
-
8
y 1 = cos 128 and y 2 = cos 108
Figure 5-Sb
cos 8 or y = cos 128 + cos 108

re 5-Sc
In this section you will learn algebraic properties that allow you to prove that
the sum graph and the product graph are equivalent.
OBJECTIVE
Transform a sum of two sinusoids into a product of two sinusoids, and
vice versa.
Product to Sum
From Figure 5-Sc, it appears that
cos 128 + cos 108 = 2 cos 118 · cos 8
To see why, write 128 as (118 + 8) and 108 as (118 - 8) and use composite
argument properties.
cos 128 = cos (118 + 8) = cos 118 cos 8 - sin 118 sin 8
cos 108 = cos (118 - 8) ;,_cos 118 cos 8 + sin 118 sin 8
Add the two equations to get
cos 128 + cos 108 = 2 cos 118 cos 8
If you subtract the equations, you get
cos 128 - cos 108 = -2 sin 118 sin 8
Using similar steps, you can derive these properties in general. Use A and Bin
place of 118 and 8, and you'll get sum and product properties expressing the
sum or difference of two cosines as a product of two cosines or sines.
cos (A + B) + cos (A - B) = 2 cos A cos B
cos(A + B)- cos(A- B) = -2 sinA sinB
224 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
Two other sum and product properties come from adding or subtracting the
composite argument properties for sine .
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
sin (A + B) + sin (A - B) = 2 sin A cos B By adding the two
equat ions.
sin(A + B) - sin(A- B) = 2 cos A sinB By subtracting the two

equat ion s.
These properties can also be expressed by reversing th e two sides of the
equatio n. This box summarizes th e four properties.
PROPERTIES:
SumandProduct
Properties-Product
to Sum
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)
-2 sin A sinB = cos (A+ B) - cos (A - B)
2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A - B)
2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) - sin (A - B)
It is probably easier to derive these properties as you need them than it is to

memorize them.
EXAMPLE
lllll>- 1 Transform 2 sin 13° cos 48° into a sum (or diff erence) of functions with positive
arguments. Demonstrate num erically that the answer is correct.
Solution Sine multiplied by cosine appears in the sine composite argument properties.
So the answer will be the sum (or difference) of two sines. If you have not
memorized the sum and product properties, you would write
sin (13° + 48°) = sin 13° cos 48° + cos 13° sin 48°
sin(13° - 48°) = sin 13° cos 48° - cos 13° sin48°
sin 61°+s in (-35°) = 2 sin 13° cos 48° Add the equations.
2 sin 13° cos 48° = sin 61 ° - sin 35° Use the symmetric property
of equality . Also, sine is an
odd function.
Check: 0.3010 .. . = 0.3010 .. .
Sum to Product
Example 2 shows you how to reverse the process an d transform a sum of two
sinusoi ds into a product.
Section
5-5: TheSum
andProduct
Properties 225
.... EXAMPLE
2 Transform cos 78 - cos 38 into a product of functions with positive arguments.
Solution First, think of writing cos 78 and cos 38 as cosines with composite arguments,
then use appropriate calculations to find out what those two arguments are.
Let cos 78 = cos (A+ B) and let cos 38 = cos (A - B).
A+ B = 78
A - B = 38
2A = we
A= se
Substituting se for A in either equation, you get B = 28. Now, substitute these
values for A and Bin the composite argument properties for cosine.
cos 78 = cos (58 + 28) = cos se cos 28 - sin se sin 2e
cos 38 = cos (58 - 28) = cos s e cos 28 + sin se sin 2e
cos 78 - cos 38 = -2 sin se sin 2e
The arguments have no negative signs, so you n eed no further
transformations.
From the algebraic steps in Example 2J ou can see that A equals hal f the, sum
of the arguments. You can also tell th alf the diff r nee of
arguments ,__o a general property expressing a difference of two cosines as a
prod uct is
cos x - cosy= -2 sin !(x + y) sin !(x - y)
You can also write the other three sum and product properties in this form. The
results are in this box. Again, do not try to memorize the properties. Instead,
derive them from the composite argument properties, as in Example 2, or look
them up when you need to use them.
PROPERTIES:
SumandProduct
Properties-Sumto Product
sinx+ siny= 2 sin!(x+ y) cod(x-y)
sinx- siny = 2 cos !(x+ y) sin!(x-y)
cos x +cosy= 2 cos !(x + y) cos !(x - y)
cosx- cosy= -2 sin!(x+ y) sin!(x-y)
Note: Both functions on the "sum" side are always the same function .
•
~ EXAMPLE
3 Figure 5-Sd shows the graph of a periodic trigonometric function with a variable
sinusoidal axis. Using harmonic analysis, find a particular equation for this
function as a sum of two sinusoids . Then transform the sum into a product.
Confirm graphically that both equations produce the function graphed in
Figure 5-Sd.
226 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
y
Figure 5-Sd
Solution On a copy of Figure 5-Sd, sketch the sinusoidal axis . Figure 5-Se shows
the result.
y
6 ure 5-5e
By the techniques of Section 5-4,

y = sin 2x + sin lOx
To transform this equation into a product, write
y
y = 2 sin !(2x + lOx) cos !(2 x - lOx) Use the property from the box,
or deriv e it.
y = 2 sin 6x cos (-4x)

y = 2 sin 6x cos 4x Cosine is an even function.
Both equatio ns give the graph shown in Figure 5-Sf, which agrees with
Figure 5-Sf Figure 5-Sd.
Problem Set 5-5
Reading Analysis t:lf/J Quick Review

From what you have read in this section, what do Ql. Find values of A and B if A+ B = 20 and
you consider to be the main idea? How is it possible A- B = 12.
for a sum of two sinusoids with nearly equal
periods to produce the same wave pattern as a 02. Find values of A and B if A + B = x and A - B = y.
product of two sinusoids with very different Q3. Sketch the graph of the parent trigonometric
periods? What does the text say about the sinusoid y = cos e.
advisability of memorizing the sum and product
properties? Q4. Sketch the graph of th e parent circular
sinusoid y = sin x.
Section
5-5:TheSum
andProduct
Prope
rties 227
QS. How many degrees are in f radian? 5. 2 cos 3.8 sin4.l 6. 2 cos 2 cos 3
Q6.How man y radians are in 180°? 7. 2 sin 3x sin 7.2 8. 2 sin Bx cos 2x
Ql. What is the exact value (no decimals) of For Problems 9-16, transform the sum or difference
cos (f)? to a product of sines and /or cosines with positive
arguments.
QB.What is th e exact value (no decimals) of
tan 30°? 9. cos 46° + cos 12° 10. cos56°-c os24°
Q9.cos (3x + Sx) =-?-in terms of functions of 11. sin 2 + sin6 12. sin3 - sin8
3x and 5x.
13. cos 2.4 - cos 4.4 14. sin 1.8 + sin 6.4
QIO. Find the value of e in decimal degrees if
e = COC 1 m.
15. sin 3x - sin Bx 16. cos 9x + cos llx
Graphing Problems: For Problems 17-20, use
Transformation Problems: For Problems 1-8, harmonic analysis to find an equation of the given
transform the product into a sum or difference of graph as a product or sum of sinusoids. Then
sines or cosines with positive arguments. transform the product into a sum or the sum into a
product. Confirm graphically that both of your
l. 2 sin 41 ° cos 24° 2. 2 cos 73° sin 62° equations produce the given graph.
3. 2 cos 53° cos 49° 4. 2 sin 29° sin 16°
17. y
18. y
-8
19. y
228 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
20. y
Algebraic Solution of Equations Problems: You can a. The combined sound of these two notes is
use the sum and product properties to find the sum of the two sound waves. Write an
algebraically the exact solutions of certain equation for the combined sound wave,
equations. For Problems 21- 24, solve the equation where the independent variable is t, in
by first transforming it into a product equal to zero seconds. Use the (undisplaced) cosine
and then setting each factor equal to zero. Use the function for each sound wave, and assume
domain() E (0°, 360°] or x E (0, 2rr]. that each has amplitude 1.
21. sin3x-sinx=O (!) sin38+sin8=0 b. Transform the sum in part a into a product
of two sinusoids.
23. cos 5e + cos 3e= 0 ~ - cos 5x - cos x = 0
c. Explain why the combined sound is
Identities Problems: For Problems 25-30, prove that equivalent to a sound with frequency 220
the given equation is an identity. cycles/ sand an amplitude that varies . What
is the frequency of the variable amplitude?
Describe how the note sounds.
32. Car and Truck Problem: Suppose that you are
driving an 18-wheeler tractor-trailer truck
27. cos x + cos 2x + cos 3x = cos 2x(l + 2 cos x) along the highway. A car pulls up alongside
your truck and then moves ahead very slowly.
28. sin (x + y) sin (x - y) = sin 2 x - sin 2 y As it passes, the combined sound of the car
29. cos (x + y) cos (x - y) = cos 2 x - sin 2 y and truck engines pulsates louder and softer.
The combined sound can be either a sum of
30. sin (x + y) cos (x - y) = ! sin 2x +!sin 2y the two sinusoids or a product of them .
31. Piano Tuning Problem : Note A on the piano a. The tachometer says that your truck's
has frequency 220 cycles/ s. Inside the piano engine is turning at 3000 revolutions per
there are two strings for this note. When the minute (rev/min), which is equivalent to
note is played, the hamm er attached to the A 50 revolutions per second (rev/ s). The
key hits both strings and starts them vibrating. pulsations come and go once a second,
Suppose that one of the two A strings is tuned which means that the amplitude sinusoid
to 221 cycles/ sand the other is tuned to has period two seconds. Write an equation
219 cycles/ s. for the sound intensity as a product of
two sinusoids . Use cosine for each, with
independent variable t, in seconds. Use 2 for
the amplitude of the larger sinusoid and
1 for that of the smaller.
b. Transform the product in part a into a sum
of two sinusoids.
c. At what rate is the car's engine rotating?
d. Explain why the period of the amplitude
sinusoid is two seconds, not one second.
Section
5-5:TheSumandProduct
Properties 229
An examp le of the resulting wave pattern is
shown in Figure 5-5g. In this project you will
33. Dynamic Sinusoida l Sums and Products Project: find equations of the two waves that were
Using dynamic geometry software such as The multiplied to form this graph. Then you will
Geometer's Sketchpad, create a sketch with a see how you can form the same wave pattern
slider k to plot the function by adding two waves of nearly equa l frequency .
a. By harmonic analysis, find the equations
f(x) = cos 6x sin kx
of the two circular function sinusoids
Go to www .keymath
.com/precolc if you need that were multiplied to form the graph
information on sliders or to use the Sinusoidal in Figure 5-5g. Which equation is the
Sums and Products Exploration. Use the sketch sound wave, and which is the carrier
to answer these questions. wave?
a. Set k equal to 0. 5 so that the periods of the b. You can add two sinusoids with nearly equal
two sinusoids are very different. What kind periods to form the same wave pattern as
of wave pattern do you notice? Then slide in Figure 5-5g. Use the sum and product
the value of k up to 5. What differences do properties to find the equations of these
you notice taking place in the wave pattern two sinusoids.
as the periods of the two sinusoids get c. Confirm by graphing that the product of the
closer to each other? What happens to the sinusoids in part a and the sum of the
wave pattern when k equals 67 sinusoids in part b give the same wave
b. Change the equation to pattern as in Figure 5-5g.
f(x) = cos 6x + sin kx d. The scale on the t-axis in Figure 5-5g is in
milliseconds. Find the frequency of the
Again set k equal to 0.5 and describe the carrier wave in kilocycles per second. (This
wave pattern. What happens this time as number, divided by 10, is what appears on
you slide k up closer to 67 Equal to 67 an AM radio dial.)
c. Describe how this problem illustrates the e. Research to find the name used in radio
sum and product properties and what these waves for "cycles per second."
properties tell you about wave patterns for
sums of sinusoids and for products of Problem 3 5 prepares you for the next section.
sinusoids . 35. Power-Reducing Identities Problem: Derive th e
34. AM Radio Project: AM ("amplitude modulation") formulas shown by applying the product to
radio works by havin g a sound wave of a sum properties, using the same angle for A
relatively low frequency (long period) cause and B. Why do you think these are called
variations in the amplitude of a "carrier wave" power -red ucing identiti es?
that has a very high frequency (VHF).So the Sin 2 X = !(1- COS 2x) COS 2 X = !O+ COS 2X)
sound wave is multipli ed by the carrier wave.
y
0
0.0125 0.025
Figure 5-Sg
230 Chapter
5: Propertie
sofCombined
Sinusoids
5-6 Double and Half Argument Properties
If you write cos 2x as cos (x + x) and use the composit e argument property , you
can get a double argument property expressing cos 2x in terms of sines and
cosines of x. By performing algebraic operations on the double argument
properties, you can derive similar half argument properties. In this section
you'll learn these properties and show that the product of two sinusoi ds with
equal periods is a sinusoid with half the period and half the amplitude.
OBJECTIVES
• Prove that a product of sinusoi ds with equal period s is also a sinusoid.
• Derive properties for cos 2A, sin 2A, and tan 2A in terms of functions of A.
• Derive properties for cos !A,sin !A,and tan !Ain terms of functions of A.
Product of Sinusoids with Equal Periods
y y = Sin X COS X
Produ ct is a sinu soid.
X
rr,
'' '
-1
/-- -____
,>(' - - / /\
y = cos x y = sin x
Figure 5-6a
Figure 5-6a shows that the graph of y = sin x cos x appears to be a sinusoid with
half the period and half the amp litud e of the parent sine and cosine functions.
Its equation would be y = ! sin 2x. This calculation shows that this is true.
! sin 2x = t sin (x + x) Write 2x as x + x.
= ! (sin x cos x + cos x sin x) Use the compos ite argum ent property.
= ! (2 sin x cos x)
= Sin X COS X
.'. sin x cos x = t sin 2x The product of sin e and cosin e with equal
periods is a sinusoid.
Section
5-6: Double
andHalfArgument
Propertie
s 231
The square of cosine and the square of sine have a similar property . Figure 5-6b
gives graphical evidence.
y= cos 2 x y=si n 2 x
y Square is a sinusoid . y
Square is a sinusoid.
''
\ ,,
1
,,
, \
' / /
'' I
I
I
I
'' I
I
X I X
I
11\ 2TT
'' TT I 2rr I I
I' ' .......__..." ,,'

I I ' I
'' /
I I
-1
' ', __ '\
..... ......
-1
y = COS X y = Sin X
Figur e 5-6b
Both y = cos 2 x and y = sin 2 x are sinusoids with amplitude t, period rr, and
sinusoidal axis y = !-Notice that the two graphs are a half-cycle out of phase .
(This is why cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1.) This box summarizes the conclusions, fulfilling
the first part of this section's objective . The second and third properties are
also referred to as power-reducing identities.
PROPERTIES:
Products
andSquares
ofCosine
andSine
Product of Sine and Cosine Property
sin x cos x = ! sin 2x
Square of Cosine Property

cos 2 x = + cos 2x ! !
Square of Sine Property
sin 2 x = ! - ! cos 2x
Note: The product of two sinusoids with equal periods, equal amplitudes, and
zero vertical translation is a sinusoid with half the period and half the
amplitude .
Double Argument Properties

Multiplying both sides of the equation sin x cos x = sin 2x by 2 gives an !
equation expressing sin 2x in terms of the sine and cosine of x.
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x Doubl e argument prop erty for sine .
Here's how the double argument property for cosine can be derived .
cos 2x = cos (x + x)
= cos X cos X - sin X sin X
= cos 2 x - sin 2 x
This box summarizes the double argument properties. You will prove the
double argument property for tangent in Problem 31.
232 Chapter 5: Pro

perties
of Comb
inedSinusoid
s
PROPERTIES:
Double
Argument
Properties
Double Argument Property for Sine
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
Double Argument Properties for Cosine

cos 2A = cos 2 A - sin 2 A
cos 2A = 2 cos 2 A - 1 (using sin 2 A= 1 - cos 2 A)
cos 2A = 1 - 2 sin 2 A (using cos 2 A= 1 - sin 2 A )
Double Argument Property for Tangent

2 tanA
tan2A=----
l - tan 2 A
IJJJ> I
EXAMPLE If cos x = 0.3, find the exact value of cos 2x. Check your answer num erically by
finding the value of x, doubling it, and finding the cosine of the resulting argument.
Solution cos 2x = 2 cos 2 x - 1 Double argument prop erty for cosine in terms of
cosine alone.
= 2(0.3)2 - 1
= -0 .82
Chec k: x = cos- 1 0.3 = 1.2661...
cos 2(1.2661... ) = cos 2.5322 ... = -0.8 2, which ch ecks .
Note that for the properties to appl y, all that matters is that one argument is
twice th e other argument . Example 2 shows thi s.
IJJJ> EXAMPLE
2 Write an equation expressing cos lOx in terms of sin Sx.
Solution cos lOx = cos 2(5x) Transform to double argument.
2
= 1 - 2 sin Sx Use the double argument property for cosine involving
only sine.
:. cos lOx = 1 - 2 sin 2 Sx
.... EXAMPLE
3 Write the equation in Example 2 directl y from the composite argument property
for cos ine.
Solution cos lOx = cos (Sx + Sx) Transform into composite argum ent.
= cos Sx cos Sx - sin Sx sin Sx Use the composite argument
prop erty for cosine.
= cos 2 Sx - sin 2 Sx
= (1 - sin 2 Sx) - sin 2 Sx Use the Pythagor ean property .
= 1 - 2 sin 2 Sx
Section
5-6:Double
andHalfArgument
Prop
erties 233
Half Argument Properties
The square of cosine property and the square of sine property state that
! t
cos 2 x = + cos 2x and sin 2 x = ! - ! cos 2x
The argument x on the left in the equations is half the argument 2x on the right.
Substituting A for 2x leads to
cos 2 !A = f (1 + cos A) and sin 2 !A= f (1 - cos A)
Taking the square roots gives half argument properties for cos !A and sin fA
cos t A = ±Vt(l+ cos A) and sin !A = ±) !(1 - cos A)

The way you can determine whether to choose the positive or negative sign of
the ambiguo us ± sign is by looking at the quadrant in which !A terminates (not
the quadrant in which A terminates). For instance, if A= 120°, then !A is 60°,
which terminates in the first quadrant, as shown in the left graph of Figure 5-6c.
In this case , both sin !A and cos !A are positive. If A = 480° (which is cotermina l
with 120°), then !A is 240°, which terminates in Quadrant III, as shown in the
right graph of Figure 5-6c. In this case, you' ll choose the negative sign for
cos }A and sin }A The signs of sine and cosine don't have to be the same for the
same argument. If fA falls in Quadrant II or Quadrant IV, the signs of cos }A
and sin !A are opposites.
V V
'
''
''
,' 0.SA = 60 °
A = 120° u u
0.SA = 240 ° ,'

''
'
''
Figure 5-6c
You can derive a half argument property for tan !A by dividing the respective
properties for sine and cosine . In Problem 32, you will see how this is done.
The result is remarkable because you can drop the radical sign and the
ambi guou s ± sign.
234 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
The half argum ent properties are summari ze d in this box.
PROPERTIES:
HalfArgument
Properties
Half Argument Property for Sine
sin ~A= ±V~(l - cos A)
Half Argument Property for Cosine

cos ~A= ±V~(l + cos A)
Half Argument Properties for Tangent

tan lA = ± /1 - cos A = I - cos A = sin A
2
V1 + cos A sin A I + cos A
Note: The amb iguou s ± sign is determin ed by th e quadr ant in which !A

terminates.
Example 4 shows you how to calculate the functions of half an angle and
twice an angle usin g the prop erti es and how to verify th e result by dir ect
computation .
~ EXAMPLE
4 If cos A=# and A is in the open interval (270°, 360°),
a. Find the exact valu e of cos ~A
b . Find the exact value of cos 2A
c. Verify your answers num erically by calculatin g the values of 2A and !A and
finding the cosines.
Solution Sketch angle A in stan dard position, as shown in Figure 5-6d. Pick a point on
the ter minal sid e with horizontal coordinate 15 and radiu s 17. Draw th e
ref erence triangle. By the Pytha gorean theorem and by notin g that angle A
terminates in Qu adrant IV, you can determin e that the vertical displa cem ent of
th e point is -8 .
a. V
u
I
IV = -8
17 I
Figure 5-6d
Section
5-6: Double
andHalfArgument
Propert
ies 235
270° <A< 360° Write the given range as an inequality.
135° <!A< 180° Divide by 2 to find th e quadrant in which

half A terminat es .
Therefore, !A terminates in Quadrant II, where cosine is negative.
Vl
cos -21A = - -2 (1 + -1s 4
17) = - r,::;
Use the half argument property with the
v 17 minus sign.
450 161 Use the form of cos 2A

b. cos 2A = 2 cos 2 A - 1 = -- - 1 = -- involvin g the given
289 289 function value.
c. A= arccos g = ±28.0724 ... 0

+ 360n°
Use the definition of arccosine to write th e general
solution for A.
A= -2 8.0724 .. . + 360° = 331.9275 ...
0 0
Write the particular solution . See Figure 5-6d.

0 0
!A= 165.9637 ... and 2A = 663.8550 ...
4
cos 165.963 7 ... = - 0.9701... = - .Ju
0
38 0 161
cos 66 . 550 ... = 0.5570 ... = 289
The answers are correct .
Problem Set 5-6

04. log x +logy= log(-?-)
Reading Analysis tl!J} 05. The equation 3(x + y) = 3x + 3y is an example
From what you have read in this section, what do of the -?- property of multiplication over
you cons ider to be th e main idea ? Write the double addition.
argum ent prop erty for sine and show how it is
derived from th e composite argument property . 06. Find the amplitude of the sinusoid
How doe s this propert y allow you to conclude that y = 2 cos e + 5 sine.
the product of a sine and a cosine with equal 07. Find the phase displacement for y = cos e of
periods is another sinusoid? What does th e text say e
y = 2 cos + 5 sine.
about how you determine whether to use the + sign
or the - sign in the half argument properties for QB. Find the measur e of th e smaller acute angle of
cosine and sine? a right triangle with legs 13 cm and 28 cm.
09. What is the period of the circular function
Quick Review y = sin 5x?
QIO. The graph of the parametric function
x = 5 cost and y = 4 sin tis a(n) -?- .
02. By the composite argument properties,

1. Explain why cos 2x does not equal 2 cos x by
sin x cosy- cos x sin y = -?-.
considering the differences in the graphs of
03. True or false: tan (x + y) = tan x + tan y y 1 = cos 2x and y 2 = 2 cos x.
236 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
2. Prove by a numerical counte rexample that The graphs of y 1 and y 2 are sinusoids with
!
tan x doe s not equal tan x. ! vertical displacement s. Is the graph of y3 a
sinusoid? If so, find a particular equation for
For Problems 3-6, illustr ate by numerical example
the graph . If not, explain why not.
that the doubl e argument property is tru e by
making a table of valu es . 18. Sinusoid Conjecture Problem 2: Figure 5-6f
shows the graphs of
3. sin2x=2 sinxcosx 4. cos2x= cos 2 x-sin 2 x
Y1 = cos 8
2 tanx
5. cos 2x = 1 + 2 cos 2 x 6. tan 2x =
1 - tan 2 X Y2= sin (8 - 30°)
For Problems 7- 10, illustrate by numerical example y 3 = (cos 8)[sin (8 - 30°))
that th e half argument property is true by making a The graph of y 2 is a sinusoid with a horizontal
table of valu es. displacement. Is the graph of y 3 a sinusoid? If
7. sin t A for A E [O, 180°) so, find a particular equation for the graph. If
not, explain why not.
8. cos !A for A E [0°, 180°) :;,
9. cos ! A for A E [360°, 540°)
10. sin !A for A E [180°, 360 °V
Sinusoid Problems: For Problems 11-16, the graph of
each function is a sinu soid .
y = (cos B)(sin (8- 30°))
a. Plot the graph of the given function.
b. From the graph, find the equation of the Figure 5-6(
sinusoid.
c. Verify algebraically that the equation is 19. Half A rgument Interpretation Problem:
sinusoidal. Figure 5-6g shows the graphs of
11. y = 6 Sin X COSX 12. y = 8 cos 2 x Y1= cos !8

13. Y = 10 Sin2 X 14. y= cosx+ sinx> Y2 = Vi(l + cos 8)
15. y = cos 2 3x 16. y = 12 cos 5x sin 5x) y
17. Sinusoid Conjec tur e Problem 1: In this section
you pro ved that certain gra phs that look like e
sinu soid s really are sinusoi ds. Figure 5-6e \ I 720° \ I
sho ws th e gra ph s of \_,' \.,'
Y1 = 2 + cos X
Y2 = 4 + sinx Figur e 5-6g
y 3 = (2 + cos x)(4 + sin x) a. Which graph is y 1 and which is y 2?

b. The half argument propert y for cos in e
contains the ambiguous ± sign. For what
intervals of 8 should you use the positi ve
sign? The negative sign?
;;..:- c. What one transformation can you apply to
'-- ~ X
2rr 4rr
the y 1 equation to make its graph identical
to the graph of Y2?
Figure 5-6e
Section
5-6: Double
andHalf Argument
Properties 237
d. Explain why /n2 equals lnl,not just n. Use 26. If cos A= -i and A E (450°, 540°), find cos 2A
the result, and the way you derived the half and sin !A
argument property for cosine, to explain the
27. Sine Double Argument Property Derivation
origin of the ± sign in the half argument
Problem: Starting with sin 2x = sin (x + x),
property for cosine .
/, derive the property sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x.
20. Terminal Position of !A Problem: You have seen
28. Cosine Double Argument Properties Derivation
that the half argument properties can involve a
different sign for different coterminal angles. Is
l Problem:
the same thing true for the double argument a. Starting with cos 2x = cos (x + x), derive the
properties? For instance, 30° and 390° are property cos 2x = cos 2 x - sin 2 x.
coterminal , as shown in Figure 5-6h, but !(30°) b. Using the Pythagorean properties, prove
and !(390°) are not coterminal. Show that the that cos 2x = 2 cos 2 x - 1.
same thing does not happen for 2(30°) and c. Using the Pythagorean properties, prove
2(390°). Show that if any two angle measures that cos 2x = 1 - 2 sin 2 x.
A and B are cotermina l, then 2A and 2B are
also coterminal. 29. Sine Times Cosine Is a Sinusoid Problem :
Using the doubl e argum ent properties, prove
V algebraically that the graph of y = sin x cos xis
a sinusoid.
30. Squares of Cosine and Sine Are Sinusoids
30° u
Problem: Using the double argument
properties, prove algebraically that the graphs
of y = cos 2 x and y = sin 2 x are sinusoids .
31. Double Argument Property for Tangent: The
table of properties in this section lists this
property expressing tan 2A in terms of tan A:
Figure 5-6h
2 tanA
Exact Values Problems: For Problems 21-26, tan 2A = 1 - tan 2A
a. Use the double and half argument properties
to find the exact values of the functions, a. Show graphically that the property is true
using radicals and fractions if necessary . on an interval of your choice. Write a few
sentences explaining what you did and your
b. Show that your answers are correct by results. List any domain restrictions on the
finding the measure of angle A and then argument A
evaluating the functions directly.
b. Derive thi s double argument property
I
t
21. If cos A= and A E (0°, 90°), find sin 2A and algebraically by starting with the
cos 2A \ appropriate composite argument property
22. If cos A= i and A E (270 °, 360°), find cos 2A for tangent.
and sin !A ___.,, c. Derive this property again, this time by
starting with the quotient property for
23. If cos A= -i and A E (180°, 270 °), find sin 2A tan 2A and substituting the double
and cos !A argument properties for sine and cosine.
24. If cos A= -i and A E (90°, 180°), find cos 2A You will need to use some insightful
and sin !A algebraic ope i;ations to transform the
resulting sines and cosines back into
i
25. lf cos A= and A E (630°, 720°), find sin 2A tangents.
and cos !A
238 Chapter
5: Propertie
sofCombined
Sinusoids
32. Half Argument Property for Tangent: properties appropriate ly to transform the equation
a. Based on the quotient properties, tell why into a suitable form.
33. 4 sin x cos x = 13, x E (0, 2 rr]
tan .!.A = ± /_1_-_c_
o_s_A
2
V1 + cos A 34. cos 2 8 - sin 2 8 = -1, 8 E (0°, 360°]
b. Starting with the prop erty in part a, derive 35. cos 2 8 = 0.5, 8 E (0°, 360°]
another form of th e half argum ent property
for tangents given in th e box on page 235 , @.12- tanx
---
tan x
= 13,
2
- XE (0, 2 rr]
tan- 1 A=-
sin A
---
37 )t (l + cos x) = tl3 , x E (0, 4rr]
2 1 + cos A . )t(l - cos 8) = 1, 8 E (0°, 720°]
First , multipl y und er th e radical sign by 1 in Identity Problems: For Problems 39- 44, prove that
th e form the given equation is an identity.
1 + cos A 2 tanx
39. sin 2x = 1 + tan 2 x
1 + cos A
1 - tan 2 y
Explain what happ en s to th e ± sign . 0. cos 2y = ?
1 + tan-y
c. Confirm graphicall y th at the answer to part b
is true. Write a few sent ences explaining what 41. sin 2¢ = 2 cot¢ sin 2 ¢
you did and your result s. Based on the /3= 1 -
graphs, explain why only th e positive sign 2 tan cos/32/3
sin 2
applies and never the negative sign.
43 . sin 2 58 = !(1- cos 108)
A lgebrai c Solution of Equation s Problems: For
Problem s 33- 38, solve th e equ ation algebraicall y, 44. cos 2 3x = tn + cos 6x)
using th e doubl e argum ent or half argument

In thi s chapter you have extended the
stud y of trigonometr ic function properties
th at you started in Chapter 4. Specifically, CbS (X - f) =
you have learned properties such as

cos (x - y) = cos x cosy+ sin x sin y that
appl y to functions of more than one
argum ent . You saw that these properties
allow you to analyze graphs that are
composed of sums and products of sinusoids . Sometimes th e composed graph
was another sinusoid, and sometimes it was a periodic function with a varying
amplitud e or a varying sinusoidal axis . Finally, you appli ed these properties to
derive double and half argument proper ties th at express, for instance, sin 2A
and sin fA in terms of functions of A
For your futur e reference, the box on the next page lists the ten kinds of
prop erties you have learned in Chapters 4 an d 5.
Sectio
n 5-7:Chapter
Revie
wandTest 239
PROPERTIES:
Summary
of Trigonometric
Function
Properties
Reciprocal Properties Composite Argument Properties
1 cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sinB
cotx=- - or tanx cot x = 1
tanx cos (A+ B) = cos A cos B - sin A sinB
1 sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
secx=- ·- or cos x sec x = I
cosx
1
CSCX=- .- or sinx csc x = 1 tan A- tan B
smx tan (A - B ) = -----
1 + tanA tanB
Quotient Properties tan A+ tanB
tan (A+ B ) = ------
sinx sec x 1 - tanA tanB
tanx=--=--
cos X CSC X
Sum and Product Properties
COS X CSC X
cotx = --=-- 2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)
sinx sec x
2 sin A sinB = -cos (A+ B) + cos (A - B)
Pythagorean Properties 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A ) B)
cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1 • 2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) - sin (A - B)
2 2
1 + tan x = sec x cos x +cosy= 2 cos !(x + y) cos !(x - y)
cot 2 x + 1 = csc 2 x cos x - cosy= -2 sin !(x + y) sin !(x - y)
Odd-Ev~n Function Properties sinx + siny = 2 sin !(x + y) cos !(x - y)
sin(-x) = -sinx (odd function) sinx - siny= 2 cos }(x + y) sin }(x- y)
cos (-x) = cos x (even function) Double Argument Properties
tan (-x) = - tan x (odd function) sin2x= 2 sinxcosx
cot (-x) = -cot x (odd function) cos 2x = cos 2 x - sin 2 x = I - 2 sin 2 x
sec (-x) = sec x (even function) = 2 cos 2 x- 1
csc (-x) = -csc x (odd function) 2 tanx
tan2x=--- -
l - tan 2 x
Cofunction Properties
Sin2 X = }(1 - ·cos 2X)
cos (90° - 8) = sin 8, cos C?
- x) = sin X
COS2 X = }(1+ COS 2x)
cot(90 ° - 8) = tan 8, cot(¥- x) = tanx
csc (90° - 8) = sec e,csc (!l- x) = sec x Half Ar ent Properties \
sin ix= ±Vi(l - cos x)
~ Linear Combination of Cosine and Sine
cos }x = ±V}(l + cos x)
b cos x + c sin x = A cos (x - D), where
A = .Jb 2 + c 2 and D = arctan i tan-x21 =±
)1- COS X
1 + COS X
sinx 1 - cos x
1 + cosx sinx
240 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
Review Problems
RO. Update your journal with wha t you have y
learned in this chapter. For example, include
• Products and sums of sinusoi ds with equal e
periods
• Products and sums of sinuso ids with much
different periods
• Harmonic analysis of grap hs composed of
Figure 5-l b
two sinusoids
• Transformations between sums and b. Write cos ((3 - 60°) as a linear combination
products of sinusoids of sine and cosine. Verify graphically that
• Double argument and half argument your answer is correct.
properties to prove certain products are c. Write the trigonometric expression
sinusoids 8 cos () + 15 sin 8 as a single sinusoid with
a phase displacement for y = cos e.Plot the
Rl. Figure 5-7a shows the grap h of
graphs of the given expression and your
y= 5 cos (3 + 12 sine.
answer. Explain how the two graphs confirm
y
that your answer is correct.
d. Write the circular function expression
e -9 cos x + 7 sin x as a single sinusoid with a
phase displacement for y = cos x. Make a
table of values for the given expression and
your answer. Explain how th e numbers in
the table indicate that your answer is
Figure 5-la correct.
a. The graph in Figure 5-7a is a sinusoid. e. Figure 5-7c shows the graphs ~f
Estimate its amplitude and its phase y 1 = 4 cos x + 3 sin x and y 2 = 2 as they
displacement with respect to the parent might appear on your grapher. Solve th e
cos ine curve, and then write an equation equation 4 cos x + 3 sin x = 2 algebraically
for the displaced sinusoid. for x E [O, 2rr]. Show that the solutions
agree with the graph.
b. Plot your equation in part a and the
equation y = 5 cos (3 + 12 sin() on the same
screen. How well do the two graphs agree
with each other and with Figure 5-7a?
R2. Figure 5-7b shows the graphs of
Yi = cos ((3 - 60°) and y2 = cos () - cos 60° as
-5
they might appear on your grapher.
a. Without actually plotting the graphs, Figure 5-lc
identify which is y 1 and which is y 2 •
Explain how you chose them. From the R3. a. Express sin (-x), cos (-x), and tan (-x) in
graphs, how can you concl ude that the terms of the same function of (positive) x.
cosine function does not distribute over b. Express sin (x + y) in terms of sines and
subtraction ? cosines of x and y.
Section
5-7: Chapter
Review
andTest 241
c. Express cos (x + y) in terms of sines and a. On a copy of the figure, sketch the graph of
cosines of x and y. the function composed by adding ordinates.
d. Express tan (x - y) in terms of tan x and tan y. b. On another copy of Figure 5-7e, sketch the
e. Express cos (90° - 8) in terms of sine. graph composed by multiplying the
ordinates.
f. Express cot (¥ - x) in terms of tan x. What
restrictions are there on the domain? c. Confirm your answers to parts a and b by
finding equations of the two parent graphs,
g. Express csc (¥ - x) in terms of sec x. What
plotting them and the composed graphs on
restrictions are there on the domain?
your grapher, and comparing them with
h. Sketch the graph of y = tan x, and thus show your sketches.
graphically that tan (-x) = -tan x. What
d. Describe verbally the two composed graphs
restrictions are there on the domain?
in part c.
i. Figure 5-7d shows the graph of
e. By harmonic analysis, find a particular
y = cos 3x cos x + sin 3x sin x and
equation for the composed function graph
the line y = 0.4. Solve the equation
in Figure 5-7f. Check your answer by
cos 3x cos x + sin 3x sin x = 0.4 algebraically
plotting on your grapher.
for x E [O, 2 rr]. Explain how the graph
confirms your solutions. f. By harmonic analysis, find a particular
equation for the composed function graph
y in Figure 5-7g. Check your answer by
plotting on your grapher.
RS. a. Transform cos 13° cos 28° into a sum (or
difference) of sines or cosines with positive
arguments.
b. Transform sin 5 - sin 8 into a product of
Figure 5-7d sines and cosines with positive arguments.
c. Figure 5-7h shows the graph of
R4. Figure 5-7e shows a sinusoid and a linear
y = 4 sin x sin 11x. Transform the expression
function.
on the right side of this equation into a
y sum (or difference) of sinusoids whose
51-------+------..,+- arguments have positive coefficients. Check
graphically that your answer and the given
equation both agree with Figure 5-7h.
,' X e e
d. Solve 2 sin 3 + 2 sin = 0 algebraically for
,,
_.,__ .,. () E [0°, 360°].
e. Use the sum and product properties to
prove that cos (x + :/f)cos (x - :/f)= cos 2 x - i
-5 1-------+-------+- is an identity.
Figure 5-7e
y
51--------t-------+--------+--------1--------+--
- 51--------t-------1--------+--------1--------+--
Figure 5-7{
242 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
y
5
I\ " A /\ AAA/\flfl I\ A I\ AA
A r fl ~
A ~ A I\ {\
A /\ fl {\ I\ {\
A A X
V VV >T \J V V V
V V V V V
V V V V
V VV
~ \J V V
~ V
VV ~ V V V
-5 ~
Figure 5-lg
Figure 5-lh
R6. Figure 5-7i shows the graph of y = sin 2 3x. e. Suppose that A E (360°, 450 °) and sin A=~: .
a. The function is a sinusoid. Find its equation Find the exact values (no decimals) of
from the graph. Confirm algebraically that cos 2A and cos !AThen calcu late the
your equation is correct by using th e double measure of angle A (no round-off), and find
argument properti es. decimal values of cos 2A an d cos dir ectly. iA
How do th ese values compare with the exact
y values?
f. Prove that the equation
X
sin 2A = 2 tan A cos 2 A is an identity for all
the values wh ere b oth sid es are defined.
What is the domain of this identity?
-1
g. Find an algebraic solution of the equ ation
Figure 5-l i V~(l- cos 8) = 0.5 [0°, 720°]
8 E
by applying the ha lf argument propert ies .
b. Give a numerical coun terexam ple to prove Then find a graphical solution by finding
that cos 2x * 2 cos x. where the left and right members of the
c. Write an equation express ing cos 2x in terms equation intersect. Do the solutions agree?
of cos x alone. Make a table of values to Explain .
demo nstrate that the equation is an ident ity.
d. Write an equation expr ess ing tan 2x in terms
of tan x alone . What restrictions are there on
the domain of x?
Section
5-7:Chapter
Review
andTest 243
Concept Problems
Cl. Exact Value of sin 18° Project: You have learned See if you can extend this pattern to sines of
how to find exact values of functions of other angles.
multiples of 30° and 45 °. By the composite
CZ. A Square Wave Function and Fourier Series
argument property, you found an exact value
Project: Figure 5-7j shows the graph of
of sin 15° by writing it as sin(45° - 30°). In this
problem you will combine trigonometric Y= COS X - i COS 3x
properties with algebraic techniques and some
y
ingenuity to find an exact value of sin 18°. COS X
a. Use the double argument property for sine

to write an equation expressing sin 72° in
terms of sin 36° and cos 36°. X
·..2rr.:
b. Transform the equatio n in part a so that
sin 72° is expressed in terms of sin 18° and
cos 18°. You should find that the sine form
of the double argument property for cos 36° - ,\-cos 3x
works b est . Figure 5-7)

c. Recall by the cofunction property that
sin 72° = cos 18°. Replace sin 72° in your
The smaller sinusoid pulls the larger one
equation from part b with cos 18°. If you
closer to the x-axis at some places and push es
have done everything correctly, cos 18°
it farther away at oth ers. The terms in the
should disappear from the equation, leaving
given equation form this partial sum of a
a cubic (third-degree) equation in sin 18°.
Fourier series:
d. Solve the equation in part c for sin 18°. It
may help to let x = sin 18° and solve for x. Y -- cos x - 31 cos 3x + 5l cos 5x - 71 cos 7x
If you rearrange the equation so that the + 91 cos g x - TI
1
cos llx + ...
right side is 0, you should find that (2x - 1)
The more terms that are added to the partial
is a factor of the left side . You can find the
sum, the more the result looks like a square
other factor by long division or synthetic
wave. For instance, th e graph of the partial
substitution . To find the exact solutions,
sum with 11 terms is shown in Figure 5-7k.
recall the multiplication property of zero
and the quadratic formula. y
e. You should have three solutions for the
equation in part d. Only one of these
solutions is possible. Which solution?
X
f. A pattern shows up for some exact values 2rr
of sine:
.
Sill 15° =- ./6-./2
--
4
Figure 5-7k
sin 18° = -Js- 1 = -Js- .JI
4 4
sin 30° = l_= ~= )4 - Jo

2 4 4
244 Chapter
5: Properties
ofCombined
Sinusoids
Jean-Baptiste-JosephFourier; Electrical generatorscan produce alternating
French mathematician (1768-1830) currents with the square-wavepattern shown
in Figure 5-7 k.
a. Plot the graph of the partial sum with
11 terms and show that it is similar to th e c. Plot the average of the 50-term sum and th e
graph in Figure 5-7k. Find the sum and 51-term sum. How close does the graph
sequence commands tha t will allow you to come to a "square wave"?
write the equ ation without entering all of d. When the square wave is on th e high
the terms. portion of its graph, there is an "axis" about
b . If you plot the partial sum with 12 terms, which it oscillates . Find th e y-value of this
some of the high points and low points in axis. Explain how you found your answ er.
Figure 5-7k are reversed. So, if you average How is the answer related to rr?
the 11-term and the 12-term sums, you get a e. Plot th e 10th partial sum of the Fourier sine
better square- wave patte rn. Do this on your series
grap her. (If you perform some clever .
y = sm . 2
x + 21 sm . 3
x + 31 sm x+···
calculations first, you can find a relatively
easy way to add one term to th e 11-term + / 0 sin lOx
sum that gives the average without having From your graph, figure out why th e result
to compute the 12-term sum.) is called a sawtooth wave pattern.
Chapter Test
PART
1: Nocalculators
(Tl-19) TS. The process of finding the two sinusoids that
have been added or multiplied to form a
Tl. What are the amplitude an d period of the combined graph is called-?-.
sinusoid y = 6 cos x + 7 sin x?
T6. Is tangent an odd or an even function? Write
T2. The graph of y = cos (x - 2) is a sinusoid the odd- even property in algebraic form.
with a ph ase displacement of 2. Given that
cos 2 ""-0.42 and sin 2 ""0.91, write an T7. According to the cofunction property,
equation for y as a linear combination of cos 13° = -?-.
cos x and sin x. T8. The expression cos 9 + cos 5 can be transform ed
T3. What are the amplitude and period of the to 2 cos x cosy . What do x and y equal?
e
sinu soid y = 2 sin cos 8? T9. You can write the doubl e argument property
T4. The graph of y = 5 cos x + sin Bx is periodic x
for cosine in the form cos = 1 - 2 sin 2 ix.
bu t not a sinusoi d. Based on the form of the Show algebraically how you can transform
equation, describe in words what the graph this equation into the half argument property
would look like. for sine.
Section
5-7:Chapter
Review
andTest 245
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
areallowed(Tl0-Tl 9) Use the double argument properties to prove
algebraicall y that your answer is correct .
no. Figure 5-71 shows the graph of the linear
combination of two sinusoids with equal Tl4. Figure 5-7n shows the graphs of two sinusoids
periods, with different periods. On a copy of the figure,
sketch the graph of the sum of these two
y = -4 cos 8 + 3 sin 8
sinusoids. Then write equations for each
Write the equation as a single cosine with a phase sinusoid and plot the result on your grapher.
displacement. Show that the calculated phase How well does the sketch agree with the plot ?
displacement agrees with the graph in the figure.
y
y 10
-------
e
- 10
Figure 5-7 1 Figure 5-1n
Tll . Solve the equation -4 cos 8 + 3 sin 8 = 2 Tl5. Figure 5-70 shows a periodic function whose
algebraically for e E [0°, 720°]. Show that the graph is a product of two sinusoids with
solutions agree with the four shown in unequal periods. Write a particular equation
Figure 5-71. for the function. Confirm your answer by
Tl2 . In Problem T2 you transformed plotting it on your grapher.
y = cos (x - 2) into Tl6. A periodic function has the equation
y = 4 cos x cos llx . Transform the equation
y = cos x cos 2 + sin x sin 2
so that the expression on the right side is a
Plot both graphs on the same screen. Explain sum of two sinusoids . Confirm numerically
in writing how your graphs confirm that the that your equation is correct by making a
two equations are equivalent. table of values.
e
Tl3 . Figure 5-7m shows the graph of y = cos 2 as it Tl 7. Suppose that A is an angle between 0° and 90°
might appear on your grapher. From the graph, and that cos A = g.What does sin (90° - A)
find the equation of this sinusoid. equal? What property can you use to find this
answer quickly?
y
Tl8. For angle A in Problem Tl?, find the exact
e
value (no decimals) of sin 2A and cos !A
Then
find the measure of angle A, and calculate sin
2A and cos fA directly. How do the answers
-l compare?
Tl9 . What did you learn as a result of taking this
Figure 5-1m test that you did not know before?
Figure 5-10
246 Chapter
5: Properties
afCombined
Sinusoids
Triangle Trigonometry 6
Surveyors measure irregularly shaped tracts of land by dividing

them into triangles . To calculate area, side lengths, and angle
measures, they must extend their knowledge of right triangle
trigonometry to include triangles that have no right angle. In this
chapter you'll learn how to do these calculations.
247
The Pythagorean theorem describes how to find the length of the
hypotenuse of a right triangle if you know the lengths of the two
legs . If the angle formed by the two given sides is not a right angle,
you can use the law of cosines (an extension of the Pythagorean
theorem) to find side lengths or angle measures. If two angles
and a side opposite one of the angles or two sides and an angle
opposite one of the sides are given, you can use .the law of sines.
The area can also be calculated from side and angle measures.
These techniques give you a way to analyze vectors, which are
quantities (such as velocity) that have both direction and
magnitude. You will learn about these techniques in four ways.
Graphically Make a scale drawing of the triangle using the given informat ion,
and measure the length of the third side.
Algebraically Law of cosines: b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos B

Area of a triangle: A = !ac sin B
Numerically The length of side b: b = Vl49 2 + 237 2 - 2(149)(237) cos 123°

=341.81 ... ft
The area of the triangle: A= !(237)(149) sin 123 ° = 14807.98 ...
~ 14,808 ft 2
Verbally q~ two sidM of1v trUJ..Jtj/,e,

aJUl~ ilu:iudedAftj/,e,,~ law-ofCl)Sl/1.M
UUv be-U£ed tofaui ~ third side,aJUl~ sw UUv be-U£edtofaui ~
If
area,. aii three-sidMare,3~, ~ law-of ctHl/1.MUUv be-U£ed
i..tvreverse,
tofaui MYAftj1,e,·
248 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
6-1 Introduction to Oblique Triangles
You already know how to find unknown side lengths and angle measures in
right triangles by using trigonometric functions. In this section you'll be
introduced to a way of calculating the same kind of information if none of the
angles of the triangle is a right angle. Such triangles are called oblique triangles.
OBJECTIVEGiven two sides and the included angle of a triangle, find by direct
measurement the third side of the triangle.
1. Figure 6-1 a shows five triangles. Each one has 4. The plot looks like a half-cycle of a sinu soid .
sides of 3 cm and 4 cm. They differ in the size Find the equatio n of the sinusoid that has the
of the angle included be tween the two sides. same low and high points and plot it on the
Measure the sides and angles. Do you agree same screen. Do th e data really seem to follow
with the given measurements in each case? a sinusoidal pattern ?
2. Measure a, the third side of each triangle. Find 5. By the Pythagorean theorem, a 2 = 3 2 + 4 2 if A
the third side if A were 180° and if A were 0°. is go 0 . If A is less than go 0 , side a is less than
Recor d your results in table form. 5, so it seems you must subtract somet hin g
from 32 + 4 2 to get the value of a 2 . See if you
3. Store the data from Problem 2 in lists on your
can find what is subt racted!
grapher. Make a connected plot of the data on
your grapher. 6. What did you learn from this problem set that
you did not know before ?
a a
~
3c m 3c m
60° goo
30°
A 4c m A 4cm A 4cm
A -I cm A
Figure 6-la
Section
6-1:Introduction
toOblique
Triangles 249
6-2 Oblique Triangles : Law of Cosines
In Section 6-1, you measured the third sides of triangles for which two sides
and the included angl e were known. Think of three of the triangles with
included angles 60°, 90°, and 120°.
For the right triangle in the middle, you can find the third side, a, u sing the
Pythagor ean theorem .
a 2 = 32 + 42
For the 60° triangle on the left, the value of a 2 is less than b 2 + c2 . For the
120° triangle on the right, a 2 is greater than b 2 + c2 .
The equation you'll use to find the exact length of the third side from the
measures of two sides and the included angle is called the law of cosin es
(because it involves the cosin e of the ang le). In this section you'll see why the
law of cosines is true and how to use it.
·OBJECTIVES
• Given two sides and the included angle of a triang le, derive an d use th e law of
cosines for finding the third side.
• Given three sides of a triangle, find an angle .
Derivation of the Law of Cosines

Suppose that the lengths of two sides, band c, of l::,.ABC are known, as is the
measure of the inclu ded angle, A (Figure 6-2a, left side) . You must find the
length of the third side, a.
V
C C( u, v)
A
G c B Al
Figur e 6-2a
r=b
C
a
B (c, 0)
u
2 50 Ch
apter 6: TriangleTrigonometry
If you construct a uv-coordinate system with angle A in standard position , as
on the right in Figure 6-2a, then vertices Band C have coordinates B(c , 0) and
C( u, v). By the distance formula,
a 2 = (u - c)2 + (v - 0) 2
.!'.!.= cos A =} u = b cos A

b
~ = sin A =} v = b sin A
b
Substituting these values for u and v and completing the appropriate

algebraic operations gives
a 2 = (u - c) 2 + (v - 0) 2
a 2 = (b cos A - c)2 + (b sin A - 0)2

a 2 = b 2 cos 2 A - 2 be cos A+ c 2 + b 2 sin 2 A Calculate the squar es.
a 2 = b 2 (cos 2 A+ sin 2 A) - 2bc cos A+ c 2 Factor b 2 from the first and

las t terms.
a 2 = b 2 + c2 - 2bccosA Use th e Pythagorean prop erty.
PROPERTY:
TheLawofCosines
In triangle ABC with sides a, b, and c,
a 2 = b 2 + c2 - 2bccosA
side/ + side, 2
- 2 (side,)(side,)( cosine, ofiiuLuded IUCjLe,)
= (third side,)2
Notes :
• If the angle measures go the law of cosines reduces to the Pythagorean
0
,
theorem, because cos go is zero . 0
• If angle A is obtuse, cos A is negative. So you are subtracting a negative

number from b 2 + c 2 , giving the larger value for a 2 , as you found out in
Section 6-1.
• You should not jump to the conclusion that the law of cosines gives an
easy way to prove the Pythagorean theorem . Doing so would involve
circular reasoning, because the Pythagorean theorem (in the form of the
distance formula) was used to deri ve the law of cosines.
Section
6-2: Oblique
Triangle
s:Law
ofCosines 251
• A capital letter is used for the vertex, the angle at that vertex, or the
measure of that angle, whichever is appropriate. If confusion results, you
can use the symbols from geometry, such as mLA for the measure of
angle A
Applications of the Law of Cosines

You can use the law of cosines to calculate either a side or an angle. In each
case, different parts of a triangle are given. Watch for what these "givens" are .
..,_EXAMPLE
1 In !::,,.PMF,M = 127°, p = 15.78 ft, and f = 8.54 ft. Find the measure of third
side, m.
Solution First, sketch the triangle and label the sides and p
angles, as shown in Figure 6-2b. (It does not
need to be accurate, but it must have the right m =?
relationship among sides and angles.)
p = 15.78 ft F
Figure 6-2b
m2 = 8.54 2 + 15.78 2 - 2(8.54)(15.78) cos 127° Use the law of cosines for
sid e m.
m2 = 484.1426 ...
m = 22.0032 ... ""22.0 ft
..,_EXAMPLE
2 In !::,,.XYZ,x = 3 m, y = 7 m, and z = 9 m. Find the measure of the largest
angle.
Solution Make a sketch of the triangle and label z

the sides, as shown in Figure 6-2c.
X= 3~
y Z =9m X
Figur e 6-2c
Recall from geometry that the largest side is opposite the largest angle, in this
case, Z. Use the law of cosines with this angle and the two sides that include it.
9 2 = 72 + 3 2 - 2 . 7 . 3 cos z
81 = 49 + 9 - 42 cos Z
81 - 49 - 9
-42 = cos Z
-0 .5476 ... = cos Z

Z = arccos (-0 .5476 ... ) = cos- 1 (-0.5476 .. ) = 123.2038 ... ,,, 123.2°
252 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
Note that arccos (-0 .5476 ... ) = cos- 1 (-0.5476 ... ) because there is only one
value of an arccosine between 0° and 180°, the range of angles possible in a
triangle .
.... EXAMPLE
3 Suppose that the lengths of the sides in Example 2 had been x = 3 m, y = 7 m,
and z = 11 m. What would the measure of angle Z be in this case?
Solution Write the law of cosines for side z, the

side that is opposite angle Z. z
112 = 72 + 3 2 - 2 . 7 . 3 cos z
121 = 49 + 9 - 42 cos Z
y ~ z., X
121-49-9
z.,2 = X 2 +f 2 - 2Xf Cllf Z
-42 = cos Z
-l.5=cosZ
No such triangle. cos Z must be in the range [- 1, l] . .....
Too short !
The geometrical reason why there is no solution in Example 3 is that no two
xy~ sides of a triangle can add up to less than the third side. Figure 6-2d illustrates
z = 11 this fact. The law of cosines signals this inconsistency algebraically by giving
Figur e 6-2d you a cosine outside the interval [-1, l] .
Problem Set 6-2

01. cos Q = -?-
Reading Analysis t:lfJj 02. tan!=-?-
you consider to be the main idea? How is the law of 03. sin U= -?-
cosines related to the Pythagor ean theorem? What 04. In terms of side u and angle I, what does i
three parts of a triangle should you know in order equal?
to use the law of cosines in its "frontward" form,
and what part can you calculat e using the law? How 05. In terms of sides u and q, what does i equal?
can you use the law of cosines to calculate the 06. In terms of the inverse tangent function, angle
measure of an angle? Q= - ?-.
07. The graph of y = 5 cos 8 + sin 12 8 is periodic
Quick Review with a varying - ?- .
u . In terms of cosines and sines of 53° and 42°,

QB
cos (53° - 42°) = -?-.
Q
L u
Figure 6-2e
I
09. What transformation of y = cos xis expressed
by y= cos 5x?
010. Express sin 2x in terms of sin x and cos x.
Section
6-2: Oblique
Triangles
: LowofCosines 253
For Problems 1-4, find the length of the specified the point where the arcs intersect. Measure
side. angle G. Does the measured value agree
with the calculated value in Problem 6
1. Side r in L.RPM, if p = 4 cm, m = 5 cm, and
within one degr ee , or ±1 °?
R = 51°
14. Fence Problem: Mattie works for a fence
2. Sided in L.CDE, if c = 7 in., e = 9 in ., and
company . She has the job of pricing a fence
D= 34°
to go across a triangular lot at the corner
3. Side r in L.PQR, if p = 3 ft, q = 2 ft, and of Alamo and Heights Streets, as shown in
R = 138° Figure 6-2f. The streets intersect at a 65° angle.
The lot extends 200 ft from the intersection
4. Side k in !::,,.HJK,if h = 8 m, j = 6 m, and
along Alamo and 150 ft from the intersection
K = 172°
along Heights.
For Problems 5-12, find the measure of th e a. How long will the fence be ?
specified angle.
b. How much wiil it cost her company to build
5. Angle Vin !::,.UMP,if u = 2 in., m = 3 in ., and it if fencing costs $3.75 per foot ?
p = 4 in. c. What price should she quote to the customer
6. Angle G in L.MEG, if m = 5 cm, e = 6 cm, and if the company is to mak e a 3 5%profit?
g= 8 cm
7. Angle Tin L.BAT, if b = 6 km, a= 7 km, and He11ghts St.
Fence
t= 12 km 150 ft
,
650
8. Angle £in L.PEG, if p = 12 ft, e = 22 ft, and 200 ft
g = 16 ft 7/ ,::::::::.========
Alamo St.
/
9. Angle Yin L.GYP, if g = 7 yd, y = 5 yd, and Figure 6-2(
p = 13 yd
15. Flight Path Problem: Sam flies a helicopter to
10. Angle Nin !::,.CON,if g = 6 mm, o = 3 mm, and drop supplies to stranded flood victims. He
n= 12 mm will fly from the supply depot, S, to the drop
11. Angle O in L.NOD, if n = 1475 yd, o = 2053 yd, point, P. Then he will return to the helicopter's
and d = 1428 yd base at B, as shown in Figure 6-2g. The drop
point is 15 mi from the supply depot. The base
12. Angle Qin !::,,.SQR,ifs= 1504 cm, q = 2465 cm, is 21 mi from the drop point. It is 33 mi
and r = 1953 cm between the supply depot and the base.
Because the return flight to the base will be
:: made after dark, Sam wants to know in what
::rmr::
direction to fly. What is the angle between the
13. Accurate Drawing Project:
two paths at the drop point?
a. Using computer software such as The
Geometer's Sketchpad, or using ruler and
protractor, construct L.RPM from Problem 1.
Then measure side r. Does the measured
value agree with the calculated value in
Problem 1 within 0.1 cm, or ±0.1 cm?
b . Using Sketchpad, or a ruler, compass, and
protractor, construct L.MEG from Problem 6.
Construct the longest side, 8 cm, first. Then
draw an arc or circle of radius 5 cm from 16. Geometrical Derivation of the Law of Cosines
one endpoint and an arc of radius 6 cm Problem: Open the Law of Cosines Exploration
from th e other endpoint . The third vertex is at www.keymath.com/precalc.
Explain in writing how
254 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometr
this sketch provides a visual verification of the 18. Acute, Right, or Obtuse Problem: The law of
law of cosines . cosines sta tes that in .6.XYZ,
17. Derivation of the Law of Cosines Problem: Figure x2 = y 2 + z 2 - 2yz cos X
6-Zh shows .6.XYZ with angle Zin standard a. Explain how the law of cosines allows you to
position. The sides that include angle Z are
make a quick test to see if angle Xis acute,
4 units and 5 units long. Find the coordinates
right, or obtuse, as shown:
of points X and Yin terms of 4, 5, and angle Z.
Then use the distance formula and appropriate Property: Test for the Size of an
algebra and trigonometr y to show Angle in a Triangle
z2 = 5 2 + 4 2 - 2 · 5 · 4 · cos Z In .6.XYZ:
If x 2 < y 2 + z 2 , th en Xis an acute angle.
If x2 = y 2 + z 2 , then Xis a right angle.
21
[/\ : 5
Figur e 6-2h
y
If x 2 > y 2 + z 2 , then Xis an obtuse angle.
b. Without using your calculator, find whether

angle Xis acute, right, or obtuse if x = 7 cm,
y = 5 cm, and z = 4 cm.
6-3 Area of a Triangle

Recall from earlier math classes that the area of a triangle equals half the
product of the base and the altitude. In this section you'll learn how to find this
area from two side lengths and the included angle measure. This is the same
information you use in the law of cosines to calculate the length of the third side.
OBJECTIVE
Given the measures of two sides and the included angle, find the area of
the triangle.
B Figure 6-3a shows .6.ABC with base band altitud e h.

Area = ! bh From geom etr y, ar ea equal s half b as e times heigh t.
C a
Area= ! b(e sin A) Because sin A = hi c.
A b C Area= ! be sin A
Figur e 6-3a
PROPERTY:
Areaofa Triangle
In .6.ABC,
Area= !be sin A
Verbally: The area of a triangle equals half the product of two of its sides and
the sine of the included angle.
Section
6·3: Area
ofa Triangle 255
.... EXAMPLE
1 In 1:,.ABC,a= 13 in., b = 15 in., and C = 71°. Find the area of the triangle.
Solution Sketch the triangle to be sure you're given two sides and the included angle
(Figure 6-3b).
n cB>a
B
A b = 15 in. C
Figure 6-3b
Area= !(13)( 15) sin 71°

92 .19 in. 2
= 92.1880 ... :::::
.... EXAMPLE
2 Find the area of 1:,.JDHif J = 5 cm, d = 7 cm, and h = 11 cm.
Solution Sketch the triangle to give yourself a picture of H

what has to be done (Figure 6-3c).
J cS ~
D h = 11 cm J
Figure 6-3c
h2 = j 2
+ d2 - 2jd cos H Use the law of cosin es to calcul ate an angle measure.
j 2 + d2 _ h2
cosH = Solve for cos H.
2jd
52 + 72 - 11 2
cos H = ( )( ) = -0.6714 ...
25 7
H = arccos (-0 .6714 ...) = cos - 1 (-0 .6714 ... ) = 132.1774 ... 0
Store without rounding.

Area= f(5)(7) sin 132.1774 ... = 12.9687 ... :::::12.97 cm 2
0
Hero's Formula
Hero of Al exandria
It is possible to find the area of a triangle directly from the lengths of
three sides, as given in Example 2. The method uses Hero's formula,
after Hero of Alexandria, who lived around 100 B.C.
PROPERTY:
Hero's
Formula
In l:,.ABC, the area is given by
Area= v s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)
where sis the serniperimet er (half the perimeter), !(a+ b + c).
256 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometr
.... EXAMPLE
3 Find the area of ,6.JDHin Example 2 using Hero's formula. Confirm that you get
the same answer as in Example 2.
Solution s = !(5 + 7 + 11) = 11.5

Area= v'll.5(11.5 - 5)(11.5 - 7)(11.5 - 11) = Vl68 .1875
= 12.9687 ... ~ 12.97 cm 2 Agrees with Example 2. <1111
Problem Set 6-3

Q9.If angle eis in standard
position, then
Reading Analysis {l{/J horizontal coordinate
. . th e d erm10no
1s f' ·t· f -.-7 .
From what you have read in this section, what do ra dms
you con sider to be the main idea? In what way is the QIO. In
the composite argument properties,
area formula Area = ! be sin A related to the formula cos (x + y) = -?- .
Area = ! (base)(height) that you learned in earlier math
classes ? What formula allows you to calculate the For Problems 1-4, find the area of the indicated
area of a triangle dir ectly, from three given side triangle.
length s?
1. 6.ABC, if a= 5 ft, b = 9 ft, and C = 14°
2. 6.ABC, if b = 8 m, c = 4 m, and A = 6 7°
3. 6.RST, if r= 4.8 cm, t= 3.7 cm, and S= 43°
4. 6.XYZ, if x = 34.19 yd, z = 28.65 yd, and
y = 138°
T
Figure 6-3d For Problems 5-7, use Hero's formula to calculate
the area of the triangle.
5. 6.ABC, if a= 6 cm, b = 9 cm, and c = 11 cm
Ql. State the law of cosines u sing angle R. 6. 6.XYZ, if x = 50 yd, y = 90 yd, and z = 100 yd
Q2. State the law of cosines u sing angle S.
7. 6.D EF, if d = 3.7 in., e = 2.4 in., and f = 4.1 in.
Q3. State the law of cosines using angle T.
8. Comparison of Methods Problem: Reconsider
Q4.Express cos Tin terms of sides r, s, and t. Problems 1 and 7.
Q5. Why do you need only the function, cos- 1 , not a. For 6.ABC in Problem 1, calculate the length
th e relation, arccos, when using the law of of the third side using the law of cosines.
cosines to find an angle ? Store the answer without round-off. Then
find the area using Hero's formula. Do you
Q6. When you multiply two sinusoids with much get the same answer as in Problem 1?
different periods, you get a function with a
b. For 6.DEF in Problem 7, calculate the
varying -?- . measure of angle Dusing the law of cosines.
Ql. What is the first step in proving that a Store the answer without round-off. Then
trigonometric equation is an identity? find the area using the area formula as in
Example 2. Do you get the same answer as
QB.Which trigonometric functions are even
in Problem 7?
functions ?
Section
6·3:Area
ofaTriangle 257
9. Hero's Formula and Impossible Triangles
Problem: Suppose someone tells you that l:,.ABC
has sides a = 5 cm, b = 6 cm, and c = 13 cm. e. To see this triangle vary dynamically, go to
a. Explain why there is no such triangle. www .keymath.com/precalc
and open the Variable
b. Apply Hero's formula to the given Triangle Exploration.
information. How does Hero's formula allow V
you to detect that there is no such triangle?

10. Lot Area Problem: Sean works for a real estate
company. The company has a contract to sell u
the triangular lot at the corner of Alamo and
Heights Streets (Figure 6-3e). The streets
Figure 6-3{
intersect at a 65° angle. The lot extends 200 ft
from the intersection along Alamo and 150 ft
12. Unknown Angle Problem: Suppose you need to
from the intersection along Heights.
construct a triangle with one side 14 cm,
a. Find the area of the lot. another side 11 cm, and a given area.
b . Land in this neighborhood is valued at a. What two possible values of the included
$35,000 per acre . An acre is 43,560 square angle will produce an area 50 cm 2 ?
feet. How much is the lot worth?
b. Show that there is only one possible value of
c. The real estate company will earn a the included angle if the area is 77 cm 2 •
commission of 6% of the sales price. If the
c. Show algebraically that there would be no
lot sells for what it is worth, how much will
possible value of the angle if the area were
the commission be?
100 cm 2 .
13. Comparing Formulas Problem: Demonstrate
Fence numerically that the area formula and Hero's
formula both yield the same results for a
30°-60°-90° triangle with hypotenuse 2 cm.
Can you show it without using decimals?
Figure 6-3e 14. Derivation of the Area Formula Problem:
11. Variable Triangle Problem: Figure 6-3f shows Figure 6-3g shows l:,.XYZ with angle Zin
angle e in standard position in a uv-coordinate standard position. The two sides that include
system. The fixed side of the angle is 3 units angle Z are 4 and 5 units long. Find the altitude
long, and the rotating side is 4 units long. As e h in terms of length 4 and angle Z. Then show
increases, the area of the triangle shown in the that the area of the triangle is given by
figure is a function of e. Area = !(5)(4) sin Z
a. Write the area as a function of e. V
b. Make a table of values of area for each 15° X

from 0° through 180°. I
I
4 I z
c. Is this statement true or false? "The area is 1h
I u
an increasing function of e for all angles
z 5 y
from 0° through 180°." Give evidence to
support your answer. Figure 6-3g
d. Find the domain of e for which this

statement is true: "The area is a sinusoidal
function of 8." Explain why the statement is
false outside this domain .
258 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
6-4 Oblique Triangles: Law of Sines
Because the law of cosines involves all three sides of a triangle, you must
know at least two of the sides to use it. In this sect ion you'll learn the law
of sines , which lets you calculate a side length of a triangle if only one side and
two angles are given.
OBJECTIVEGiven the measure of an angle, the length of the side opposite this angle, and
one other piece of information about a triangle, find the other side lengths
and angle measures .
C Figure 6-4a shows .6.ABC. In the previous section you found that the area is
equa l to ! be sin A. The area is constant no matter which pair of sides and
b a included angle you use .
i be sin A = i ae sin B = i ab sin C Set the areas equal.
A C B be sin A= ae sinB = ab sin C Multipl y by 2.
Fig ure 6-4a
be sin A ae sinB ab sin C
Divide by abc.
abe abe abe
sin A sinB sin C
a b e
This final relationship is called the law of sines . If three nonzero numbers are
equa l, then their reciprocals are equal. So you can write the law of sines in
anot her algebraic form:
a b e
sin A= sinB = sin C
PROPERTY:
TheLawofSines
In .6.A BC,
sin A sinB sin C a b e
-a-= -b- = - e- and sin A = sin B = sin C
Verbally: Within any given triangle, the ratio of the sine of an angle to the
length of the side opposite that angle is constant .
Because of the different combinations of sides an d angles for any given triangle,
it is convenient to revive some terminology from geometry. The acronym SAS
stan ds for "side, angle, side ." This means that as you go around the p erimeter of
the triangle, you are given the length of a side, the measure of an angle, and the
lengt h of a side, in that order . So SASis equivalent to knowing two sides and the
included angle, th e same informatio n that is used in the law of cosines and in
the area formula. Similar meanings are attached to ASA, AAS, SSA,and SSS.
Section
6-4: Oblique
Triangles:
LowofSines 2 59
Given AAS, Find the Other Sides
Example 1 shows you how to calculate two side lengths given the third side and
two angles.
~ EXAMPLE
I In L:i.ABC,B = 64 °, C = 38°, and b = 9 ft. Find the lengths of sides a and c.
Solution First, draw a picture, as in Figure 6-4b .

A
c =? b = 9 ft
64 ° 38°
B a =? C Case : AAS
Figure 6-4b
Becaus e you know the angle opposite side c but not the angle opposite side a,
it's easier to start with finding side c.
C 9
Use the appropriate parts of the law of sines. Put the
sin 38° = sin 64° unknown in the numerator on the left side.
9 sin 38°
C= Multiply both sides by sin 38° to iso late co n the left.
sin 64°
C= 6.1648 ...
To find a by the law of sines, you need the measure of A, the opposite angle .
A= 180° - (38° + 64°) = 78° The sum of th e interior angles in a triangle
is 180°.
a 9 Use th e appropriat e parts of the law of sines
sin 78° sin 64° with a in the numerator.
9 sin 78°
a=
sin 64°
a= 9.7946 ...
.".a"='9 .79ft and C "='6.16 ft
Given ASA, Find the Other Sides

Example 2 shows you how to calcu late side lengths if the given side is included
between the two given angles.
~ EXAMPLE
2 In L:i.ABC,a= 8 m, B = 64°, and C = 38°. Find the lengths of sides band c.
Solution First, draw a picture (Figure 6-4c). The picture reveals that in this case you do
not know the angle opposite the given side . So you calculate this angle first.
From there on, it is a familiar problem, simila r to Example 1.
260 Chapter
6: Triang
leTrigonomet
A
b =?
3g o
C Case: ASA
Figure 6-4c
A= 180° - (38° + 64°) = 78°

b 8
--- -- -- Use the appropri ate parts of the law of sines.
sin 64° sin 78°
8 sin 64°
b= = 7.3509 ...
0
sin 78
C 8
Use the appropriate parts of the law of sines.
sin 38° = sin 78°
8 sin 38°
C = = 5.035 3 ...
0
sin 78
.'. b.,,, 7.35 m and c.,,,5.04m
Law of Sines for Angles

You can use the law of sines to find an unknown angle of a triangle . However,
you must be careful because there are two values of the inverse sine relation
between 0° and 180°, either of which could be the answer. For instance,
arcsin0 .8 = 53.1301. .. or 126.9698 ... both could be angles of a triangl e.
0 0
;
Problem Set 6-4, Problem 11, shows you how to handle this situation.
Problem Set 6-4

02. State the formula for th e area of .6.PAF
Reading Analysis {l!;/j involving angle P.
From what you have read in this section, what do 03. Write two values of e = arcsin 0.5 that lie
you consider to be th e main idea? Based on the between 0° and 180°.
verbal state ment of the law of sines, why is it
nec essary to know at least one angle in the triangle 04. If sin 8 = 0.372 ... , then sin(-8) = -?-.
to use the law? In the solution to Example 1, why is QS.cos ff=
it advisable to put the unknown side length in the
numerator on the left side of the equation? Why can
you be led to an incorrect answer if you try to use
the law of sines to find an angle measure? E. )3
Quick Review 06. A(n) - ?- triangle has no equal sides and no

equal angles .
0 I. State the law of cosines for .6.PAFinvolving
angle P. Ql. A(n) -?- triangle has no right angle .
Section
6-4: Oblique
Triangles:
LawofSines 26 1
C{7 B
bj/ c
A
QB.State the Pythagorean property for cosine b . If cons tru cting the bridge costs $3 70 per
and sine. meter, how much could b e saved by
constructing the shorter bridg e?
Q9. cos 2x = cos (x + x) =-?-in terms of cosines
and sines of x. c. How much could be saved by const ructin g
the sho rtest possible bridge (if that were
QIO. The amplitude of th e sinusoid y = 3 + okay)?
4 cos 5(x - 6) is-? - .
10. Walking Problem: Amos walks 800 ft along th e
sidewalk next to a field. Then he turns at an
1. In /:;.ABC, A= 52°, B = 31°, and a= 8 cm. Find angle of 43° to the sidewalk and heads across (
the lengths of side b and side c. the field (Figure 6-4e). When he stops, he looks
2. In L::;.PQR,P = 13°, Q = 133°, and q = 9 in. Find back at the starting point, finding a 29° angle
th e lengths of side p and side r. betwe en his path across th e field and the
direct route back to th e starting point.
3. In L::;.AHS,A= 27°, H= 109°, and a= 120 yd.
Find the lengths of side h and side s.
4. In /:;.BIG, B = 2°, I= 79°, and b = 20 km. Find
the lengths of side i and side g. How far?
5. In L::;.PAF,P= 28°, f= 6 m, and A= 117°. Find I \ 43 0 Field

<
the lengths of side a and side p. Start 800 ft Turn Sid ewa lk
Figur e 6-4e
6. In /:;.JAW,J = 48°, a= 5 ft, and W = 73°. Find
the lengths of side J and side w. a. How far across the field did Amos walk?
7. In /:;.A LP, A= 85°, p = 30 ft, and L = 87°. Find b. How far does he have to walk to go dir ectly
the lengths of side a and side /. back to the starting point ?
8. In /:;.LOW,L = 2°, o = 500 m, and W= 3°. Find c. Amos walks 5 ft / son th e sidewa lk but only
the lengths of side l and sid e w. 3 ft/s across the field. Which way is quicker
for him to return to the starting point-by
9. Island Bridge Problem: Suppose that you work going directly across the field or by
for a construct ion company that is planning to retracing the original rout e?
build a bridge from the land to a point on an
island in a lake (Figure 6-4d). The only two 11. Law of Sines for Ang les Problem: You can use
places on the land to start the bridge are the law of sines to find an unknown angle
point X and point Y, 1000 m apart. Point X measure, but the (e ·que is risky. Suppose
has better access to the lake but is farther that /:;.ABC ha~de 4 cm, 7 cm, and 10 cm, as
from the island than point Y. To help decide shown in Figme 6-4f.
between X and Y, you need th e precise lengths r
C
of the two possible brid ges. From point X you
measure a 42° angle to the point on the
island, and from point Yyou measure 58°. A
~ 10 cm B
Figure 6-4{
Island ~
. 7 /
'i/ ~\ 0 a. Use the law of cosines to find the measure
Bndge;,' \ Bridge? of angle A
/ \
/ \
'"/ \ 42° 58°/ \ Lake b. Use the answer to part a (don't round off)
X 1-1000 m ---+J YLand and the law of sin es to find the measure of
Figure 6-4d angle C.
c. Find the measure of angle C again, using the
a. How long would each bridg e be? law of cosines and th e given side lengths.
262 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
d. Your answers to part s b and c probabl y do length of the side oppo site the 30° angle. Then
not agree . Show that you can get the correct calculate its length usin g th e law of sines . Your
answ er from your work with the law of sines measured value should be within 0.1 cm, or
in part b by considering the general solution ±0.1 cm, of th e calculated value.
for arcsine.
; :
e. Why is it dangerous to use th e law of sines
to find an angle mea sure but not dangerous 13. Geometrical Derivation of the La w of Sines
to use the law of cosines? Problem: Open the Law of Sines Exploration at
www .keymath.com/precalc
. Explain in writing how
this sketch provides a visual verification of the
law of sines.
12. Ac curat e Drawing Problem: Using computer
software such as The Geometer's Sketchpad, or 14. Derivation of the Law of Sines Problem : Derive
u sing ruler and protractor with pencil and the law of sines algebraically . If you cannot do
paper, construct a trian gle with base 10.0 cm it from memory, consult the text long enough
and bas e angles 40 ° and 30°. Measure the to get started. Then tr y finishing on your own.
6-5 The Ambiguous Case

From one end of a lon g segment, you dr aw an 80-cm segment at a
26° angle. From the other end of the 80-cm segment, you draw a
50-cm segment, completing a triangle. Figure 6-Sa shows the two
poss ible triangles you might create.
~ ~ 26 °
Long segment
26 °
50 cm
Long segment
Figur e 6-Sa
Figure 6-Sb shows why ther e ar e two possible / '

80 cm ,' ', 50 cm
triang les . A 50-cm arc drawn from the upper ' 50 cm '
vertex cuts the long segment in two plac es. Each 26°' ,/' ', , /
point could be the third vertex of the triangle. r\',, _____ , ,,
As you go around the perimeter of the

Two possib le points Starting
triangle in Figure 6-Sb, the given information segme nt
is a side, another side, and an angle (SSA). Figur e 6-Sb
Because ther e are two possibl e triangles that
ha ve these specifications, SSA is called the ambiguou s case.
OBJECT
IVE Given two sides of a triangle and a non -included angle, calculate the possibl e
lengt hs of the third side.
Section
6-5: TheAmbiguou
s Case 263
... EXAMPLE
1 In ,0,.XYZ, x = 50 cm, z = 80 cm, and X= 26°, as in Figure 6-5a. Find the possible
lengths of side y.
Solution Sketch a triangle and label the

y
given sides and angle (Figure 6-5c).
,a8 Qcm/\
y
,a 50 ,m
x6z y=?
y u tlu, wdow=.
~
I foww-tlu,
othertwo ru&, but Mt P.Jtj{e,Y!
X y=? Z
Figur e 6-Sc
Using the law of sines to find y would require several steps. Here is a shorter
method, using the law of cosines.
502 = y 2 + 80 2 - 2 · y · 80 · cos 26° Write the law of cosines for the
known angle, X = 26°.
This is a quadratic equation in the variable y. You can solve it using the
quadratic formula.
y 2 - (160 COS 26°)y + 6400 - 2500 = 0 Make one side equal zero.
y 2 + (-160 COS 26°)y + 3900 = 0 Get the form ay 2 + by+ c = 0.

2
160 cos 26° ± ,/(- 160 cos 26°) - 4 . 1 . 3900
y= 2· 1
- b± .Jb2 - 4ac
Use the quadratic formula: y = .
2a
y = 107.5422 ... or 36.2648 ...
y;::,; 107.5 cm or 36.3 cm
You may be surprised if you use different lengths for side x in Example 1. Figures
6-5d and 6-Se show this side as 90 cm and 30 cm, respectively, instead of 50 cm. In
the first case, there is only one possible triangle. In the second case, there is none.
- 10.98 ... cm
~', [
~ ,'
I
\ 154.78 ... cm , ~
'' ,'' : 30 cm
' ,
, __ J~I M 1sses.
' I
260
;;
Starting segment
Figure 6-Sd Figure 6-Se
The quadratic formula technique of Example 1 detects both of these results. For
30 cm, the discriminant, b 2 - 4ac, equals -1319.5331.. ., meaning there are no
real solutions for the equation and thus no triangle. For 90 cm,
y = 154.7896 ... or -10.9826 ...
Although -10.9826 ... cannot be a side measure of a triangle, it does equal the
displacement (the directed distance) to the point where the arc would cut the
starting segment if this segment were extended in the other direction.
264 Chapter
6: Triang
leTrigonometry
Problem Set 6-5
l. In L.ABC, B = 34°, a= 4 cm, and b = 3 cm.
Reading Analysis {l[;J/ Find c.
From what you have read in this section, what do 2. In .6.XYZ, X = 13°, X = 12 ft, and y = 5 ft .
you consider to be the main idea? Sketch a triangle Find z.
with two given sides and a given non-included angle
that illustrates that there can be two different 3. In .6.ABC, B = 34°, a= 4 cm, and b = 5 cm.
triangles with the same given information . How can Find c.
the law of cosines be applied in the ambiguous case 4. In .6.XYZ, X = 13°, x = 12 ft, and y = 15 ft.
to find both possible length s of the third side with Find z.
the same computation?
5. In .6.ABC, B = 34°, a= 4 cm, and b = 2 cm.
..-----,s Find c.
Quick Review ~,, "'4
6. In .6.XYZ, X = 13°, X = 12 ft, and y = 60 ft.
Problems Ql-Q6 refer to the triangle in Figure 6-5f. Find z.
7. In .6.RST, R = 130°, r = 20 in., and t = 16 in.
Finds .
8. In .6.0BT, O = 170°, o = 19 m, and t = 11 m.
Find b.
Figure 6-Sf 9. Radio Station Problem : Radio station KROK
plans to broadcast rock music to people on the
01. The acronym SAS stands for-?-.
beach near Ocean City (O.C. in Figure 6-5g).
02. Find the length of the third side. Measurements show that Ocean City is 20 mi
from KROK,at an angle 50° north of west.
03. What method did you use in Q2?
KROK's broadcast range is 30 mi.
04. Find the area of this triangle.
05. The largest angle in this triang le is opposite
Ocean
the -?- side.
Land
06. The sum of the angle measures in this triangle
is -?- .
07. Find the amplitude of the sinusoid
r
y = 4 COS X + 3 Sin X. / Figure 6-Sg
QB.The period of the circular function
y = 3 + 7 cos f(x - 1) is a. Use the law of cosines to calculate how far
along the b each to the east of Ocean City
A. 16 B. 8 C. f D. 7 E. 3 people can hear KROK.
09. The value of the inverse circular function b. There are two answers to part a. Show that
x = sin- 1 0.5 is-? -. both answers have meaning in the real world.
c. KROKplans to broadcast only in an angle
010. A value of the inverse circular relation
x = arcsin 0.5 between¥ and 2rr is -? -.
between a line from the station through
Ocean City and a line from the station
through the point on the beach farthest
For Problems 1-8, find the possible lengths of the to the east of Ocean City that people can
indicated side. hear the station . What is the measure of this
angle?
Section
6-5: TheAmbiguous
Cose 265
Ca B
A
f7c
For Problems 10-13, use the law of sines to find the 12. In .LXYZ , X = 58°, x = 9.3 cm, and z = 7.5 cm.
indicated angle measure . You must determine Find Z.
beforehand whether there are two possible angles
13. In .LBIG , B = ll0 °, b = 1000 yd, and g = 900 yd.
or just one.
Find G.
10. In .LABC, A= 19°, a = 25 mi, and C = 30 mi.
14. Six SSA Possibilities Problem: Figure 6-5h shows
Find C.
six possibilities of .LXYZ if angle X and sides x
11. In .LHSC, H= 28°, h = 50 mm, and c = 20 mm. and y are given. For each case, explain the
Find S. relationship among x, y, and the quantity y sinX
a.
Xacut e
zll b. z C. z
!
Y ysinX Xacute
Xacute X Two triangles
No triangl e\ - --- - One triangle
Q
X
d. z e. z f. z
Xobtu se
Xacute
One triangl e No triangle
y X \
y
;
\
/ y
\
\ ' /
X obtu se .
' \ / , One triangl ,/
',,}! z ,' y
X ',,
----
X Z,'
_________
..........
y
Figure 6-Sh
6-6 Vector Addition

Suppose you start at the corner of a room and walk 10 ft at an angle of 70° to
one of the walls (Figure 6-6a). Then you turn 80 ° clockwise and walk another
7 ft. If you had walked straight from the corner to your stopping point, how far
and in what direction would you have walked?
Wall
10 ft
,, "'' Distance'/
Angle?
Wall
Figur e 6-6a
The two motions described are called displacements. They are vector quantities
that have both magnitude (size) and direction (angle). Vector quantities are
represented by directed line segments called vectors. A quantity such as
distance, time, or volume that has no direction is called a scalar quantity.
266 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometr
OBJECTIVEGiven two vectors, add them to find the resultant vector.
End (head) The length of the directed line segment

/ / \ represents the magnitude of the vector
Avec tor /
quantity, and the direction of the segment
Magni tud e
Beginnin g ,: ./ (Length )
represents the vector's direction . An
(tail) \ (Absolut e value ) arrowhead on a vector distinguishes the
Figur e 6-6b end (its head ) from the beginning (its tail),
as shown in Figure 6-6b .
A variable used for a vector has a small
x,
!;I
arrow over the top of it, like this, to
distinguish it from a scalar. The A typhoon's wind speed can reach up
magnitude of the vector is also called its to 150 mi/h.
absolute value and is written lxl.Vectors
ar e equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction. Vectors b, a,
Equal vectors and c in Figure 6-6c are equal vectors, even though they start and end at
Figur e 6-6c different places . So you can translate a vector without changing its value.
DEFINITION:
Vector
A vector, v,is a directed line segment .
The absolute value, or magnitude, of a vector, Iv!,is a scalar quantity equal to
its length.
Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and the
same direction.
IJJll, EXAMPLE
1 You start at the corner of a room and walk as shown in Figure 6-6a. Find the
displacement that results from the two motions.
Solution Draw a diagram showing the two given vectors and the displacement that
re sults, x (Figure 6-6d). They form a triangle with sides 10 ft and 7 ft and
included angle 100° (180° - 80°).
I
I
I
1x1
2
= 102 + 72 - 2(10)(7) cos 100° = 173.3107 ... Use the law of cosines.
lxl= 13.1647 ... Store without rounding

for us e later.
A 72 = 102 + 13.16 ...2 - 2(10)(13.16...) cos A Use the law of cosines

,,' x to find A
102 + 13.16 ... 2 - 72
e cos A=
2(10)(13.16 .. .)
= 0.8519 ...
Figur e 6-6d
A= 31.5770 ... 0
e= 70° - 31.5770 ... 0

= 38.423 ...
0
The vector representing the resultant displacement is approximately 13.2 ft

at an angle of 38.4° to the wall. ....
Sectio
n 6·6: Vector
Addition 26 7
This example leads to the geometrical definition of vector addition. The sum of
two vectors goes from the beginning of the first vector to the end of the second,
representing the resultant displacement. Because of this, the sum of two vectors
is also called the resultant vector.
DEFINITION:
Vector
Addition
a
The sum + b is the vector from the beginning of ato the end of b if the tail
of bis placed at the head of a.
Example 2 shows how to add two vectors that are not yet head-to -tail, using
velocity vectors, for which the magnitude is the scalar speed .
.... EXAMPLE
2 A ship near th e coast is going 9 knots
at an angle of 130° to a current of
4 knots. (A knot, kt, is a nautical mile per
hour, slightly more than a regular mile
per hour.) What is the ship's resultant
velocity with respect to the current?
Solution Draw a diagram showing two vectors

9 and 4 units long, tail-to-tail, making an
angle of 130° with each other, as shown
4 kt Tran slate head-to -tail.
- --- - - ->- in Figure 6-6e. Translate one of the
,'500 ~
I
I
vectors so that the two vectors are head-to-tail. Draw the resultant vector, v,
I
\ Res ult ant , v
~
from the beginning (tail) of th e first to the end (head) of the second.
I
9 kt In its new position, th e 4-kt vector is parallel to its original position. The
A\
,,-,_-,,e 9-kt vector is a transversa l cutting two parallel lines. So the angle between the
\
vectors forming the triangle shown in Figure 6-6e is the supplement of the given
4 kt
130° 130° angle, namely, 50°. From here on the problem is like Example 1. See if you
Figur e 6-6e can get these answers.
lvl= 7.1217 .. .
A= 25.48 38 ...0
e= 130° - 25.48 38 ... 0
= 104.4161.. .
0
.·. v ~ 7.1 kt at 104.4° to the current
Vector Addition by Components

Suppose that an airplane is climbing with a
horizontal velocity of 300 mi/ hand a vertical
velocit y of 170 mi/ h (Figure 6-6f). Let 7 and J be
unit vecto rs in the horizontal and vertical
directions, respectively . This means that each
vector has magnit ud e 1 mi/h .
268 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigon
ometry
y, vertical speed
Vertical
velocity
compone nt
---- - - -- -- ---- -- -'
l~
170}
I
: Horizont al
: velocity
/com ponent
300 / I
x, horizontal speed
Fig ur e 6-6(
You can write the resultant velocity vector, v,as the sum
v = 3007 + 170]
The 3007 and 170] ar e called th e hori zontal and verti cal comp onents of A v.
pro duct of a scalar, 300, and th e unit vector 7 is a vector in th e same dir ection
as th e unit vector but 300 times as long.
~ EXAMPLE
3 Vector a ha s magnitud e 3 and direction 143° from th e hori zontal (Figure 6-6g).
Resolve a into hori zontal and vertical compon ent s.
(x, y)
r--------- - ---
1 yj
I
: a
3 143°
xi
Figure 6-6g
Solution Let (x, y) b e th e point at th e head of a.By th e definition s of cosine and sine,
X . 143°
y = Slil
3 = cos 143° and 3
.". X = 3 COS143° = - 2.395 9 ... and y= 3 sinl43 ° = 1.8054 ...
.-.a "' -2 .3967 + 1.8osJ
Note that multiplyin g a vector by a negativ e numb er, su ch as -2 .396 7 in
Exampl e 3, gives a vector that points in th e opposit e dire ction. From Example 3
you can reach this conclusion.
PROPERTY:
Components
of a Vector
If v is a vector in the direction e in standard position , then
-+ -t -t
V = XI + YJ
where X= lvlCOS8 and Y= lvl Sin 8.
Sectio
n6-6: Vector
Addition 269
Components make it easy to add two vectors. As shown in Figure 6-6h, if r
is the resultant of a and b, then the components of rare the sums of the
components of a and b. Because the two horizontal components have the same
direction, you can add them simply by adding their coefficients. The same is
true for the vertica l compone nt s.
'J.. I bl sin 25° )

:/
I
I
----~ ~ ~
: I b l cos 25° i
Figure 6-6h
~ EXAMPLE
4 Vector a has magnitude 5 at 70°, and vector b has magnitude 6 at 25°
(Figure 6-6h). Find the resultant, as r,
a. The sum of two components
b . A magnitud e and a direction angle
Solution a. r =a+ b
= (5 cos 70°)7 + (5 sin 70°)] + (6 cos 25°)7 + (6 sin25 °)j
Write th e compon ents .
= (5 cos 70° + 6 COS 25°)/ + (5 sin 70° + 6 sin 25°)] Combin e like terms.
= 7.1479 ...7 + 7.2341. ..]

~ 7.157 + 7.23] Round the final answer.
b. 1;1= .J(1.1479 ...)2 + (7.2341...) 2 = 10.1698 .. . By th e Pytha gore an theorem.
7.2341 ...
e = arctan 7.1479 ...
0 0
= 45.3435 ... + 180n = 45.3435 ...
0
Pick n = 0.
...r ~ 10.17 at 45.34° Round the final answer. <11111
oo Navigation Problems
North
A bearing, an angle measured clockwise
Bearing
West = 250 ° East
from north, is used universally by
270° goo navigators for a velocity or a displacement
vector. Figure 6-6i shows a bearing of 250°.
These sailors continue the tradition of one of

South the first seafaring people. Pacific Islanders read
180° the waves and clouds to determine currents
Figure 6-6i and predict weather.
270 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
~ EXAMPLE
5 Victoria walks 90 m due south (bearing 180°), then North
turns and walks 40 m more along a bearing of 250°
180°
(Figure 6-6j).
a. Find her resultant displacement vector from the
starting point.
b. What is the starting point's bearing from the
pla ce where Victoria stops?
Solution r,
a. The resultant vector, goes from the beginning
of the first vector to the end of the second.
Angle exis an angle in the resulting triangle.
()( = 360° - 2 50° = ll0 ° Figure 6-6}
lrl2 2
= 90 + 40 2
- 2(90)(40) cos ll0 ° = 12162.5450 ...
Use th e law of cosines.
lrl = 110.28 39 ... Store without rounding .

To find the bearing, first calculat e the measure of angle {3in th e resulting
triangle.
_ 90 2 + (110 .2839 ... )2 - 40 2 _
cos /3- - 0.9401... Use the law of cosines.
2(90)(110.2839 ... )
{3 = 19.9272 ... 0
Bearing= 180° + 19.9272 .. .0 = 199.9272 ... 0 See Figure 6-6j.
:. r"" 110.3 mat a bearing of 199.9 °

b. The bearing from the ending point to th e starting point is th e opposite of
the bearing from th e starting point to the endin g point. To find the
opposi te, add 180° to the original bearin g.
Bearing= 199.9272 ... + 180° = 379 .9272 ...
0 0
Because this bearing is greater than 36 0°, find a coterminal angle by

subtra cting 360° .
0
Bearing= 3 79.92 72 ... "" 19.9°
Problem Set 6-6
Reading Analysis tzg}

you consider to be the main idea ? What is the
differ ence between a vector quantity and a scalar A. l B. 0 C. - 1 D.2
1 E. .fi
2
quanti ty? What is the difference between a vector
and a vector qu antity ? What is mea nt by the unit
Q2. tan~=
vectors 7 and J, an d how can th ey be us ed to write
the components of a vector in an xy-coordinat e A. 1 B. 0 C. -1 D.2
1 E. ./3
2
system?
Section
6-6: Vector
Addition 271
Q3.In 6.FED, the law of cosines states that 5. Displacement Vector Problem: Lucy walks on a
f2 = -? - . bearing of 90° (due east) for 100 m and then
Q4. A triangle has sides 5 ft and 8 ft and included
on a bearing of 180° (due south) for 180 m.
angle 30°. What is the area of the triangle? a. What is her bearing from the starting point?
QS.For 6.MNO, sinM= 0.12, sinN= 0.3, and b. What is the starting point's bearing from
side m = 24 cm. How long is side n? where she stops?
c. How far along the bearing in part b must Lucy
Q6. Finding equations of two sinusoids that are walk to go directly back to the starting point?
combined to form a graph is called-?- .
6. Swimming Problem: Suppose that you swim
Ql. If sine = -&and angle e is in Quadrant II, what across a stream that has a 5-km/h current.
is cos 8?
QB.If e = csc 1 (1;),then 8 = sin- 1 (-? - ).
09. The equation y = 3 · 5x represents a particular
-?- function.
Q10. What transformation is applied to f(x) to get
g(x) = f(3x)?
For Problems 1-3, translate

one vector so that the two
a
vectors are head-to-tail, and
then use appropriate triangle
a. Find your actual velocity vector if you swim
trigonometry to find la+ 61 perpendicular to the curr ent at 3 km/ h.
and the angle the resultant
vector makes with a Figur e 6-6k b. Find your speed through the water if you
(Figure 6-6k). swim perpendicular to the current but your
resultant velocity makes an angle of 34 °
1. laJ= 7 cm, lbl= 11 cm, and e = 73° with the direction you are heading.
2. 1a1= 8 ft, lbl= 2 ft, and e = 41 ° c. If you swim 3 km / h, can you make it
straight across the stream? Explain.
3. 1a1= 9 in., lbl= 20 in., and e = 163°
For Problems 7-10, resolve the vector into horizontal
4. Velocity Problem: A plane flying with an air speed
and vertical components .
of 400 rni/ h crosses the jet stream, which is
blowing at 150 rni/ h. The angle between the two 7.
velocity vectors is 42° (Figure 6-61).The plane's
actual velocity with respect to the ground is the
vector sum of these two velocities.
Plane's air 8.
velocity
Figure 6-61
a. What is the actual ground speed? Why is it

less than 400 rni/ h + 150 rni/ h?
v
b. What ang le does the plane's ground velocity
vector make with its 400-rni/ h air velocity
vector?
272 Chapte
r 6: Triangle
Trigonometr
9. v 17. Spaceship Problem: A spaceship is moving
in the plane of the Sun, the Moon, and
Earth. It is being acted upon by three forces
(Figure 6-6m). The Sun pulls with a force of
90 newtons at 40°. The Moon pulls with a
force of 50 newtons at l10 °. Earth pulls with
a force of 70 newtons at 230 °. What is the
resultant force as a sum of two components?
What is the magnitude of this force? In what
direction will the spaceship move as a result
10. of these forces?
Sun
Moon 90
Earth
11. If r = 21 units at 70° ands = 40 units at 120°,
find r s + Figure 6-6m
a. As a sum of two components -+ -+ -+
Problems 18-22 refer to vectors a, b, and c in
b. As a magnitude and direction Figure 6-6n.
12. If i1= 12 units at 60° and v = 8 units at 310°,
find i1 + v
a. As a sum of two components
b. As a magnitude and direction
b _______3
13. A ship sails 50 mi on a bearing of 20° and then
turns and sails 30 mi on a bearing of 80°. Find
the resultant displacemen t vector as a distance -4
and a bearing.
14. A plane flies 30 mi on a bearing of 200 ° and
then turns and flies 40 mi on a bearing of 10°.
Find the resultant displac ement vector as a
-7 --- - -- -- - -
distance and a bearing. c
15. A plane flies 200 mi/ hon a bearing of 320 °. Figure 6-6n
The air is moving with a wind speed of
60 mi/ hon a bearing of 190°. Find the 18. Commutativity Problem:
plane's resultant velocity vector (speed and a. On graph paper, plot a + b by translating b
bearing) by adding these two velocity vectors. so that its tail is at the head of a.
-+ -+
16. A scuba diver swims 100 ft/ min on a bearing b. On the same axes, plot b + a by translating
of 170°. The water is moving with a current of a so that its tail is at the head of b.
30 ft/ min on a bearing of ll 5°. Find the diver's c. How does your figure show that vector
resultant velocity (speed and bearing) by addition is commutative?
addin g thes e two velocity vectors .
Section
6-6: Vector
Addition 273
Ca B
f 7c
A
19. Associativity Problem: Show that vector und er addition? Why is the existence of the
addition is associative by plotting on graph zero vector necessary to ensure closure?
paper (a+ b)+ c and a + (b+ c).
22. Closur e Under Multiplication by a Scalar
20. Zero Vector Problem: Plot on graph paper the Problem: How can you conclude that the set of
sum a+ (-a).What is th e magnitude of the vectors is closed under multiplication by a
resultant vector? Can you assign a direction scalar? Is the existence of the zero vector
to the resultant vector? Why is the resultant ne cess ary to ensure closure in this case?
called the zero vector?
23. Look up the origin of the word scalar. Tell the
21. Closure Under Addition Problem: How can you source of your information.
conclude that the set of vectors is closed
6-7 Real-World Triangle Proble m s

Previously in this chapter you encounter ed some real-world triangle problems in
connection with learning the law of cosines, the law of sines, the area formula,
and Hero's formula . You were able to tell which technique to use by the section
of the chapter in which the probl em appeared. In this section you will encounter
such problems without havin g thos e external clues.
OBJECTIVEGiven a real -world problem , identify a triangle, and use the appropriate
technique to calculate unknown side lengths and angle measures .
To accomplish this objective, it helps to formulate some conclusions about

which m ethod is appropriate for a given set of information. Some of these
conclusions are contained in this box .
PROCEDURES:
Triangle
Techniques
Law of Cosines
• Usually you use it to find the third side from two sides and the inclu ded
angle (SAS).
• You can also use it in reverse to find an angle if you know three
sides (SSS).
• You can us e it to find both lengths of the third side in the ambiguous
SSA case .
• You can't use it if you know only one side because it involves all
Surveying instrum ent three sides.
(continued)
274 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
Procedures: Triangle Techniques, continued
Law of Sines
• Usually you use it to find a side when you know an angle, the opposit e
side, and another angle (ASAor AAS).
• You can also use it to find an angle, but there are two values of the
arcsine between 0° and 180° that could be the answer.
• You can't use it for the SSS case because you must know at least one
angle.
• You can't use it for the SAS case because the side oppo site the angle is
unknown.
Area Formula
• You can use it to find the area from two sides and the included angle (SAS).
Hero's Formula
• You can use it to find the area from three sides (SSS).
Problem Set 6-7

QB.cos
Reading Analysis LE} TT=
C. -1
./3
A. 1 B. 0 E. 2
you con sider to be th e main idea? Und er what Q9. By th e composite argum ent prop erti es,
conditi on could you not use the law of cosines for a sin( A - B) = -?- .
trian gle probl em? Und er what conditions could you
not u se th e law of sines for a triang le probl em? In Q10. What is the pha se displ acement for
each case tell why you couldn 't. y = 7 + 6 cos 5(11+ 3 7°) with respect to th e
par ent cosine fun ction ?
Quick Review
1. Mountain Heig ht Problem: A sur veying crew
ha s th e job of measurin g the height of a
mountain (Figure 6-7a). From a point on level
ground th ey measur e an angle of elevation of
02. For .6.ABC, write th e law of sines involving
21.6° to th e top of th e mountain. They move
angles A and C.
507 m closer horizontall y and find that th e
Q3.For .6.ABC, write th e area formul a involving angle of elevation is now 35.8°. How high is th e
angle A mountain? (You might have to calculat e som e
oth er information alon g the way!)
Q4. Sketch .6.XYZ, given x, y, and angle X , showing
how you can dr aw two p ossible trian gles.
__-;:" :
, ,
QS.Draw a sketch showing a vector sum. ,,
I
I
, : Height
Q6. Draw a sketch showin g the components of v. ,
,, , 3 5.8°
-+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ --- - -21.6°
Ql. Wri te a + b if a = 4 i + 7j and b = -6 i + BJ. -~~---~~~
f-- so7m-l
- - - - - - _ 1_ - - - - - - - - - -
Figur e 6-7a
Section
6·7: Real
-World
Triangle
Problem
s 275
2. Studio Problem: A contractor plans to build 4. Pumpkin Sale Problem: Scorpion Gulch Shelter
an artist's studio with a roof that slopes is having a pumpkin sale for Halloween. The
differentl y on the two sides (Figure 6-7b). On pumpkins will be displa yed on a triangular
one side, the roof makes an angle of 33° with region in the parking lot, with sides 40 ft,
the horizontal. On the other side, which has a 70 ft, and 100 ft. Each pumpkin takes about
window, the roof makes an angle of 65° with 3 ft 2 of space.
the horizontal. The walls of the studio are
plann ed to be 22 ft apart.
Roof
33°
22 ft
Wall Wall
Figure 6-?b
a. Calculat e the lengths of the two part s of the

roof. a. About how many pumpkins can th e shelt er
b. How man y square feet will need to be display?
p ainted for each triangular end of the roof? b. Find the measure of the middle-si ze angle.
3. Detour Problem: Suppose that you are the 5. Underwater Research Lab Problem: A ship is
pilot of an airliner. You find it necessary to sailing on a path that will take it directly over
detour around a group of thundershowers, as an occupied resea rch lab on the ocean floor.
shown in Figure 6-7c. You turn your plane at Initially, the lab is 1000 yd from the ship on a
an angle of 21° to your original path, fly for a line that makes an angle of 6° with the surface
while, turn, and then rejoin your original path (Figure 6-7d). When the ship's slant distance
at an angle of 35°, 70 km from where you left it. has decreased to 400 yd, the ship can contact
----:::3---
21° ~
Figur e 6-?c
35°
-r~ people in the lab by und erwa ter telephon e. Find
the two distance s from the starting point at
which the ship is at a slant distance of 400 yd
from the lab.
Water surfac e
a. How much farther did you have to fly Underwater

400 yd r
Startin g
becaus e of the detour ? res ear ch lab point
Ocean floor""..
Fig ur e 6-?d
6. Truss Probl em: A builder has specifications for

a triangular truss to hold up a roof. The
horizontal side of the triangle will be 30 ft
long. An angle at one end of thi s side will be
50°. The side to be constructed at th e other
end will b e 20 ft long. Use the law of sines to
find the angle measure opposite the 30-ft side.
b. What is the area of th e region enclo sed by How do you interpr et th e result s?
th e triangle?
276 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
7. Rocket Problem: An observer 2 km from the 9. Airplane Velocity Problem : A plane is flying
launchpad observes a rocket ascending through the air at a speed of 500 km/ h. At
vertically. At one instant, the angle of elevation the same time, the air is moving 40 km/ h
is 21°. Five seconds later, the angle has with respect to the ground at an angle of 23°
increased to 35°. with the plane's path . The plane's ground
speed is the magnitude of the vector sum of
the plane's air velocity and the wind velocity.
Find the plane's ground speed if it is flying
a. Against the wind
b. With the wind
10. Airplane Lift Problem: When an airplane is in
flight, the air pressure creates a force vector,
called the lift, that is perpendicular to the
wings. When the plane banks for a turn, this
lift vector may be resolved into horizontal and
vertical components. The vertical component
has magnitude equal to the plane's weight (this
is what holds the plane up). The horizontal
Space shutt le on laun chpad at component is a centripetal force that makes
Cape Kennedy, Florida
the plane go on its curved path. Suppose that
a. How far did the rocket travel during the a jet plane weighing 500,000 lb banks at an
angle e (Figure 6-?f).
5-s interval?
b. What was its average spee d during this a. Make a table of magnitudes of lift and
interval? horizontal component for each 5° from 0°
through 30°.
c. If the rocket keeps going vertically at the
same average speed, what will be the angle b. Based on your table in part a, why can a
of elevation 15 s after the first sighting? plane turn in a small er circle when it banks
at a greater angle?
8. Grand Piano Problem: The lid on a grand piano c. Why does a plane fly straight when it is not
is held open by a 28-in. prop . The base of the banking ?
prop is 55 in. from the lid's hinges, as shown
in Figure 6-7e. At what possible distances d. If the maximum lift the wings can sustain is
along the lid could you place the end of the 600,000 lb, what is the maximum angle at
prop so that the lid makes a 26° angle with which the plane can bank?
th e piano? e. What two things might happen if the plane
tried to bank at an angle greater than in
part d?
-4 \
/ / 2sin\){'.2s
in. Horizon~al
compo nent ,
'>:i
' Lid ' II I

Prop \ \
.
Hmges ·l"'-r--'-----------.
55in. ,, Verti cal
compon ent
Figure 6-1{
11. Canal Barge Problem: In the past, it was

Figure 6-7e
common to pull a barge with tow ropes on
Section
6-7: Real-World
Triangle
Problems 277
opposite sides of a canal (Figure 6-7g). Assume velocity would account for the observed
that one person exerts a forc e of 50 lb at an ground velocity?
angle of 20° with the direction of the canal.
14. Space Station Problem: Ivan is in a space
The other person pulls at an angle of 15° with
station orbiting Earth. He has the job of
respect to the canal with just enough force
observing the motion of two communications
so that the resultant vector is directly along
satellites.
the canal. Find the force, in pounds, with
which the second person must pull and the a. As Ivan approaches the two satellites, he
magnitude of the resultant force vector. finds that one of them is 8 km away, the
other is 11 km away, and the angle between
the two (with Ivan at the vertex) is 120°.
How far apart are the satellites?
b. A few minutes later, Satellite No. 1 is 5 km
from Ivan and Satellite No. 2 is 7 km from
Ivan. At this time, the two satellites are 10 km
apart. At which of the three space vehicles
does the largest angle of the resulting
Figure 6-lg triangle occur? What is th e measure of this
angle? What is the area of the triangle?
12. Ship's Velocity Problem: A ship is sailing c. Several orbits later, only Satellite No. 1 is
through the water in the English Chann el with visible, while Satellite No. 2 is near the
velocity 22 knots, as shown in Figure 6-7h. The opposite side of Earth (Figure 6-7i). Ivan
current has velocity 5 knots on a bearing of determines that angle A is 3 7. 7°, angle Bis
213°. The actual velocity of the ship is the 113°, and the distance between him and
vector sum of the ship's velocity and the Satellite No. 1 is 4362 km. Correct to the
current's velocity. Find the ship's actual nearest kilometer, how far apart are Ivan
velocity. and Satellite No. 2?
North
NO. 2 I
Earth
'I
Ivan
\ ?/ A
'f',<;,
x:,'1-
t>,">
No. l
Figure 6-l i
The International
Space Station is
a joint project of
Figure 6-7h the United States,
the Russian
13. Wind Velocity Problem: A navigator on an Federation, Japan,
airplane knows that the plane's velocity the European Union,
Canada, and Brazil.
through the air is 2 50 km / h on a bearing of Construction began
2 3 7°. By observing the motion of the plane's in 1998 and
shadow across the ground, she finds to her continues today
surprise that the plane's ground speed is only through the efforts
52 km / h and that its direction is along a of astronauts who
live aboard the
bearing of 15°. She realizes that the ground station for many
velocity is the vector sum of the plane's months at a tim e.
velocity and the wind velocity. What wind
278 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
15. Visibility Problem: Suppose that you are aboard a. What is the measure of the largest angle of
a plane destined for Hawaii. The pilot the triangle?
announces that your altitude is 10 km. You b. What is the area of the field?
decide to calculate how far away the horizon
is. You draw a sketch as in Figure 6-7j and 18. Surveying Problem 2: A field has the shap e of
realize that you must calculate an arc length. a quadrilateral that is not a rectangle. Three
You recall from geography that the radius of sides measure 50 m, 60 m, and 70 m, and two
Earth is about 6400 km. How far away is the angles measure 127° and 132° (Figure 6-71).
horizon along Earth's curved surface? 60m
Surprising? SOm ?Om
127° 132°
Figure 6-11
a. By dividing the quadrilateral into two

triangles, find its area. You may have to find
the measures of some sides and angles first.
b . Find the length of the fourth side .
c. Find the measures of the other two angles.
Figure 6-lj
16. Hinged Rulers Problem : Figure 6-7k shows a

meters tick (100-cm ruler) with a 60-cm ruler
attached to one end by a hinge. The other ends
of both rulers rest on a horizontal surface. The
hinge is pulled upward so that the meterstick
e
makes an angle with the surface.
Hinge
19. Surveying Problem 3: Surveyors find the area of

----- How long?-- --~ an irregularly shaped tract of land by taking
"field notes." These notes consist of the length
Figure 6-lk
of each side and information for finding each
a. Find the two possible distances between the angle measure. For this problem, starting at one
ruler ends if e = 20°. vertex, the tract is divided into triangles. For the
first triangle, two sides and the included angle
b. Show that there is no possible triangle if are known (Figure 6-7m), so you can calculate its
e = 50°. area. To calculate the area of the next triangle,
c. Find the value of e that gives just one you must recognize that one of its sides is also
possible distance between the ends . the third side of the first triangle and that one of
17. Surveying Problem 1: A surveyor measures the its angles is an angle of the polygon (147° in
three sides of a triangular field and gets Figure 6-7m) minus an angle of the first triangle.
lengths 114 m, 165 m, and 257 m. By calculating the measures of this side and
angle and using the next side of the polygon
Section
6·7: Real-World
Triangle
Problems 279
(15 min Figure 6-7m), you can calculate the input should be the measures of the sides
area of the second triangle . The areas of the and angles of the polygon. The output
remaining triangles are calculated in the same should be the area of the tract.
manner. The area of the tract is the sum of the b. Use your program to calculate the area
areas of the triangles. of the tract in Figure 6-7m. If you get
22 m
approximately 1029.69 m 2 , you can assume
that your program is working correctly.
c. Show that the last side of the polygon is
30.6817 m long, which is close to the
measured value, 31 m.
d. The polygon in Figure 6-7m is a convex
polygon because none of the angles
Figure 6-7m measures more than 180°. Explain why your
program might give wrong answers if the
a. Write a program for calculating the area of a polygon were not convex.
tract using the technique described. The

In this chapter you returned to the analysis of triangles started in Chapter 2.
You expanded your knowledge of trigonometry to include oblique triangles as
well as right triangles. You learned techniques to find side lengths and angle
measures for various sets of given information. These techniques are useful for
real-world problems, including analyzing vectors.
Review Problems
RO. Update your journal with things you learned in c. If fJ = 90°, you can calculate the length of the
this chapter. Include topics such as th e law of dashed line by means of the Pythagorean
cosines and sines, the area formulas, how theorem. Does your measured length in
th ese are derived, and when it is appropriate part a agree with this calculated length?
to use them. Also include how triangle d. If y is the length of the dashed line, the law
trigonometry is applied to vectors. of cosines states that
Rl. Figure 6-Sa shows triangles with sides 4 cm y = ..)52 + 4 2 - 2 . 5 . 4 · cos e
and 5 cm, with a varying included angle e.The
length of the third side (dashed) is a function Plot the data from parts a and b and this
of angle fJ. The five values of fJ shown are 30°, equation for yon the same screen. Do
60°, 90°, 120°, and 150°. the data seem to fit the law of cosines?
Does the graph seem to be part of a
a. Measure the length of the third side
sinusoid? Explain.
(dashed) for each triangle.
b . How long would the third side be if the R2. a. Make a sketch of a triangle with sides 50 ft
angle were 180°? If it were 0°? and 30 ft and included angle 153°. Find the
length of the third side.
280 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometr
V
0 5
Figure 6-Ba
b. Make a sketch of a triangle with sides 8 m, and angle F? By appropriate geometry, show
5 m, and 11 m. Calculate the measure of the that the area of th e triangle is
largest angle.
Area= !de sin F
c. Suppose you want to construct a triangle
with sides 3 cm, 5 cm, and 10 cm. Explain R4. a. Make a sketch of a triangle with one side
why this is geometrically impossible. Show 6 in., the angle opposite that side equal to
how computation of an angle using the law 39°, and another angle, 48°. Calculate the
of cosines leads to the same conclusion. length of th e side opposite the 48° angle.
d. Sketch l::,,DEF with angle Din stan dard b. Make a sketch of a triangle with one side
position in a uv-coordinate system. Find the 5 m and its two adjacent angles measuring
coordinates of points E and Fin terms of 112° and 38°. Find the length of the longest
sides e and f, and angle D. Use the distance side of the triangle.
formula to prove that you can calculat e c. Make a sketch of a triangle with one side
dusing 7 cm, a second side 5 cm, and the angle
opposite the 5-cm side equal to 31°. Find the
d 2 = e2 + f 2 - 2efcosD
two possible measures of th e angle opposite
R3. a. Make a sketch of a triangle with sides 50 ft the 7-cm side.
and 30 ft and included angle 153°. Find the d. Sketch L::,,DEFand show sides d, e, and f
area of the triangle. Write the area three ways: in terms of
b. Make a sketch of a triangle with sides 8 mi, angle D, in terms of angle E, and in terms of
11 mi, and 15 mi. Find the measure of one angle F. Equate the areas and then perform
angle and then use it to find the area of the calculations to derive the three-part
triangle. Calculate the area again using equation expressing the law of sines .
Hero's formula. Show that the results are
RS. Figure 6-8b shows a triangle with sides 5 cm
the same.
and 8 cm and angles e and ¢, not included by
c. Suppose that two sides of a triangle have th ese sides.
lengths 10 yd and 12 yd and that the area is
40 yd 2 • Find the two possible measures of
the included angle between these two sides.
d. Sketch 1::,,DEFwith sided horizontal. Draw
the altitude from vertex D to side d. What
does this altitude equal in terms of side e Figure 6-Bb
Section
6-8:Chapter
Review
andTest 281
e
a. If = 22°, calculate the two possible values Plane 1 Plan e 2's path
of the length of the third side . \
b. If e = 85°, show algebraically that there is '
''
no possible triangle. \
I
e
c. Calculate the value of for which there is
I
I
I
exactly one possible triangle. Nagoya Tokyo I
I
Airport Airport I
d. If¢= 47°, calculate the one possible length 100 km

I
,'
of the third side of the triangle.
-+ -+
.
Plane 3
/ /
I
I
R6. a. Vectors a and b make a 174° angle when

placed tail-to-tail (Figure 6-8c). The Figur e 6-Sd
magnitudes of the vectors are lcil= 6 and
IBI= 10. Find the magnitude of the resu ltant
vector a + b and the angle this resultant
makes with a when they are placed
tail-to- tail.
10
Figure 6-Sc
b. Suppose that a'= 5/ + 3] and b = 7/ - 6].

Find the resultant vector a + b as sums of
components . Then find the vector again as a
magnitude and an angle in standard position.
130'£' 135"1S ,.... 145"E
c. A ship moves west (bearing of 270°) for
120 mi and then turns and moves on a b . Plane 2 is going to take off from Nagoya
bearing of 130° for another 200 mi . How far is Airport and fly past Tokyo Airport. Its
the ship from its starting point ? What is the path will make an angle e with the line
ship's bearing relative to its starting point? e
between the airports . If = 15°, how far
d. A plane flies through the air at 300 km/h will Plane 2 be from Nagoya Airport when it
on a bearing of 220° . Meanwhile, the air is first comes within range of Tokyo Ground
moving at 60 km / h on a bearing of ll5° . Control? How far from Nagoya Airport is it
Find the plane's resultant ground velocity as when it is last within range? Store both of
a sum of two components, where unit vector these distances in your calculator, without
7 points nort h and J points east. Then find rounding .
the plane's resultant ground speed and the c. Show that if e = 40 °, Plane 2 is never within
bearing on which it is actually moving. range of Tokyo Ground Control.
R7. A irport Prob lem (parts a-f) : Figure 6-8d shows e
d . Calculate the value of for which Plane 2 is
Nagoya Airport and Tokyo Airport 260 km within range of Tokyo Ground Control at
apart. The ground controllers at Tokyo Airport just one po int. How far from Nagoya Airport
monitor planes within a 100-km radius of the is this point? Store the distance in your
airport. calculator, without rounding.
a. Plane 1 is 220 km from Nagoya Airport at an e. Show numerically that the square of the
angle of 32° to the straight line between the distance in part dis exactly equal to the
airports. How far is Plane 1 from Tokyo product of the two distances in part b. What
Airport? Is it really out of range of Tokyo theorem from geometry expresses this
Ground Control, as suggested by Figure 6-8d? resu lt?
282 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
f. Plane 3 (Figure 6-8d) reports that it is being h. What will be the magnitude of the total
forced to land on an island at sea! Nagoya force vector?
Airport and Tokyo Airport report that the i. Explain why the h elicopter can hover over
angles between Plane 3's position and the the same spot by judicious choice of the tilt
line between the airports measure 35° and angle.
27°, respectively. Which airport is Plane 3
closer to? How much closer? Total force
Helicopter Problem (parts g-i): The rotor on a
helicopter creates an upward force vector
(Figure 6-8e). The vertical component of this
force (the lift) balances the weight of the
l.
Lift!
''
''
Thrust
helicopter and keeps it in the air. The

horizontal component (the thrust) makes
the helicopter move forward. Suppose that
the helicopter weighs 3000 lb.
g. At what angle will the helicopter have to tilt
forward to create a thrust of 400 lb? Figure 6-Be
Concept Problems
Cl. Essay Project: Research the contributions of a. Find the measure of angle A in l::,,ABD. Next,
different cultures to trigonometry. Use these calculate the length DB using the sides 6 ft
reso urces or others you might find on the Web and 7 ft shown in Figure 6-8f. Then calculate
or in your local library: Eli Maor, Trigonometric DB directly, using the 250° measure of
Delights (Princeton: Princeton Univers ity Press, angle A Do you get the same answer?
1998); David Blatner, Th e Joy of TT (New York: Explain why or why not.
Walker Publishing Co., 1997). Write an essay b. Calculate the area of L::,,ABDusing th e
about what you have learned. nonreflex angle you calculated in part a.
C2. Reflex Angle Problem: Figure 6-8f shows Then calculate the area of this triang le
quadrilateral ABCD, in which angle A is a dire ctly u sing the 250° measure of angle A.
reflex angle measuring 250°. The resulting Do you get the same answer for the area?
figure is called a nonconvex polygon. Note Explain why or why not.
that the diagonal from vertex B to D lies c. Use the results in part a to find the area of
out s ide the figure. l::,,BCD. Then find the area of quadrilateral
ABCD. Explain how you can find this area
C
directly using the 2 50° measure of angle A
C3. Angle of Elevation Experiment: Construct an
inclinometer that you can use to measure angles
10 ft of elevation. One way to do this is to han g a
piece of wire, such as a straightened paper clip,
from the hole in a protractor, as shown in
Figure 6-8g. Then tap e a straw to the protractor
D so that you can sight a distant object more
Figur e 6-Bf accurately. As you view the top of a building
Section
6-8:Chap
terReview
andTest 283
or tree along the straight edge of the protractor, secant segments, PQ and PR, and th e
gravity holds the paper clip vertical, allowing tan gent segment PS; by varying the radius
you to determine the angle of elevation. Use of the circle and th e angle QPO, see if it is
your apparatus to measure the height of a tree true that
or buildin g using the techniques of this chapter .
PS2 = PQ · PR
b. Using the trigonometric laws and identities
you've learned, prove that the equation in
part a is a true statement.
Protra cto r
Inclinometer
Figure 6-Sg
C4. Euclid's Problem: This problem com es from

Euclid's Elem en ts. Figure 6-8h shows a circle
with a secant line and a tangent line.
a. Sketch a similar figure using a dynamic

geometry program, such as The Geometer's Figure 6-Sh
Sketchpad, and measure the lengths of the
Chapter Test
(T1-T9) T4. Explain why you cannot use the law of cosines
for the triangle in Figure 6-8j.
To answer Tl-T3, refer to Figure 6-8i.
E 13 cm
20 °
Figure 6-8)
D
Figur e 6-Bi T5. Explain why you cannot use the law of sines
for the triangle in Figure 6-8k.
Tl. Write the law of cosines involving angle D.
T2. Write the law of sines (either form).
T3. Write the area formula involving sides d and e.
Figure 6-Bk
284 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometr
T6. Explain why there is no triangle with the side Tl5. Find the area of the triangle in Problem Tl4. Use
lengths given in Figure 6-81. the angle measure you calculated in Problem
Tl3. Store the answer without rounding.
Tl6. Use Hero's formula to calculate the area of
10 cm 7c m your triangle in Problem Tl 4. Does it agree
with your answer to Problem Tl5 ?
Tl7. Figure 6-8n shows a circle ofradius 3 cm.
19 cm
Point Pis 5 cm from the center. From point P, a
Figure 6-81 secant line is drawn at an angle of 26° to the
line connecting the center to P. Use the law of
T7. Explain why you can use the inverse cosine
cosines to calculate the two unknown lengths
function, cos - 1 , when you are finding an angle
labeled a and b in the figure.
of a triangle by the law of cosines but must
use the inverse sine relation, arcsin, when you
are finding an angle of a triangle by the law of
sines.
TB. Sketch the vector sum ii + b (Figure 6-8m).
a
Figure 6-Bm
T9. Sketch vector v = 37 - sJ and its components

in the x- and y-directions.
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
areallowed(110-121) Figur e 6-Bn
TlO. Construct a triangle with sides 7 cm and 5 cm Tl8. Recall that the radius of a circle drawn to the
and an included angle 24°. Measure the point of tangency is perpendicular to the
third side . tangent. Use this fact to calculate the length
Tll. Calculate the length of the third side in of the tangent segment from point Pin
Problem TlO. Does the measurement in Figure 6-8n.
Problem TlO agre e with this calculated value? Tl9. Show numerically that the product of the two
Tl2. Make a sketch of a triangle with base 50 ft and lengths you found in Problem Tl? equals the
base angles 38° and 47°. Calculate the measure square of the tangent length in Problem Tl8.
of the third angle. This geometrical property appears in Euclid's
Elements.
Tl3. Calculate the length of the shortest side of the
triangle in Problem Tl 2. T20. For vector v = 37 - sJ,calculate the
magnitude. Calculate the direction as an
Tl4. Sketch a triangle. Make up lengths for the three angle in standard position.
sides that give a possible triangle. Calculate the
measure of the largest angle. Store the answer T21. What did you learn as a result of taking this
without rounding. test that you did not know before ?
Section
6-8: Chapter
Review
andTest 285
6-9 Cumulative Review, Chapters 1-6
These problems constitute a 2- to 3-hour "rehearsal" Next you studied periodic functions.
for your examination on Chapters 1-6. The course
7. Satellite Problem 1: A satellite is in orbit
began with an introduction to functions.
around Earth . From where you are on Earth's
l. Write the general equation of a quadratic surface, the straight-line distance to the
function. 4 satellite (through Earth, at times) is a periodic
function of time. Sketch a reasonable graph.
2. Name the transformations applied to
function fto get g, if g(x) = 5f(3x) .
3. In Figure 6-9a, name the transformations
applied to function f to get function h. Write an
equation for h(x) in terms of function f.
y
~ ~ · J ... ..
....
/' ,, f .,
I
5
I
I
I
I
(
I
I
I
X
To write equations for periodic functions such

Figure 6-9a
as the one in Problem 7, you generalized the
4. On a copy of Figure 6-9b, sketch the graph of trigonometric functions from geometry by allowing
y= (x). r-l angles to be negative or greater than 180°.
y
8. Sketch a -213° angle in standard position.
Draw the reference triangle and find the
measure of the reference angle.
9. The~ ~ contains the
X point (12, -5) in the uv-coordinate system.
Write the exact values (no decimals) of the
six trigonometric functions of e.
10. Write the exact value (no decimals) of sin 240°.
Figur e 6-9b
\ 11. Draw 180° in standard position. Explain why
cos 180° = -1.
5. If f(-x) = -f(x) for all x in the domain, then f is If e is allowed to take on any real number of
a(n) - ?- function. degrees, the trigonometric functions become
periodic functions of e.
6. Write an equation for g(x) in terms of f(x) that
has all of these features: 12. Sketch the graph of the parent sine function
• A ho i:;izontal dilation...m:_
a factor of 2 y= sine .
• A vertical dilation by a factor of 3 13. What special name is given to the kind of
286
• A horizontal translation by 4 units
• A vertical translation by 5 units ) periodic function you graphed in Problem 12?
Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
Periodic functions such as the one in Problem 7 20 . Write a particular equation for the sinusoid in
have indepen dent variabl es that can be time or Figure 6-9c.
distan ce, not an angle measure. So you learn ed
about circular functions whose independent
?10 th e graph in Problem 20 were plotted on a
wid e-enough domain, predict y for x = 34 2.7.
variable is x, not e. The radian is the link betwe en
trigonom etric functions and circu lar functions. 22. For the sinusoid in Problem 20, find
algebrai cally the first three positive value s
14. How man y radians are in 360°? 180°? 90°? 45°?
Of X if y = 4.
15. How many degrees are in 2 radian ~
23. Show graphica lly that the three valu es you
16. Sketch a gra ph showing the unit circle centered found in Problem 22 are corr ect.
at the origin of a uv-coordinate system. Sketch
an x-axis tangent to the circle, going verticall y
through the point (u, v) = (1, 0). If ttJe-x-.a-xisis
wrap ped around the unit circle, show that th e
point (2, 0) on the x-axis corresponds to angle
measure 2 radians.
a atellite Problem 2: Assume that in Problem 7,
he satellite's distance varies sinusoidally with
ime. Suppose that th e sa tellite is closest,
1000 mi from yo~ at time t = 0 min. Half a
p eriod lat er, at t = SQ.min, it is at its maximum
distance from you, 9000 mi. Write a particular
17. Sketch the graph of the pare nt circular equation for distance, in thousands of miles,
sinusoidal function y = cos x. as a function of time. ~ ~ ~~. ~, ,~,C'{.t 5 o Go
Translation and dilation transformations also apply Radians gave you a convenient way to analy ze th e
to circular func tion sinu soi ds. motion of two or more rotating objects.
18. For y = 3 + 4 cos 5(x + 6), find 25. Figure 6-9d shows a 5-cm-radi u s gear on a
a. The horizontal dilation machine tool driving a 12-cm-radius gear. The
. al dil . design engineers want the smaller gear 's teeth
b . Th e vert 1c at10n . .
to have lmear veloe1ty 120 cm/s.
c. Th e hori zo ntal translation ~h . at will b e th e angu 1ar ve1oCI·ry of th e
d. The vert ical translation : small er gear in ra dians per second? In
19. For sinu soids, list th e spec ial nam es given to volutions per minute ?
a. The horizontal dilatio n 5o tAi i "1b. What will be the lin ear velocity of the larger
b. The vertical dilation · gear's teeth ?
c. At ho w many revolutions per minute will
c. The hori zo ntal translation
th e lar ger gear rotat e?
d. The vert ical translat ion
To us e sinu soids as mathematical models, you
learned to write a particular equation from the
graph .
5
4 "1"''""t'
---- ......-4 ~ ---- -t --+- ...
3
2 Figur e 6-9d
-1
Figure 6-9c
Sectio
n 6-9: Cumulat
ive Review
, Chapter
s 1-6 287
26. Satellite Problem 3: Figure 6-9e shows the 29. Other properties involve functions of a
satellite of Problems 7 and 24 in an orbit with composite argument. Write the composite
radius 5000 mi around Earth. Earth is assumed argument property for cos (x - y). Then
to have radius 4000 mi. As in Problem 24, express this property verbally.
assume that it takes 100 min for the satellite to
30. Show numerically that cos 34° = sin 56°.
make one complete orbit around Earth.
a. What is the satellite's angular velocity in 31. Use the property in Problem 29 to prove that the
radians per minute? equation cos (90° - 8) = sine is an identity. How
does this explain the result in Problem 30?
b. How fast is it going in miles per hour?
c. What interesting connection do you notice The properties can be used to explain why certain
between the angular velocity in part a and combinations of graphs come out the way they do.
the sinusoidal equation in Problem 24? 32. Show that the function
y = 3 cos 8 + 4 sin (}
is a sinusoid by finding algebraically the
amplitude and phase displacement with respect
to y = cos e and writing y as a single sinusoid.
33. The function
y = 12 sin 8 cos (}
is equivalent to the sinusoid y = 6 sin 2 e.Prove
algebraically that this is true by applying the
Figure 6-9e
Next you learned some properties of trigonometric

and circular functions.
- composite argument property to sin 2 e.
34f Write the double argument property
W expressing cos 2x in terms of sin x alone. Use
( ?7. There are three kinds of properties that involve this property to show algebraically that the
C::-just one argument. Write the name of each kind graph of y = sin 2 xis a sinusoid.
of property, and give an examp le of each. Sums and products of sinusoids with different
28. Use the properties in Problem 27 to prove that periods have interesting wave patterns. By using
this equation is an identity. What restrictions harmonic analysis, you can write equations of the
are there on the domain of x?
--
sin2 X
sec 2 x sin 2 x + tan 4 x = --
cos4 x
two sinusoids that were added or multiplied.
35. Find a particular equation for the function in
Figure 6-9f.
36. Find a particular equation for th e function in
Figure 6-9g.
Figure 6-9(
288 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometry
A product of sinusoids with very different periods 42 . The inverse trigonometric function y = cos- 1 x
can be transformed into a sum of sinusoids with is the principal branch of y = arccos x. Define
nearl y equal periods. the domain and range of y = cos- 1 x.
3 7. Transform the function 43. Find the first four positive values of e
if 8 = arctan 2.
y = 2 cos 2oe cos e
Last, you studied triangle problems.
into a sum of two cosine func tions.
44. State the law of cosines.
38. Find the periods of the two sinusoids in the
equation given in Problem 37 and the periods 45. State the law of sines.
of the two sinusoids in the answer . What can
46. State the area formula for a triangle given two
you tell about relative sizes of the periods of
sides and the included angle.
the two sinusoids in the given equation and
about relative sizes of the periods of the 47. If a triangle has sides 6 ft, 7 ft, and 12 ft, find
sinusoids in the answer ? the measure of the largest angle.
Trigonometric and circular functions are periodic, 48. Find the area of the triangle in Problem 47
so ther e are many values of e or x that give the using Hero's formula.
same value of y. Thus, the inverses of these --+ - -+ --+ -+ -+
49. Vector a = -3i + 4j . Vector b = Si + 12j.
functions are not functions.
a. Find the resultant vector a+ bin terms of
39. Find the (one) value of the inverse trigonometric its components.
e
function = tan - 1 5.
b. Find the magnitude and angle in standard
40. Find the general solution of the inverse position of the resultant vector.
trigonometric relation x = arcsin 0.4. c. Sketch a figure to show a and b added
Parametric functions make it possible to plot the geometrically, head -to-tail.
~hs of inverse circular relations . d. Is this true or false? la+bl= lal+lbl.
Explain why your answer is reasonable.
LiJ}use parametric functions to create the gr~
of y = arccos x, as shown in Figure 6-9h. • -- )
y
5
X
X
-5 Figure 6-9h
Figure 6-9g
)
Section
6-9: Cumulative
Review
, Chapters
1-6 289
The triangle properties can be used to show that
periodic functions that look like sinusoids may not
actually be sinusoids.
50. Satellite Problem 4: In Problem 24, you
assumed that the distance between you and I
I
the satellite was a sinusoidal function of time. I

I
' I
In this problem you will get a more accurate ' I
mathematical model.
Figure 6-9i
U
se the fact that it takes 100
he satellite to make one orbit to write the
equation for y as a function of time t.
Assume that angle x = 0 at time t = 0.
c. Plot the equation from part b and the
equation from Problem 24 on the same
screen, thus showing that the functions
have the same high points, low points, and
period but that the equation from part bis
not a sinusoi~
It is important for you to be able to state verbally
the things you have learned.
a. Use the law of cosines and the distances in 51. What do you consider to be the one most
Figure 6-9i to find y as a function of angle important thing you have learned so far as a
x radians. result of studying precalculus?
290 Chapter
6: Triangle
Trigonometr
Propertie s of
Elementary Functions 7
If a mother rat is twice as long as her offspring, then the mother's

weight is about eight times the baby's weight . But the mother rat's
skin area is only about four times the b aby's skin area . So the
bab y rat must eat more than the mother rat in proportion to its
bod y weight to make up for the heat loss through its skin . In this
chapter you'll learn how to use functions to model and explain
situations like this .
291
In this chapter you will extend what you have already learned
about some of the more familiar functions in algebra, as well as
some you may not yet have encountered. These functions are
• Linear • Exponential
• Quadratic • Logarithmic
• Power • Logistic
You will study these functions in four ways.
Algebraically You can define each of these functions algebraically; for example,
the logarithmic function is defined
if and only if
Numerically You can find interesting numerical relationships between the

values of variables x and y. Exponential functions exhibit the
add-multiply property: As a result of adding a constant to x, the
corresponding y-value is multiplied by a constant. ·
Graphically y
- - -------- -- - -- -------- -- -
Logistic function
X.
Time
Verbally Tltb[ll)n,,a:cthe, top,ofeach,paje, u the,3rapivofMv e-xp,on»diaLfwu::twn,,.

Exp,onuitw.ifwtc:tum.£ UUv de£c.rwe, wtrutrai.Jud.,p,o~n,, 3ro~
s~ M t/w± ofra.bbirrifthey~ M rtdura.£~- Lo3uti,cfwtc:twn£
start out like, e-xp,onuitiaLfwu±wM but theK, Lwd offLo3uticfw1.ci:UJM
UU1,, uwdd rutrauted p,o[Udatwn,, 3rowt/i,where-then u a, m,tt,)<,l#UU1{,
swta.iftab/,e,
p,o~n,, m,a, certaitt.,YfjUJn,,.
29 2 Chapter
7: Properti
esofElementary
Functions
7-1 Shapes of Function Graphs
In this chapter you' ll learn ways to find a function to fit a real-world situation
when the type of function has not been given. You will start by refreshing your
memory about graphs of functions you studied in Chapter 1.
OBJECTIVE
Discover p atterns in th e grap h s of linear, quadrat ic, power, and expo nential
functions .
f {x) Figure 7-la shows the plot of points that are f{x)
Concave
values of the exponential function f(x) = 0.2 x 2x. up
i'I
5
Ii,,
You can make such a plot by storing the x-values in
one list and the f(x)-values in another and then
5
f{x)
-intercept ""-
using the statistics plot feature on your grapher .
.l 2 3 4 5
X
Figure 7-1b shows that th e graph of f contains all I 2 3 4 5
X
the points in the plo t. The concave sid e of the

Figure 7-la graph is up . Figure 7-lb
l. Exponential Function Problem: In the 3. Quadratic Fun ction Problem: In the quadratic
exponential function f( x ) = 0.2 x 2X,f(x) could function q(x) = - 0.3x 2 + Bx + 7, q(x ) could
be the number of thousands of bacteria in a measure the approximate sales of a new
culture as a function of time, x, in hours. pro du ct in the xth week since the prod u ct was
Find f(x) for each hour from O through 5. intro du ced . Plot the points for every 5 weeks
Plot the points, and graph the function as from O through 30, and graph function q.
in Figure 7-1b. The number of bacteria is Which way is the concave side of the graph,
increasing as time goes on.):Iaw doesJhe up or down ? What feature does the qu adratic
~yjty af tbe~h tell you that the rate of function graph have that neit h er the
gr~mg ? -~ exponential funct ion graph in Problem 1 nor
the power functio n graph in Problem 2 has?
2. Power Function Problem: In the power function
g(x) = O.lx 3 , g(x) could be the weight in 4. Linear Function Prob lem: In the linear function
pounds of a snake that is x feet long. Plot the h (x) = Sx + 27, h(x) could equal the num ber of
points for each foot from O through 6, cents you pay for a telephone call that is
and graph function g. Because the graphs of f
~
minutes long. Plot the points for every
in Problem 1 and gin Probl em 2 are both minutes from O through 18, and graph
increasing and concave up, what graphical fun ction h. What does the fact that the
evidence could you use to distinguish between grap h is neither concave up nor concave down
the two types of functions? Is the following tell you about the cen ts per minute you pay for
statement true or false? "The snake's weight th e call?
incr eases by the sam e amount for each foot it
increases in length." Give evidence to support
your answer .
Section
7-1: Shapes
ofFunction
Graphs 293
7-2 Identifying Functions from
Graphical Patterns
One way to tell what type of function fits a set of points is by recognizing the
properties of the function's graph.
OBJECTIVEGiven the graph of a function, know whether the function is exponential,

power, quadratic, or linear and find the particular equation algebraicall y.
Here is a brief review of the basic functions used in mod eling. Some of th ese
app eared in Chapter l.
Linear and Constant Func tions

General equation : y = ax + b (often written y = mx + b), where a (or m) and
b stand for constants and th e domain is all real numb ers . This equation is
in th e slope-intercept form because a (or m) gives the slope and b gives
they-intercept. If a = 0, then y = b; this is a constant function.
Parent function : y = x
Transformed function: y = y, + a(x - x1), called the point-slope form
becaus e the graph contains the point (x1 , y 1 ) and ha s slope a. The slope, a,
is th e vertical dilation; y 1 is th e vertical translation; and x1 is the horizontal
translation . Note that point -slop e form can also be written y - y , = a(x - x1 ),
where the coordinates of th e fixed point (x1 , y 1) both appear with a - sign .
The form y = y 1 + a(x - x1) expr esses y explicitl y in terms of x and thus is
easier to enter into your graph er.
Graphical properti es: The graph is a straight line . The parent fun ction is
shown in the left graph of Figure 7-2a, the slope-inter cept form is shown in
th e middl e grap h , and the point -slope form is shown in the right graph .
Verbally: For slope -interc ept form: "Start at b on the y-axis, run x, and rise
ax." For point -slope form: "Start at (x1 , y 1 ), ru n (x - x1), and rise a(x - x1 ) . "
y y y
10 10 /y- inte rcept = 8 10 Point (x, y)
5
Run
Rise
(nega tive)
,,,,
_
"' \Rise
/
Point (x, y)
X X X
10 5 10 10
Pare nt fun ction y= 4 + l(x- 1)
y= X y=-0. 7x +8 3
Figure 7-2a: Lin ear functions
294 Chapter
7: Propert
iesofElemen
taryFunctions
Quadratic Functions
General equation: y = ax 2 + bx+ c, where
a* 0, a, b, and c stand for
constants, and the domain is all real numbers.
Parent function: y = x2 , where the vertex is at the origin.
Transformed function: y = k + a(x - h)2, called the vertex form, with
vertex at (h, k). The value k is the vertical translation, his the horizontal
translation, and a is the vertical dilation. Vertex form can also be written
y - k = a(x - h)2, but expressing y explicitly in terms of x is easier to enter
into your grapher .
The eruption of Arena/, an active
Graphical properties: The graph is a parabola (Greek for "along the path of
volcano in Costa Rica. The lava
particles follow a parabolic path a ball"), as shown in Figure 7-2b. The graph is concave up if a > 0 and
due to gravitational force. concave down if a < 0.
y y
5 5
Parent Vertex (1, 3)
quadrati c /
function
y = >-2 Vertex (1, 3)
X X X
-5 5 -5 -5 5
-5 -5
Figure 7-2b: Quadratic functions
Power Functions
General equation: y = axh, where a and b stand for nonzero constants. If
b > 0, then the domain can be all real numbers. If b < 0, then the domain
excludes x = 0 to avoid division by zero. If b is not an integer, then the
domain excludes negative numbers to avoid roots of negative numbers.
The domain is also restricted to nonnegative numbers in most
applications.
Parent function: y = xb
Verbally: For y = axh, "if b > 0, then y varies directly with th e b power of x,
or y is directly proportional to the b power of x; if b < 0, then y varies
inversely with the b power of x, or y is inversely proportional to the b
power of x." The constant a is the proportionality constant.
Translated function: y = d + a(x - c)h, where c and dare the horizontal and
vertical translation, respectively. Compare the translated form with
y = Yi + a(x - x1 ) for linear functions
y = k + a(x - h)2 for quadratic functions
y = C + A cos B(x - D) for sinusoidal functions
Unless otherwise stated, "power function" will impl y the untranslated form,
y= axh.
Section
7·2: Identifying
Function
s fromGraphica
l Patterns 295
Graphical properties: Figure 7-2c shows power function graphs for different
value s of b. In all three cases, a > 0. The shape and concavity of the graph
depend on the value of b. The graph contains the origin if b > O;it has
the axes as asymptotes if b < 0. The function is increasing if b > O;it is
decreasing if b < 0. The graph is concave up if b > 1 or if b < 0 and concave
down if O < b < 1. The concavity of the graph describes the rate at which y
increases. For b > 0, concave up means y is increasing at an increasing rate,
and concave down means it is increasing at a decreasing rate.
y y y
10 10 Increas ing 10
~ Decreasing
5 5 5
Concave up
~ Concave down
X X X
'- Ongm
. . 5 10 Origin 5 lO 'origin 5 10
Y= 0 .002x 3 y = 2.5x 0 ·6 y = 3x- 1
Exponent greater than 1 Exponent between O and 1 Exponent negative
Figure 7-2c: Power functions
Exponential Functions
General equation: y = ab x, where a and b are constants, a * 0, b > 0, b * 1,
and the domain is all real numbers.
Parent function: y = bx, where the asymptote is the x-axis.
Verbally: In the equation y = ab x, "y varies exponentially with x."
Translated function: y = abx + c, where the asymptote is the line y = c.
Unless otherwise stated, "exponential function" will imply the untranslated
form, y = abx.
Graphical properties: Figure 7-2d shows exponential functions for different
values of a and b. The constant a is the y-intercept. The function is increasing
if b > 1 and decreasing if O < b < 1 (provided a > 0). If a < 0, the opposite is
true. The graph is concave up if a > 0 and concave down if a < 0.
Marie Curie was awarded
the Nobel Prize in y y y
chemistry for the 10
10 Increasi ng 5
discovery of radioactive
elements (polonium and y-int ercep t = value of a
radium) in 1911. The
breakdown of radioactive Concave up / X
elements follows an 5 Decreasing
5 10
exponential function. y-intercept = value of a
Concave up
'-y-intercept = value of a x X
5 10 10
y=2·1.2' y=6·0.7' Y= -3 · l.06 '
Base greater than 1 Base betw een O and 1 Coefficient negative
Figure 7-2d: Exponential functions
296 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Function
Mathematicians usually use one of two particular constants for the base of an
exponential function: either 10, which is the base of tr,e decimal system, or the
naturally occurring number e, which equals 2.78128 ... . To make the equation
more general, multiply the variable in the exponent by a constant. The
(untranslated) general equations are given in the box .
DEFINITION:
Special
Exponential
Functions
y =Q • lQbX base -10 exp onential functi on
y= a . ebx natural (base -e) exponential function
where a and b are constants and the domain is all real numbers.
No te: The equations of these two functions can be generalized by incorporating

translations in the x- and y-directions . You'll get y = a · lQb<x -c ) + d and
y = a . e b(x -c) + d.
Base-e exponential functions have an advantage when you study calculus

because the rate of change of e x is equal to ex.
~ EXAMPLE
1 For the function graphed in Figure 7-Ze,
a. Identify the kind of function it is .
f(x ) b. On what interval or intervals is the function increasing or decreasing?
40 Which way is the graph concave, up or down?
30 c. From your experience, describe something in the real world that a function
20---- (5, 19) with this shape graph could model.
lO
X
d. Find the particular equation of the function, given that points (5, 19) and
-5 5 (10, 6) are on the graph .
Figure 7-2e e. Confirm by plotting that your equation gives the graph in Figure 7-Ze.
Solution a. Because the graph is a straight line, the function is linear .

b. The function is decreasing over its entire domain, and the graph is not
concave in either direction.
c. The function could model anything that decreases at a constant rate. The
Quadrant I part of the function could model the number of pages of
history text you have left to read as a function of the number of minutes
you have been reading.
d. f(x) =ax+ b Write the general equation. Use f(x) as shown
on the graph, and use a for the slop e.
19 = 5a + b Substitute the given values of x and y into the

{ 6 = 10a + b equation of r
-13 = 5a ==} a= -2.6 Subtract the first equat ion from the second
to eliminate b.
Sectio
n7-2:Iden
tifying
Functions
from
Graph
icalPatterns 297
6 = 10(-2.6) + b =} b = 32 Substitute -2 .6 for a in one of the equations .
.'. f(x) = -2 .6x + 32 Write the particular equation.
f(x ) e. Figure 7-2f shows the grap h off, which agrees with the given graph. Note
40 that the calculated slope, -2.6, is negative, which corresponds to the fact
30 that f(x) decreases as x increases. <11111
20
10
X Note that you could have solved the system of equations in Example 1 using
-5 JO matrices.
Figur e 1-2{ Sa + b = 19 The given system .

{10a + b = 6
[1~~][:] [l:J = Write the system in matrix form.
[:J [1~
= ~r1[
1:J Multiply both sides by the inverse matrix.
= [;~·6] Complete the matrix multiplication.
a= -2 .6 and b= 32
You'll study the matrix solution of linear syste m s more fully in Section 11-2.
~ EXAMPLE
2 For the function graphed in Figure 7-2g,
a. Identify the kind of function it could be.
b. On what interval or intervals is the function increasing or decreasing?
Which way is the graph concave, up or down7
c. Describe something in the real world that a function with this shape graph
could mod el.
d. Find the particular equation of the function, given that points (1, 76),
(2, 89), and (3, 94) are on the graph.
e. Confirm by plotting that your equation gives the graph in Figure 7-2g.
y
100
1 cl.94)
(2, 89)
1
(1, 76)
Figure 7-2g
298 Chapter
7: Propertie
sofElementary
Functions
Solution a. The function could b e quadratic because it has a vertex.
b . The function is increasing for x < 3 and decreasin g for x > 3, and it is
concave down .
c. The function could model anything that ris es to a maximum and then falls
back down again, such as th e h eight of a ball as a function of time or the
grade you could earn on a final exam as a function of how long you study
for it . (Cramming too long might lower your score because of your being
sleep y from staying up late!)
d. y= ax2 + bx + c Write the general equa tion.
76 =a + b + C Substitut e the given x- and y-values.

89 = 4a + 2b + C
\ 94 = 9a + 3b + C
[: ~ ~1
9 3
[;;l
-l[;~1
1 94
=
55
Solve by matr ices.
... y = -4 x 2 + 2 5X + 5 5 Write th e equation.
e. Plotting the graph confirms that the equation is correct. Note that the
value of a is negative, which corresponds to the fact that the graph is
concave down . _,..
.....EXAMPLE
3 For the function graphed in Figure 7-2h,
a. Identif y the kind of function it could be.
y
150 (6, 151.2) b. On what int erval or intervals is the function incr easing or decrea sing?
Which way is th e graph concave, up or down?
100
50 (4 , 44.8) c. Describe something in th e real world that a function with this shape graph
X
could model.
1 2 3 4 5 6
d. Find the particular equation of th e function you identified in part a, given
Figure 7-2h that points (4, 44 .8) and (6, 151.2) are on the graph.
e. Confirm by plotting that your equation gives th e graph in Figure 7-2h.
Solution a. The function could be a power function or an exponential function, but a

power function is chosen because the graph appears to contain the origin,
which exponential functions don't do unl ess they are translated in the
y-direction .
b. The function is incr easing over its entire domain shown, and the graph is
concave up everywhere.
c. The function could model anything that starts at zero and incr eases at an
increasing rate, such as the distance it takes a car to stop as a function
of its speed when th e driver applies the brakes , or th e volum es of
geometrica lly similar objects as a function of th eir lengths .
Section
7-2: Identifying
Fun
ction
s fromGraphical
Patterns 299
d. y= axb Write the untranslated general equation.
44.8 =a· 4b Substitut e th e given x- and y-values into the

{151.2 = a · 6b equation.
151.2 a· 6b
----- Divide the second equation by the first to
44.8 a· 4b eliminate a.
3.375 = 1.5b The a's cance l, and 5bb =

(6) b = 1.5b.
4 4
log 3.375 = log 1.5b Take the logarithm of both sides to get bout of th e
exponent.
log 3.375 =bl og 1.5
b = log3. 375 =
3
log 1.5
44.8 =a· 4 3 Substitute 3 for bin one of the equations.
44.8
a=- 3
-=0.7
4
.'. y = 0.7x 3 Write the particular equation.
e. Plotting the graph confirm s that the equation is correct. Note that the
value of bis greater than 1, which corresponds to the fact that the graph is
concave up. <1111
~ EXAMPLE
4 For the function graphed in Figure 7-2i,
a. Identify the kind of function it could be.
y b. On what interval or intervals is the function increasing or decreasing?

20 Which way is the grap h concave, up or down ?
c. Describe something in th e real world that a function with this shape graph
cou ld model.
X d. Find the particular equatio n of the function, given that points (2, 10) and
(5, 6) are on the graph.
Figure 7-2i e. Confirm by plotting that your equation gives the graph in Figure 7-2i.
Solution a. The function could be exponential or quadratic, but exponential is picked

because the graph appears to approach the x-axis asymptotically .
b. The function is de cre asing and concav e up over its entire domain.
c. The function could model any situation in which a variable quantity starts
at some nonzero value and coasts downward , gradually approaching zero,
such as the numb er of de grees ! cup of coffe e is above room temperature
as a function of time since it start ed cooling.
300 Chapter
7: Properties
ofEleme
ntaryFunctions
d. y= abX Write the untranslated general equation.
2
10 = ab Substitute the given x- and y-values .
{6 = ab s
6 abs
Divide the second equation by the first
10 = ab 2
to eliminate a.
0.6 = b 3
0.6 113 = b Raise both sides to the f power to
eliminate the exponent of b.
b= 0.8434 ... Store without rounding.
10 = a(0.8434 ... )2 Substitute 0.8434 ... for bin one of the

equations .
a= 14.0572 .. . Store without rounding .
.'. y= 14.0572 ... (0.8434 .. f Write the particular equation.
e. Plotting the graph confirms that the equation is correct. Note that the
value of bis between O and 1, which corresponds to the fact that the
function is decreasing . ~
Problem Set 7-2

Q10. What property of real numbers is illustrated by
Reading Analysis t:lfJ} 3(x + 5) = 3(5 + x)?
From what you have read in thi s section, what do A. Associative property of multiplication
you consider to be the main idea? What is the B. Commutative property of multiplication
differenc e between the par ent quadratic function C. Associative property of addition
and any other quadratic function? How does the
y-intercept of an exponential function differ from D. Commutative property of addition
the y-intercept of a power function? Sketch the graph E. Distributive property of multiplication over
of a function that is increa sing but concave down. addition
1. Power functions and exponential functions

Quick Review both have exponents. What major algebraic
difference distinguishes these two types of
functions ?
2. What graphical feature do quadratic functions
03. If f(x) = x2 , find f(- 3). have that linear, exponential, and power
04. If g(x) = 2x, find g(3). functions do not have?
05. If g(x ) = zx, find g(O). 3. Write a sentence or two giving the origin of th e
word concave and explaining how the word
06. If g(x) = 2x, find g(-3). applies to graphs of functions.
Ql. If h(x) = x112 , find h(2 5). 4. Explain why direct variation owe nctions
QB.If h(x) = x112 , find h(O). ,....rontain t e origin but inverse variation pawgr
functions do not .
Q9. If h(x ) = x112 , find h(- 9).
Section
7·2: Identifying
Functions
from
Graphical
Patterns 301
5. Explain why the reciprocal funct ion f(x) = i is a. Write an equation in vertex form of the
also a power function . quadratic function expressing the height of
the ball explicitly as a function of time .
6. In the definition of quadratic function, what is
the reason for the restriction a *"O? b . How high is the ball 5 s after it was hit ?
c. If nobody catches the ball, how man y seconds
7. The definition of exponential function, y = abX, after it was hit will it reach the ground?
includes the restriction b > 0. Suppose that
y = (-64)X. What would y equal if x were!? For Problems 11-20, the Quadrant I part of a
If x were !? Why do you think there is the - function graph is shown.
restriction b > 0 for exponential functions? a. Identify the type of function it could be.
8. The vertex form of the quadratic -function
equation can be written as
c3Y
on what interval or intervals is the function
increasing or decreasing, arr~ whtch way is
y = k + a(x - h)2 or y - k = a(x - h)2 the graph concave?
c. From your experience, what relationship in
Explain why the first form is more useful if the real world could be modeled by a
you are plotting graphs on your grapher and function with this shape graph?
why the second form is more useful for
understanding the translations involved . d. Find the particular equation of the function
if the given points are on the graph.
9. Reading Prob lem: Clara has been reading her e. Confirm by plotting that your equation
history assignment for 20 min and is now on gives the graph shown.
page 56 in the text. She reads at a (relatively)
constant rate of 0.6 page per minute . 11. y
6
a. Find the particular equation expressing
the page number she is on as a function
of minutes, using the point -slope form .
Transform your answer to the slope-
X
intercept form . 9
b . Which page was Clara on when she started
reading the assignment? 12.
c. The assignment ends on page 63. When
would you expect Clara to finish?
10. Baseball Problem: Ruth hits a high fly ball to 10
right field . The ball is 4 ft above the ground X
when she hits it. Three seconds later it reaches 5 10
its maximum height, 148 ft.
13. y
20
(5 , 18)
(1, 6)
X
30 2 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
14. y
(4 , 30.6)
20. y
30 10
(2, 28 .6)
(1, 25.4)
X X
10 5 10
15. y 21. Suppose that y increases exponentially with x

30 and that z is directly proportional to the
square of x . Sketch the graph of each type of
function . In what ways are the two graphs
similar to each other? What major graphical
X difference would allow you to tell which graph
8 is which if the y were not labeled?
22. Suppose that y decreases exponentially with
16.
x and that z varies inversely with x. Sketch the
graph of each type of function. Give at least
three ways in which the two graphs are similar
(1, 48)
to each other. What major graphical difference
(2, 24)
would allow you to tell which graph is which if
X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
they were not labeled ?
23. Suppose that y varies directly with x and that
17. y z increases linearly with x. Explain w,p.yany
20 direct variation function is a linear function
but a linear function is not necessarily a
10 direct variation function .
(2, 8)
(1, 5) X
24. Suppose that y varies directly with the square
8 of x and that z is a quadratic function of x.
Explain why the direct-square variation
18. function is a quadratic function but the
quadratic function is not necessarily a
10
direct-square variation function.
(2, 6)
(5, 2.4) 25. Natural Exponential Function Problem:
X Figure 7-2j shows the graph of the natural
10 exponential function f(x) = 3e 08 X.Let
g (x) = 3 bx. Find the value of b for which
19. y
100 g(x) = f(x). Show graphically that the two
functions are equivalent.
50
y
X 15
10 LO
X
-2
Figure 7-2j
Section7-2: Identifying
Functions
fromGraph
icalPatterns 303
7-3 Identifying Functions
from Numerical Patterns
A 16-in. pizza has four times as much area as
an 8-in. pizza. A grapefruit who se diameter
is 10 cm has eight times the volume of a
grapefruit with diameter 5 cm. In general,
when you double the linear dimensions of a
three-dimensional object, you multiply the
surface area by 4 and the volume by 8. This is
an example of the multiply-multiply property of power functions. It is similar
to the add-add property of linear functions. Every time you add 1000 mi to the
distance you have driven your car, you add a constant amount, say, $300, to the
cost of operating that car.
In this section you will use such patterns to identify the type of function that
fits a given set of function values. Then you will find more function values,
either by following the pattern or by finding the equation of the function.
OBJECTIVES
• Given a set of regularly spaced x-values and the corresponding y-values,
identify which type of function they fit (linear, quadratic, power, or
exponential) .
• Find other function values without necessarily finding the particular
equation.
The Add-Add Pattern of Linear Functions

f(x)
X f(x)
1 4
+2 ( 7) +3
3
+2 ( 10) +3
+2 (
5
7 13) +3
+2 ( 16 ) + 3
X 9
1 3 5 7 The add-add property
Figure 7-3a
Figure 7-3a shows the graph of the linear function f(x) = l.5x + 2.5. As you can
see from the graph and the adjacent table, each time you add 2 to x, y increases
by 3. This pattern emerges because a linear function has constant slope .
Verbally, you can express this property by saying that every time you add a
constant to x, you add a constant (not necessarily the same) to y This property
is called the add-add property of linear functions.
304 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
The Add-Multiply Pattern of Exponent ial Functions
g(x)
135
I
I
I X g(x)
I
I
I
1 15
:135=15 · 9 +2 ( 3 135) •g
I
I +2 ( 5 1215 ) •g
+2 ( 7 109 35 ) •g
15 15 X
3= 1+2 The add -m ultipl y prop erty
Figur e 7-3b
Figure 7-3b shows the exponential function g(x) = 5 · 3x_This time, adding 2 to
x results in the corresponding g(x)-values being multipli ed by the constant 9.
This is not coincidental. Here's why the pattern holds.
g(l) = 5 · 3i = 15
g(3) = 5 · 3 3 = 135 (which equals 9 times 15)
You can see algebraically why thi s is true.
g(3) = 5 · 3 3
=5. 31+2 Write th e expon ent as 1 increase d by 2.
= 5 . 3 1 • 32 Product of powers with equal bas es prop erty.
= (5 . 3 1) • 32 Associate 5 and 3 1 to get g(l) in the expr ess ion.
= 9 · g(l)
The conclusion is that if you add a constant to x, the corresponding y-valu e is
multiplied by the base raised to that constant . This is called the add- multiply
property of exponentia l functions.
The Multiply-Multiply Pattern of Power Functions

h(x)
8640
X h (x)
8640 = 8 · 1080
135 ) x 8
1080
1080 J.<Ignor e x = 9.
X
3645 ) x 8
3 6 9 ,...-12 15
12 = 2 · 6 8640
Power fun ction The multiply - multipl y property
Figur e 7-3c
Figure 7-3c shows the graph of the power funct ion h(x) = 5x3 . As shown in th e
table, adding a constant, 3, to x does not create a corresponding pattern.
Sectio
n 7-3: Identifying
Functions
fromNumerical
Pattern
s 30 5
However, a patt ern does emerge if you pick values of x that change by being
multiplied by a cons tant .
h( 3) = 5 · 33 = 135
h(6) = 5 · 6 3 = 1080 (which equals 8 times 13 5)
3
h(1 2) = 5 · 12 = 8640 (which equals 8 times 1080)
If you double the x-value from 3 to 6 or from 6 to 12, th e cor respondin g

y-values are multipli ed by 8, or 2 3 . You can see algebraically why this is true.
h(6) = 5 . 6 3
= 5(2 · 3) 3 Write the x = 6 as twice 3.
= (5 • 3 3 ) • 2 3 Distribut e the exponent over mu ltip lication and then

comm ut e and associate.
= 8 · h(3)
In conclusion, if you multipl y the x-values by 2, th e corresponding y-values

are multiplied by 8. This is called the multiply-multiply property of power
functions. Note that extra points may appear in th e table, such as (9, 3645) in
Figure 7-3c. They do belon g to the func tion, but the x-values do not fit the
"multipl y" patt ern.
The Constant-Second-Differences Pattern

of Quadratic Functions
q(x)
100
X q(x)
1 15 ) Consta nt second
+2 ( 3 5 -10 ) + 24 / differ ences
+2 ( 5 ) + 14)
19 ) 33 +24
+2 ( 7 57 + ) +24
X
3 5 7 9
+2 ( 9 119 ) + 52 - First dlffere nces
Quadra tic functio n Constant second differ ences
Figure 7-3d
Figure 7-3d shows th e quadratic fun ction q(x) = 3x 2 - 17x + 29 . Because the
function decreases and then increases , non e of th e add or multiply properti es
alr ead y des cribed app ly. However, an extension of the add -add prop ert y of
linear functions does app ly to quadratics. For equally space d x-values, the
differen ces betw een th e corresponding y-values are equ ally spaced. Thus th e
differences between th ese differenc es (the second differences ) are constant.
This consta nt is equal to 2ad 2 , twice the coefficient of the quadratic term tim es
th e squ are of the diff ere nce betwee n the x-values .
306 Chapter
7: Propertie
sofElementary
Functions
These four properti es are summarized in the box.
PROPERTIES:
Patterns
forFunction
Values
Add-A dd Property of Linear Functions
If f is a linear function, adding a constant to x results in adding a constant to
the corresponding f(x)-value. That is,
if f(x) = ax + b and x2 = c + Xi, then f(x2 ) = ac + ((x i )
Multiply-Multiply Property of Power Functions

If (is a power function, multiplying x by a constant results in multiplying the
corres ponding f(x)-value by a constant. That is,
if f(x) = ax b and x2 = cxi, then f(x2 ) = cb • f(xi)
Add-Multiply Property of Exponential Functions

If fis an exponential function, addin g a constant to x results in multiplying
the corr esponding f(x)-value by a constant. That is,
if f(x) = abx and x2 = c + Xi, then f(x2 ) = b e • f(x i)
Constant-Second-Differences Property of Quadratic Functions

If f is a quadratic function, f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c, and the x-values are spaced
d units apart, then the second differences between the f(x)-values are
constan t and equal to 2ad 2 .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Identify the pattern in these function values and th e kind of function th at has
this pattern .
X f(x)
4 5
5 7
6 11
7 17
8 25
Solution The valu es ha ve neither th e add - add, add-multip ly, nor multiply-multiply
property. They do exhibit the constant-second-differences prop erty , as shown.
Therefore, a qu adrati c function fits th e data.
X f(x)
4 5
+l ( 5 7) 2
+ ) +2
(6 11 ~
+l 4
+ ) +2
+l ( 7 +6)
17) +2
+l ( 8 25 +S
Section
7-3: Identifying
Functions
fromNumerical
Patterns 307
EXAMPLE
llllli- 2 If function fhas values f(5) = 12 and f(lO) = 18, find {(20) if f is
a. A linear function
b. A power function
c. An expo n entia l function
Solution a. Linear functions have the add-add property. Notice that you add 5 to the
first x-value to get the second one and that you add 6 to the first f(x)-value
to get the second one. Make a table of values ending at x = 20. The answer
is {(20) = 30 .
X f(x)
)I
12 24
18) +5
18
24) +5
30) +5
12
b. Power functions have the multiply- 6

multiply property. When going from th e X.
first to the second x- and y-values, notice
S 10 1S 20
that you multiply 5 by 2 to get 10 and that
you multiply 12 by 1.5 to get 18. Make a table
of values end ing at x = 20 . The answer is {(20) = 27.
X f(x)
12
18 ) xl.5
27) xl.5
c. Exponential functions have the add-multiply property . Notice that adding

5 to x results in multiplying the corresponding y-value by 1.5. Make a table
of values ending at x = 20. The answer is {(20) = 40.5.
X f(x)
5 12 )I
+5 (10 18 ) xl.5
+ 5 (15
2S
27) xl.5 xt.S
+S (20 40.5 ) xl.~ 20
1S
10
s
X.
s 10 ts 20
EXAMPLE
llllli- 3 Describe the effect on y of doubling x if
a. y varies directly with x.
b . y varies inversely with the square of x.
c. y varies directly with the cube of x.
308 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
Solution a. y is doubled (that is, multiplied by 2 1).
b. y is multipli ed by i (that is, multiplied by 2- 2 ).
c. y is multipli ed by 8 (that is, multiplied by 2 3 ) •
.... EXAMPLE
4 Suppose that fis a direct-squar e power function and that f(5) = 1000. Find f(20).
Solution Because f is a pow er function, it has the multiply-multipl y property . Express

x = 20 as x = 4 · 5. Multiplying x by 4 will multiply the corr esponding y -value
by 4 2 , so
f(20) = f(4 · 5) = 4 2 • f(5) = 16 · 1000 = 16,000
.... EXAMPLE
5 Radioactive Tracer Problem: The compound
18-fluorodeoxyglucose (18-FDG)is composed
of radioactive fluorin e (18-F) and a sugar
(deoxyglucose) . It is us ed to trace glucose
metabolism in the heart. 18-F has a half-life of
abo ut 2 h , which means that at the end of each
2-hour tim e period, only half of the 18-F that
was there at the beginning of the time period
remains . Suppose a dose of 18-FDG was
injected into a patient . Let f(x) be the number
of microcuries (µCi) of 18-FDG that remains
over time x, in hours, as shown in the table.
X (h) f(x) (µCi) a. Find the numb er of microcuri es that
remains after 12 h.
2 5
4 2.5 b. Identify the p att ern these data points follow. What type of function shows
6 1.25 this patt ern ?
8 0.625 c. Why can't you use the pattern to find f(25)?
d. Find a particular equation of f(x). Show by plotting that all the
f(x)-values in the table satisfy th e equation.
e. Use the equation to calcu late f(25). Int erpret the solution.
Solution a. 10, 12 Follow the add pattern in the x-values until you
reach 12.
0.3125, 0.15625 Follow the multipl y patt ern in the correspo ndin g
y-values .
f(12) = 0.15625 µCi

b. The data points have the add-multiply property of exp onential functions.
C. 22, 24 , 26 Extend the add pattern in the x-values.
The x-values skip over 25, so f(25) cannot be found using the pattern.
d. f( x) = ab x General equation of an exponential function.
5 = ab 2 Substitut e any two of the ordere d pairs.

{2.5 = ab 4
Section
7-3: Identifying
Functions
fromNumeri
calPatt
erns 309
2.5 ab 4
s= ab 2
Divide the equations. Have the larger exponent in
the numerator.
0.5 = b2 Simplify.
0.5 112 = b Raise both sides to the! power.
f(x ) (µ Ci) b = 0.7071.. . Store without rounding .
10
8 Graph fit s 5 = a(0 .7071...) 2 Substitute the value for b into one of the equations .
6 point s.
4
/ a=
5
= 10 Solve for a.
0.7071.. .2
2
x (h)
2 4 6 8
.' . f(x) = 10(0.7071...)X Write the parti cu lar equation .
Figure 7-3e Figure 7-3e shows the graph of {passing through all four given points.
e. f(25) = 10(0.7071 ... )25 = 0.0017 ...
This means that there was about 0.0017 µ Ci of 18-FDG after 25 h. <11111
'. f (x) (µ Ci) Note that part din Example 5 calls for "a" function that fits the points. It is
10' possible for other functions to fit this set of points, such as the function
8
This graph also
6
fits th e points .
g(x) = 10(0.7071 ... )X + sin ?x
4
< x( h ) which also fits the given points, as shown in Figure 7-3f. Deciding which
function fits better will depend on the situation you are modeling. Also, you can
test further to see whether your model is supported by data. For example, to
Figur e 7-3f test the second model, you could collect measurements over shorter time
intervals and see if the data have a wavy pattern.
Problem Set 7-3
Reading Analysis Q4. Write the general equation of a quadratic

function.
do you consider to be the main idea? How is the QS. f(x) = 3 · x5 is the equation of a particular
add-add property of linear functions consistent - ?- function. .J
with the concept of slope? How do the properties Q6. f(x) = 3 · 5x is the equation of a particular
of exponential and power functions differ ? If you - ?- function.
triple the diameter of a circle, what effect does this
have on the circle's area ? What type of function has Ql. Name the transformation of f(x) that gives
this propert y? What numerical pattern do quadratic g(x) = 4 • f(x).
functions have? QB.The period of the trigonometric function
y = 3 + 4 cos f(x - 6) is
Quick Review A. 10 B. 6 C. 5 D. 4 E. 3
QJ. Write the general equation of a linear function. Q9. Sketch the graph of a linear funct ion with
nega tive slope and positive y-inter cept.
Q2. Write the general equation of a power function.
QJO.Sketch the graph of an exponential function
Q3. Write the general equation of an expon ential with base greater than 1.
function.
310 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
For Problems 1-12, determine whether the data For Problems 13-16, find the indicated function
have the add - add, add-multiply, multiply-multiply, value if fis
or constant-s econd-differen ces pattern. Identify the a. A linear function
type of function that has th e pattern.
b. A power function
1. X f(x) 2. X f(x.) c. An exponential function
2 2700 1500 ?'1 13. Given f(2) = 5 an d f(6) = 20, find ((18).
4 2400 750 ~ l (
6 2100 500 1 1.-S 14. Given f(3) = 80 and f(6) = 120, find f(24).
8 1800 375 ~ 15. Given f(lO) = 100 and ((20) = 90, find ((40).
10 1500 10 300 I
16. Given f(l) = 1000 and f(3) = 100, find f(9).
3. X. f(x.) 4. X. f(x.)
For Problems 17-20, use the given values to
2 12 2 calculate the other values specified .
4 48 4 ~!Ji 17. Given fis a linear function with f(2) = 1 and
6 108 6 192 ) \ l\ 'j
8 192 8 768 '::>~, b ((5) = 7, find f(8), f(ll), and ((14).
10 300 10 3072 • 18. Given (is a ~ function .with

f(3) = 0.7, find f(6) and f(12).
5. X f(x) 6. X f(x)
-------------
19. Given that f(x) var ies inversely with the square
2 26 2 4.6 '7 \, l\ of x and that ((5) = 1296, find f(lO) and ((20).
4 52 4 6.Q(_ \ .~
6 78 6 7.4 j 1 20 . Given that f(x) varies exponential ly with x and
8 104 8 8.8 ) that f(l) = 100 and f(4) = 90, find f(7), f(lO),
10 130 10 10.2 and f(16).
7. X f(x) 8. X f(x) For Problems 21-24, describe the effect on y if you

doubl e the value of x.
2 1800 2 400 '> !,()b 21. Direct-square power function
-~~~ 1
4 450 4
6 200 6 b<) 22 . Direct-fourth power function
8 112.5 8 -5o~'S'1 l)o
3. Inverse variation power function
10 72 10 -800
9. X f(x) lO. x f(x) 24. Inverse-square variation power function
-- ---- r, ~'S) . Volume Problem: The volum es of similarly
2 900
i 2 56
· '>'.)"'\
(,' v\
shape d objects are directly proportional to the
@)
4 100 44 8
6
8
11.1111 .. .
1.234 5 .. .
<)
(J
l 68
· ~ \ D · ri
151.2
35 8.4
:( L--
1,o '
cube of a linear dimension.
10 0.1371.. . 10 700.0
11. X. f(x) 12. _x__ _ f_(x_) E2
1 352 1 Baseball Vol.leyball
3 136 5 Figure 1-3g
5 64 9
7 136 13 a. Recall from geometry that the volume, V, of
9 35 2 17 f
a sphere equa ls rrr 3 , where r is the radius.
f
Explain how the formula V = rrr 3 shows
th at the volume of a spher.e...yaries directly
with the cube of the radius. If a baseball - has
7-3:Identifying
Section Functions
fromNumerical
Patterns 311
volume 100 cm 3 , what is the volume of a Dakota, he started with models tzthe
volleyball that has twice the radius lengths of the actual reliefs. How does the
(Figure 7-3g)? area of each model compare to the area of
b·. King Kong is depicted as having the same each of the final reliefs? Explain why a
proportions as a normal gorilla but as being relatively small decrease in the linear
10 times as ta!!J-Iow would his volume dimension results in a relatively large
(and thus wei ht compare to that of a decrease in the surface area to be carved .
normal gorilla? I a normal gorilla weighs d. Gulliver traveled to Brobdingnag, where
500 lb, what would you expect King Kong to people were 10 times as tall as normal
weigh? Is this surprising? people. If Gulliver had 2 m 2 of skin, how
c. A great white shark 20 ft long weighs about much skin surface would you expect a
2000 lb. Fossilized sharks' teeth from Brobdingnagian to have ?
millions of years ago suggest that there 27. Airplane Weight and Area Problem: In 1896,
were once great whites 100 ft long. How "---5amuel Langley successfully flew a model of
much would you expect such a shark to an airplane he was designing. In 1903, he tried
weigh? unsuccessfully to fly the full-size airplane.
d. Gulliver traveled to Lilliput, where people Assume that the full-size plane was '-"'ti==- -
were / 0 as tall as normal people. If Gulliver the length of the model (Figure 7-3h).
weighed 200 lb, how much would you
expect a Lilliputian to weigh?
Mod el Actual
Figure 7-3h
a. The wing area, and thus the lift, of similarly

shaped airplanes is directly proportional
to the square of the length of each plane.
How many times more wing area did the
full-size plane have than the model?
b. The volume, and thus the weight, of
similarly shaped airplanes is directly ~,
Iris Weddell White's illustrat ion proportional to the cube of the len th JHow
The Emperor Visits Gulliverin many times heavier was the full -size plane
Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels. than the model?
(The Granger Collection, New York)
c. Why do you think the model was able to fly
26. Area Problem: The areas of similarly shaped but the full-size plane was not?
objects are directly proportional to th e square 28. Compound Interest Problem: Money left in a
of a linear dimension. savings account grows exponentially with time.
a. Give the formula for the area of a circle. Suppose that you invest $1000 an d find that a
Explain why the area varies directly with the year later you have $ llOO in your account.
square of the radius. a. How much will you have after 2. yrs? 3 yrs?
b. If a grapefruit has twice the diameter of an 4 yrs?
orange, how do the areas of their rinds b. In how many years will your investment
compare? double?
c. When Gutzon Borglum designed the reliefs
he carved into Mount Rushmore in South
312 Chapter
7: Propert
iesofElementary
Function
s
29. Archery Problem: Ann Archer shoots an arrow fat each marked point in Figure 7-3i. Write
into the air. The table lists its height at various the particular equation of this sinusoid. Plot
times after she shoots it. the graph, and sketch the results.
Time (s) Height (ft) 31. Incorrect Point Problem: By considering second
differences, show that a quadratic function
1 79 does not fit the values in this table .
2 121
3 131 X y
4 109
4 5
5 55
5 7
a. Show that the second differences betw een , 6 11
consecutive height values in the table are 7 17
constant. 8 27
b. Use the first three ordered pairs to find What would the last y-value have to be for a
the particular equation of the qua~c quadratic function to fit the values exactly?
function that fits thes e point . Show that
the fun ction contains a oftlie points. 32. Cubic Function Problem: Figure 7-3j shows the
cubic function
c. Based on the graph you fit to the points,
how high was the arrow at 2.3 s? Was it f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 5x + 20
going up or going down ? How do you tell?
f (x)
d{At what two times was the arrow 100 ft
~ gh ? How do you explain the fact that there ) 100
were two times ? 50

e. When was the arrow at its highest? How
high was that ? X
f. At what time did the arrow hit the ground? T

Figur e 7-3}
30. Th e Oth er Function Fit Problem: It is possibl ;--'-4
for different functions to fit the same set of
a. Make a table of values of f(x) for each
discrete data points . Suppose that the data in
integer value of x from 1 to 6.
the table have been given.
b. Show that the third differences between the
X f(x) values of f(x) are constant. You can calculate
,,
f(x)
2 12 300 , ,, the third differences in a time-efficient way

,, using the list and delta list features of your
4 48 200
,,
, .. grapher. If you do it by pencil and paper, be
6 108 100 ,, .. sure to subtract from a function value the
8 192 •' X
previous value in each case.
10 300 2 4 6 8 10
c. Make a conjecture about how you could
Figur e 7-3i
determine whether a quartic function
a. Show that the function f(x) = 3x2 fits the (fourth degree) fits a set of points .
data, as shown in Figure 7-3i.
33. The Add-Add Property Proof Problem: Prove
b. Show that the function that for a linear function, adding a constant to
g(x) = 3x 2 + 100 sin f x x adds a constant to the corresponding value
of f(x). Do this by showing that if x2 = c + Xi,
also fits the data exactl y. Plot the graph, then f(x 2 ) equa ls a constant plus f(x 1 ). Start
and sketch the result. by writing the equations of f(x 1) and f(x 2 ), and
c. Let h be a sinusoid of increasing amplitude then make the appropriate substitutions
that touches but does not cross the graph of and algebraic manipulations.
Section
7-3: Identifying
Functions
fromNumerical
Patterns 313
34. The Multiply-Multiply Property Proof Problem: that if x2 = c + x 1, then f(x2 ) equa ls a constant
Prove that for a power function, multiplying x times f(x 1). Start by writing the equations of
by a constant multipli es th e correspondi ng f(x1 ) and f(x2 ), and then make the appropriate
value of f(x) by a constant as well. Do this by substitutions and algebraic manipulations .
showing that if x2 = cx 1 , then f(x2 ) equals a
36. The Constant-Second-Differences Property Proof
constant times f(x 1 ). Start by writing the
Problem: Let f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c. Let d be the
equations of f(x1 ) and f(x2 ), and then make
constant difference between successive
the ap propriat e substitutions and algebraic
x-values . Find f(x + d), f(x + 2d), and f(x + 3d).
manipulations.
Simplify. By subtracting consecutive y-values,
35. The A dd-Multiply Property Proof Problem: find the three first differences. By subtracting
Prove that for an exponential function, adding consecutive first differences, show that the two
a cons tant to x multiplies the corresponding seco nd differences equal the constant 2ad 2 •
value of f(x) by a cons tant. Do this by showing
7-4 Properties of Logarithms

Any positive number can be writt en as a power of 10. For instance,
3 = 1004771...
5= 100. 6989
15 = 101.1760
The exponents 0.4771..., 0.6989 .. ., and 1.1760 ... are called the base-10
logarithms of 3, 5, and 15, respectively.
log 3 = 0.4771...
log 5 = 0.6989 .. .
log 15 = 1.1760 .. .
Your calcu lator is programmed to calculate these numbers when you press LOG.
In this section you will learn the properties of logarithms with base 10. In the
next section you will learn about logarithms with other bases and how
logarithms can be us ed to solve equations that contain variable exponents.
OBJECTIVE
Learn the properties of base-10 logarithm s.
314 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Function
s
Def inition and Properties of Base-10 Logarithms
To gain confidence in the meaning of logarithm, press log 3 on your calculator.
You will get
log 3 = 0.477121254 .. .
Then, without rounding, rais e 10 to this power . You will get

10 0.-177121254.. = 3
The powers of 10 have the normal prop erties of exponentiation. For instance,
15 = (3)(5) = (10 0.4771 . )(10 06989 )
= 100.4 771 ..+0.6989.. Add the expo nent s; keep the same ba se .
= 101.1 760...
A decibel, whi ch measur es
th e relati ve int ensity of You can check by calculator that 101.1160 ·· really does equal 15.
sound s, has a logar ithmi c
scal e. Prolonged exposur e From this examp le you can infer that logarithms have the same properties as
to noise intensity exceeding expo nents. This is not surprising, because logarithms are exponents . For
85 decibels can lead to
hearing Joss.
instance,
log (3 • 5) = log 3 + log 5 The log of a product equals the sum of the logs of
th e factors.
From the values given earlier, you can also show that
15
log = log 1 5 - log 3 Th e log of a quotient.
3
This property is reasonab le because you divide power s of equa l bases by
subtrac ting the exponents.
15 101.1 760...
---- = 101.1 760.. -0.4771... = 10 0.6989.. = 5.
3 100.477 l. .
Becaus e a power can be written as a product, you can find the logarithm of a
p ower like this:
log 34 = log (3 · 3 · 3 · 3) = log 3 + log 3 + log 3 + log 3

= 4 log 3 Combin e like term s.
The logarithm of a power equals the expon ent of that po wer, times the
logarit hm of th e bas e. To verify this result, observe that 34 = 81. Press 4 log 3 on
your calculator, and get 1.9084 .. .. Then press log 81. You get the same answer,
1.9084 . . ..
Section
7-4:Propertie
s ofLogarithms 3 15
The definition and three properties of logarithms are summarized in this box.
DEFINITION
ANDPROPERTIES: IOLogarithms
Base-
Definition
log x = y if and only if lOY= x
Verbally: log xis the exponent in the power of 10 that gives x.
Properties
Log of a Product:
log (xy) = log x + log y
Verbally: The log of a product equals the sum of the logs of the factors.
• Log of a Quotient:
X
log - = log x - log y
y
Verbally: The log of a quotient equals the log of the numerator minus the log
of the denominator.
• Log of a Power:
log xY = y · log x
Slide rules, used by Verbally: The log of a power equals the exponent times the log of the base.
engineers in the 19th and
ear ly 20th centur ies,
emp loy the principle of
logarithm s for performing The reason for the name logarithm is historical. Before there were calculators,
complicat ed calculaHons. base-10 logarithms, calculated approximately using infinite series, were
recorded in tables. Products with many factors, such as
(357)(4.367)(22.4)(3.142)
could then be calculated by adding their logarithms (exponents) column-wise in one
step rather than by tediously multiplying several pairs of numbers. Englishman
Henry Briggs (1561-1630) and Scotsman John Napier (1550-1616) are credited with
inventing this "logical way to do arithmetic," that you will explore in Problem 47.
The word logarithm actually comes from the Greek word logos, which here means
"ratio," and arithmos, which means "number."
The most important thing to remember about logarithm s is that
A logarithm is an exponent.
316 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Function
s
Examples 1 and 2 show you how to verify that a logarithm is an exponent.
~ EXAMPLE
1 Find x if log 10 3 ·72 1 = x. Verify your solution numericall y.
Solution By definition, the logarithm is the exponent of 10. So x = 3.721.
Check 103·721 = 5260. 172 6 ... By calculator . Do not round .

log 5260.1726 ... = 3.72 1
which checks.
~ EXAMPLE
2 Find x if 0.258 = lOX. Verify your solution numericall y.
Solution By defini tion, x, th e exponent of 10, is th e logarithm of 0.258 .
x = log 0.258 = -0 .5883... By calculator. Do not round.
Check 10- 0.5883 .. = 0 .258
which checks .
Examples 3, 4, and 5 show you how to verify numericall y the three properties of
logarithms.
~ EXAMPLE
3 Show numericall y that log (7 · 9) = log 7 + log 9. Explain ho w this property
agre es with the definition of logarithm .
Solution log (7 · 9) = log 63 = 1.7993 ...

log 7 + log 9 = 0 .8540 ... + 0.9542 ... = 1.7993 ... Calcula te withou t
rounding .
.·. log (7 · 9) = log 7 + log 9
This equali ty agrees with th e definition because
7 .9 = (10 0.8540··)(10 0.9542 )
= 100.8540..+0.9542.. Add the exponent s.
Keep the sam e base .
= 10 1.7993.
: . log (7 · 9) = 1.7993 ... The logarithm is the ..olll
expon ent of 10. "'11111
51
~ EXAMPLE
4 Show numerically that log
17= log 51 - log 17. Explain how this property
agrees with th e definition of logarithm.
51
Solution log
17= log 3 = 0.4771.. .
log 51 - log 17 = 1.7075 ... - 1.2304 ... = 0.4771.. . Calculat e withou t

rounding.
51
: . log - = log 51 - log 17
17
Section
7-4: Propertie
sofLogarithms 317
This equality agrees with the definition because
51 101.7075
---- = 11. 7075 ... - 1.23 04 .. Subtract the exponents. Keep the same base.
17 101. 23 04
51
.".log = 0.4771... The logarithm is the expon ent of 10.
17
~ EXAMPLE
5 Show num erically that log 53 = 3 log 5. Explain how this proper ty can be derived
from the log of a product property.
Solution log 53 = log 125 = 2.0969 ...

3 log 5 = 3 · 0.6989 .. . = 2.0969. .. Calculate without rounding .
: . log 53 = 3 log 5
This equality derives from the product of a log property because
log 53 = log (5 · 5 · 5)
= log 5 + log 5 + log 5 The log of a product equal s the sum of the
logs of the factors .
= 3 log 5 Combine like terms .
Example 6 shows you how to prove algebraicall y that the logarithm of the
product of two numbers equals the sum of the logarithms of the factors.
~ EXAMPLE
6 Prove algebraically that log xy = log x + logy.
Solution Proof
Let c = log x and let d = log y.
Then 10c = x and By the definition of logarithm .
xy = 10c · lOd Multiply x times y.

xy = 10 c+d Add the exponents . Keep the same base.
log xy = c + d The logarithm is the exponent of 10.
.·. log xy = log x + log y, Q.E.D Substitute for c and d.

In Problems 45 and 46, you will prov e the other two properties algebraica lly.
Example 7 shows you how to use the properties of logarithms to simplify
express ions that contain logarithms.
318 Chap
ter7: Properties
ofElem
entary
Functions
~ EXAMPLE
7 Use the properties of logar ithms to fin d the number that goes in the blank:
log 3 + log 7 - log 5 = log -?- . Check your answer numerically.
3•7
Solution log 3 + log 7 - log 5 = log - - = log 4.2
5
:. 4.2 goes in the blank.
Check log 3 + log 7 - log 5 = 0.6232 ... By calculator.
log 4.2 = 0.6232 ...

: . log 3 + log 7 - log 5 = log 4.2
Problem Set 7-4

1. What does it mean to say that -0 .1549 ...
Reading Analysis equa ls log 0.7?
From what you have read in this section, what do 2. What does it mean to say that 0.9030 .. .
you consider to be the main idea? Explain the equals log 8?
statement "A logarithm is an exponent" and
support it with exam ples. 3. By the definition of logarithm, if a= log b,
then 10- 7- = -?-.
4. By the definition of logarithm, if 10a = b,
Quick Review
then -?-= log-?-.
01. In the expression 7 5 , the number 7 is called
For Problems 5-8, use the definition of logarithm to
th e-?- .
write the value of x. Th en confirm that your
02. In the expression 7 5 , the number 5 is called solution is correct by raising 10 to the given power,
th e-?- . taking the logarithm of the result, and showing that
the final resu lt agrees with your answer .
03. The entire expression 7 5 is called a(n) -? -.
5. log 101.574 = x 6. log 102 ·803 = x
04. Write x5 • x7 as a single exponential expressio n .
x5 7. log 10- 0 ·98 1 = x 8. log 10- 3 -58 = x
05. Write 7 as a single exponential expression .
X
06. Write th e expr essi on (x 5 )7 without paren theses.
~ Probl ems 9- 12, use the definition of logarithm
to write x as a logarit hm . Then evaluate the
Ql. For the expression (xy )7, you -? - th e logarithm by calculato r and show that raising lOto;
exponent 7 to get x7 y 7 . that power gives a resu lt that agrees with the gi/ 6
equality.
QB.Explain the meaning of 5- 2 .
9. 57 = 10" 10. 359 = 10"
09. Explain the m eaning of 9 112 .
11. 0.85 = lOx 12. 0.0321 = 10"
010. The function y = 5x is called a(n)
A. Power function For Problems 13-16, find the logarithm by
calculator . Then show numericall y that raising 10 to
B. Exponential function
the answer, as a power, gives the argument of the
C. Polynomial function logarithm.
D. Linear function
13. log 1066 14. log 2001
E. Inverse of a power function
15. log 0.0 596 16. log 0.314
Section
7-4: Properties
ofLogarithms 3 19
For Problems 17-20, evaluate the power of 10. Then 1
34. log -- = -log 1000
show that the logarithm of th e answer is equal to 1000
the original exponent of 10.
For Problems 3 5-44, find the missing number .
17. 10- 2 -7 18. 103 5
35. log 7 + log 3 =log-? -
19. 101s.2 20. 10- 4
36. log 5 + log 8 =log-? -
21. Find log 5, log 4, and log 20. Show that
1
log 20 = log 5 + log 4. What propert y of 37. log 48 - log 12 =log-?-
logarithms does this equality illustrate? What 38. log 4 - log 20 = log -?-
property of exponentiation does this property
Lcome from? ;-- -
39. log 8 - log 5 + log 35 =log -?-
22. Find log 30, log 4, and log 120. Show that 40. log 2000 - log 40 - log 2 = log -?-
log 120 = log 30 + log 4. What property of 41. ?log 2 =log-? -
logarithms does this equality illustrate? What
property of exponentiation does this property 42. 5 log 3 =log-? -
come from ? 43. log 125 =(-?-)log 5
23. Find log 35, log 7, and log 5. Show that 44. log 64 =( - ?- )log 2
log 5 = log 35 - log 7. What property of
logarithms does this equality illustrat e? What 45. Logarithm of a Power Property Proof Problem:
property of exponentiation does this property Prove algebraically that log xn = n log x.
come from ? 46. Logarithm of a Quotient £toperty Proof
24. Find log 96, log 6, and log 16. Show that Problem: Prove algebraically that
X .
log 16 = log 96 - log 6. What property of log - = log x - log y.
logarithms does this equality illustrat e? What y
property of exponentiation does this property 47. The Name "Logarithm" Problem:
come from? a. Before ther e were calculators, if you had to
multiply 27 · 358 · 43 · 591, you would hav e
25. Find log 32 and log 2. Show that log 32 = 5 log 2. to us e long multiplication three times to
What property of logarithms does this equality multiply 27 by 358 , that answer by 43, and
illustrate? What property of exponentiation then that answer by 591. Simulate this
does this property come from? process on your calculator by multiplying
26. Find log 64 and log 4. Show that log 64 = 3 log 4. 27 · 358 and writing the result, then
What property of logarithms does this equality multiplying that answer by 43 and writing
illustrate? What property of exponentiation the result, and then multiplying that answer
does this property come from? by 591 and writing the final result.
For Problems 27-34, demonstrate numerically the b. Before there were calculators, if you had to
properti es of logarithms. Then explain how each add 27 + 358 + 43 + 591, you could write the
result agrees with the definition of logarithm. numbers in a column and add without
writing down any intermediate results . Do
027.log (0.3 · 0.7) = log 0.3 + log 0.7 this addition column-wise, without using a
28. log (7 · 8) = log 7 + log 8 calculator:
27
0 29. log (30 .;-5) = log 30 - log 5 358
2 43
30. log
8 = log 2 - log 8
+591
\.J31. log 2 5 = 5 log 2 c. Base-10 logarithms were invented so that
3
32. log 5 = 3 log 5 strings of numbers could be multiplied by
1
33. log = - log 7
7
320 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
adding their logarithm s column-wise. You Add thes e logarithms column- wise, witl:
would look up the logarithms in tables, using a calculator. Simulate finding th e
add these column-wise, and then use the product by raising 10 to the exponent ye
tables back war d to find the ans wer. The found from adding the logarithms and
computation would look something like this: rounding to four significant digits. Does
log 27"" 1.4314 result agree with your result in part a?
log 358 "" 2.5539
log 43"" 1.6335
log 591 ""2.7716
7-5 Logarithms: Equations and Other Bases

In the previous section you learned that a logarithm is an exponent of 10. In
this section you will learn that it is possible to find logarithms using other
positive numbers as the bas e. Then you will learn how to use the properties
of logarithms to solve an equation for an unknown exponent or to solve an
equat ion involving logarithms .
OBJECTIVE
Use logarithms with base 10 or other bases to solve exponential or
logarithmic equations.
Logarithms with Any Base: The Change-of-Base

Property
If x = lQY,then y is the base-10 logarithm of x. Similarly, if x = 2Y, then y is t1
base-2 logarithm of x. The only difference is the number that is the base. To
distinguis h among logarithms with different bases, the base is written as a
subscr ipt after the abbreviation log. For instance,
3 = log 2 8 =} 23 = 8
4 = log 3 81 =} 34 = 81
2 = log 10 100 =} 102 = 100
The symbol log 2 8 is pronounced "log to the base 2 of 8." The symbol log 10 J
is, of course, equivalent to log 100, as defined in the pr evious section. Note t
in all cases a logarithm is an exponent.
DEFINITION: withAnyBase
Logarithm
A lgebraically:
logb x = y if and only if bY= x, where b > 0, b * 1, and x > 0

Verbally:
logb x = y means that y is the exponent of b that gives x as the answer.
Section
7-5: Logarithms
: Equations
andOthe
r Bases
The way you pronounce the symbol for logarithm gives you a way to remember
the definition. Examples 1 and 2 show you how to do this.
~ EXAMPLE
1 Write log 5 c = a in exponential form.
Solution Think this:

• "log5 ... " is read "log to the base 5 ... ," so
5 is the base.
• A logarithm is an exponent. Because the
log equals a, a must be the exponent.
• The "answer" I get for 5a is the argument
of the logarithm, c.
Write only this:
5a = C
~ EXAMPLE
2 Write z 4 = min logarithmic form.
Solution log 2 m = 4
Two bases of logarithms are used frequently enough to have their own key on
most calculators. One is base-10 logarithms, or common logarithms , as you
saw in the previous section. The other is bas e-e logarithms, called natural
logarithms, where e = 2.71828 ... , a naturally occurring number (like rr) that
you will find advantageous later in your mathematical studies. The symbol
1n x (pronounced "el en of x") is used for the natural logarithms: 1n x = loge x.
DEFINITION:
Common
Logarithm
andNaturalLogarithm
Common: The symbol log x means log 10 x.
Natural:The symbol ln x means loge x, where e is a constant equal to

2.71828182846 ....
To find the value of a base-e logarithm, just press the 1n key. For instance,
1n 30 = 3.4011...
To show what this answer means, raise e to the 3.4011 ... power.
e 3 .4 0ll ... = 30 Use the e key. Do not round the 3.4 011 ....
'ilus shells have a Example 3 shows you how to find a logarithm with a base that is not built into
rithmic spiral pattern. your calculator.
Chapter
7: Propertie
s ofElementary
Functions
Ill-EXAMPLE
3 Find log 5 17. Check your answer by an appropriate numerical m ethod.
Solution Let x = log 5 17.
5x = 17
Use the definition of logarithm. =
X.
t
log 105x = log10 17 e,x.p-onmt
Take log 10 of both sides.
x log 10 5 = logrn 17 Use the log of a power propert y to "peel off" the expone nt.
log 10 17
x= = 1.7063... Divide both sides by the coefficient of x.
1og10 5
: . log 5 17 = 1.706 3.. . Substitute for x..
Check 51.706 3 ... = 17 Do not roun d the 1.70 63
In Example 3, not e that the bas e-5 logarit hm of a numb er is dir ectly
proportio nal to th e base-10 logarithm of that number. The conclusion of th e
example can b e written this way:
1
log 5 17 = --- · log 10 17 = 1.4306 ... log 10 17
log 10 5
To find the bas e-5 logarithm of any numb er, simply multipl y its bas e-10
logar ithm by 1.4306 ... (that is, divid e by log 10 5).
This proportional relation ship is called the change-of -base property. From th e
results of Exampl e 3, you can write
log 10 17
1og- 17=---
, log 10 5
Notice that th e logarithm with the desir ed bas e is by its elf on th e left side of the
equatio n and that th e two logarithm s on the right side have th e same base,
pr esumably one available on your calculator. The box shows this property for
b ases a an d b and argument x.
PROPERTY:
TheChange-of-Base
Property
ofLogarithms
or
Ill-EXAMPLE
4 Find ln 29 usin g the change-of-base property with base-10 logarithms. Check
your answer dir ectly by pressin g ln 29 on your calculator.
Solution ln 29 = log 29 = 1.4623 .. . = _3672 __.

3 Press log (29)/log (e).
log e 0.4342 .. .
Directly : ln 29 = 3.3672 ...
which agrees with th e value you got using the change-of-base property.
Section
7-5: Logarithms
: Equation
s andOther
Base
s 323
[/ ,
- The properties of bas e-10 logarithms presented in the previous section are
generalized here for any base.
Properties
ofLogarithms
The Logarithm of a Power:
logb xY = y logb x
Verbally: The logarithm of a power equals the product of the exponent and
the logarithm of the base.
The Logarithm of a Product:

logb (xy) = logb x + logb y
Verbally: The logarithm of a product equals the sum of the logarithms of the
factors.
The Logarithm of a Quotient:

X
logb - = logb x - logb y
y
Verbally: The logarithm of a quotient equals the logarithm of the numerator
minus the logarithm of the denominator.
Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Logarithms provide a way to solve an equation with a variable in the exponent
or to solve an equation that already contains logarithms. Examples 5-8 show
how you can do this.
.....EXAMPLE
5 Solve the exponential equation 73x = 983 algebraically, using logarithms.
Solution 73 x = 983
log 73 x = log 983 Take the base-10 logarithm of bot h sides.
3x log 7 = log 983 Use the logarithm of a power property.
log983
X= Divide both sides by the coefficient of x.
3 log 7
x= 1.1803 ...
.....EXAMPLE
6 Solve the equation
log 2 (x - 1) + log 2 (x - 3) = 3
Solution log 2 (x - 1) + log 2 (x - 3) = 3

log 2 (x - l)(x - 3) = 3 App ly th e logarithm of a product property .
3
2 = (x - l)(x - 3) Use the definition of logarithm.
324 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
8 = x2 - 4x + 3 Exp and the product.
~ - 4x- 5 = 0 Reduce one sid e to zero . Use the symmetric

prop erty of equality.
(x - 5)(x + 1) = 0 Solve by factor ing.
Solutions of the qu adrat ic equat ion.
You need to be cautious h ere b ecau se the solutions in the final step are th e
solutio n s of the quadratic equation, and you must make sure th ey are also
solution s of the original logarithmic equation. Check by sub stituting
your solutio ns into th e original equation.
If x1 = 5, then If x2 = - 1, then
log 2 (5 - 1) + log 2 (5 - 3) log 2 (-1 - 1) + log 2 (-1 - 3)
= log 2 4 + log 2 2 = log 2 (-2) + log2 (-4)
=2+1=3 which is undefined .
x1 = 5 is a solution, but x2 = -1 is not.
~ EXAMPLE
7 Solve the equation and check your solutions .
e2X- 3eX+ 2 = 0
Solution e2 X- 3eX+ 2 = 0
(eX) 2 - 3eX + 2 = 0 Appl y the properties of expo nen ts.
You can realize that this is a quadrati c equation in th e variable ex. Using th e
quadratic formula , you get
+3 ± ) 9 - 4(2) 3±1
ex = =~~
2 2
ex= 2 or ex = 1
You now have to solve these two equations.
ex = 2
X1 = ill 2 = 0.6931.. .
Check e2 In 2 _ 3eln 2 + 2 (e 0 ) 2 - 3e 0 + 2
= (eln 2)2 - 3eln 2 + 2 = 12 - 3(1) + 2 = 0
= 22 - 3(2) + 2 = 0
Both solut ions ar e correc t.
~ EXAMPLE
8 Solve the logar ithmic equation 1n (x + 3) + 1n (x + 5) = 0 and check your
solution(s) :
Solution 1n (x + 3) + ln (x + 5) = 0
ln [(x + 3)(x + 5)] = 0 Use the logarithm of a product property.
Section
7-5: Logarithms
: Equa
tionsandOther
Bases 325
(x + 3)( x + 5) = e0 = 1 Definition of (natural) logarithm.
x 2 +Bx+ 15 = 1
x2 +Bx+ 14 = 0
x = -2.5857 ... or x = -5.4142 ... By the quadratic formula .
Check X = -2.5857 ... :

ln (-2.S857 ... + 3) + ln (-2.58S7 .. . + 5) Substitute without rounding.
= ln (0.4142 ... ) + ln (2.4142 ... )

= -0.8813 ... + 0.8813 .. . = 0
which checks.
X = -5.4142 ... :
ln (-5.4142 ... + 3) + ln (-5.4142 . . + 5)
= ln (-2.4142 ... ) + ln (-0.4142 .. .) No logarithms of negative numb ers.
which is undefined.
The only valid solution is x = -2.5857 .. ..
Problem Set 7-5

Ql. A logarithm is a(n) -?- .
Reading Analysis [Jg/ QB.log 48 = log 6 + log _7_
From what you have read in this section, what do •
Q9. log 0.5 = log 20 - log - ?-
you consider to be the main idea? What two bases
of logarithms are found on most calculators? How QlO. log (-2) is
do they differ? How do you find a logarithm with A. log (1/2) D. -log (1~2)
a base other than these? How do you use the
logarithm of a power property to solve an equation 1
B.-- E. Undefined
that has an unknown exponent? log 2
C. -log 2
' Quick Review
1. Write the definition of base-b logarithms.
Ql. log 5 + log 8 =log-?-
2. State the change -of-bas e property.
Q2. log 36 - log 4 =log-?-
3. ':Vrit~in e~p_onential form: 1,0~
p=c
Q3. log 52 = 2 log-?-
4. Write in exponential form: logv 6 = x
Q4. log 73 =-?- log 7
5. Write in logarithmic form: k5 = 9
Q5. l.S log 13 = log _7_
6. Write in logarithmic form: md = 13
Q6. The name "logarithm" comes from the words
-?-a nd-?-.
326 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
For Problems 7-14, find the indicated logarithm . For Problems 35-48, solve the equation
Check your answer by raising the appropriate algebraically and check your solution.
number to the appropriate power.
35. log(3x+ 7) = 0 36. 2 log (x - 3) + 1 = 5
7. log 7 29 8. log 8 352
3 7. log 2 (x + 3) + log 2 (x - 4) = 3
9. log 3 729 10. log 32 2
38. log 2 (2x - 1) - log 2 (x + 2) = -1
11. log 2 32 12. log 5 125
39. ln (x - 9)4 = 8
13. log 6 0.3 14. log 15 0.777
40 . ln (x + 2) + ln (x - 2) = 0
For Problems 154-34, find the missing values.
41. 53 x = 786 42. 8°·2 x = 98.6
15. 1n 8 + ln 7 = 1n -?-
4 3. 0.8D.4x= 2001 44. 5-s x = 0.007
16. 1n 10 + 1n 20 = 1n -?-
45. 3ex- 4 + 5 = 10 46 . 4 - e 2 x- 3 = 7
17. 1n 3 5 = -?- ln 3
47. 2e 2 x+5ex-3=0 48. 5 ·2 2x- 3.2x-2=0
18. 2 1n -?- = 1n 81
49 . Compound Int erest Problem: If you invest
19. 1n 36 - ln -?- = 1n 9 $10,000 in a savings account that pays inter est
at the rate of 7% APR (ann ual percentage rate),
20. 1n -?- - ln 7 = ln 2
then the amount Min the account after x years
21. 1n Ix=-?- ln X 22. ln lfx_= -?- 1n X is given by the exponential function
23. 1n 1 = -?- 24. 1n e= -?- M = 10,000 X l.07 x
25 . log 10 = -?- 26. log 1 = -?- a. Make a table of values of M for each year
ln 53 from Oto 6.
27. log 7 33 = log 1033 28. logo 0 7 53 = --
-?- - ?- b. How can you conclude that the values in the
log 0 _6 x log 13 n table have the add-multiply property?
29. l = log_7_ X 30. = log_ 7_ n
ogo.63 1og 130.5 o,,;r c. Suppose that you want to cash in the
savings account when th e amount M reaches
1n X log X $27,000. Set M equal to 27,000 and solve the
31. 1n lO = -?- X 32. --= -?- x
loge resulting exponential equation algebraically
3
3~ log k k3 = -- ?- u sing logarithms . Convert the solution to
months, and round appropriately to find
34. If x = logk 2 and y = logk 5, logk 0.4 = -?-. how many whole months must elapse before
Mfirst exceeds $27,000.
50. Population of the United States Problem: Based
on the 1990 and 2000 U.S. censuses, the
population increased by an average of 1.24%
per year over that time period. That is, the
population at the en d of any one year was
1.0124 times the population at the beginning
of that year.
The spiral arms of galaxies follow

a logarithmi c pattern .
Section
7-5:Logarithms
: Equations
andOther
Bases 327
a. How do you tell that the population
function has the add -multip ly property?
b. The population in 1990 was about
248. 7 million. Write a particular equa tion
expressing population, P, as a functio n of
the n years that have elapsed since 1990.
c. Assume that the population contin ues to
grow at the rate of 1.24%per year. Find
algebraically the year in which the
population first reaches 300 million. In
finding the real-world answer, use the fact
that the 1990 census was taken as of
April 1.
7-6 Logarithmic Functions

You have already learned about identifying properties of several types of functions.
• Add -add: linear functions
• Add -multiply : exponential functions
• Multiply-multiply: power functions
In this section you 'll learn that logarithmic functions have the multiply-add
property.
OBJECTIVEShow that logarithmic fun ctions have the multiply- add property, and find
particular equations by algebra.
Logarithmic Functions
Figures 7-6a and 7-6b show the natura l logarithmic function y = 1n x
and the common logarithmic function y = log x (solid graphs). These
functions are inverses of th e correspo ndin g exponential functions
(dashed graphs), as shown by the fact that the graphs are reflect ion s
of the graphs of y = ex and y = 10x across the line y = x. Both
logarithmic grap hs are concave down. Notice also that the y-values are
increasing at a decreasing rate as x increases. In both cases the y-axis
is a vertical asymptote for the logarithmic graph . 1n addition, you can
tell that the domain of these basic logarithmic functions is the set of
positive real numb ers.
Ronald Davis, Pyramid and Cube . An acid-resistant substance was
used to create this print. pH, which measures the strength of acids,
has a logarit hmi c scale. (© Gemini G.E.L.,Los Ang eles, CA, 1983)
328 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
y y
' I
5 : e" 5 I '
:1ox //// y= X
/
/
/
I /// log X
X X
10
-5 -5
Natural logarithm: y = ln x Common logarithm: y = log x

Figur e 7-6a Figure 7-6b
The general equation of a logari thmic func tion on most graphers has constants
to allow for vertical translation and dilation .
DEFINITION:
Logarithmic
Functions
Genera l eq uat ion: y = a + b loge x Base-c logarithmic fun ction.
where a, b, and care constants, with b * 0, c > 0, and c * l. The domain is all
positive rea l numbers .
Transformed fu nction : y = a + b loge (x - d)
where a is the vertical translation, b is the vertical dilation, and dis the
horizontal translation.
No te: Remember that log stands for the base -10 logarithm and ln stands for the
base-e logarithm .
Multiply-Add Property of Logarithmic Functions

These x- and y-values have the multiply-add property . Multiplying
x by 3 results in adding 1 to the corresponding y-value.
X y
6
. 3 ( 18
" 3 ( 54
• 3 (162
By interchanging the variables, you can notice that xis an exponential function
of y. You can find its particular equation by algebraic calculations.
X = 2 "3 Y
Section
7-6: Logarithmic
Functions 329
This equation can be solved for y as a function of x with the help of logarithms.
ln x = ln (2 · 3Y) Take the natur al logarithm (ln) of both sides.
lnx = ln 2+y ln 3 Use the product and po wer properties of

logar ithm s.
yln 3 =l nx - ln 2 Isolate th e term with y.
1 ln 2
y=-lnx-- Solve for y.
ln 3 ln 3
y = 0.9102 ... ln X - 0.6309 .. . Calculat e constants by calculator.
This equation is a logarithmic function with a= -0.6309 ... and b = 0.9102 .... So,
if a set of points has the multiply-add property, the points repres ent valu es of a
logarithmic function . Reversing the steps lets you conclude that logarithmic
functions have this prop erty in general.
PROPERTY:
Multiply-Add
Propertyof Logarithmic
Functions
If fis a logarithmic function, then multiplying x by a constant results in
adding a constant to the value of f(x). That is,
for f(x) = a + b log e x, if x2 = k · x1 , then f(x2) = loge k + f(x1 )
Particular Equations of Logarithmic Func tions

You can find the particular equation of a logarithmic function algebraically by
substituting two points that are on the graph of the function and evaluating th e
two unknown constants. Example 1 shows you how to do this.
~ EXAMPLE
1 Suppose that f is a logarithmic function with values {( 3) = 7 and f(6) = 10.
a. Without finding th e particular equation, find ((12) and f(24).
b. Find th e particular equation algebraically using natural logarithms.
c. Confirm that your equation gives th e value of {(24) found in part a.
Solution a. Make a table of values using the multiply-add property.
X f(x)
x2 (
3 7
6
10 ) +3
x2 ( 12 13) +3
x2 (24 16 ) + 3
((12) = 13 and ((24) = 16

b. f(x) = a+ b ln x Write the general equation .
r = a+bln 3
10=a+bln6 Substitut e th e given p oint s.
330 Chapter7: Properties

ofElementary
Functions
3=bln6 - bln3 Subtract the equations to
eliminat e a.
3
b= = 4.3280 ... Factor out band then divid e by
ln6 - ln 3 In 6 - In 3.
7 = a + 4.3280 ... 1n 3 Substitute 4.3280 .. for b.
a= 7 - 4.3280 ... 1n 3 = 2.2451... Store a and b without rounding.
f(x) = 2.2451.. . + 4.3280 ... ln x Write the particular equation.

Past e it in they= m enu.
c. By calculator, {(24) = 16, which checks.
Iii-EXAMPLE
2 Plot the graphs of these fun ctions and identif y their domains.
a. f(x) = 3 log (x - 1)
b. f(x) = -ln (x + 3)
c. f(x) = log 2 (x2 - 1)
Solution a. You can get the graph of the function f(x) = 3 log (x - 1) through
transformations of the parent logarithmic function: a hori zonta l
f(x) translation by 1 unit and a vertical dilation by 3 units. Figure 7-6c shows
5 I the resulting graph .
I
You know that the domain of a logarithmic function is positive real numbers,
X
so the argument of a logarithmic function has to b e positiv e.
x- 1>0
-5
The domain of the function is x > l. Add 1 to both sides of the inequ ality.
Figur e 7-6c b. Figure 7-6d shows the grap h of th e function f(x) = - ln(x + 3). You can get
this graph by reflecting the graph of the function y = 1n x across the x-axis
f(x) and translating it hori zo ntally by -3 units.
5
Domain:
X
x +3> 0 Argum ent of a logarithm ic fun ction is positiv e.
-5 I
I
I
I
The domain of the function is x > -3 .
I
-5
I
I c. In order to graph this function on your grapher, use the change-of -base
Figure 7-6d property.
log (x2 - 1)
f(x) = log2 (x2 - 1) =
1og 2
Figure 7-6e shows th e resulting graph.
X
Domain:
5
Argum ent of a loga rithmi c func tion is posi tive.
Figure 7-6e
Section
7·6: Logarithmic
Functions 331
You can solve this inequality graphic ally. Graph the quadratic function and
look for those x-values for which the function value is greater than zero or
the graph is above the x-axis (see Figure 7-6f).
y
-5
Figure 7-6{
The domain is x < - l or x > l.
Problem Set 7-6

y y
Reading Analysis ag/
general equation of a logarithmic function, and how
X X
is a logarithmic function related to an exponent ial
function ? What numerical pattern do regularly Figure 7-6g Figure 7-6h
spaced values of a logarithmic function follow?
Quick Review
01. Name the kind of function in Figure 7-6g.
02. Name the kind of function in Figure 7-6h.
y V
L, ,
03. Name the kind of function in Figure 7-6i.
Figure 7-6i Figur e 7-6}
04. Name the kind of function in Figure 7-6j.
05. Name the kind of function in Figure 7-6k.
y
06. Sketch a reasonable grap h: The population of a
city depends on time.
Ql. The graph of a quadratic function is called a
_7_
X
QB.Expand the square : (3x - 7)2

09. Write the next three terms in this sequence: Figure 7-6k
3, 6, 12, 24, ...
Q10.The add-multip ly property is a characteristic
of-?- functions.
332 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Fun
ctions
For Problems 1 and 2, a. Based on theoretical considerations, it is
a. Show that th e valu es in the table have the known that the percentage of carbon-14
multipl y-add prop erty. remaining is an exponential function of the
age. HoyVdoes this fact indicate that the age
b. Use the first and last points to find
should be a logarithmic function of the
algebraicall y the parti cular equation of the
percentage?
natural logarithmi c fun ction that fits the
points. b . Using the first and last points, find the
particular equation of the logarithmic
c. Verify that the equation in part b gives the
function that goes through the points. Show
other points in th e tabl e.
that the equation gives values for other
J X
3.6
14.4
y
1
2
2. X
1
10
y
2
3
points close to those in the table.
c. You can use your mathematical model to
interpolate between the given data points
57.6 4 to find fairly precise ages. Suppose that a
3 100
230.4 4 5 piece of human bone were found to have
1000
921.6 carbon-14 content 73.9%. What would
5
you predict its age to be ?
d. How old would you predict a piece of wood
~ arbon-14 Dating Problem: The ages of things,
to be if its carbon-14 content were only 20%?
such as wood , bone, and cloth, that are made
from material s that were once living can be
determined by measuring th e percentage of e. Search on the Internet or in some other
original radioa ctive carbon-14 that remains in resource to find out about early hominid
th em. This tabl e contain s data on age as fossil remains and carbon -14 dating.
a function of the remaining percentage of
carbon-1 4. 4. Earthquake Problem: You can gauge the
amount of energy released by an earthquake
Percentage Age by its Richter magnitude, a scale devised by
Remaining (yr)
seismologist Charles F. Richter in 1935. The
100 0 Richter magnitude is a base-10 logarithmic
90 874 function of the energy released by the
80 1851 earthquake. These data show the Richter
70 2959 magnitude m for earthquakes that release
ftO energy equivalent to the explosion of x tons of
4~
50 5750 TNT (tri-nitro-toluene).
x (tons) . m (Richter magnitude)
1,000 4.0
1,000,000 6.0
a. Find the particular equation of the common
logarithmic function m = a + blog x that fits
the two points. "
The skull of the saber-toothed cat, whi ch lived in the

Pleistocene more than 11,000 years ago.
Section
7-6: Logarithmic
Functions 333
5. Logarithmic Function Vertical Dilation and
Translation Problem:
y y
--------/- ~ .. -- X X
10
The director of the National Earthquake Service in

Golden, Colorado, studies the seismograph display Figure 7-61 Figure 7-6m
of a magnitude 15 earthquake.
a. Figure 7-61 shows the graph of the common

b. Use the equation to predict the Richter logarithmic function f(x) = log 10 x (dashed)
magnitude for and a vertical dilation of this graph by a
factor of 6, y = g(x) (solid). Write an equation
• The 1964 Alaska earthquake, one of the
of g(x), considering it as a vertical dilation.
strongest on record, that released the
Write another equation of g (x) in terms of
energy of 5 billion tons of TNT
Iogb x, where bis a number other than 10.
• An earthquake that would release the Find the base.
amount of solar energy Earth receives
b. Figure 7-6m shows the graph of f(x) = ln x
every day, 160 trillion tons of TNT
(dashed) . Two vertical translations are also
• Blasting done at a construction site shown, g(x) = 3 + ln x and h(x) = -1 + ln x.
that releases the energy of about 30 lb Find algebraically or numerically the
of TNT x-intercepts of g and h.
c. The earthquake that caused a tsunami in
6. Logarithmic and Exponential Function Graphs
the Indian Ocean in 2004 had Richter
Problem: Figure 7-6n shows the graph of an
magnitude about 9.0. How many tons of
exponential function y = f(x) and its inverse
TNT would it take to produce a shock of
function y = g(x).
this magnitude?
d. True or false? "Doubling the energy released r
by an earthquake doubles the Richter
magnitude." Give evidence to support your
answer.
g
---------
X
e. Look up Richter magnitude on the Internet
,' 1
or in some other resource. Name one thing I
you learned that is not mentioned in this '

problem. Figure 7-6n
334 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
a. The base of the exponential function is an a. Reproduce the graph in Figure 7-60 on your
integer. Which integer? grapher . Use a friendl y window that has a
b. Write the particular equation of the inverse grid point at x = 0. Trace to values close to
function y = g(x) = 1(x) . r- zero, and record the correspo nding values
of y.
c. Confirm that your answers to parts a and b
are correct by plotting on your grapher. b. Two competing properties influence the
expression (1 + x) 1l x as x approaches zero. A
d. With your grapher in parametric mode, plot
number greater than 1 raised to a large power
these parametric functions:
is very large, but 1 raised to any power is
x(t) = f(t) still 1. Which of thes e competing properties
y(t) =t "wins"? Or is there a "compromise" at some
number larger than 1?
What do you notice about the resulting graph?
c. Call up the number e on your grapher. If it
e. From your answer to part d, explain how does not have an e key, calculate e 1 . What
you could plot on your grapher the inverse do you notice about the answer to part b
of any given function. Show that your and the number e?
method works by plotting the inverse of the
function y = x3 - 9x2 + 23x - 15. ::
For Problems 7-12, graph the functio ns and identif y 14. Research Project : On the Internet or via some
the domains. other reference source, find out about Henry
x) = -2 log (x + 3) 8. f(x) = log (3 - 2x) Briggs and John Napier and their contributions
to the mathematics of logarithms. See if you
9. ti x) = log3 x2 10. f(x) = 1n (x2 - 4) can find out why natural logarithms are
12. f(x) = 4 log 2 (3x + 5) sometimes called Napierian logarithms.
This problem prepares you for the next section.

13. The Definition of e Problem: Figure 7-60 shows
the graph of y = (1 + x) l/ x. If x = 0, then y is
undefined because of division by zero . If xis
close to zero, then ~ is very large . For instance,
(1 + 0.0001)1 / 00001 = 1.000110000
= 2.71814592 ...
X
-I 2 3 4 These rods are call ed "Napier's bones." Inv ented in
the ear ly 1600s, th ey mad e multiplicaHon, division ,
and th e extrac tion of squar e roots easier.
Figur e 7-60
'2..
A
:,
.9v'f-- 1\
Section
7-6:Logarithmic
Functions 335
7-7 Logistic Functions for Restrained Growth
Suppose that th e population of a new subdivision is growing rapidly. This table
shows monthly population figures .
x (months) y(houses)
2 103
4 117
6 132
8 148
10 167
Figure 7-7a shows the plot of points and a smooth (dashed) curve that goes
through them. You can tell that it is increasing, is concave up, and has a positive
y-intercept, suggesting that an exponentia l function fits th e points. Using the
first and last points gives the function y = 91.278 2 ... (l.0622 ... )x, the curve
shown in the figure, which fits the points almost exactly. Suppose that there ar e
only 1000 lots in the subdivision. Th e actual numb er of houses will level off,
approaching 1000 gradually, as shown in Figure 7-7b.
y
, Exponenti al func tion
Y
Asymp tote
1ooor--~~----,r-1 ~~~/''-::::::::====~
I
I
Actua l
,,
I
y I
,
~ Concave down
I
I
250 Concave up ,'
200
~,,,,,, I
I
I
150
100 _...
_.. -·
_ .. , ~'
500
,/\
___
50
__.
5
__.___,______
10 15
X
20 40
Poin t of inflec tion
60 80 100
X

Exponentia l grow th Restrained growth
In this section you will learn about logistic functions that are useful as
mathematical models of restrained growth.
OBJECTIVEFit~ , logistic function to data for restrained growth.
Figure 7-7c shows the graphs of
f(x) = 2x and
336 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementa
ryFunctions
I
y Function f is an exponential function, and function g is a logistic function.
I
,' f
For large positive values of x, the graph of g levels off to y = l. This is because,
for large values of x, 2x is large compared to the 1 in the denominator. So the
denominator is not much different from 2x, the numerator, and the fraction
repr esenting g(x) approaches l.
-5 2x
g(x)--+ - =1
2x
Fig ur e 7-lc
For large negative values of x, the 2x in the denominator is close to zero. So the
denominator is close to l. Thus the fraction representing g(x) approaches 2·X.
2x
g(x) --+ -- ="2x
0+1
As you can see in Figure 7-7c, the logistic function is almost indistinguishable
from the exponential function for large negative values of x. But for large
po sitive values, the logistic function levels off, as did the number of occupied
houses represented by Figure 7-7b. You can fit logistic functions to data sets by
th e same dilations and translations you have used for other types of functions.
You 'll see how in Example l.
General Logistic Function

You can transform the equation of function gin Figure 7-7c so that only one
expon ential term appears .
2x 2- x
= --•- Multipl y by a clever form of 1.
2x + 1 2- x
1
To get a general function of this form, replace the 1 in the numerator with a
con stant , c, to give the function a vertical dilation by a factor of c. Replace the
exp onential term 2- x with ab -x or, equivalently, ae - bx if you want to use the
natural exponential function. The result is shown in the box.
DEFINITION:
Logistic
Function
General
Equation
C C
f(x) = 1 + ae- b or f(x) = +
1
where a, b, and care constants and the domain is all real numbers.
Section
7-7: Logistic
Function
sforRe
strained
Growth 337
~ EXAMPLE
I Use the information on the occupied houses from th e beginning of the section.
x (months) y (houses)
2 103
4 117
6 132
8 148
,,-- 10 167
a. Given that there are 1000 lots in
th e subdivis ion, us e the points
for 2 mo and 10 mo to find the
part ku lar equati on of the
logistic function that satisfies
these constraints .
b. Plot the graph of the logistic function from O through 100 months. Sketch
the result.
c. Make a table showing that the logistic function fits all the points closely .
d . Use the logistic fun ction to predict th e numb er of hous es that will be
occupied at the value of x corresponding to 2 yr. Which process do you
use, extrapolation or interpolation ?
e. Find th e value of x at th e point of infl ection. What is th e real-world
meaning of the fact that th e gra ph is conca ve up for tim es befor e the point
of infl ect ion and concav e down thereafter?
Solution Start with the second form of logistic function.

1000
a y
.
= 1 + ab - x The vertica l dilation is 1000.
103 = 1oobo-2 Substitut e points (2, 103) and

l +a (10, 167).
1167 = 1000
1 + ab - 10
103 + l0 3a b - 2 = 1000 Eliminate the fractions.
{167 + 167ab - 10 = 1000
103ab - 2 = 897
{167ab - 10 = 833
167ab - 10 833
Divide to eliminat e a and simplify.
10 3ab - 2 897
b- 8 = 83 3 . 10 3
897 167
833 103) - l/8
b = ( 897. 167 = l.0?21.. . Store without rounding .
103a (l.0 721.. .r 2

= 897 Sub sti tut e for b.
a = 10.0106 ... Store without rounding.
1000
Write the particul ar equation.
y = 1 + 10.010 6 ... (1.0721.. .)-X
338
~ Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Function
s
b. Figure 7-7b shows the graph.
c. x (months) y (houses) Logistic Function
2 103 103 (exact)
4 117 116.60 ... (close)
6 132 131.73 ... (close)
8 148 148.50 ... (close)
10 167 167 (exact)
d. Trace the function to x = 24 for 2 yr .
y = 347.1047 ... :::::,
347 houses
The process is extrapolation because x = 24 is beyond the range of the
given points.
e. The point of inflection is halfway between the x-axis and the asymptote
at y = 1000. Trace the function to a value that is close to y = 500 . Use the
intersect feature to find x = 33.0694 .... So the point of inflection occurs
at about 33 mo. Before 33 mo, the number of hou ses is increasing at
an increasing rate. After 33 mo, the number is still increasing but at a
decreasing rate. <11111
Note that if a, b, and care all positive, the logistic function will have two
horizontal asymptotes, one at the x-axis and one at the line y = c. The point of
inflection occurs halfway between these two asymptotes.
Properties of the graphs of logistic functions are shown in the box.
PROPERTIES:
Logistic
Functions
C
The logistic function is y = - b , where a> 0, b * 0, c > 0, and a, b, care
1 + ae x
constants. The domain is all real numbers. The logistic function has
• Two horizontal asymptotes ·, one at y = 0 and another at y = c
C
• A point of inflection at y =
2
Ifb>O If b < 0
C C
Y = l + ae-bx Note: a > 0, c > 0 Y= 1+ ae-bx Note: a > 0, c > 0
Asymptot e at y = c Asymptote at y = c
~~ -~ -~------------------------
_ _ Point of inflection _ Point of inflection

at y = f at y = f
Asymptot e
Asymptote at y= 0 X at y = 0 X
Logisti c fun ction Logistic function
Section
7·7: Logistic
Functions
forRestrained
Growth 339
Problem Set 7-7
d. Explain algebraically why the logistic
Reading Analysis {Jg/ function has a horizontal asymptote at
From what you have read in this section, what do y= 1.
you consider to be the main idea? What is the main e. Transform the equ ation of the logistic
difference between the graph of a logistic function function so that an exponential term
and the graph of an exponential function? For what appears only once. Show numerically that
kind of real-world situations are logistic functions the resulting equation is equiva lent to g(x)
reasonable mathematical models? as given.
2. Figure 7-7d shows the graph of the logistic
function
Quick Review~,~
3e0.2x
QT. An exponential function has the-?- - -?- f(x) = eo.zx + 4
property.
f(x)
02. A power function has the-?- - -?-
3
property.
03. The equation y= 3 + 5 ln x defines a-?-
function. X
Q4. The function in Q3 has the-?- - -?- 10 20 30

property . Figure 7-ld
QS. The expression 1n x is a logarithm with the
a. Explain algebraically why the graph has a
number - ?- as its base .
horizontal asymptote at y = 3.
Q6.Write in exponential form: h = logP m b. Read the point of inflection from the graph.
Ql. Write in logarithmic form: c = 5J Find the x-coordinate algebraically.
c. For what values of xis the grap h concave
QB.If an object rotates at 100 revolutions per
up? Concave down?
minute, how many radians per minute is this?
d. Transform the equation so that there is only
Q9. Write the general equation of a quadratic one exponential term. Confirm by graphing
function. that th e resulting equation is equivalent to
Q10. COS TT is f(x) as given.
A. -1 B. 0 C. 1 D. ! E. Undefined 3. Spread ing the News Problem: You arrive at
school and meet your mathematics teacher, who
tells you today's test has been canceled! You and
l. Given the exponentia l function f(x) = 1.2x and
your friend spread the good news. The table
1.2x
the logistic function g(x) = l. x + , shows the number of students, y, who have
2 1 heard the news after x minutes have passed
a. Plot both graphs on the same screen. Use as since you and your friend heard the news.
a domain x E (-10, 10]. Sketch the result.
X (min) y (studen ts)
b. How do the two graphs compare for large
positive values of x? How do they compare 0 2 'I.,
for large negative values of x? 10
c. Find graphically the approximate x-value of 20 1~ l
the point of inflection for function g. For 30 '
35 \:''
~
what values of xis the graph of function g 40 90 ·-/ 7

concave up? Concave down?
340 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
a. Plot the points. Imagine a function fit to the day th e cases were diagnosed as Ebola viru s
points. Is the graph of this function concave infectio ns . The final number of people who
up, concave down, or both? were infected during this epidemic is 396 .
b. There are 1220 students in the school. Use (Ebola is a virus that causes internal bleeding
the numbers of students at O min and at and is fatal in most cases.)
40 min to find the equation of the logisti c x (days) y (total infections)
function that meets these constra ints.
c. Plot the graph of the logistic function for 1 71
the first 3 hour s. 10 182
15 239
d. Based on the logistic model, how man y
21 281
students have heard the news at 9:00 a.m. 321
30
if you heard it at 8:00 a.m.? How long will it be 370
50
until all but 10 students have heard the news? 74 394
4 . Spreading the News Simulation Experiment: In
a. Plot the data points. Imagine a function that
this experiment you will simulate the spread of
fits the dat a. Is the graph of this function
the news in Problem 3. Number each student concave up or concave down ?
in your class, starting at 1. Person 1 stands up
and then selects two people at random to "tell" b. Use the second and last points to find the
th e news to. Do this by selecting two random particular equation of a logistic funct ion
integers between 1 and the number of students that fits th e data .
in your class, inclusive. (It is not actually c. Plot on the same screen as the plot in part a
necessary to tell any news!) The random the logistic function from part b. Sketch the
number generator on one student 's calculator results.
will help make the random selection. The two d. Where does the point of inflection occur in
people with the chosen numbers sta nd. Thus, the logistic mod el? What is the real-world
after the first iteration, there will probably be meaning of this point ?
three students standing (unless a duplicate
e. Based on th e logis tic model, how many
random number came up). Each of these people were infected after 40 days?
(three) people selects two more people to "tell"
the news to by selecting a total of six (or four)
more random integers. Do this for a total of
ten iterations or until the entire class is f. Consult a refer enc e on th e Internet or
standing. At each iteration, recor d the numb er els ewhere to find data about other
of iterations and the total number of peop le epidemics . Try to model the spread of the
who have heard the news. Describe the results epidemic for which you found data .
of the experiment. Include things such as
• The plot of the data points.
• A function that fits the data, and a graph
of this function on the plot . Explain why
you chose the function you did .
• A statement of how well the logistic
model fits the data.
• The iteration number at which the good
news was spreading most rapi dly.
5. Ebola Outbreak Epidemic Problem: In the fall of
2000, an ep idemic of the Ebola virus brok e out
in the Gulu district of Uganda . The table shows A Red Cross medical officer instr ucts villagers
the total number of people infected from the about the Ebola viru s in Kabede Opong, Uganda .
Section
7-7: Logistic
Functions
forRestrained
Growth 341
6. Rabbit Overpopulation Problem: Figure 7-7e
shows two logistic functions represented by
the equation
1000
y=
1 + ae - x
Both functions repr esent the population of

rabbits in a particular woods as a function of
time x, in years . The value of the constant a is to
be determined und er two different initial
conditions.
y
2000
a. Let a= 2. Plot on th e same screen the
g graphs off for c = 1, 2, and 3. Use as a
1000
domain x E [-10, 10]. Sketch the results.
True or false? "The constant c is a vertical
X
dilation factor."
2 3 4 5
b. Figure 7-7f shows the graph off with c = 2
Figur e 7-7e
and with a= 0.2, 1, and 5. Which graph is
a. For y = f(x) in Figure 7-7e, 100 rabbits were which? How do es the value of a transform
introdu ced into the woods at tim e x = 0. th e graph?
Find the value of th e constant a und er this f(x)
condition. Show th at your answer is correct
by plotting the graph of f on your grapher.
b. How do you interpr et this mathematical
model with regard to what happ en s to the
X
rabbit population und er th e condition in
5 10
part a?
Figure 7-7{
c. For y = g(x) in Figure 7-7e, 2000 rabbits
were introduced into th e woods at time C
x = 0. Find the value of a und er thi s c. Let g(x) = _0 4 < _ ).
1 + ae · x 3
condition . Show that the graph agrees with
Figur e 7-7e. What transformation ap plied to f does this
repr esent ? Confirm that your answer is
d. How do you interpr et the mathematical correct by plotting f and g on the same
model under the condition of part c? What screen using c = 2 and a = 1.
seem s to b e the implication of trying to
stock a region with a greater number of a d. What value of a in the equation of f(x)
particul ar species than the region can would produce th e same transformation as
support ? in part c?
7. Given th e logistic fun ction

C
f( x) = _l_+_a_e
___o_A_x
342 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Function
s
In this chapter you have learned graphical and numerical patterns for various
types of functions:
• Linear
• Quadrat ic
• Power
• Exponential
• Logarithmic (the inverse of exponential)
• Logistic (for restrained growth)
These patt erns allow you to tell which type of function might fit a given
real -world situation . Once you have selected a function that has appropr iate
concavity , increasing-decreasing behavior, and numeric al beha vior, you can find
the particu lar equation by calculatin g values of the constants. You can check
your work by seeing whet her th e function fits other given points. Once you hav e
the correct equation, you can us e it to interpolate b etween given values or
extrapolate beyond given values to calculate y wh en you know x, or to calculate
x when you know y.
Review Problems
RO. Update your journal with what you have Rl. This problem concerns these five function
learned in this chapt er. Include things such as valu es:
the definitions, properti es, and grap hs of the
X f(x)
functions listed. Show typical grap hs of th e
vario u s functions, give their domains, and 2 1.2
make connectio ns between, for exampl e, the 4 4 .8
add-multiply property of the expo n ential 6 10.8
functions and the multipl y-add property of 8 19.2
the logarithmic function s. Show how you can 10 30.0
use logarithms and their properties to solve
for unknowns in exponential or logarithmic a. On the same screen , plot th e points and the
equ ations , and explain how these equations graph of f(x) = 0.3x 2 .
arise in finding the constants in the particular b . Is the fun ction incr eas ing or decr eas ing?
equation of certain functions. Tell what you Is the graph concave up or concave down ?
ha ve learned about the constan t e and where it c. Name th e function in part a. Give an
is u sed. exam ple in the real world that this function
might model. Is the y-inter cept of f
reaso n able for this r eal-world example?
Section
7-8: Chapter
Review
andTest 343
R2. a. Find the particular equation of a linear C. X h(x) d. X q(x)
function containing the points (7, 9) and
(10, 11). Give an example in the real world 3 24 3 24
that this function could model. 6 30 6 12
9 36 9 18
b . Sketch two graphs showing a decreasing
12 42 12 42
exponential function and an inverse
variation power function. Give two ways in e. Suppose that f(3) = 90 and f(6) = 120 . Find
which the graphs are alike. Give one way in f(12) if the function is
which they are different. i. An exponential function
c. How do you tell that the function graphed ii. A power function
in Figure 7-8a is an exponential function,
iii. A linear function
not a power function? Find the particular
equation of the exponential function. Give f. Demonstrate that the add-multiply property
an example in the real world that this of exponential functions is true for the
exponential function could model. function f(x) = 53 · 1.3x by showing
algebraically that adding the constant c to x
y multiplies the corresponding f(x)-value by a
constant.
20
(5, 16) R4. a. The most important thing to rem ember
10 about logarithms is that a logarithm is-? - .
X b . Write in logarithmic form: z = lQP
2 5
c. What does it mean to say that
Figure 7-Ba log 30 = 1.4771.. .?
d. Find the particular equation of the quadratic d. Give numerical examples to illustrate these
function graphed in Figure 7-8b. How does logarithmic prop erties:
the equation you find show that the graph is
i. log (xy) = log x + log y
concave down? Give an example in the real
world that this function could model. X
ii. log - = log x - log y
y
y
20 (4, 18.8) iii. log xY = y log x
(6, 12.8) e. log 48 - log 4 + log 5 =log-?-
(2, 15.2)
10 RS. a. Write in exponential form: p = log e m
X b . Find log 7 30 .
2 4 6 8 c. ln 7 + 2 ln 3 = ln -? -
Figure 7-Bb d. Solve the equation: log (x + 1) + log (x - 2) = 1
e. A quadratic function has the equation e. Solve the equation: 32 x- 1 = r
y- 3 = 2(x - 5)2 . Where is the vertex of the
R6. a. On the same screen, plot the graphs of
graph? What is the y-intercept?
y 1 = ln x and y2 = e·X.Use the same scales on
R3. For each table of values, tell from the pattern both axes . Sketch the results. How are the
whether the function that fits the points is two graphs related to each other and to the
linear, quadratic, exponential, or power. line y= x?
a. x f(x) b. x g(x) b. For the natural exponential function
f(x) = se -oAx, write the equation in the form
3 24 3 24 f(x) = abX. For the exponential function
6 12 6 12 g(x) = 4.3 · 7.4X, write the equation as a
9 6 9 8 natural exponential function.
12 3 12 6
344 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Functions
b . Explain why f(x) is very close to g(x) when x
is a large negative number . Explain why,
when x is a large positive number, f(x) is
close to 10 and g(x ) is very large.
c. Transform the equation of f(x) in part a so
that it has only on e exponential term.
d. Transform the equation of g(x) in part a so
that it is expressed in the form g(x) = e'°'.
e. Population Problem: A small communit y
is built on an island in the Gulf of Mexico.
The population grows steadily, as shown in
the table.
x (months) y(people)
6 75
12 153
18 260
24 355
Sunlight Under the Water Problem (R6c-R6e): Explain why a logistic function would be a
The intensity of sunlight underwater decreases with reasonabl e mathematical mod el for
depth. The table shows the depth, y, in feet, below population as a function of time . If the
the surface of the ocean you mu st go to reduce the community has room for 460 residents ,
intensity of light to the given perce nt age , x, of what find the particular equation of the logistic
it is at the surface. function that contains the points for 6 mo
and for 24 mo . Show that the equation gives
X (%) Depth y (ft) approximately the correct solutions for 12 mo
and 18 mo . Plot th e gra ph, and sketch the
100 0
result. When is the population predicted to
so 13
reach 95% of the capacity?
25 26
12.S 39
c. What numerical pattern tells you that a
logarithmic function fits the data ? Find the
particular equation of the functio n.
d. On the same screen, plot the data and the
logarithmic function. Sketc h th e result.
e. Based on this mathematical model, ho w
deep do you have to go for the light to be
reduced to 1% of its intensity at the surface?
Do you find this by interpolation or by
ext rapolation ?
R7. a. Plot the graphs of these functions on the
same screen and sketch the results.
. . funchon
Log1st1c . : ,"'( 10 · 2x
. x) = ---
2x + 10
Exponential function: g(x) = 2x
Section
7-8:Chap
terReview
andTest 345
Concept Problems
Cl. Rise and Run Property of Quadratic Functions C2. Log-log and Semilo g Graph Paper Problem: Let
Problem: The sum of consecutive odd counting f(x) = 1000 · 0.65 x be th e number of bacteria
numbers is always a perfect square . For remaining in a culture over time x, measured
instance, in hours. Let g(x) = 0.09x 2 b e the area of skin ,
measur ed in square centimeters, on a snake of
1 = 12
length x, measured in centimeters. Figure 7-8d
1 + 3 = 4 = 22 shows the graph of the exponential function f
plotted on semilog graph paper . Figure 7-8e
1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 32
shows the graph of th e power function g plot-
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 = 4 2 ted on log-log graph paper. On thes e graphs,
one or both axes have scales proportional to
This fact can be used to sketch the graph of a
the logarithm of the variab le's value . Thus the
quadratic function by a "rise-run" technique
scales are compressed so that a wide range
similar to that used for linear functions.
of values can fit on the same sheet of graph
Figure 7-8c shows that for y = x2 , you can start
paper. For these two functions, the grap hs are
at the vertex and us e the patt ern "over 1, up l;
straight lines .
over 1, up 3; over 1, up 5; .. .. "
a. On graph paper, plot the graph of y = x2 by f(x) = JOOO· 0.65 '
u sing this rise -run technique. Use integer
values of x from O to 4. Then repeat the JOOO ~~
- t-=---:
- -+-->--+-+-~
pattern for values of x from O to -4. 1>--1-+1-+--!-··+--1--+ +---1f---+---+---I

b. The graph of y = -5 + (x - 2)2 is a
translation of th e graph of y = x 2 . Locate the
vertex, and then plot the graph on graph
paper using th e rise-run pattern .
c. The graph of y = -5 + 0.3(x - 2)2 is a vertical
100 1..'{':~-
:=r=t--
-- t--T-t···-+--+-+-
_j _w--- - ---.---'----
-t
dilation of the graph in part b. Use the rise - -rt· --r N \

-t----+--1---I
--+ ---0--+--1
run technique for this function , and then !
plot its grap h on the same axes as in part b. \ '
10-1==
\I
1=:l:=t:=t.=E:::i=::!:=!==l=~~=t:=:l==f'"
y
-- ---•-·--·-· -- ···- · --·--\: -- --- -
-
---~ ---
--
,-
- ,__----
I---·-·
- f--- . -· -----
'\ --
·-~- _J_
i
""
I I
\ I
I I
I 1X
I I I I
I 1 I I
:+s 0 5 10 15
Figure 7-Bd
+l
Figure 7-Bc
346 Chapter
7: Pro
pertiesof Elementary
Functions
g(x) = 0.09X'" logarithms to show that log g(x) is a linear
1000 ' function of log x. How does this fact relat e
--
- -+ -t t -~
'--+---H
I
;-ij to the graph in Figure 7-8e?
- !
-----+-
I I C3. Slope Field Logistic Fun ction Prob lem: The
'
I
I
y logisti c functions you have studied in
I this chapter model population s that star t
I
100 - -~ ./
/! I at a relatively low value an d then ris e
I
asymptotically to a maximum sustainable
- population. Ther e may also be a minimum
-
-
I sustainable population. Suppose that a new
;
-
I
variety of tree is plant ed on a relatively small
-
I island . Researc h indi cates that the minimum
I I
10 : I I sustainable population is 300 trees and that

- the maximum sustainable population is
- I/
l 1000 trees. A logistic func tion modeling this
I-
~
+
+ I 7 -++
I -- : situation is
~
I
- -+ -~ j 300C + 1000e 0 -7 x
l
1 '
I 10 100
X
y=
c + eo.1x
where y is the number of trees alive x years
Figure 7-Be after the tr ees were pl ante d. The coefficients
300 and 1000 are the minimum and maximum
a. Read the values of f(9) and g(60) from the sustainable population s, respectively, and C is
graphs. Then calculate these numbers using a constant deter mined by the initial condition,
the given equations . If your graphical the number of trees plant ed at time x = O.
answers are different from your calculated a. Determine the value of C and write the
answers, explain what mistakes you made in particular equation if, at time x = O,
reading the graphs. i. 400 tr ees are planted.
b . You'll n eed a sheet of semilog graph paper ii. 1300 trees are planted.
and a sheet of log-log graph paper for iii. 299 trees are planted.
graphing. On th e semilog paper, plot the
function h(x ) = 2 · 1.5x using severa l values b. Plot th e graph of each function in part a.
of x in the domain [O, 15]. On the log-log Use a window with an x-range of about
paper, plot the function p(x) = ?Oox - 1.3 [O, 10] and a suitable y-range. What are the
using severa l values of x in the domain major differences among th e three graphs?
[l, 100]. What do the graphs of the c. Figure 7-8f shows a slope field r epresenting
functions look like? functions with the given equation. The line
c. Take the logarithm of both sides of th e segment through each grid point indicates
equation f(x) = 1000 · 0.6s x. Use the the slop e the graph would have if it passed
properties of logarithm s to show that through that point. On a copy of Figure 7-8f,
log f(x) is a linear function of x. Explain how plot the thr ee equations from part a. How
this fact is connected to the shape of the are the graphs relat ed to the line segments
graph. on th e slope field?
d. Take th e logarithm of both sides of the
equation g(x) = 0.09x 2 . Use the prop erti es of
Section
7-8: Chapter
Review
andTest 347
y d. Describ e the beha vior of th e tree population
1500 ' \ for each of the three initial conditions in
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ part a. In particular, exp lain what happens if
too few trees ar e planted and also what
happ en s if too many trees are planted.
e. Without doing any more computations,
1000 sket ch on the slope field th e grap h of the
tre e population if, at time x = 0,
/ / / / / / / / / / i. 500 trees had been plant ed.
/ / / / / / / / / / ii. 1500 trees had been planted.
/ / / / / / / / / / iii. 200 trees had been plan ted .
500 / / / / / / / / / / f. How does the slope field allow you to
analyze graphically the b ehavior of many
related logistic functions without doing any
computation s?
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
X
0 ---------+ 5--1--+--+--+-~
0
Figur e 7-Bf
Chapter Test
PART
1: Nocalculators
allowed(Tl-T9) e. Y f. y
Tl. Write the general equation of

a. A lin ear function
b. A quadratic function
X X
c. A power function
d. An exponential function
T3. What numerical pattern do regularly spaced
e. A logarithmic function data hav e for ~
f. A logistic function a. A linear function
T2. What typ e of function could have th e graph b. A quadratic function
shown ? c. A power function of the form y = axb
a. Y b. y
d. An expon entia l function of the form y = abx
e. A logarithmi c function of the form
y = a lo gbx
T4. Write the equ at ion loga b = c in exponential
;:::1
:::
X X
ho w to use th e logari thm of a powe~

C. y d. y V prop erty to simplif y log sx.
T6. 1n 80 + ln 2 - ln 20 = 1n -?-
T7. log 5 + 2 log 3 =log -?-
X X
TS. Solve th e equation: 4x - 3 · 2x - 4 = 0
T9. Solve the equation: log 2 (x - 4) - log 2 (x + 3) = 8
348 Chapter
7: Prop
ertiesofElementary
Functions
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(T10-T28) every 2 minutes thereafter, creating this table of
data. Use the data for Problems Tl5-Tl8.
Shark Problem: Suppose that from great white
sharks caught in the past, fishermen find these 9(x)
weights _and lengths. Use this set of data for X (min) (°F above room temperature)
Problems Tl0-Tl4.
3 94.8
X (ft) f(x) (lb) 5 76.8
7 ...- ------ 62.2
5 75 9 50.4
10 600 ll 40.8
15 2025
20 4800 TIS. Plot the information. From the plot, tell
whether the graph of the function you can fit
TlO. Show that the data set in the table has the to the points is concave up 0r coricave down.
multiply-multiply prop erty of power functions. Explain why ari exponential function would be
Tll. Write the general equation of a power function. reasonable for this f_l::lilcti.OILb
_ut a linear or a
Then use the points (5, 75) and (10, 600) to
calculate algebraically the two constants in the
equation. Store these values without rounding.
-
power function would not.
Tl6. Find the particular equation of the exponential
function that fits the poin~t ~ 3 and!!..:."11.
Write the particular equation. Show that the equation gives approxmiateiytlie
Tl2. Confirm that your equation in Problem Tll is correct values for the other three times.
correct by showing that it gives the other two Tl7 . Extrapolate the exponential function backward
data points in the table . to estimate the temperature of the coffee when
T13. From fossilized shark teeth, naturalists think it was poured.
there were once great white shark~ Tl8. Use your equation to predict the temperature
Based on your mathematical model, how heavy of the coffee a half-hour after it was pour ed.
would such a shark be ? Is this surprising?
Tl9 . The Add-Multiply Property Proof Probl em:
Prove that if y = 7(131, then log y is a linear
function of x.
)
Mode l Rocket Problem: A precalculus class launches
7_ a model rocket out on the football field. The rocket
fires for 2 s. Each second thereafter the class
l\ 1 measures the rocket's height, finding the values in
l\ \,b this table. Use these data for Problems T20-T22.
~,l\ '<&\/\
t (s)
2
3
4
h (ft)
166
216
234
({
Tl 4. A newspaper report describes a great white 5 220
shark that weighed 3000 lb. Based on your 6 174
mathematical model, about how long was the
shark? Show the method you use. T20. Plot the data points . Imagine fitting a function
to the data. Is the graph of this function
Coffee Cup Problem: Ybu pour a cup of coffee . Three concave up or concave down? What 1¢ld of
minutes after you pour it, you find that it is 94.8°F function would be a reasonable mathematical
above room temperature. You record its temperature model for this function?
Section
7-8:Chapter
Review
andTest 349
T21. Show numerically that a quadratic function T24. Find th e particular equation of the
would fit the data by showing that th e second (untranslated) exponential function f that fits
differences in the height data are constant. the first and last points. Show that the values
of ((5) and f(7) are fairly close to those in the
T22. Use any three of the data points to find the
table.
particular equat ion of the quadratic function
that fits the points. Show that the equation T25 . Show that the logistic function g gives values
gives the correct values for the other two for th e population that are also fairly close to
points . the values in the table.
T23. Logarithmic Function Problem: A logarithmic 3500
function fhas f(2) = 4.1 and ((6) = 4.8. Use g(x) = 1 + 10.8 e- 0.I lx
the multiply-add property of logarithmic
functions to find two more values of f(x) . Use T26 . On the same screen, plot the four given points,
the given points to find the particular equation the graph of f, and the graph of g. Use a
in the form f(x) = a + b ln x. window with an x-range of [O, 70] and a
y-range of [O, 5000]. Sketch the result.
Population Problem: Problems T24-T2 7 concern a
new subdivision that opens in a small town. The T27. Explain why the logistic function g gives more
population of the subdivision increases as new reasonable values for the population than the
families move in. The table lists the population of exponential function f when you extrapo late to
the subdivision var ious numb ers of months after its large numbers of months.
opening. T28. What did you learn from taking this test that
Months People you did not know before?
2 363
5 481
7 579
11 830
350 Chapter
7: Properties
ofElementary
Function
s
Fitting Functions to Data 8
As a child grows, his or her height is a function of age. But the

growth rate is not uniform. There are times when the growth
spurts and times when it slows down. However, there might be
some mathematical pattern that is true for all children's growth.
For example, spurts or slowdowns might occur generally at the
same age for boys and for girls. If such a pattern exists, the actual
heights will be scattered around some mathematical function that
fits the data approximately. The regression techniques you will
learn in this chapter can be used to find various types of functions
to fit such data and to analyze how good the fit is.
351
In this chapter you'll learn how to use your grapher to find the
best-fitting linear function for a given set of data and learn how it
adapts this technique to fit other types of functions. You'll see
how you can calculate the correlation coefficient, and you'll learn
ways to find the type of function that is most appropriate for
a given set of data. You'll apply the techniques you learn to
problems such as predicting the increase of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere, a phenomenon that leads to global warming.
You'll gain this knowledge in four ways.
Graphically This graph shows a set of data y

points and the linear function 30
that best fits the data. 25
20
15
Algebraically The equation of the best-fitting 10
linear function is 5
X
/'-. 2 4 6 8 10
y = 2.lx + 3.4
where y is the predicted value of y.
Numerically In the last column, 17.60 is the sum of the squares of the residuals.
For the best-fitting linear function, this number is a minimum.
/'-. A
X y y y-y (y- y)2
2 8 7.6 0.4 0.16

4 10 11.8 -1.8 3.24
6 19 16.0 3.0 9.00
8 18 20.2 -2.2 4.84
10 25 24.4 0.6 0.36
Sums: 30 80 0.0 17.60
3 52 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
toData
8-1 Introduction to Regression for Linear Data
Moe is recovering from surgery . The table and Figure 8-la show the number
of sit-ups he ha s been able to do on vario u s days after the surgery. Figure 8- lb
shows the best-fitting linear function
y = 2.lx + 3.4
where y (pronounced
"y hat") is used to distinguish points on this line from
the actual data points. The difference y - y is called the residual deviation or,
more briefly, the residual. In thi s section you'll learn how to use your grapher to
find this equation.
y x (days) y (sit-ups)
25 y
Residual
2 8
"'20
"' ~ ____
____>l
z
Clo
15 4 10
I y
vi 10 6 19 vi
5 8 18
X X
10 25
5 10 X
Days Days
Figure 8-la Figure 8-lb
OBJECTIVE
Find the equation of the best-fitting linear function for a set of points by
running a linear regression on your grapher, and calculate the sum of the
squares of the resi duals.
1. Enter the x- and y-values into two lists on your • The residuals, calculated by the subtraction
A
grapher. Then from the statist ics menu run a=J y-y
linear regression in the form y = ax + b. Did • The squares of the residuals, (y - y)2
you find that the equation is y = 2.lx + 3.4?
5. Find the sum of the squares of the residuals.
2. Plot the given points and the linear equation This number is abbrevi ate d SSres·
from Problem 1 on the same screen. Does the
result agree with Figure 8-1b? 6. The regression line is the line that make s
SSres a minimum. Becau se SSres is a minimum ,
3. Show how to use the linear function to predict the regression line is the best-fitting linear
th e number of sit-ups Moe could do two weeks function. Show that SSres would b e greater
after surgery. What real-world reasons could for the function y2 = 2.lx + 3.5, which has
explain why the actual number of sit-up s y-intercept 3.5 instead of 3.4, and also woul d
might b e different from the predicted number? b e greater for the function y 3 = 2.2x + 3.4,
4. Copy the table. Put in three new columns, one which has slop e 2.2 in stea d of 2.1.
each for
• The value s of y calculated by the equ ation
y = 2.lx + 3.4
Section
8-1: Introduction
toRegress
ionforLinear
Data 353
8-2 Deviations, Residuals, and the
Correlation Coefficient
In Chapter 7, you found equations of functions that fit given sets of points. If
the points represent data measured from the real world, they are usually
scattered. For instance, Figure 8-2a shows a scatter plot of the weights and
lengths of 43 fish. The scatter of this cloud of points occurs because fish
of the same length can have different weights .
100
80
g
E 60
.~
(l)
3:
40 ; .. ,• ~.:
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 4 5 50 55 60
Length (in.)
Figure 8-2a
In this section you will learn the reasoning behind doing regression as in
Section 8-1 for points that follow a linear pattern. In the next section you will see
how to extend regression to fit data that follow a curved pattern, as in Figure 8-2a.
OBJECTIVE
Calculate SSres, the sum of the squares of the residuals, and find out how
to determine the equation of the linear function that minimizes SSres·
In Section 8-1, you analyzed data for y sit-ups that Moe could do x days after
surgery, as listed in this table. Figure 8-2b shows a scatter plot of the da ta.
x (days) y (si t-ups)
y
25
2
4
8
10 "'20 ..
6 19
z 15
0.
vi 10
8 18
5
10 25 X
5 10
Sums: ~o 80 Days
Figure 8-2b
Suppose that you are asked to estimate the number of sit-ups Moe could do,
but you are not told the number of days . Your best estimate would be y
(pronounced "y bar"), the average, or mean, of the y-values :
_ 80
y= 5 = 16
354 Chapter
8: FittingFunctio
nstoDoto
Figure 8-2c shows the graph of the constant function y = y and the deviation,
y - y, of each point from this line.
y y
y - ------- -- - -- - -- - - ------ ·
Deviation s
20 (from mean)
~ -Y Mean
z
vi
X X
x 10 x X
Days Days
Figure 8-2c Figur e 8-2d
However, if you do know for which day to find an estimate, you can find a better
est imat e of the number of sit-ups for that particular day by assuming that y is a
linear function of x. Figure 8-2d shows that making th e line slanted instead of
horizontal removes mu ch of each deviation. The part of each deviation that
remains is called the residual deviation, or residual. If y is the value of y for a
point on the line, then the residual equals y - y.
A measure of how well the line fits the point is obtained by squaring each residual,
thereby making each value positive or zero, and then summing th e results. This
sum, SSrcs, is called the sum of the squares of the residuals. Doing the same thing
for the deviations from the mean gives a quantity called SSctev, th e sum of the
squares of the deviations. Figures 8-2e and 8-2f show that the squares of the
residuals are much smaller than the squares of the deviations from the mean. For
a dynamic view of this process, see the Deviations, Residuals, and the Correlation
Coefficient Exploration at www .keymath.com/precalc
.
Squar es of residua ls
y y are sma ller.
y - --- - -- -- ----------- -- --- 25
~ y Mean
t
vi
X X
x x 10
Days Days
Figure 8-2e Figure 8-2f
The regression equation y = 2.lx + 3.4 that you found on your grapher in
Section 8-1 is the equation of th e linear function for which SSres is the minimum
of all po ss ible valu es. The fraction of th e original SSctev that ha s been removed
by u sing the slanted linear function instead of the constant function is
· 2 SSctev - SSres
r =
SSctev
The quantity r2
is called the coefficient of determination. The symbol r 2 is
u sed b ecause its units are th e squares of the y-units. The numb er r is called
th e correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient indicates how well the
b est-fitting lin ear function fit s th e values . The sign of r shows whether the
Section
8-2: Deviations
, Residuals,
andtheCorrelation
Coefficient 355
y
two variables, x and y, are positively or negatively
associated with each other. If the y-variable increases as x
increases, then the correlation coefficient is positive; if ."' ·..·
the y-variable decreases as x increases, then the
·."···
correlation coefficient is negative.
The correlation coefficient also measures the strength of X
the association. If r = 1 or r = -1, the function fits the

r= 0.95
values exactly. This could be the case for a theoretical law
y
in physics or chemistry, where the function that identifies
the relationship between the variables follows an exact
pattern. Of course, when you collect data, even if there is
an underlying law the data will not fit perfectly, due to ... .
measurement errors (from equipment or human ··......
inexactness).
X
The closer the correlation coefficient is to 1 or -1, the r= -0.5

closer the points cluster around the line and the stronger y
the association is between the variables. If r is 0, there is
no relationship between x and y. It is helpful to sketch an
ellipse around the cloud of points in a scatter plot. If the . ·..
ellipse is narrow, the correlation is strong; if the ellipse is
wide, the correlation is weak. The scatter plots at right
can help you visualize the strength of the correlation and
....
X
connect it to the values of the correlation coefficient .
r= O
The example shows how to find SSctev and SSres by
operations on lists on your grapher .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Find SSctev and SSres for the sit-ups data in this section. Use the results to
calculate the coefficient of determination and the correlation coefficient. How
do you interpret the value of the coefficient of determination?
Solution Enter the values of x and y into columns on a spreadsheet or into two lists
on your grapher, say, L1 and L2 • In a third column or list, compute the squares
of the deviations, (y - 16)2. In a fourth column or list, compute the squares
of the residuals, (y - y)2 . To do this on your grapher, enter y = 2.lx + 3.4 as
y 1 , and then enter (L2 - y 1 (L1 ))"2 into L4 . The expression y 1 (L1 ) means the
values of y (the function in y 1) at the values of x in L1 .
X y (y- 16)2 (y- y)2
2 8 64 0.16 [8 - (2.1(2) + 3.4)] 2 = [8 - 7.6]2 = 0.4 2 = 0.16
4 10 36 3.24
6 19 9 9.00
8 18 4 4.84
10 25 81 0.36
SSctev= 194 17.60 = SSres Use the sum command on your grapher.
Computer from 1956. Modern 194 - 17.60
computers made statistical data r2 = = 0.909278 ...
analysis much easier and 194
stimulated the development of r= ) 0.909278 ... = 0.9535 ... Positive square root because the
various statistical techniques. function is increasing.
356 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
to Doto
The coefficient of determination, r 2 = 0.909 ..., indicates that 90 .9 ... % of
the original deviation has be en accounted for by the linear relationship between
x and y, and the remaining 9.0 ... % is due to other fluctuations in the data.
The correlation between the variab les is fairly strong. ....
Notes:
• The values of r 2 and r are found when your grapher calculates linear
regression, and you can set your grap her so these values are displayed.
• Using any other linear equation besides y = 2.lx + 3.4 gives a value of
SSres larger than 17.60. For instance, y = 2.2x + 3.4 gives SSres = 19.80.
Here is a summary of the quantities associated with linear regression .
DEFINITIONS: Deviations, Residuals, theRegression Line,andCorrelation

The deviation of a data point (x, y) is y - y, the directed distance of its
y-value from y, where y is the mean of the y-values.
The residual (or residual deviation) of a data point from the line y = mx + bis
y- y, the vertical directed distance of its y-value from the line (Figure 8-2g).
y
Data point
y -- - ------------ "'-.. -
9 -- ---- ---- /-:
Residual y - y : Deviation
(after regression) : y-y
I (before
I
I
regression)
y ---- - --- --------~--
'I
+ ,____~:-x
Figure 8-2g
X
The sum of the squares of the deviations is SSaev= I(y- y)2, where I, the
capital Greek letter sigma, means "the sum of the values following the I sign."
The sum of the squares of the residuals is SSres= I( y- y)2.
The linear regression line for a set of data is the line for which SSres is a
minimum. The linear regression equation is the equation of this line,
y=mx+ b.
. .
Th e coe ff 1c1entof deterrmnat10n
. . IS . r 2 = SSaev - SSres. It IS
. t he f ract10n
. of
SSctev
SSctevthat has been removed by the linear regression.
The correlation coefficient, r, is the positive or negative square root of the
coefficient of determination. Use the positive square root if the slope of the
line is positive, and use the negative square root if the slope is negative.
Section
8-2:Deviations
, Residuals,
andtheCorrelation
Coefficient 357
Problem Set 8-2
1. Residuals Problem: Suppose that these data
Reading Analysis fl[// have been measured for two related variables
From what you have read in this section, what do xand y.
you consider to be the main idea? What is the X y
difference between the deviation of a data point and
the residual (residual deviation) of that data point? 5 11
What is true about the residuals of a set of data for 8 16
the linear function that best fits the data? Why do 11 19
the correlation coefficients 1 and -1 both indicate a 14 27
perfect fit of a linear function to a set of data? 17 25
20 29
23 33
Quick Review~, ~ ,~ 26 42
29 44
Ql. If y = 3x + 5 and x = 4, by how much does
32 51
y = 19 deviate from y on the regression line?
a. Enter the data into two lists on your
Q2. If y = 3x + 5 and x = 6, by how much does
grapher. Show by linear regression that the
y = 20 deviate from y on the regression line? best-fitting linear function is y = l.4x + 3.8.
Q3. Find the sum of the squares of the residuals if Record the correlation coefficient.
the residuals are 3, -1, -4, and 2. b. Make a scatter plot of the data on your
Q4. How can you tell from the correlation grapher. On the same screen, plot y. How
coefficient that a function fits the data well does the linear function fit the data?
perfectly? c. Calculate x and y, the means of x and y.
Show algebraically that the mean-mean
Q5. What type of function has the
point (x, y) is on the regression line.
multiply-multiply property?
d. Define new lists to help you calculate the
Q6. For what type of function could squares of the deviations, (y- y)2, and
f(x + 3) equal 8 f(x)? the squares of the residuals, (y - y)2 . By
Ql. log 5 + log 7 =log-?- summing these lists, calculate SSctevand SSres·
Use the results to calculate the coefficient
QB.What is the least common denominator of of determination and the correlation
I+ J.7 coefficient. Does the correlation coefficient
7 s·
opposite leg agree with the one you recorded in part a?
Q9.In a right triangle, d' is the -?- of e. The line y 2 = l.5x + 1.95 also contains the
a Jacent 1eg
the angle. mean-mean point (x, y), but it has slope 1.5
instead of 1.4. Plot the line on the same
Q10.Expand: (mx + b) 2 screen as in part b. Can you tell from the
graphs which line fits the data better?
Explain. Show that SSresfor this line is
greater than SSresfor the regression line.
358 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
toData
2. New Subdivision Problem: The data represent Distance Gas Left
actual prices of various gar den homes in a new Driven (mi) (gal)
subdivision. The data have been rounded to
the nearest 100 square feet and to the nearest 6 16.7
1000 dollars . 22 15.9
44 14.8
Area (ft 2 ) Price($) 50 14.5
60 14.0
1900 155,000
2100 168,000 a. Run a linear regression on the data. Write
2400 190,000 down the linear regression equation, along
2500 189,000 with r 2 and r. How do these numbers tell
2500 207,000 you that the regression line fits the data
2600 195,000 perfectly ? Why is r negative?
2600 199,000 b. Find the coefficient of determination
2600 199,000 and the correlation coefficient again by
2700 210,000 calculating SSctevand SSres directly from
2800 220,000 their definitions . Do the answers agree with
a. Run a linear regression on the data . the results in part a?
Record the correlation coefficient . Plot the c. Plot the data and the regression equation
regression equation and the data on the on the same screen. How can you tell
same screen. Use a window with an x-range graphically that the regression line fits
of [O,3000]. How can you tell that a linear the data perfectly ?
function fits the data reasonably well? ) d. According to your mathematical model,
b . Based on the linear model, how much would how much gas does the gas tank hold? How
you expect to pay for a 5000-ft 2 house in many miles per gallon does Lisa's car get?
this subdivisioniftllow big a house could you e. Show that your mathematical model predicts
buy for a ~ollars? What d·cfyou calf -) that the tank is empty after 340 mi. Because
the process of calculating an x- or y-value this number is found by extrapolation, how
outside the given data ? What do you call the ' confident are you that the car will actually
process of estimatin g an x- or y-va ue within run out of gas after 340 mi?
the given data?
c. What real-world meaning can you give to the
slope and the y-intercept?
d. Find x and y. Show that the mean-mean
point (x, y) is on the regression line.
e. Find SSdev and S5res· Use the results to
calculate the coefficient of determination
and the correlation coefficient. Do your
answers agree with the results in part a?
f. Why is it reasonable for there to be mpre
than one data point with the same x-value?
3. Gas Tank Problem: Lisa Carr fills up her car's
gas tank and drives off. The table shows the
numbers of gallons of gas left in the tank at
various numbers of miles driven.
Section
8-2: Deviations,
Residuals,
andtheCorrelotion
Coefficient 359
4. Standardized Test Scores Problem: Figure 8-2h of r, sketch the cloud you would expect for
shows a scatter plot of the scores of 1000 data with that correlation coefficient.
12th-graders on the mathematics part of the a. r = 0.95
SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) and their high
b . r = 0.8
school grade point averages . By regression, the
best-fitting linear function is y = 59.0x + 355, C. r = -0 .7
but the coefficient of determination, r 2 , is only d. r= 0

about 0.14.
y
800
750 Cloud of
700 . :.. :. / .data points
650
.......
: ..
~ 600
. -::.:.
...
~ 550
..c:
~ 500 X
i;;:450
v, 400 Figure 8-2i
350
6. Sit-Ups Problem: Enter the sit-ups data from
300
Example 1 into a data analysis program su ch as
·__~
~-· --·--·--·--·--·--·
250
Fathom Dynamic Data™, and make a scatter
0.0 / 1.5
_:
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 ,
5.0 plot of the data by using the appropriate menu.
GPA
a. Add a movable line, and then show squares.
y = 59.0x + 355; r 2 "' 0.14
The result should resemble Figure 8-2e or
Figure 8-2h 8-2f. Rotate and translate the movable line .
Describe what happens to the squares as
a. Suppose that you have a 4.0 grade point you move the line. Describe what happens
average . According to the regression to the quantity sum of squares .
equation, what math score would you be
b . Without deleting the movable line, add a
predicted to get on the SAT?How reliable
do you think this prediction is? least -squares line . How do the squares of
the residuals for this regression line
b . Use the given information to find the compare to the squares on the movable line
corr~t. Explain why you you drew in part a? How does the quan tity
would use the posi tive square root rather sum of squares for the regression line
than the negative square root. compare with the values you got as you
5. Data Cloud Prob lem: Figure 8-2i shows an moved the movab le line?
elliptical region in which the "cloud" of data c. What do you understand better about th e
points is expec ted to lie if the correlation regression line as a result of working thi s
coefficient, r, is -0.95 . For each given value prob lem?
8-3 Regression for Nonlinear Data

In Section 8-2, you learned the basis of linear regression. In this section you will
learn how to use regression on your grapher to fit other types of functions to
data whose scatter plot follows a nonlinear pattern.
360 Chapte
r 8: Fitting FunctionstoData
OBJECTIVEGiven a set of data, make a scatter plot, identify the type of function that
could mod el th e relationship b etween the variables, and us e regr ession to
fin d th e parti cular equation that best fit s the data.
Figure 8-3a sh ows th e scatter plot of fish weight in pound s, y, versus length in
inch es, x, th at you saw in Section 8-2. The table lists th e data for th es e 43 fish.
y
100
80
g
.E 60
Oil
i 40 ..... ,,
20
X
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Length (in.)
Figur e 8-3a
X y X y X y X y X y X y
14.0 5.5 22.5 22.3 33.3 27.0 37.1 37.9 45 .1 48.4 52.4 89.6
14.0 7.4 24 .5 12.2 33 .5 25.0 37.7 36.7 4 7.8 66.4 52.5 88. 5
15.l 9.9 26.4 19.3 33.8 38.0 37.9 40.9 48.6 50.l 56.5 99.8
17.1 10.7 28.1 21.2 34 .4 28.0 38.2 54.1 49 .3 75.4
18.2 9.7 28 .6 24.9 35.5 36.2 39.2 60.7 49 .4 79.4
19.2 14.2 28.7 22.4 35 .6 37.0 39.4 52.9 49.6 65.1
19.9 15.4 30 .0 27.3 35 .7 45 .8 43.3 49.l 51.5 60.5
21.8 19.4 32 .0 37.6 36.6 42.2 44.2 41.2 51.6 79.9
Because th e point s follow a path that is incr easing and con cave up, a power
fun ction or an expon ential function might b e a reasonabl e math ematical mod el
for weight of fish as a function of their lengths. To decide which of the two is
mor e reaso nabl e, con sider th e endpoint behavior. At th e lower end of th e
domain, the gra ph would contain the origin b ecause a fish of zero len gth would
have zero weight. Because an untranslated po wer function contains the origin, it
would b e mor e reasonable than an untranslated expon ential fun ction. Run a
power regression on your graph er to get
y = 0.0606 ... x1.799 o ··
Figure 8-3b shows th at the graph of thi s function fits th e points reason ably well.
y
100
80
@
60
f,, •. I ,,,,,,/ • •
~ -to •,: .....

,.
....
..
20 .·_....-.. ~ ~
- - - - .,.-.........
... X
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 so 55 60
Length (in.)
Figure 8-3b
Sec
tion8·3: Reg
ression
forNonlinearData 361
Figure 8-3c shows the result of running exponentia l regression (curved graph)
and linear regress ion (straight graph) . Neither function has the correct
endpoint behavior at x = 0.
y
100
80
g
:c 60
co
.<ii
40 :;,.,"'
...
.....
.......
3:
L,,...
,...,.....,.
~·-..
20
--- ---- 'I X
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Lengt h (in.)
9 = l.9 3x - 27.4; r 2 = 0.88

y = 4.29 · (1.06)'; r 2 = 0.91
Figure 8-3c
Your grapher will display the correlation coefficient r = 0.9669 ... for power
regression, r = 0.955 7 ... for exponential regression, and r = 0.9 354 ... for linear
regression . A corre lation coefficient closer to 1 or -1 indicates a bett er fit. So, in
addition to having the wrong endpoint behavior , the exponential and linear
func tions have a weaker correlation to the data .
Problem Set 8-3

y y y
Reading Analysis {lf/J
primary way you deci de what type of function to
X X X
fit to scattered data that do not follow a linear
pattern? If two different functions have graphs with Figur e 8-3f Figur e 8-3g Figur e 8-3h
a pattern similar to the scatter plot for a data set,
how can you decide which is more reasonab le? Q2. What type of function is repr esent ed by the
graph in Figure 8-3e?
Quick Review~ , ~ ,~ 03. What type of function is repr esent ed by the

graph in Figure 8-3f?
y y Q4. What type of function is represent ed by the
graph in Figure 8-3g7
05. What type of function is repr esented by the
graph in Figure 8-3h?
X X
Q6. The sales of a particular product dep end on
Figure 8-3d Figure 8-3e
the amount spent on advertising. Sketch a
reasonabl e graph .
QI. What type of function is represented by the
graph in Figure 8-3d?
362 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
to Doto
Ql. The parent quadrati c function is-?-. c. According to the exponential model, how
many bacteria were in each equal sample
. Expand: (9x -
QB 4)2
when the students took them? What do you
Q9. Write th e next three terms of the sequ ence: pr edict the numb er of bacteria will be
192, 96,48, 24, ... . 24 h after the cultur es were started?
QlO. The multiply-multiply property is a d. After how many hours do you expect the
characteristic of - ?- functions . number of bacteria to reach 100,000?
X y X y
0.6 450 4.6 1963

0.8 446 4.7 1774
1.3 588 4.7 2611
1.5 645 4.9 2853
1.6 718 5.0 1848
1.9 729 5.0 3266
2.0 855 5.1 2229
2.3 1008 5.2 2827
3.1 962 5.3 3776
3.5 1570 5.5 2611
3.7 1620 5.7 3126
3.8 1378 5.7 2928
3.8 1561 5.8 3776
3.8 1580 6.3 4067
1. Bacteria Problem: Thirty-six college biology 3.9 1919 6.3 5393
students start bacterial cultures by taking 4.2 2210 6.4 5288
equal-volume samples from a flask in the 4.5 2212 7.3 7542
laboratory. Each stud ent comes back x hours 4.6 2125 8.6 11042
later and measures the number of bacteria, y, y
in his or her culture. The results are shown in 12000
the table and in the scatter plot in Figure 8-3i. 10000
a. Explain why either an untranslated power 8000
function or an untranslated exponential 6000
function could be a reasonable
4000
mathematical model for the number of : ..•
bacteria as a function of time. Explain why 2000 .,- . .,_:
••• ~,.. • X
the exponentia l function would have a more
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
reasonable left endpoint behavior than
Figure 8-3i
would a powerfunction. -
b . Run an expon ential regression on the data .
You can go to www .keymath
.com/precalc
to
download this data set, as well as some
other data sets from this chapter. Write
down the equation and the correlation
coefficient. Plot the function and the scatter
plot on the same screen. Sketch the result
on a copy of Figure 8-3i.
Section
8-3: Regression
forNonlinear
Data 363
2. Printed Paragraph Problem: Ann A. Student 3. Bank Int erest Probl em: At the bank, you noti ce
types a paragraph on her word processor . th e ad below th at lists the numb ers of years it
Then she adjusts the width of the paragraph will take for th e balanc e in your account to
by changing the margins . Figure 8-3j and th e reach a certain level if you invest $1000 in one
tabl e show the widths and numbers of lines of th eir accounts.
the paragraph has.
x (in. wide) -~ y (lines long) Years to
reach
63 5
5.5 6 0.00
5.0 7 1.91
8.11
3.75 9
13.86
3.0 11
21.97
1.5 24
1.0 38
y
~ 50
c;
:::::;40 .
~
0)
30
6 20
~ 10 '
. . .. .
'
X
a. Make a scatt er plot of the data. Which way is
the graph conca ve? How can you tell from
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 the shape of the graph that a logarithmi c
Width (in .)
function would fit th e dat a?
Figur e 8-3j
b. By logarithmic regression, find th e
a. Would it be possible to make the width particular equation of the b est -fittin g
equal zero? Why, then, would a decr easing logarithmic fun ction . How does th e
power function be more reasonabl e than an corre lation coefficient confirm th at a
expo n entia l function for numb r of lines as logarithmi c funct ion fits wem
a function of paragraph 'dth ? Confirm that c. Plot th e equation from part b on the scatter
a power function fits better by running both plot from part a. Sketch the result.
p ower and exp one ntial regressions and d. Interpolat e using your mathematical model
comparing the corre lation coefficients. to find out how lon g it takes for $2500 (the
b. Plot the power function and the exponential mean of $2000 and $3000) to be in the
function from part a on the same screen as a account. Is thi s numb er of years equal to the
scatter plot of the data. How does the result mean of 13.86 and 21.97?
confirm that the power function fits better? e. If you wanted to leave your money in th e
c. Because each paragraph contains th e same accoun t until it had reach ed $5000, how
words, you might expect th e area of the many years would you have to leave it th ere?
page covered by the paragraph to be Which m ethod do you use, interpolation or
constant . In a list on your grapher, calculate extrapolation ? Explain.
the area of each paragraph. Use the fact that
4. Planetary Period Problem: Figure 8-3k and the
there ar e seven lines per inch. Make a
tabl e show the period of each planet in years,
scatter plot of th e areas as a function of
th e distan ce from the Sun in millions of
paragraph width . By linear regr es sion , show
kilometers, and th e plan ets ' masses in rel ation
that ther e is a downward trend in th e areas
to Earth's mass , as pro vided by The World
but that the correlation is not very strong.
Almanac and Book of Facts 2004 .
Sketch the graph and points.
364 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
toData
Orbit Radius Relative
Name Period (yr) (million km) Mass 240
200
Mercury 0.24 57.9 0.06
Venus 0.61 108.2 0.82 :g
.,,
160 •
Earth 1 149.6 1 g 120
Mars - 1. 228 .0 0.11 <lJ
"-
Jupiter 11.86 778 . 317.8 80 •
Saturn
Uranus
29.46
84.01
1433.5
2872.6
95.16
14.5
40
•
.
Neptune 164.79 4495.6 17.15 0 2000 4000 6000
Pluto 247 .68 5870.5 0.002 Orbit (106 km)
Figure 8-3k
a. If you assume that a power function fits the

points , what endpoint behavior are you ..: .....
.
as urning the period approaches as the e. Kepler deriv ed his thre e laws of planetar y
distance from the Sun approac hes zero? motion by care ful analysis of data such as
Run both power and exponent ial those in th e table. Look up Kepler's thir d
regressions for period in years as a function law on the Internet or in a physics text .
of distan ce in millions of kilome ters. Give How well do es th e result of your power
numerical evidence that the untranslated regression agree with that law?
power function fits better. 5. Roadrunn ers Problem, Part 1: Naturalis ts place
b . Plot the power function from part a and the 30 roadrunners in a game preserve that
scatter plot on the same scree n . Does the formerly had no roadrunn ers . Over the years,
power function seem to fit the data well? the population grows as shown in the tabl e
c. Make a scatter plot of the period versu s the and in Figure 8-31.
,relative mass of the planet . Show that ther e X (yr) y (roadrunners)
is littl e or no correlation between these two
variabs 0 30
.---Mostasteroids are located in th e "asteroid 1 44 - l
belt" about 430 million km from the Sun. 2
3
58
81
'X
Some scienti sts believe that they originate d
from the breakup of a planet or from mat erial 4 110
that never coalesced to form a planet. If they
were originally one planet, what would have ,S 5
6
7
138
175
203
been th e period of that planet?
8 234
9 260
10 276
11 293
0~
"""c:;
<lJ C:
.n ;j
300
200
....
E -a
;:l"'
Z o ,... 100
.. X
5 10 15
This v iew of the asteroid Ida is a composite of fiv e Years
imag es taken by the Galileo spacecraft in 1993.
Figure 8-3/
Section
8-3: Regression
forNonlinear
Doto 365
Year x (roadrunners) y (roadrunners/yr)
0 30 14
1 44 14
2 58 23
3 81 29
4 llO 28
5 138 37
6 175 28
7 203 31
8 234 26
9 260 16
10 276 17
a. Give a physical reason and a graphical
reason why a logistic function would be a y
reasonable mathematical model for the

roadrunner population as a function of ..
time . By logistic regression, find the
particular equation of the best-fitting ..
logistic function. Plot the graph and the data X
on the same screen. Use a window with an 100 200 300

x-range of Oyr to 20 yr. Sketch the result. Numb er of roadrunners
Figure 8-3m
b. What do es your mathematical mod el
predict for the roadrunner population at
a. The rate of increase of roadrunners is
x = 20 yr? What does the model predict for
expected to be higher when the population
the maximum sustainable population?
is higher because there are more parents
At approximately what value of xis the
having roadrunner chicks. How, then, can
point of inflection, the point where the rate
you explain the fact that the population
of population growth is a maximum ?
increases at a slower rate when the
c. Find y, the mean of the y-values. Use y to population is above 150?
calculate ssdev, the sum of the squares of
b. Assume that the rate of increase is a
the deviations. Using the regression
quadratic function of the population. By
function in part a, calculate SSres, the sum of
quadratic regression, find the particular
the squares of the residuals. Then find the
equation of the best-fitting quadratic
coefficient of determination. How does this
function. Record the coefficient of
coefficient show that the logistic function
determination, R2 . (Capital R is used
fits the points quite well?
for regressions other than linear.)
6. Roadrunners Problem, Part 2: The table and c. Suppose that the naturalists brought in
th e scatter plot in Figure 8-3m show the enough roadrunners to increase the
change in roadrunner population for each year population to 400. What does your
versus the population at the beginning of that mathematical model predict for the growth
year. For instance, the population was 81 at rate? What real-world reason can you think
the beginning of the third year and increased of to explain why this rate is negative?
by 29, to llO, by the beginning of the fourth
d. Calculate y, the mean number of
year. Thus the rate of increase was 29
roadrunners per year. Enter lists into your
roadrunners per year.
grapher for the squares of the deviations,
(y - y)2 , and for the squares of th e
366 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
to Doto
residuals, (y- y)2 . By summing these lists,
calculate SSctev and SSres· Use the results to
calculat e th e coefficient of determination,
R2 . Show that the answe r is equal to the
valu e you found by regression in part b.
8-4 Linearizing Data and Logarithmic

Graph Paper
In the pr evious section you used exponential, power, or logarithmic regression
to fin d functions that fit nonlinear sets of data . In this section you will see how
the calculator does thes e kinds of regression by using logarithms to transform
the data so that a linear fun ction fits th e transformed data. You will also learn
how to us e graph paper on which the scale corresponds to logarithms of th e
variabl es.
OBJECTIVES
Given a set of data that does not follow a linear pattern,
• Transform the data using logarithms, and use linear regression on the
transformed data.
• Plot the data on log-log graph paper or semilog graph paper.
Linearizing Exponential Function Data

Consider an exponential function such as
y = 20 • l.4 5x
Transfor m this equation by taking the logarithm of both sides.
logy= log (20 · 1.451 Write "log" in front of both sides
of the equ ation .
logy= log 20 + log 1.45 x The log of a product equals the sum
of the logs .
logy= log 20 + x · log 1.45 The log of a power equals the exp onent
times the log of th e base.
logy= 1.3010 ... + 0.1613 .. . x Evaluat e the logs by calculator .
The final step shows that log y is a linear function of x . The log y int ercept is
1.3010 ..., th e logarithm of 20, and the slope is 0.1613 ..., th e logarithm of 1.45.
Section
8-4: Linearizing
DotoandLogarithmi
cGraph
Paper 367
Figure 8-4a shows th e graph of the original function and the grap h of the
transformed function . The points on the transformed graph lie on a straight
line. The function has been linearized.
y logy
1000 3
500
X X
2 10 2 4 6 8 10
Original Transformed
Figure 8-4a
Linearizing Power Function Data

Consider a power function such as
y = soox - 1.3
Transform this equation by taking the logarithm of both sides .
log y = log (80ox- 13 )
log y = log 800 + log x- u The log of a product equ als the sum of the logs .
log y = log 800 - 1.3 log x The log of a power equa ls the exponent times
the log of the base .
logy = 2.9030 .. . - 1.3 log x Evaluate the logs by calcula tor.
The final step shows that log y is a linear function of log x. The log y intercept
is 2.9030 ..., the logarithm of 800, and the slope is -1.3 , the exponent in the
power function. Figure 8-4b shows the graph of the original function and the
graph of the transformed function. The points on the original graph cover such
a wide rang e that it is almost impossibl e to tell anything about the function .
However, th e points on the transformed graph lie on a straight line .
y logy
1000 3
2
500
X log X
20 40 60 80 100 2
Origina l Transformed
Figure 8-4b
368 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
toData
PROPERTY:
Linearizing
Exponential
andPowerFunctions
Exponential Functions
Algebraica lly: If y = ab x, then log y = log a + x log b.
Verbally: If y is an exponential function of x, then log y is a linear
function of x.
Power Functions
A lgebraically: If y = axb, then log y = log a + blog x.
Verbally: If y is a power function of x, then log y is a linear function of
log X.
Log-Log and Semilog Graph Paper

In many applications of mathemati cs, real-world data span a large range of
values. A graph plotted with ordinar y ("arithmetic") scales su ch as that on the
left in Figure 8-4b may be hard to read. In such cases you often see data plo tted
on grap h paper on which one or both axes have scales equal to th e logarithm of
the variable. Figure 8-4c illustra tes some features for the function y = 800x - u,
from Figure 8-4b, plotted on log-log graph paper: There is more space b etween
1 and 2 than there is betw een 2 and 3; there is th e same space between 1 and
10 as there is betw een 10 and 100, and it is possible to read values of x and y
directly from the graph. The graph turn s out to be a straight line because log y
is a linear function of log x for a power function.
y
1000
500
200
X y
100
+
1 800
50 +
2 324 .9 ...
5 98.7 ...
10 40 .0 ... 20
20 16.2 ... (40, 6.6 1...)
30 9.6 ... 10
40 6.6 ...
5
50 4.9 ...
60 3.9 ...
70 3.1... 2
80 2.6 ... X
1
90 2.3 ... 1 2 5 10 20 50 100
100 2.0 ... Log-log graph paper
Figure 8-4c
Section
8-4: Linearizing
DotoandLogarithmic
Graph
Poper 369
You can use a simi lar kind of graph paper to plot graphs that have a large range
for one variable but a relatively small range for the other variable. Figure 8-4d
shows graphs plotted on two kinds of semilog graph paper. For add -multiply
semilog paper, on the left, the graph of y = 20 · 1.4 5x from Figure 8-4a is a
straight line, because for exponential functions log y is a linear function of x.
For multiply-add semilog paper, on th e right, the graph of a logarithmic
function such as y = 14 - 4 log xis a straight line because y is already a linear
function of log x.
y
10000
5000
2000
y
15
..._____
(7, 269 .5...) . 10
200
100
4- -JJ}J-~
50 ~-ffl=f 5
20 - t r-, ~ ~~l t- t-
X
10 .........
__.___...___._......_..__.__..__.__._....._...,__..___.__,_._
0 ~~--....._-~-~-~-~-....._-~__,_~--
0 5 10 15 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000
Add - multipl y sernilog graph pap er Multiply-a dd se milog graph paper
Figure 8-4d
DEFINITIONS:
Graph
Paper
Types
Arithmetic graph paper ("ordinary" graph paper) has linear scales on both axes.
Log-log graph paper has logarithmic scales on both axes.
Add-multiply semilog graph paper has a logarithmic scale on the vertical
axis only.
Multiply-add semilog graph paper has a logarithmic scale on the horizontal
axis only .
370 Chapter
8: FittingFunctions
toData
Regress ion for Nonlinear Data
The table shows th e pressure, y, in pounds per square inch (psi) of air
remaining in a tire at different times, x, in seconds after the tire was punctured.
Figure 8-4e shows that th e data follow a path that is de creas ing, and concave up
with a positiv e y-intercept, simi lar to the grap h of an exponential function.
X (S) y (psi)
5 27
10 21 y
15 16 40
20 13
25 9 ~ 30
OJ
30 7 ~ 20
35 6 "'
40 4
"' 10
C:: ..... X
45 3
10 20 30 40 50
50 3 Time (s)
Figure 8-4e
Figur e 8-4f and the tabl e show the valu es of log y for thes e values of x. The
points lie close to a stra ight lin e.
X logy
5 1.4313 .. .
10 1.3222 .. .
logy
15 1.2041...
2
20 1.1139 .. .
25 0.9542 ...
30 0.8450 .. .
35 0.7781...
40 0.60 20 ...
45 0.4771 ... X
50 0.4771... 10 20 30 40 50
Figur e 8-4(
Running a linear regression on log x as a function of x gives

log y= -0 .02258 ... x + 1.541 5 ... , with r 2 = 0.9905 30 ...
Transforming this equation b ack to exponential form gives
y = 10(- 0.02258..x + l.5415.. ) Definition of logarithm .
y= (lo - 002258 X)(lOl. 5415 ) Produ ct property of exponent s.
y=(lo - 0022ss Y( lOl. 5.JIS ) Power of a power prope rt y of expon ent s.
y = (0.9493 ..:') (34 .7990 .. .) Evaluate the powers of 10.
Y= 34 .7990 ... · 0.949 3 ... x Commute the two factors.
Section
8-4:Linearizing
Data
andLogarithmic
Graph
Paper 371
A revealing fact emerges if you run an exponential regression on the original
data. The result is the same as the result of linearizing the data .
y= 34.7990 ... · 0.9493 .. _x , with r2 = 0.990530 ...
The calculator has
• Transformed the original data by taking log y
• Run a linear regression on the transformed data
• Transformed the equation back to exponential form
The coefficient of determination, r 2 , is the coefficient for th e transformed data,
not the original data. The actu al coefficient of determination, R 2 , for the original
data could be found by calculating y, using the result to find SSctev, then using
the regression equation and the original data to find SSres, and finally applying
the definition of coefficient of determination. The results are
_ 109
Y =IO= 10.9, SSctev= 606.9, SSres = 1.4 9 712 ...
SSctev - SSres 606.9 - 1.49712 ...

R2 = = = 0.997533 ...
SSctev 606 .9
As you can see, the value of R2 , 0.997533 ..., is not equal to the value of r 2 for
the linearized data, 0.990530 .. .. The lowercase r 2 is used only for linear data.
The uppercase R2 is used for multiple regression, wher e y is a more complicated
function of x. You may have observed that your grapher reports R2 for quadratic
regression. This is because y is a function of both x and x2 . Quadrat ic functions
cannot be linearized except in the specia l case y = ax2 , a power function. For
functions that can be linearized, r 2 is more meaningful than R2 .
EXAMPLE
11111- 1 Snakes sh ed their skins periodically. The area of the skin depends on the length
of the snake. Suppose that these areas have been measured:
Length (cm) Area (cm 2 )
5 2
10 8
20 40
60 250
100 900
a. Make a scatter plot on your grapher, and use the result to explain why
a power function would be a more reasonable mathematical model than
either a linear function or an exponential function. Then run a power
regression on the data and plot the equation on the same screen as the
scatter plot. Record r 2 , the coefficient of determination. Sketch the graph.
b. Plot the data points on log-log graph paper. From the regression equation,
calculate y for x = 5 and x = 100. Plot these two points on the graph paper
and connect them with a straight-line graph . What do you notice about
the data points and this straight line, and what does this confirm about
power functions?
372 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
toData
c. Enter lists into your grapher for log x and log y. Run a linear regression on
log y as a function of log x. Write the equation and the value of r 2 . What do
you notice about the constants in the equation and the value of r 2?
d. Plot the linear equat ion and the points (log x, log y) on the same screen.
Sketch the result.
Solution a. The scatter plot of the data is shown on the left in Figure 8-4g. The points
follow a pattern that is increasing and concave up, so a linear function is
not reasonable. The x-intercept should be Obecause a snake with length 0
would have skin area 0, meaning that a power function is more reasonable
than an exponential function. Power regression gives
y= 0.08287 ... x2 ·001 4 7 , with r 2 = 0.99692 ...
The graph of this equation is shown on the right in Figure 8-4g.
y(c m 2) y(c m 2)
1000 1000
500 500
x (cm ) x (cm )
so JOO 100
Figur e 8-4g
b. y (5) = 2.0767... "'2.1

y (100) = 834 .3795 .. . "'830
Figure 8-4h shows that the data points lie close to the regression lin e,
confirming that, for a power function, log y is a linear function of log x.
y(c m 2)
1000
500
200
100
so
20
10
2
x(cm)
1
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
Figure 8-4h
Section
8-4: Linearizing
DotoandLogar
ithm
icGraph
Poper 373
c. On your grapher, calculate the logarithms in two new lists so that they will
be available without rounding .
2
Length x (cm) Area y(cm ) log X logy
5 2 0.6989 ... 0.3010 .. .
10 8 1 0.9030 ...
20 40 1.3010... 1.6020 ...
60 250 1.7781... 2.3979 ...
100 900 2 2.9542 ...
Linear regression on the third and fourth columns gives

y=2.00147 ... x-1.08159 ... , with r 2 = 0.99692 ...
The slope in the linear regression equation is equa l to the exponent in
the power regression equation. The y-intercept in the linear regression
equation is equa l to th e logarithm of the proportionality constant (dilation
factor) in the power regress ion equation . The values of r 2 are equal
for the two regression equat ions .
d. Figure 8-4i shows that the linear function fits the logarithms of the data,
as in Figure 8-4h.
Jog Y
3
log X
Figur e 8-4i ....

Note: You can plot the graph in Figure 8-4i without actuall y finding the linear
equation . Set your grapher to parametric mo de. Then enter log t for x and the
log of the power regression equation for y, with x replaced by t.
Xn = log(t)
Yn = log(0.08287t t\2.00147 ...)
The next example shows you how to graph a logarithmic function on mu ltiply-
add semilog graph paper.
374 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functio
nstoData
~ EXAMPLE
2 a. Plot these data on multiply-add semilog graph paper. What evidence do
you have that a logarithmic function would fit the data reasonably well?
X y
2 2.4
10 5.0
50 7.6
300 10.4
900 12.2
b. By logarithmic regression, find the particular equation of the best-fitting

logarithmic function . Record the coefficient of determination. Use the
equation to calcu late y for x = 1 and x = 1000. Plot these two points on
the graph in part a and connect them with a straight-line graph. What
graphical and numerical evidence do you have that a logarithmic function
fits the data reasonably well?
c. Calculate y if xis 20. Show that this point lies on the straight -line graph
in part b.
Solution Figure 8-4j shows the data and the regression line plotted on multiply - add
semilog graph paper.
a. The points lie close to a straight line, indicating that a logarithmic function
is reasona bl e.
y
15
10
-----j
l- +- -r-r-+
0 I I I r X
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

Figure 8-4)
b. The equation is y = 1.3067 ... + 1.6001... ln x, with r 2 = 0.999957 ....

y (1) = 1.3067 ...
y (1000) = 12.3605 ...
Figure 8-4j shows graphically that the regression line fits the data. Also,
r 2 = 0.999957 ..., which is close to 1, confirming num erica lly that the
regression line fits the data.
Section
8·4: Linearizing
DataandLogarithmi
cGraph
Paper 375
c. y (20) = 6.1005 .. .
Figure 8-4j shows that the point is on the line.
Note that most graphers display the results of logarithmic regression in terms
of natural logarithms. The values of y you get from these regression equations
are the same ones you get if you change to base-10 logarithms .
Problem Set 8-4
Reading Analysis t:l!J/ l. y = 1.5 · 2x;

2. y = 800 • 0.6\
X =
X
l, 3, 5, 7, 9
= 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
you consider to be the main idea? What does your For the power functions in Problems 3 and 4,
calculator do internally when you run an a. Calculate the y-values for the given value s
exponential regress ion? On what kind of graph Of X.
paper will a power function graph plot as a straight b. Plot the points on log-log graph paper.
line, and why is it straight? What is the significance
c. Show that the points lie on a straight line.
of the slope of this line?
d. Measure the slope with a ruler and show
that it equa ls the exponent in the equation .
Quick Review~ , u~(~
3. y = 70ox -u ; x = l, 5, 10, 30, 100
QI. Sketch the graph of a decreasing exponential
function. 4. y = 5x 0 ·8 ; x = l, 6, 10, 40, 100
Q2.Sketch the graph of a power function with For the logarithmic functions in Problems 5 and 6,
exponent between O and l. a. Calculate the y-values for the given values
03. Sketch the graph of a logarithmic function. of x.
b. Plot the points on multiply-add sernilog
04. Sketch the graph of a logistic function.
graph paper.
QS.Sketch the graph of a quadratic function with a c. Show that the points lie on a straight line.
positive y-intercept and a negative coefficient
of x2 . 5. y = 2 + 3 ln x; x = l, 4, 10, 200, 1000
06. log 5 + log 7 =log - ?- 6. y = - l + 2 log x; x = 3, 8, 20, 100, 500
Ql. log 18 - log 3 =log-? - 7. Show that an exponential function graph is not
a straight line on log-log graph paper by
. 2 log 7 =log-?
QB - plotting the data from Problem 1 on log-log
09. Exponential functions have the - ?- pattern. graph paper.
QIO. Logarithmic functions have the-?- pattern. 8. Show that a power function graph is not a
straight line on add-multiply semilog graph
paper by plotting the data from Problem 4 on
For the exponential functions in Problems 1 and 2,
add-multiply semilog graph paper.
a. Calculate the y-values for the given values
Of X . For Problems 9-14,
b. Plot the points on add -multipl y semilog a. Read the coordinates of the points.
graph paper. b. Find an equation of the function by running
c. Show that the points lie on a straight line. the appropriate regression .
376 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
toData
c. Use your regression equation to find the 11. X = 9
value of y for the given value of x, and y
confirm that the point lies on the graph . 10000
9. X= 2 5000
y
1000
r-, ...
2000
500
1000
200 500
100
200
50
100
20 50
10
20
5 X
10
0 5 10 15
2
12 . X = 8
X
1 y
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 10000
10. X = 60
5000 -f,-- ...
y
1000
2000 t
500
1000
--"
f ~
200 500
100
200 t-
50
100 --+----,
20 50
10
---+
t
20 +
5 X
10
0 5 10 15
2
X
1
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
Section
8-4: Linearizing
DataandLogarithmic
Graph
Paper 377
13. X = 90 Drainage
y Area Length
15 River (10 3 km 2) (km)
I ;
Amazon 6915 6296

Yenisey 2580 4438
10 -- - Congo 3680 4371
Macken zie 1790 4241
Mississippi 2980 3778
+-
' Volga 1380 3687
St. Lawrence- 1030 30 58
5 + Rio Grande 570 3034
Essequibo 155 970
[! Mamberamo 79.44 650
o~ ~ -- ~ -~ ~ ~-~-_.___..___~_ ......_.
X Nashua 1.954 90
1 2 5 10 20 50 JOO 200 500 1000
y
14. X = 60
6000
y
15
~ 4000
.r:: ••
bJO
~ 2000
....,
10 - X
2000 4000 6000

Area drain ed (krn 2)
Fig ur e 8-4k
5
a. The data follow a path that is incr eas ing
and concave down, as is typica l of
incr easing logarithmic functions and of
0 .__ __,___ .....___.._____...__ _ _._ _ _.___..___ _......._ X
........ power functions with bas e betw een O and 1.
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 Explain why a power function would b e
For the expon ential functions in Problems 15 and a mor e reasonable math emat ical mod el
16, on your grapher plot log y as a function of x. in this cas
Use windows with suitabl e ranges for x and y. b 1. Enter the data into two lists on your grapher .
Sketch the re sults . By power regression, fin uat' of Y,
th e b est -fitting funcJ:io Re(:ord r 2 , the
1
15. Y = 5 • 3x 16. y = 20 · 0.8x
~ ient of dete. rminati on. Plot th e power
For th e power functions in Probl ems 17 and 18, on functi on and th e scatt er plot on th e sam e
your graph er plot log y as a function of log x. You
can u se param etric mode, as explained in th e note
following Example 1. Use windows with suitable
l screen, and sketch th e result on a copy of
Figure 8-4k.
c. Make two more lists containing th e
ranges for x and y. Sketch th e results . logarithm s of area and length. Using
17. y = 9ox - 2 18. y = 2x 3 param etric mod e, plot log y versus log x on
the same scr een as a scatter plot of th e-
19. River Basin Problem: After land masses were
formed, rivers formed to drain various regions .
The len gth of the river drainin g a particu lar
transformed data. Sketch the result. How
does the fit of th e lineari zed function to th_e ·-
region may be assumed to depend on the area
of the region (river ba sin) drained. Figure 8-4k
shows a scatter plot of th e data.
378 Chapter
8: FittingFun
ction
s toDoto
d. Run a linear regression on log y as a scatter plot on the same screen, and sketch
function of log x. Show that the value you the result on a copy of Figure 8-41.
get for r 2 is equal to the value of r 2 you c. 'r iot the data on add -multipl y semilog
recorded in part b. What do es this fact graph paper . Plot the graph of y by
indicate about the way your grapher does =
calculating the values at x = 0 and x = 100,
power regression ? plotting the points, and connecting them
20. Water Use Problem: The booklet Environmental with a straight line. Does the line fit th e
Math emati cs in th e Classroom (MAA, 200 3) data reasonably well?
shows the valu es in the table for estimat ed d. Use your regression equation to predict the
daily water u sage (billions of gallons) in the daily water usage for this year. Which do
United States for various years starting in 1900. you use to do this, extra polation or
Figure 8-41 shows a scatter plot of these data. int erpolation? Based on any patterns you
Water Usage
see in the data, how confident are you that
Year (billion gal / day) your prediction is realistic ?
e. Enter another list into your grapher
1900 40 .2 containing the logarithm of the water usage.
1910 66.4 Run a linear regression on log y as a
1920 91.5 function of x. How does th e value of r 2
1930 110.5 compare to the value you recorded for the
1940 136.4 expo nential regres sion in part b? What does
1950 202 .7 this fact indicate about th e way your
1960 322.9 grapher does exponentia l regression?
1965 269.6
1970 327 .3 21. Temperatur e-Depth Problem: Suppose that th e
1975 420.0 temperatures listed in the tabl e have b een
1980 450.0 measured at various dep ths b elow Earth's
1985 400.0 surface .
y
?o' y 10
"O
~ 500 8
OD
400
X. (°C) y (km) s:=, 6
C
.!:?
=i 300
. . 30 1.0
..c::
0. 4
e 0)
0
~ 200 60 2.4 2
"'
~ 100 100 4.0 X
X 200 5.9 100 200 300 400 500
20 40 60 80 100 500 8.6 Temperantre (°C)
Years after 1900 Figur e 8-4m
Figur e 8-41
a. The scatter plot in Figure 8-4m shows that
a. The scatter plot shows a pattern that is
the data follow a path that is increasing and
increasing and concave up, sugges ting that concave down, indicatin g that a logarithmi c
either a power function or an expon ential function or a power fun ction with base
func tion might b e a reasonable mod el. betw een O and 1 might fit the data. Explain
Explain why an expon en tial function would why a logarithmic fun ctio n would be more
b e more appropriate in this case. appropriate.
b. By exponential regression, find the equation
y,
of the best-fitting function. Record the b. By logarithmic regression, find the equation
for y, the b est-fitting function. Record r 2 , the
value of r 2 , the coefficient of determination .
Plot the exponential function and th e coefficient of determination . Plot y and the
data on your graph er, and sketch the result on
Section
8-4: Linearizing
Doto
andLogarithmic
Graph
Poper 379
a copy of Figure 8-4m. Does the graph fit the b . Run a quadratic regression on the data to
data reasonably well? find the equation of y, the best-fitting
function. Record the value of R2 . Plot y and
c. Plot the data on multiply-add semilog graph
the data on the same screen, and sketch the
paper . Plot a straight-line graph through the
result on a copy of Figure 8-4n. Explain
data points and use it to estimate the depth at
what it means that they-intercept is so
which the temperature would be 300°C. How
close to zero.
close is this graphical value to the value of y
by the equation you found in part b? c. Calculate the mean of the growth rate and
store it as M, without rounding. Enter into
d. Explain why y can be considered to be a linear two new lists the squares of the deviations
function of 1n x in the equation you found in of y from Mand the squares of the residual
part b . deviations of y from y. By summing these
e. Enter a list of values of log x into your grapher. new lists, find SSctev and SSres· Then use
Run a linear regression on y as a function of these sums to calculate the coefficient of
log x. How does the value of r 2 compare to the determination, R2 . Does your result agree
value you found by logarithmic regression in with the value of R2 in part b? Explain why
part b? What does this fact indicate about the uppercase R is used in this case rather than
way your grapher does logarithmic regression? lowercase r.
22. Population Growth Rate Problem: In the past 23. Proof Problems:
few censuses, the town of Scorpion Gulch a. Prove that for the exponential function
recorded the populations and growth rates y = 5 · 3x, log y is a linear function of x.
listed in the table . Figure 8-4n shows a scatter b. Prove in general that for the exponential
plot of the data . function y = abX, log y is a linear function
Growth Rate of X.
Year Population (people/yr) c. Prove that for the power function y = 2x 3 ,
1940 300 19 log y is a linear function of log x.
1950 540 30 d. Prove in general that for the power fun ction
1960 950 45 y = ax b, log y is a linear function of log x.
1970 1400 57 e. Why can you conclude that for a logarithmic
1980 2040 53 function, y is a linear function of log x?
1990 2400 40 24. Height-Weight Historical Problem: Before
2000 2700 28 calculators were available to do regression
y
analysis efficiently, log-log and semilog
graph paper was used to help determine
what type of function fits a given set of
data. The type of paper that gave a straight-
line graph indicated which function to use.
Suppose that the average weights in the
table have been recorded for humans of
X various heights.
1000 2000 3000
Population Height (in.) Weight (lb)
Figure 8-4n 10 1.7
a. The population growth rate follows a path 20 8.5
that is increasing, then decreasing, and 30 21.5
concave down as the population grows . Why 40 41.6
might the rate of population growth slow as 50 69.5
the population of the town grows? 60 105.7
380 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
ta Data
a. Plot the data on add -m ultipl y sernilog graph equations were found in the days before
paper. Plot it again on log-log graph paper . calculators had regression analysis built in .)
Which graph seems to be mor e nearly a d. Run an exponential regression an d a power
straig ht line? regression on th e given data. Does the
b. Based on your answer to part a, which type regression analysis confirm your conclusion
of function fits th e data mor e closel y, and equation? How do you tell?
expone ntial or po wer? e. Predict the weight of a 90-in.-tall giant using
c. Find algebraically the particular equation of your equation in p art c, and again using the
the function in part b . Use th e fir st and last regression equation in part d. How closely
data points to find the constants in th e do the two answers agree?
equati on. (This was the way particular
8-5 Residual Plots and Mathematical Models

In Section 8-3, you learned how to do regression anal ysis to fit functions to
data by choosing th e function that had the shape of th e graph and the correct
end point behavior. In this section you will obtain furth er evidence of wheth er
a funct ion fits well by makin g sure that a plot of the resi duals follows no
particular patt ern.
OBJECTIVE
Find graphical evidence of how well a given function fits a set of data by
plotting and anal yzing th e residuals.
Age (wk) Height (in.) A biology class plants one bean each week for y( in. )
3 5
10 weeks. Three weeks after the last bean is
planted, the plants have the heights shown in the 20 ..
4 4 table and in Figure 8-5a. As you can tell, ther e is
5
6
7
6
a definite upward trend, but it is not absolutely
lO
.. .. x(wk)
clear whether the best-fitting function is curved 10
7 11 or straig ht.
8 11
Regression shows roughl y the same correlation Figure 8-Sa
9 15
10 20 coefficie nt for linear and exponentia l functions.
11 21 Linear: Exponential:
12 24 y = 2.1351...x - 4.9636 ... y = 2.2538 ... (1.2267 .. .)X
r= 0.96 75 ... r = 0.9690 .. .
Secti
on8·5: Residual
Plots
andMathematical
Models 381
Both functions fit reasonably well, as shown in Figures 8-Sb and 8-Sc.
y(in.) y(in.)
Residuals are Residuals are
20 hard to see. 20 hard to see.-
10
x(wk) x(wk)
10 10
Figure 8-Sb Figure 8-Sc

Linear function Exponential function
The residuals, y - y,in these figures are hard to see because they are relatively
small. You can see the residuals more easily by making a residual plot, a scatter
plot of the residuals. Figures 8-Sd and 8-Se show residual plots for the linear
function and the exponential function, respectively. To make these plots, enter
the regression equation for y into your grapher, say, in they= menu as y 1 .
Assuming that the data are in lists L1 and L2 , you can calculate the residuals
like this:
The expression y 1 (1 1 ) means th e values of the function in y 1 at the
values of x in 1 1 .
Most graphers have a zoom feature that will set the window automatically to fit
the statistical data.
Residual Residual
s Residuals are 5 Residuals are
easier to see. easier to see.
X X
10 • 5 • 10
-5 -5
Figure 8-Sd Figure 8-Se

Linea r function residuals Exponential function residuals
The residuals for the linear function seem to form a pattern: high at both ends
and low in the middle. A pattern in the residuals suggests that the data may
be nonlinear. The residuals for the exponential function are more random,
following no discernible pattern. So the residuals for the exponential function
are more likely caused by random
variations in the data, such as different
growth rates for different bean plants. ruihuit =y - w/tere, y,
y = muat va1ue,u,r.,
dda- ,a
f
= utiuwi:d value, tlu-ot<jlv
Yl!jYUfUJ/f,
382 Chapter
8: Fitting
Fun
ctions
toData
CONCLUSION:
Residual
PlotInterpretation
If the residual plot follows a regular pattern, th en there is a beh avior that is
not accounted for by the kind of function chosen.
If the residual plot has no identifiable pattern, then the regression equation is
likely to account for all but random fluctuations in the data.
Note that the residual plot and the endpoint behavior might give you conflicting
information . The residual plot suggests that an exponential function is mo re
reaso nable, but it indicates that the be an plants were already sprouted at
time x = 0, when the y were planted.
Problem Set 8-5
Reading Analysis t1I/J 1. Radiosonde Air Pressure Problem: Each day

m eteorologists release weather balloons calle d
radiosondes to measur e data about the
From what you have read in this sectio n, what do
you consider to b e the main idea? Why is it that no atmosphere at variou s altitud es . Figure 8-5f
pattern in a residual plot is "goo d news " and a and th e table show altitude in meters ,
definite pattern is "bad news"? How can a residual pressure in millibars, and temperature in
plot give you information about how well a function degrees Celsius measured in December 1991
fits a set of da ta that you cannot get by simpl y by a radiosonde in Coffeeville, Kansas.
consid ering the correlation coeffic ient ?
-;:-
jg
1000 ,
800
.
••• •
· ....
_g
Quick Review .,
~
600 ' .
"' 400
02. Find the correlation coefficient if the

"'
~
o.. 200 ... . . .
coefficient of determination is 0.9.
0 6000 12000 18000
Q3. Find y for the point (3, 9) if y = 2x + 7. Altitude (m)
Figure 8-5{
Q4. Find the residual for the point (3, 9) if
y = 2x+ 7.
05. Find the deviation for the point (3, 9) if xis 5
and y is 6.
Q6. Find the y-intercept if y = 2x + 7.
Ql. Find the x-coordinat e of the vertex of this
par abola: y = 3x 2 + 24x + 71.
QB. 2 log 6 =log-?-
Q9. What transformation of the parent function

y = sin xis the function y = sin 2(x - 3)?
Q10.Find the exact value (no decimals) of cos 1g.
Section
8-5:Residual
Plots
andMathematical
Models 383
Altitude Press ure Temperature of the water in degrees Celsius at various times
(m) (mbar) (OC) in seconds since he turned on the heat .
400 965 11.4 Time (s) Temperature (°C)

620 940 12
49 35
800 920 11.9
62 40
1220 875 11.7
76 45
1611 835 11
89 50
2018 795 8.6
103 55
2500 750 9
117 60
3009 705 6.8
131 65
4051 620 0.9
145 70
5000 550 -6 .8
161 75
6048 480 - 13
176 80
7052 420 -19.8
190 85
8075 365 -28.5
205 90
9005 320 -35 .2
10042 275 -43
235 -48.6 100
11086
12151 zoo -46.8 2OJ
80
....
13024 175 -52.6 2 60
14004
15134
150
125
-58 .3
-63.1
,._
"'
OJ
0.
a
40 .
~ 20
16197 105 -66.5
17120 90 -71.1 0 40 80 120 160 200
18195 75 -70 .7 Tim e (s)
a. From a scatter plot of pressure versus Figure 8-Sg

altitude, explain why an exponential
function would be expected to fit the data a. Run a linear regression on temperature as a
well. Find the best-fitting exponential function of time. Record the correlation
function. Record the correlation coefficient coefficient . Plot the regression equation and
and enter the equation into your grapher's a scatter plot of the data on the same
y= menu. Plot the equation on the same screen . Does the fit of the line to the data
screen as the scatter plot. Does the graph confirm the fact that the correlation
fit the points well? coefficient is extremely close to 1?
b. Enter another list into your grapher for the b. Make a residual plot. Sketch the result . How
resid u al of each point . Then make a residual does the residual plot tell you that there is
plot and sketch the result. Do the residuals something in the heating of the water that
follow a definite pattern, or are they the linear function does not take into
randomly scattered? What real-world account? What real-world reason do you
phenomenon could account for the suppose causes this slight nonlinearity?
deviations? c. Based on the linear model, at what time
c. Based on your residual plot in part b, could would you expect the water to reach 100°(
the exponential function be used to make and boil? Based on your observations in
pre dictions of pressure correct to the nearest part b, would you expect the water to boil
millibar, if this accuracy were necessary? sooner than this or later than this? Explain .
2. Hot Water Problem: Tim pu t some water in a 3. Gas Mileage Problem : Figure 8-5h and the tab le
saucepan and then turned the heat on high . show the gasoline consumption rate (mi/ gal) of
Figure 8-5g and the tab le show the temperature 16 cars of various weights (lb).
38 4 Chapter
8: FittingFunctions
toData
Gasoline regress ion or power regression-has a mor e
Weight Consumption reasonable endpoint beha vior for light cars?
Model (lb) (mi/gal) Is there a significant differ enc e in endpoint
behavior if you extrapolate for very
Ford Aspire 2140 43 hea vy cars?
Honda Civic del Sol 2410 36
Honda Civic 2540 34 4. Weed Competition Problem: In the report
Ford Escort 2565 34 A pplications of Math ematic s: A Nationwide
Honda Prelude 2865 30 Surv ey, A. C. Madgett reports on the
Ford Probe 2900 28 competition of wild oats (a weed) with various
Honda Accord 3050 31 crops. The mor e wild oa ts that are growin g
BMW3-series 3250 28 ·with a crop, th e greater th e loss in yield of
Ford Taurus 3345 25 that crop. Figure 8-5i and th e table show
Ford Mustang 3450 22 information from th at re port .
Ford Taurus SHO 3545 24
BMW5-series 3675 23 Wild Oat Percent Loss of
Lincoln Mark VIII 3810 22 Plants/m 2 Wheat Crop
Cadillac Eld orado 3840 19
1 3
Cadillac Seville 3935 20
5 8
Ford Crown Victoria 4010 22
10 10
20 17
i :~ 50
100
25
34
';; 35
.g 30 ..
. . 150 40
.
..... 200 48
E°2s
~
,::
20 ..
8 15
so
C'"''
.~ 10
si 5
c'.3 o.____.__ 10.....
0-0 ---'---:-2-:"
oo:-:o---'---: 3-::'
o':"'.
oo~...._ 4:-:
o'::'"oo
~
Weight (lb)
x (oats/ m2)
Figure 8-5h F 100
' 1
200
•
a. Run an exponential regression an d a power Figure 8-5i

regression on the data. Show that the
correlation coefficient for each function is a. From the sca tter plot, identify what type of
about the same. Plot each function on the fun ction is most likely to fit th e data. By
same screen as a scatter plot of the dat a. Do regression, find the particular equation of
both functions seem to fit the data well? thi s kind of function. Plot it and th e scatter
b. Make two residual plots, one for the plot on the same screen. Sketch the result.
exponential function and one for the power b. Make a residual plot. Sketch the result. What
function. Does either residual plot seem to information do you get about the way your
follow a pattern? How do you interpret this selected function fit s the data from the
answer in terms of which functio n fits the residual plot ? From the corre lation
data more closely ? coefficient?
c. Extrapolate using both the expo nential c. Based on your math ematic al model, what
function and the power functio n to pr edict perc ent of crop loss would be expected if
the gas mileage for a super-com pact car there were 500 wild oat plants p er square
weighing only 500 lb. Based on your met er? Do you find this number by
answers, which model-exponential extrapo lation or by interpolation ?
Section
8-5: Residual
Plots
andMathematical
Models 385
d. How man y wild oat plant s per squ are met er
do you predict it would tak e to choke out
the wheat crop comp letely? Do you find
this numb er by extrapo lation or by
interpolation?
S. Population Prob lem: Figure 8-Sj an d the

table show the population of the United States
for various years as reported by the U.S. Censu s
Bureau . The variable xis th e numb er of years
elapsed since 1930.
X Population
Year (yr) (million)
d. Suppose that the result of the 2000 censu s
1940 10 131.7 had b een 282.4 mi llion, 1 million higher .
1950 20 151.3 Run ano th er logist ic regress ion u sing the
1960 30 179.3 modifi ed data. What diff eren ce do es a
1970 40 203.3 change of one million in one dat a point have
1980 so 226 .S on th e maximum sustainabl e population?
1990 60 248 .7
6. Wind Chill Problem: When the wind is blowin g
2000 70 281.4
on a cold day, the temperature seems to be
cold er than it really is . For any given actua l
y (mi lli on peopl e)
300 temperature with no wind, the equivalent
i temperature du e to vvind chill is a function of
200
fr
wind speed . Figure 8-Sk and the tabl e sho w
100 data publi shed by the Nationa l Oceanographic
X (yr) and Atmospheric Administratio n in 2000 .
50 JOO
Figure 8-5)
a. Explain why a linear function and an

untranslated power function would not hav e
the correc t endpoint behavior for dates lon g
before 1930. Explain why an exponentia l
function of th e form y = ab x would not have
reasonable endp oint b ehavior for dates lon g
after th e pr esent.
b. Find th e par ticular equation of th e best-
fitting logistic function. Plot it and the data
on the same screen. Use a window th at
includ es dates ba ck to 1830 and forwar d to
2130. Sketch the result.
c. What do es the logistic mod el predi ct for
the outcome of the 2010 cen sus ? What does
the logistic model pr edict for th e maximum
sus tainab le population of th e United States?
386 Chapter8: Fitting

FunctionstoDoto
Wind Speed Equivalent number of calories per kilogram of body mass
(mi/h) Temperature (°F) decr eases with mass because larger animals
have a lower surface-to-volume ratio. In Studies
0 35 in Mathematics, Volume XX, Max Bell reports
5 32 these data for various mammals:
10 22
15 16 Consumption-
20 12 to-Mass
25 8 Animal Mass (kg) Ratio (cal/kg)
30 6
35 4 Guinea pig 0.7 223
40 3 Rabbit 2 58
Human 70 33
y( OF) Horse 600 22
50
40
30
20
i
•
Elephant 4000 13
10 • • • • X (mi/h)
10 20 30 40 50
- 10
Figur e 8-5k
a. Ignoring the data point at O mi/ h, run a

logarithmic regression to find the best-
fitting logarithmi c function . Plot it and the
data on the same screen . Sketch the result. a. Because the mass values cover such a wide
b. t what wind speed does the logarithmic ran ge, a scatter plot of the given data would
function predict that the equivalent offer little us eful information. Transform
temperature would be 0°F? Do you find the data by inserting two new columns for
this numb er by extrapolation or by log of mass and log of consumption, as
interpolation ? Explain why an untranslated you did in Section 8-4. Then run a linear
exponential function would predict that the regression on the transform ed data . Record
equivalent temperature would never be 0°F. the value of r 2 . Plot the linear function and
Explain why the logarithmic function does the transformed data on the same screen,
not have th e corr ect en dpoint behavior at and sketch the result. Do the transformed
th e lower end of th e domain. data seem to follow a linear pattern?
c. Make a residual plot for the logarithmic b. By transforming the equation in part a, show
function. Sketch the result. Do the residuals that calorie consumption is a power function
follow a pattern ? What does thi s fact tell you of mass. Run a power regression on the
about how well the logarithmic function fits original data to show that you get the same
the data ? power function and the same value of r 2 .
c. The smallest mammal is the shrew . Predict
the calorie consumption per kilogram for
a 2-g shrew. (The ne ed to eat so much
d. Check the Internet or another reference
compared to body mass probabl y explains
to find th e mathematic al model that was
why shrews are so mean!)
used in 2000, and why the model has
changed since then . d. In the referenced article, Bel1 reports that
a 150,000-kg whale consumes about
7. Calorie Consumpt ion Probl em: The number of l. 7 cal/kg . What does the power
calories an anima l must cons um e per day function predict for the number of
increases with its bod y ma ss. However, the
Section
8-5: Residual
Plots
andMathematical
Models 387
calories per kilogram if you extrapolate it to part a. Can you see any difference between
the mass of a whale? By what percentage the exponential graph and the linear graph?
does the answer differ from the given c. In 1999, Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco set
1.7 cal/kg? Can you think of a reason why a world record of 223.13 s for the mile run .
the predicted value is so far from the Which function comes closer to predicting
reported value? this result, the linear or the exponential?
8. Mile Run Record Times: The table shows that d. Make a residual plot for the linear function.
the world record time for the mile run has Describe any patterns you see in the points .
been decreasing from 1913 through 1993. e. In 1954, Roger Bannister of Great Britain
Year Time (s) Year Time (s) "broke" the 4-min mile. Until that time,
it had been thought that 4 min (240 s) was
1913 254.4 1958 234.5 the quickest a human being could run a
1915 252 .6 1962 234.4 mile. What do the data and residual plot
1923 250.4 1964 234 .1 suggest happened in the years just before
1931 249.2 1965 233 .6 and just after Bannister's feat?
1933 247.6 1966 231.3
9. Meatball Problem: In Applications of
1934 246.8 1967 231.1
Mathematics: A Nationwide Survey, A. C. Madgett
1937 246.4 1975 231.0
1942 246.2 1975 229.4 reports the moisture content of deep-fried
1942 244.6 1979 228.95 meatballs as a function of how long they have
been cooked. The data in the table were
1943 242.6 1980 228.80
gathered to determine the effectiveness of
1944 241.6 1981 228 .53
adding whey to hamburger meat to make it
1945 241.4 1981 228.40
227.33 retain more moisture during cooking, thus
1954 239.4 1981
238.0 1985 226.32 improving its quality.
1954
1957 237.2 1993 224.39 Cooking Time Percent Moisture
(min) Content
No whey Whey
6 46.4 48.8
8 45.3
10 40.6 44.2
12 36.9 41.8
14 33.5 39.2
a. On the same screen, make a scatter plot of
both sets of data . Use different symbols for
the different data sets. Find the best-fitting
linear function for each set of data, and plot
the two functions on the same screen as the
scatter plots. Sketch the results.
a. Make a scatter plot of the data . Use the last b. Use the linear model to predict the moisture
two digits of the year for x and the number content for the missing data point in the
of seconds for y. A window with a y-range of whey data. Which process do you use,
[220, 260] will allow you to view the entire extrapolation or interpolation? Explain.
data set on the screen. Plot the best-fitting c. Use the linear model to predict how long
linear function on the same screen. Sketch the meatballs could be cooked without
the result. dropping below 30% moisture first if they
b . Find the best-fitting exponential function have whey and then if they have no whey.
for the data. Plot it on the same screen as in Which process do you use, extrapolation or
interpolation? Explain.
388 Chapter
8: FittingFun
ctions to Data
d. According to your mathematical models, do b . Plot the best-fitting quadratic function and
the two kinds of meatballs have the same the scatter plot on the same screen. Sketch
moisture content befor e they are cooked? the result.
Give numb ers to support your answer. c. If the manufacturer made a 21-in. model
10. Television Set Problem: The table gives prices and a 50-in. model, how much would you
of a popular brand of television set for various expect to pay for each? For which prediction
sizes of screen. did you use extrapolation, and for which did
you use interpolation?
Diagonal (in.) Price($)
d. Make a resid u al plot for the quadratic
5 220 function. Sketch the result. On the residual
12 190 plot, indicate which sizes of television sets
17 230 are slightly overpriced and which are
27 350 underpriced.
36 500 e. Why do prices go up for very small
a. Make a scatter plot of the data. Based on the television sets?
graph, explain why a quadratic function is a 11. Journal Problem: Make an entry in your journal
more reasonable math ematical model than a explaining how two different types of
linear, a logarithmic, an untranslat ed power, regression functions can have the same
or an exponential function. Confirm your correlation coefficient although one function is
graphical anal ysis num erically by finding R 2 preferred over the oth er. Show how a residual
or r 2 , the coefficient of determination, for plot and endpoint behavior can sometimes
each of the five types of functions. give conflicting information about which
function to use .

1n this chapter you've learned how to fit various types of functions to data. In
choosing th e type of function, you considered
• The shape in the scatter plot
• The behavior of the chosen type of function at the endpoints
• Whether the data form a linear patt ern on sernilog or log-log graph paper
• Whether the residual plot follows a pattern
• The correlation coefficient
You learned how to calculate SSctev, the sum of the squares of the deviations of
the y-values from the horizontal line y = y, the mean of the y-values. Rotating
the line to fit the pattern followed by the data reduces th e deviations. The linear
regression line reduces the deviations enough so that SSres, the sum of the
squares of the residuals (residual deviations), is a minimum. The coefficient of
determination and the correlation coefficient are calculated from SSctev and
SSrcs· You can use other kinds of regression to fit different types of functions to
data, sometimes using logarithms to linearize the data .
Section
8-6:Chapter
Review
andTest 389
Review Problems
RO.Update your journal with what you have d. Show that a slight change in the slope (1.6)
learned in this chapter. Include how your or they-intercept (0.9) leads to a higher
knowledge of the shapes of various function value of SSres· For instanc e, you might try
graphs guides you in selecting the type of y = l. Sx + 1.0.
function you'll choose as a model and how
R2. a. Figure 8-6b shows the points from
regression analysis lets you find the particular
Figure 8-6a with a dashed line at y = y, the
equation of the selected type of function.
mean of the y-values . Calculate y to show
Mention the ways you have of deciding how
that the figure is correct .
well the select ed function fits, both within
the data and possibly beyond the data. Also, b. Calculate x. Show algebraically that the
explain how the correlation coefficient and the point (x, y) is on the regression line
coefficient of determination are calculated y = l.6x + 0.9 from Problem Rl.
from SSctev and SSres, and how taking c. On a copy of Figure 8-6b, sketch both the
logarithms of data can linearize the data. deviation from the mean for the point where
x equals 9 and the residual (that is, the
Rl. Figure 8-6a shows this set of points and the
residual deviation) for this point.
graph of y = l.6x + 0.9.
d. Calculate SSctev, the sum of the squares of
X y the deviations. Why do you suppose that
SSctev is so much larger than SSre/
3 6
5 10 y
7 9
9 17 15
y 10
5 10
Figure 8-6b
X
10
e. Calculate the coefficient of determination,
5
Figur e 8-6a SSctev- SSres
SSctev
a. By linear regression, confirm that
y = l.6x + 0.9 is the correct regression Then run a linear regression on the points
equation. in Problem Rl, showing that the fraction
equals r 2 .
b. Copy the table and put in three new
columns, one for the values of y;one for the f. Calculate the correlation coefficient from r 2 .
values of the residuals, (y - y); and one for Show that it agrees with the valu e from the
the squares of the residuals, (y - y)2. regression run on your grapher . Why must
you choose the positive square root?
c. By calculation, show that the sum of the
squares of the residuals, SSres, is 13.8.
390 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
toData
g. Figures 8-6c through 8-6f show the ellipses a. By regression anal ysis, show that a
in which the clouds of data points lie. For logarithmi c function and a power function
each graph, state whether the correlation each fit the data about equally well.
coefficient is positive or negative and b . It is desired to predi ct the cost p er pair of
whether it is closer to O or closer to 1 or -1. shoes beyond the upp er end of the dat a.
y y Explain why the power function ha s a more
reasonable endpoint behavior than the
logarithmic function for large numb ers of
pairs produced .
c. Use the power function to pr edict how many
pairs of shoes the sho e manufactur er must
produc e before th e cost per pair drops
below $10.00. Do you find this numb er by
X X extrapolation or by interpolation? How do
you know ?
Figure 8-6c Figure 8-6d
d. According to the power function mod el,
y y what was the cost of manufacturing th e first
pair of shoes of thi s style?
e. The learnin g curve is sometim es
describ ed by saying, "Doubling the
number manufactur ed reduces the cost
by - ?- p ercent." What is the percentage
for this kind of sho e? What prop erty of
power functions doe s this fact illustrate ?
X X
Figure 8-6e Figure 8-6{
R3. Learning Curve Problem: When an article is

first manufactured, the cost of making each
item is relatively high. As the manufacturer
gains experience, the cost per item decr eases .
The function describing how the cost per item
varies with the number of items produced is
called th e learning curve . Suppos e that a shoe
manufacturer finds the cost per pair of shoes
shown in the table and in Figure 8-6g.
Pairs Cost y ($/ pair )
Produced ($/pair)
.
50 •
100 60 R4. a. For the po wer functi on y = 7x5 , show that
200 46 1ny is a linear function of ln x.
500 31 X (pairs )
b. Hose Probl em: The tabl e and th e graph in
700 1000 2000 3000
26 Figure 8-6h show the rate at which water
1000 21 flows from a garder,i.hose as a function of
Figure 8-6g
pr essure. The graph has a pattern that is
Section
8-6:Chapter
Review
andTest 391
increasing and concave down, suggesting d. Figure 8-6j shows the graph of a function on
that a power function with base between multiply-add semilog graph paper. Read
0 and 1 would be an appropriate approximate values of y for x = 2, 7, 30, and
mathematical model. By regression, 400. By logarithmic regression, find the
find the equation of the best-fitting equation of the best-fitting function for
power function. Then on another screen these points. Then use your equation to
plot both log y versus log x and the logs of calculate y for x = l, 10, 100, and 1000. Do
the data. Sketch the result. the values agree with the given graph?
X (psi) y (gal/ min)
1 0.9
5 2.0
10 2.8
15 3.5 10
25 4.5
40 5.7
50 6.4
70 7.5
50 100 200 500 1000

Figur e 8-6}
RS. Carbon Dioxide Probl em: Global warming

Press ur e (psi) is caused in part by the increase in the
Figure 8-6h concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. Suppose that the concentrations
c. Figure 8-6i shows the best-fitting in the table were measured monthly over a
exponential function for the data in the period of 2 yr. The concentration of carbon
table. By exponential regression, find the dioxide, y, is measured in parts per million
equation of this function. Record the value (ppm), and xis the number of months.
of r 2 , the coefficient of determination. Then
run a linear regression for log y as a a_s:400 y
function of x. What do you notice about the

.:;;g 30 0
........................
coefficient of determination? Transform the
exponential equation by taking the log of ~ 200
Q)
both sides, thus showing that you get the ~ 100

0
u
same equation as the linear equation for X
log y as a function of x. 0
u 12 24
Time (mo)
X y y Figur e 8-6k
25
2 3 20
a. Explain why a linear or an exponential
5 10 15
-------
10 function of the form y = abx might fit the
17 16 5 data shown in Figure 8-6k reasonably well,
19 23 X
5 10 JS 20 but why an untranslated power function or
a logarithmic function would not.
Figure 8-6i
392 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
toData
b. Run linear and exponential regressions on c. Make a residual plot usin g the exponential
the data. Plot both functions on a scatter function. Sketch th e result. How do you
plot of the data. Show that both functions interpret the residu al plot in terms of trends
give close to the actual concentration for in the real world th at the expo nential
x = 13 mo but yield a significan tly differe nt function does not account for?
concentration if you extra polate to 20 yr.
x( mo) y(ppm) x(mo) y(ppm)
January 1 323 .8 Januar y 13 343.5

February 2 324.8 February 14 344.9
March 3 325 .9 March 15 346. 1
April 4 327.2 April 16 347.4
May 5 328 .1 May 17 348.4
June 6 329.6 June 18 349.9
July 7 331.5 July 19 352. 0
August 8 333.5 August 20 354 .5
September 9 335 .5 September 21 356 .5
October 10 338 .0 October 22 358.9
November 11 340.2 November 23 360.8
December 12 342.1 December 24 362.6
Car exhaust contain s carbo n dioxide, which

contr ibut es to global warming .
Sec
tion8-6:Chapter
Review
andTest 393
Concept Problem
Cl. Sinusoidal Regression Problem: Some graphers X y y
are programmed to calculate sinusoidal
regression. Suppose the data in the table hav e 2 7.7
been measured. 4 5.4
6 2.7
a. Figure 8-61 shows a plot of th e dat a and 2.1 X
8
the best-fitting sinusoidal fun ction. Run 4.2
10
a sinusoidal regression on the data. Find the 12 7.0
particular equation. Figure 8-61
14 8.0
b. Confirm that the graph of your equation 16 6.2
goes through the data points, as in 18 3.4
Figure 8-61. 20 2.0
c. Find the approximate values of the period,
the amplitude, the phase displacement, and
th e location of the sinusoidal axis for the
sinusoidal function.
Chapter Test
allowed(T1-T10) Residual
For Problems Tl -T7, assume that lin ear regression

on a set of data has given the equation y = - 2x + 31.
X
Tl. The mean-mean point, (x, y), is (5, 21). Find

the deviation of the data point (7, 15).
T2. Find the residual of the data point (7, 15).
T3. Linear regression gives corre lation coefficient
-0.95, and exponential regression gives
Linear fw,ction
Figure 8-6m --
correlation coefficient -0 .94. Based on this Res idual
information, which of these two types of
fun ctions fits the data better? X
T4. Interpret what is meant by the fact that

the correlation coefficient is negative in
Problem T3.
Exponential function
TS. Residual plots show the patterns for linear
Figure 8-6n
regression (Figure 8-6m) and exponential
'
regression (Figure 8-6n). Based on these plots,
which type of function fits the data better 7
Explain how you decided.
394 Chapter
8: Fitting
Functions
toData
I~
T6. In a real-world context, you expect to have a y(c m)
positive y-intercept. Which function-the 15
linear, the exponentia l, both, or neither-has
this endpoint behavior ?
T7. If the function is extrapolated to large x-values, x (days)
the y-values are expected to approach the 2 4 6 8 10
x-axis asymptotically. Which function-the

Figure 8-60
linear, the exponential, both, or neither-has
thi s endpoint behavior ? Tll. Sketch Figure 8-60. Demonstrate that you
T8. What type of function has a straight -line graph know the meaning of the word residual by
on log-log graph paper? On add-multiply showing on the sketch the residual for the
semilog graph paper? On multiply-ad d semilog point where x equ als 6.
graph paper?
Tl2. Enter thr ee lists into the data table, one for the
T9. Given SSres and SSctev, how do you calculate the value of y using the re gres sion equation, one
coefficient of determination? How do you for the residual deviations, and one for the
calculate the correlation coeffic ient? squares of the residuals.
TlO. Why does the calculator give the same value T13. Calculate SSres, the sum of the squares of the
of r 2 , the coefficient of determination, for residuals .
power regression and for linear regression
Tl4. Calculate the mean-mean point, (x, y). Show
with the logarithms of the x-data and y-data?
algebraically that this point satisfies the
Why does the calculator use R 2 for quadratic
regression equation.
regression, instead of r 2 , for the coefficient
of determination ? Tl5. Herbie's partner, Peter Doubt, notices that the
regression line just mis ses the points (2, 5)
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(T11-T20) and (8, 14). He calculates the equation
containing these points and gets
The Snake Problem: Herpetologist Herbie Tol
raises sidewinder rattlesnakes . He measures th e Y2= l.5x + 2
length in centime ters and the mass in grams for a
Show that Peter's equation contains the
bab y sidewinder at various numbers of days after it
points (2, 5) and (8, 14).
hatches. For Problems Tll -Tl9, use these data.
Tl6. Calculate SSres for Peter 's equation. Explain
x (days) y(cm) m (g)
how the answer shows that Peter's equation
2 5 1 does not fit the data as well as Herbie's
4 9 5 regression equation.
6 10 9 Tl 7. Herbie wants to predict the length of his
8 14 20 sid ewinder 3 months (91 days) after it
He runs a linear regression on length as a function hatches. Use the linear regression equation
of days on his grap her and gets y = l.4x + 2.5 to make this predi ction. Does
this prediction involve extrapolation, or does it
y = l.4x + 2.5 involve interpolation ?
He plot s a sca tter plot and then plots the regression Tl8. How much different would the pred icted
line as shown in Figure 8-60. length after 3 months be if Herbie used Peter's
equation, Yz= l.5x + 2?
Section
8-6:Chapter
Review
andTest 395
Tl9. Volumes, and thus masses, of similarly shaped
objects are expected to vary directly with the
cube of the lengths. By power regression, find
the equation of m, the best-fitting function for
mass as a function of length. Calculate m for
y = 5 cm and y = 50 cm, and use these values
m
to plot the graph of on log-log graph paper.
Plot the four data points (y, m) on this graph
m
paper. How well does the graph of fit the
data points?
test that you did not know before?
396 Chapter
8: FittingFunctions
to Data
Probability, and Functions
of a Random Variable 9
To protect themselves from losing their life savings in a fire,

homeowners purchase fire insurance. Each homeowner pays an
insurance company a relatively small premium each year. From
that money, the insurance company pays to replace the few
homes that burn. Actuaries at the insurance company use the
probability that a given house will burn to calculate the premiums
to charge each year so that the company will have enough money
to cover insurance claims and to pay employee salaries and other
expenses. In this chapter you will learn some of the mathematics
involved in these calculations.
397
In this chapter you 'll learn about random experiments and events.
Results of random experiments constitute events. You will also
learn the concepts of probability and mathematical expectation.
The probabilities of various events are values that give you the
likelihood of a particular event among all possible events in an
experiment. You will gain this knowledge in four ways.
.. number of favorable outcomes

Numerically 1 = -------------
Prob ab 11ty
total number of possible outcomes
Algebraically If the probability that a thumbtack will land point up on any one
flip is 0.4, then P(x), the probability that it will land point up
x times in five flips, is this function of a random variable:
P(x) = 5 Cx · 0.6 5 - x • 0.4x
Graphically This is the graph of P(x). The

graph shows the probability that
the thumbtack will land point
up 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 times in
five flips.
0.4
0.3
0.2
r)
.
Olr X
I
1
I
2
I
3 '
4 5
I
Verbally TofoulPvjwtcti,o11,,ofPv YaJUWtM., trarWLe,, foulthe,probahilii:yofeach,

welt±~ fOUU, YaJ'ltWIM., e,xper~ like,J~ up'X t~ wlwv
''pot.flt
Pv thuuwtack ufafpd jwe,t~. T/wt.,piot the,3raplvofthe,probahility
ofx. Don/tC.bl1.Jiedthe, dot~ beuu,ue,the, JUllMiJer
M .Pvjwtctw11,, of
p-oW-t-ffU/uu to be,Pv w/wLe,JUllMiJer. Ifthe, thuuwtack e,xperU4Ui1:t u
farm,on,ey,
do11,e, the, averP.je,
~f ( ca/Led~icat
an cdudate:d by ~Ulj
e,xfH:da±io11,,) the,probahilityofeach,
oute.bme,by the, ruult ofthat oute.bme,.
3 98 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
9-1 Introduction to Probability
Suppose two dice are rolled, one white and one gray. Figure 9-la shows the
...'
•
••••
36 possible outcomes .
• ' ' C:J

n
D C:JGJ
nr.,
nr.,
Dl2l C:Jr8l
r-i i-:, r-i r-i
nr-1
~r-1
l!.:.!.IL..:.J
LIW
Dl8l [:][]
i-:, r:-i r-i
l!.:....J
r-i r:-i r-i n
r:-i r:-i r:-i n r:-i r-:-i
L.:.J l!.:.JL!..J l!.:....J
nr,.i
~r,.i
Ll Li LJ LI
l!.:....J
nn
LiL..:..J Lll...!...JLil!:...J l!....!Jl!....!J
~n
LILI
Lll!:...J Lll!....!J LILI
n~
~~
r-i r-:-i
LI
l..!.JL:.J l..!.Jl..!..J l..!.Jl!.:...Jl.!.J l!....!.Il..!..J
r-i r::i
L!.JlL!.J
r:-i r::i
l!:.Jt;__;J
nr::i
l!...!J
~1::1
li_;J
Lll!..lJ
[][:]. [].
... CJ .. []..·.u·
...l2l
. []· .. [].·.18J
...· []·....
..[]·.
Figur e 9-la
There are five outcomes for which the total on the dice is 6:
n r-:-i r-i n r:-i r:-i n r-i r-:-ir.,
L..:.Jl!.:!Jl..!.JLI l!:.Jl!:..J Lll..!.J LIL:.J
Because each outcome is equally likely, you would expect that in many rolls of
the dice the total would be 6 roughly 356 of the time . This number, 356 , is called
th e probability of rolling a 6. In this section you will find the probabilities of
other events in the dice-rolling experiment.
OBJECTIVEFind the probability of various events in a dice-rolling experiment .
Two dice are rolled, one white and one gray. Find 8. The total is between, but does not include,
the probability of each of thes e events. 3 and 7.
1. The total is 10. 9. The total is between 2 and 12, inclusive.
2. The total is at least 10. 10. The total is 13.
3. The total is less than 10. 11. The numbers are 2 and 5.
4. The total is at most 10. 12. The gray die shows 2 and the white die
shows 5.
5. The total is 7.
13. The gray die shows 2 or the white die shows 5.
6. The total is 2.
7. The total is between 3 and 7, inclusive.
Section
9-1: Introduction
toProbability 399
t::•)
~
9-2 Words Associated with Probability

You have heard statements such as "It will probably rain today." Mathematicians
give the word probably a precise meaning by attaching numbers to it, such as
"The probability of rain is 30%." To understand and use probability, you need to
learn the definitions of a few important terms.
OBJECTIVEDistinguish among various words used to describe probability.
For the dice-rolling experiment of Section 9-1, the act of rolling the dice is
called a random experiment. Each time you roll the dice is called a trial. The
word random lets you know that there is no way of telling beforehand how any
roll is going to come out.
Each way the dice could come up, such as
is called an outcome or a simple event. Outcomes are results of a random

experiment. In this experiment, the outcomes are equally likely. That is, each
has the same chance of occurring.
An event is a set of outcomes. For example, the event "the total on two dice
is 6" is the five-element set
The set of all outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space. The
sample space for the dice-rolling experiment of Section 9-1 is the set of
all 36 outcomes in Figure 9-la.
The probability of an event may now be defined numerically.
DEFINITION:
Probability
If th e outcomes of a random experiment are equally likely, then the
probability that a particular event will occur is
number of outcomes in the event
Verba ll y: Probability=---------------
number of outcomes in the sample space
n(E)
Symbolically: P(E) = n(S)
where n(E) is the number of outcomes in event E and n(S) is the number of
outcomes in the sample space, S.
400 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
The symbols in the definition of probability
are variations of f(x) notation . The symbols
make sense because the probability of an
event depends on the event, and so forth.
Note that all probabiliti es are b etween O and
1, inclusive. An event that is certa in to occur
has probability 1 b ecause n(E) = n(S) . An
event that cannot possibly occur has
probability O b ecause n(E) = 0.
The chance of rain is rar ely
0% or 100 %.
Problem Set 9-2
Quick Review ~
,, f. Calculate P(the card is an ace).
Q1. If you flip a coin , wh at is the probability that g. Calculate P(the card is between 3 and 7,
the result will be "heads"? inclusive).
h. Calculate P(the card is the ace of clubs).
Q2. If you flip the coin again, wha t is the probability
that the second flip will be "hea ds" ? i. Calculate P(the card belongs to the deck).
j. Calculate P(the card is a joker ).
Q3. Does the result of the secon d flip depend on
the resu lt of the first flip ? 2. A penn y, a nickel, and a dim e are flipped at the
same tim e. Each coin can land eith er heads up
Q4. What is i expresse d as a percent? (H) or tails up (T).
QS. What is the coefficient of determination if the a. What term is us ed in probability for the act
corre lation coefficient is -0.8? of flippin g the coins?
Q6. What does the coefficient of determination b . One pos sible outcome is THT. List all eight
measure ? outcom es in the sample spac e.
Ql. In the express ion ab, the numbe rs a and b are c. How man y out comes are in th e event
called-? - . "exactl y two of th e coins show heads" ?
d. Calculate P(HHT).
QB.In the express ion a + b, the numbers a and b
are called -?- . e. Calculate P(exactl y two heads ).
f. Calculate P(at least two heads).
Q9. True or false: (ab) 2 = a 2 b 2
g. Calculate P(penn y and nickel are tails) .
Q10. True or false: (a+ b)2 = a 2 + b 2
h. Calculate P(penn y or nick el is tails) .
i. Calculate P(none ar e tails).
1. A car d is drawn at random from a sta ndard
52-car d deck. (See Figure 9-3a on page 404 if { f ~alculate P(zero, on e, two, or three head s).
you are unfamiliar with a deck of cards .) ~lculat e P(four heads).
a. Wha t term is used in probability for the act
of drawing the card ?
b. How many outcomes are in the sample 3. Historical Search Project: Check the Internet
space? or other sources for information about ear ly
c. How many outcomes are in the event "the contributors to the field of mathematical
card is a face card" ? probabili ty. See if you can find out about th e
dice problem investigat ed by Blaise Pascal and
d. Calcul ate P(the card is a face card) .
Pierre de Fermat that led to th e foundations
e. Calcul ate P(the card is black) . of probability theor y.
Section
9-2:Words
Associated
withProbability 401
9-3 Two Counting Principles
Counting the outcomes in an event or sample space is difficult. For example,
suppose a CD player is programmed to play eight songs in random order and
you want to find the probability that your two favorite songs will play in a row.
The sample space for this experiment contains over 40,000 outcomes' In this
section you will learn ways of computing numbers of outcomes without actua lly
counting them .
OBJECTIVECalculate th e num ber of outcomes in an event or sample space .
Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events

Counting outcomes sometimes involves considering two or more events . To
find the number of outcomes in a situ ation involving two events, you need to
consider whether bot h events occur or whether either one event or the other
occurs, bu t not bo th .
For examp le, suppose a summer camp offers four outdoor activities and three
indoor activities:
Outdoor Indoo r Morning
swimming pottery
canoeing computers
volleyball music
archery
Afternoon
On Monday, each camper is assigned an outdoor activity in the morning an d
an indoor activity in the afternoon. In h ow many ways can the two activities
b e chosen?
In this situation, the two events are "an outdoor activity is chosen" and "an
indoor activity is chosen." You want to count the number of ways both events
coul d occur . You coul d find th e answer by making an organized list of all the
possible pa irs:
swimming-pottery swimming-computers swimming-music
canoeing-po tt ery canoeing-computers canoeing-music
volleyball-pottery volleyball-computers volleyball-mus ic
archery-pottery archery-computers archery-music
You could also reason like this: There are four choices for the outdoor activity.
For each of these choices, there are three choices for the indoor activity. So
there are 4 · 3 or 12 ways of choosing both activities. Note that the events in
this situation are said to be ind epen dent because the way one occurs does not
affect the ways the other could occur.
402 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa RandomVar
iable
On Tuesday, the outdoor activities are canceled due to rain, so each camper is
ass igned an indoor activity in the mornm g and a differ ent indoor activity in th e
afte rnoon. In how man y ways can the two activities be chosen ?
In this case, the events are "an indoor activity is chosen " and "a differ ent indoor
activity is chos en." Again, you want to count the ways both events occur . Ther e
are three choices for the first event. After a selection is made for tha t event,
only two choices remain for the second event. So there are 3 · 2, or 6 ways of
choos ing both activities . Note that the events in this situation are not
independent because the way the first event is chosen affects th e ways th e
seco nd could be chosen.
On the day of the camp talent show, there is tim e for only one activity. Each
camp er is assigned either an outdoor activit y or an indoor activity. In how man y
ways can the activity be assigned?
In this situation, th e events are mutually exclusiv e, meanin g that the
occurre nce of one of them excludes the possibilit y that the other will occur. If
a camper is assigned an outdoor activity, h e or she cannot also be assigned an
indoor activity, and vice versa. Because th ere are four ways of choos ing an
outdoor activity and three ways of choosing an indoor activity, there are 4 + 3
or 7 ways of choosing one type of activity or th e other.
These examples illustrate two counting principles .
PROPERTIES:
TwoCounting
Principles
1. Let A and B be two events that occur in sequence. Then
n(A and B) = n(A) • n(B IA)
where n(B IA) is the number of ways B can occur after A has occurred .
2. Let A and B be mutually exclusive events . Then
n(A or B) = n(A) + n(B)
Notes:
1. If A and Bare independ ent, th en n (B I A)= n(B), and the first countin g
principle becomes n(A and B) = n(A) · n(B ).
2. Event s are not mutuall y exclusive if both of them could happen at the
same tim e. For instanc e, picking a red card and pickin g a jack from a deck
of cards are not mutuall y exclusi ve event s because two cards in the deck
are both red and ja cks .
Overlapping Ev ents
Suppose that you draw one card from a standard deck of 52 playing cards. In how
many different ways could it be a heart or a face card? As shown in Figure 9-3a,
n(heart) = 13 and n(face) = 12. But simply adding 13 and 12 gives the wrong
answer. The cards in th e inters ection (those that are hearts and face cards) have
Section
9-3: TwoCounting
Prin
ciples 403
.(x)
L ..:.
been counted twice. An easy way to get the correct answer is to subtract the
number that are both hearts and face cards from the sum 13 + 12. That is,
n(heart or face)= n(heart) + n(face) - n(heart and face),
which results in the correct numerical solution 22 (13 + 12 - 3).
2
3
• • + •
4
5 1ntersection:
6 / Heart faces
7 /
8 /
9 /
10 /
J V
Q ./
K
A
-
Hearts
Figure 9-3a
In general, the number of ways event A or B could occur when the two events
are not mutually exclusive is given by this generalization of the property.
PROPERTY:
Non-Mutually
Exclusive
Events
If A and Bare events that are not necessarily mutually exclusive, then
n(A or B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A and B)
Special case: If A and B are mutually exclusive, then n(A and B) = 0 and
n(A or B) = n(A) + n(B)
Problem Set 9-3

Ql Ev~ua~:1·2·3·4·5
Reading Analysis fl[lJ Q3. If n(A) = 71 and there are 300 elements in the
From what you have read in this section, what do sample space, then P(A) = -? - .
you consider to be the main idea? Under what Q4. Multiply: (J}{t)
condition would you multiply two numbers of ways
two events could occur, and under what condition QS.Add: i+i
would you add the numbers? Under what condition Q6. The exact value (no decimals) of cos f is -?- .
would adding the two numbers of ways need to be
adjusted by subtraction to give the correct answer? Ql. How well does a regression equation fit the
data if the correlation coefficient is -1?
QB.x = 3t 2 and y =cost are equations of a-?-
Quick Review~ (,J{,~ function.
Ql. Simplify the fraction~~- Q9. Factor: x2 - 3x - 4
404 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
QIO. The deviation of the number 10 from the mean 6. Admiral Motors manufactures cars with
of 10, 13, 18, and 19 is 5 different body styles, 11 different exterior
colors, and 6 different interior colors.
A. 9 B. 8 C. 5 D. 3 E. -5
A dealers hip wan ts to display one of each
possible variety of car in its showroom.
1. A salesperson has 7 cu stomers in Denver and Explain to the manager of the dealership why
13 customers in Reno. In how many different the plan would be impractical.
ways could she telephone \ [ I
7. Consider th e letters in the wor~ LO,GARIT}IM.
a. A customer in Denver and then a custom er
in Reno a. In how many different ways coul d you select
a vowel or a consonant ?_,
b. A cu stomer in Denver or a custom er in
Reno, but not bo th b. In how many differen t ways could you select
a vowel and then a consonant?
2. A pizza establi shment offers 12 vegetabl e
c. How many different three-letter "words " (for
toppings and 5 meat toppings . Find the
examp le, ORL,HLG, AOI) could you make
number of different ways you could select
using each letter no mor e than once in any
a. A meat toppin g or a vegetable topping one word ? (There are three events : "select
A meat topping and a vegetable toppin g the first letter," "select th e second letter ,"
and "select the third letter." Find the
reading list consists of 11 novels and
number of ways each event can occur, and
bio graphi es. Find th e number of different
th en figure out what to do with the thre e
ways a student could select
results.)
a. A novel or a biography
8. Lee brought two jazz CDs and five rap CDs to
b. A novel and then a biography
play at the class picnic.
c. A biography and then another biograph y
a. In how many different ways could he choose
4. A convoy of 20 cargo ships and 5 escort a ja zz CD and th en a rap CD?
vesse ls approaches the Suez Canal. In each b. In how many different ways could he choos_e
scenario, in how many different ways could a ja zz CD or a rap CD?
these vesse ls begin to go thro ugh th e canal?
c. Lee's CD player allows him to load four CDs at
once. The CDs will play in the order he loads
them. How many different orderings of four
CDs are possible? (See Problem 7 for a hint.)
9 There are 20 girls on the basketball team.
Of th ese , 17 are over 16 years old, 12 are taller
n 170 cm, ~~e both older than 16 and
er than 170 cm. How many of the girls are
o er than 16 or taller than 170 cm?
a. A cargo ship and then an escort vesse l
b. A cargo ship or an escort vesse l 10. Lyle's DVD collection includes 37 classic films
and 29 comedies. Of the se , 21 are classic
c. A cargo shi p and then another cargo ship
comed ies. How many DVDs does Lyle have that
5. The menu at Paesano's lists 7 sala ds, are classics or comedies?
11 entrees, and 9 desserts. How many different
11. The library has 463 books dealing with science
salad-ent ree-dessert meals could you select ?
and 592 books of fiction . Of these, 37 are
(Meals are consi der ed to be different if any one
science fiction books. How man y books are
thin g is different .)
either science or fiction ?
Section
9-3: TwoCounting
Prin
ciples 405
()
L X
12. The senior class has 367 girls and a. Which of these two plans allows there to be
425 students with brown hair. Of the girls , more possible licens e plat es? How many
296 have brown hair. In how many different more ?
ways could you select a girl or a brown-haired b. How many different license plates could
student from the senior class? there be if the state allowed either two
13. Seating Problem: There are ten students in a letters and four digits or three letters and
class and ten chairs, numbered 1 through 10. three digits ?
a. In how many different ways could a student
be selected to occupy chair 1?
b. After someone is seated in chair 1, how
many different ways are there of seating
someone in chair 2?
c. In how many different ways could
chairs 1 and 2 be filled?
d. If two of the students are sitting in
chairs 1 and 2, in how man y different
ways could chair 3 be filled? c. Assuming th ere are about 200 million motor
e. In how many different ways could vehicles in the United States, would it be
chairs 1, 2, and 3 be filled? possible to have a national license plate
f. In how many different ways could all program usin g the plan in part b? Explain.
ten chairs be filled? Do you find this 16. Telephon e Number Problem: When ten-digit
surprising? telephon e numbers were introduced into the
14. Baseball Team Problem: Nine p eople on a United States and Canada in the 1960s, certain
baseball team are trying to decide who will restrictions were placed on th e groups of
play each position. numbers:
a. In how many different ways could the y
select a person to be pitcher?
b. After someone has been selected as pitcher,
~TL,----J
901 -555-1234
Area
code
Line
number
in how many differe nt ways could th ey Exchang e
selec t som eone to be catcher? code
c. In how many different ways could th ey

Area code: three digits; the first must not be
select a pitcher and a catcher?
0 or 1, and the second must be O or 1.
d. After the pitcher and catcher have b een
selected, in how many different ways could
they select a first-base player ?
::~~~~g:i~~::~:~
~;i1~; th e first an ~
Line numb er: four digits; at least one must
e. In how many different ways could th ey
not be 0.
select a pitcher, catcher, and first-base
player? a. Find th e possible numbers of area codes,
f. In how many different ways could all ( exchan ge cod es , and line numbers.
nine positions be filled ? Do you find this b. How man y valid numbers could there be
surpr ising? und er this numbering scheme?
c. How many ten-digit numbers could ther e be
15. License Plate Problem: Many states us e car
if ther e were no restrictions on the thre e
license plates that have six characters. Some
groups of numbers ?
states use two letters followed by a number
from 1 to 9999. Others use three letters
followed by a number from 1 to 999.
406 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFuncti
onsofa Random
Variable
d. What is the probability that a ten-digit assumption can you make about the
number dialed at random would be a valid number of telephones per person in the
number under the original restrictions? United States and Canada?
e. The total population of the United States 17. Journal Problem: Update your journal with
and Canada is currently about 300 million . things you have learn ed about probability and
In view of the fact that there are now area about counting ou tcomes .
codes and exchange codes that do not
conform to the original restrictions, what
9-4 Probabilities of Various Permutations

Many counting problems involve finding the number of different ways to
arrange, or order, things . For example, the three letters A, E, and C can be
arranged in six differ ent ways:
ABC ACE EAC ECA CAB CEA
But the ten lett ers A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J can be arranged in more than
3 million different ways! In this section you will learn a time -efficient way to
calculate the number of arrangements, or permutati ons, of a set of objects.
As a result you will be able to calculate relative ly quickl y the probability that a
permutation selected at random will have certain ch aracteristics .
OBJECTIVEGiven a description of a permutation, find the probability of getting th at

permutation if an arrangement is selected at random.
Here is a formal defini tion of permutation .
DEFINITION:
Permutation
A permutati on of a set of objects is an arrangement in a definite order of
some or all of the elements in that set .
.... EXAMPLE
1 In how many different ways could you arrange three books on a shelf if you
have seven books from which to choose?
Solution The process of selecting an arrangement

(permutation) can be divided into three events:
A- Choose a book to go in the first position
(Figure 9-4a).
B-Choose a book to go in the second position . t t t
A B C
C-Choose a book to go in the third position. Figure 9-4a
/ )
Section
9-4:Probabilities
ofVarious
Permutations 40 7
t::x)
L.,;
Let n be the number of permutations.
n= Mark three spaces for the three events.
n=7 6 5 Seven ways to select the first book; six ways to

select the second; five ways to select the third.
n = ?_• §. · ~ = 210 ways Apply the counting principle for sequential

events .
In Example 1, the answer 210 is "the number of permutations of seven elements

taken three at a time."
.....EXAMPLE
2 A permutation is selected at random from letters in the word SEQUOIA.What is
the probability that it has letter Qin the fourth position and ends with a vowel?
Solution Let Ebe the set of all favorable outcomes. First, find the number of outcomes
(permutations) in E.
n(E) = Mark seven spaces on which to record the
number of ways of selecting each letter.
n(E) = 1 Write 1 in the fourth space, because
there is only one Q to go there.
n(E) = 1 5 Write 5 in the last space, because there

are five ways to select a vowel.
n(E) = ~ 4 3 1 2 1 5 There are five letters left, so there are
5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 ways to select the
remaining letters.
n(E) = ~ • 1 · } · .! · I· .! · i = 600 Apply the counting principle for

sequential events.
Next, find the number of outcomes in the sample space .
n(S) = ?_• § · ~ · 1 · 1 · I · .! = 5040

Finally, find the probability, using the definition.
n(E) 600 5
P(E) = -- = -- = - = 0.1190 .. . "'12%
n(S) 5040 42
Note that in Examp le 2 the fourth position is a fixed position, because there is
only one way it can be filled. The last position is a restricted position; more
than one letter can go there, but the choices are limited to vowels.
Note also that the number of outcomes in the sample space,
7·6 · 5·4 ·3·2· 1
is the product of consecutive positive integers ending with l. This is called a
factorial. The factorial symbol is the exclamation mark,"!". So
7! = 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 5040 Pronounced "7 factorial."
Most calculators have a built-in factorial function.
408 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunction
s ofa Random
Variable
DEFINITION:
Factorial
For any positive integer n, n factorial (n!) is given by
n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · · · n
or, equivalent ly,
n ! = n · (n - 1) • (n - 2) • · · · • 2 • 1
O! is defined to be equal to 1.
Problem Set 9-4
Reading Analysis tlflj 1. The Hawaiian alphabet has 12 letters. How

many permutations could be made using
consider to be the main idea? What is a permutation a. Two different letter s
of several objects , and what is the basic method for b. Four different letters
finding th e number of possibl e permutations without c. Twelve different lett ers
actually listing and counting them?
2. Fran Tick takes a ten-problem precalculus test.
The problems may be worked in any order.
Quick Review a. In how many clifferent orders could she
work all ten of the problems ?
QI. If the outcomes of a random experiment are
equall y likely, then the probability of an event b. In how many clifferent orders could she
is defined to be- ?- . work any seven of the ten problems ?
02. For events A and B, n(A and then B) = -? - . 3. Triangles are often labeled by placing a
different letter at each vertex. In how man y
03. If events A and Bar e mutuall y exclusive, then clifferent ways could a given triangle be labeled
n(A or B ) = -?- . using any of the 26 letters of the alphabet ?
04. If events A and Bare not mutuall y exclusive, A
~
th en n(A or B) = -?- .
05. The set of all possibl e outcomes of a random p F
experiment is called the -? -.
4. Tom, Dick, and Harry each draw two cards
06. - ?- functions have th e multiply-multiply from a standard 52-card deck and place them
property. face up in a row. The cards are not replaced.
07. The slope of the linear function 4x + Sy= 40 Tom goes first. Find th e number of different
is -?-. orders in which
QB.The "If" part of a theorem is called the - ?-.
a. Tom could draw his two cards
b. Dick could draw his two cards a~er Tom has
09. An equation that is true for all values of the already drawn
variable is called a(n) - ?- .
c. Harry could draw his two cards after Tom
010. 4% of 700 is -? -. and Dick have drawn theirs
Section
9-4:Probabilities
ofVarious
Permutations 409
L
(X)
5. Frost Bank has seven vice presidents, but only 10. Soccer Team Problem 1: Eleven girls try out for
three spaces in th e parking lot are labeled th e 11 positions on a socce r team.
"Vice President." In how many different ways
could these spaces be occupied by the vice
presidents' cars?
6. A professor says to her class, "You may work
these six problems in any order you choose."
There are 100 students in the class. Is it
possible for each student to work the
problems in a different order? Explain.
7. A six-letter permutation is selected at random
from the letters in the word NIMBLE.
a. How many permutations are possible?
b. How many of these permutations begin
with the letter M?
c. What is the probability that the permutation a. In how many different ways could the
begins with the letter M? 11 positions be filled if there are no
restrictions on who plays which position?
d. Express the probability in part c as a percent.
b. In how many different ways could the
e. What is the probability that the permutation
positions b e filled if Mabel must be the
is NIMBLE?
goalkeeper?
8. A six-lett er permutation is selected at random c. If the positions are selected at random,
from the letters in the word NIMBLE.Find the what is the probability that Mabel will b e
probability of each event. the goalkeeper?
a. The third letter is I and the last letter is B. d. What is the probability in part c expressed
b. The second letter is a vowel and the third as a percen t?
letter is a consonant .
11. Baseball Team Problem 2: Nine people try out
c. The second and third letters are both vowels. for the nine positions on a baseball team. If the
d. The second letter is a consonant an d the players are selected at random for the po sitions,
last letter is E. find the probability of each event.
e. The second letter is a consonant and the a. Fred, Mike, or Jason is the pitcher.
last letter is L. b. Fred, Mike, or Jason is the pitcher, and Sam
9. Baseball Team Problem 1: Nine people try out or Paul plays first base.
for th e nine positions on a baseball team. c. Fred, Mike, or Jason is the pitcher, Sam or
a. In how many different ways could the Paul plays fir st base, and Bob is the catch er.
positions be filled if there are no 12. Soccer Team Problem 2: Eleven girls try out for
restrictions on who plays which position? the 11 positions on th e varsity soccer team. If
b. In how many different ways could the the players are selected at random, find the
positions be filled if Fred must be the probability of each event.
pitcher but the other eight people can take a. Mabel, Keisha, or Diedra is the goalkeeper .
any of the remaining eight positions?
b. Mabel, Keisha, or Diedra is the goalkeeper,
c. If the positions are selected at random, and Alice or Phyllis is the center forward.
what is the probability that Fred will be the
c. Mabel, Keisha, or Diedra is the goalkeeper,
pitcher?
Alice or Phyllis is the center forward, an d
d. What is the probability in part c expressed Bea is the left fullback.
as a percent?
410 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunction
s ofa Random
Variabl
e
13. Eight childr en lin e up for a fire drill 15. Find the number of different p ermutations of
(Figure 9-4b). th e letters in each word.
a. FREELY
b. BUBBLES
c. LILLY
d. MISSISSAUGA
e. HONOLULU
f. HAWAIIAN
16. Nine p enni es are lyin g on a tabl e. Five show
heads and four show tails. In how many
Calvin and Phoebe different ways, such as HHTHTTHHT, could
Figur e 9-4b the coins be lined up if you consider all th e
h ea d s to be identical and all th e tails to be
a. How many possible arrangeme nts are there? identical?
b. In ho w many of thes e arrange ments ar e Circular Permutations: In Figure 9-4c, the letter s A,
Calvin and Phoebe next to each other? B, C, and D are arranged in a circle. Though thes e
(Clue: Arrange seven things-t he Calvin and may seem to b e different p er mutations, they ar e
Phoebe pair and the othe r six children. Then considered the same permutation b ecause the
arrange Calvin and Phoebe.) letters have the same position with respect to one
c. If the eight children line up at random, what another. That is, each of th e four letters has th e
is the probability that Calvin and Pho ebe same letter to its left and th e same letter to its
will b e next to each other? right. An easy way to calculate the number of
different circular permutations of n elements is to
14. The ten digits, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... , 9, are arranged at
fix the posit ion of one element and then arrange
random with no repeats. Find th e probability
the other (n - 1) elements with resp ect to it
that the numeral formed represe nts
(Figure 9-4d). So, for the lett er s A, B, C, and D, the
a. A number grea ter than 6 billion number of circular permutations is
b. An even number greater than 6 billion n = 1 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 6.
(Th ere are two cases to cons id er, "first digit
is odd" and "first digit is even.")
Q
-~h ;~~~~fill
Permutations with Repe ated Elements: The word po sition
1
CARRIERha s seven letters. But there are fewer than
7! p ermutations, b eca use in any arrangement of
C B - hen fill the
these seven letters the three R's are interchangeable . Same circular permutation other positions.
If these R's were distinguishable, there would b e 3!,
or 6, ways of arranging them. This implies that only t Figur e 9-4c Figure 9-4d
(that is, f,) of the 7! permutations are actually
17. How many different cir cular p ermutations
different. So th e number of permutations is
could be made with th ese lett ers?
71 a. ABCDE
-= 840
3! b. QLMXTN
There are four I's, four S's, and two P's in th e c. LOGARITHM
wor d MISSISSIPPI,_so the number of different
18. In how many different ways could King
permutations of its letter s is
Arthur's 12 knights be seated around the
11! Round Tabl e?
4! 4! 2! = 34,650
Section
9-4:Probabilities
ofVarious
Permutation
s 4 11
(x)
-
X
19. Four girls and four boys sit around a elements are to the left and to the right. Then
merry-go-round . there are two circular permutations that would
be considered the same, a clockwise one and a
counterclockwise one (Figure 9-4e). 1n this
case, there would be only half the number of
circular permutations as calculated earlier .
C C
The same "betweenn ess"
prop erty
a. In how many different ways can they be
Figur e 9-4e
arranged with respect to one another so that
boys and girls alternate? Find the number of different ways you could
b. If they seat themselves at random , what arrange
is the probability that boys and girls will a. Seven different beads to form a bracelet if
alternate ? you consider only which bead is between
20. Suppose that you are concerned only with which other beads
which elements come between other elements b. Five keys on a key ring if you consider only
in a circular permutation, not with which which key is between which other keys
9-5 Probabilities of Various Combinations

There are 24 different three-letter "words" that can be made from the four
letters A, B, C, and D. These are
ABC ACE BAC BCA CAB CEA One combination.
ABD ADE BAD EDA DAB DEA A second combination .
ACD ADC CAD CDA DAC DCA A third combination.
BCD BDC CED CDB DEC DCB A fourth combination.
Because these words are arrangements of the letters in a definite order, each
is a permutation of four elements taken three at a time.
Suppose you are concerned only with which letters appear in the word, not with
the order in which they appear. For instance, you would consider ADC and DAC
to be the same because they have the same three letters . Each different group
of three letters is called a combination of the letters A, B, C, and D. As shown,
there are 24 different permutations but only four different combinations of
the letters A, B, C, and D taken three at a time . In this section you will learn
a time-efficient way to calculate the number of combinations of the elements
in a set .
412 Chapter
9: Probabi
lity,andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
OBJECTIVECalculate the number of different combinations containing r elements taken
from a set containing n elements.
Here is the formal definition of combination.
DEFINITION:
Combination
A combination of elements in a set is a subset of those elements, without
regard to the order in which the elements are arranged.
In the example given at the opening of this section, you can see that for every
one combination, there are six possible permutations. So the total number of
combinations is equal to the total number of permutations divided by 6. That is,
24
Number of combinations= =4
6
This idea allows you to calculate a number of combinations by dividing two
numbers of permutations.
PROPERTY:
Computation
ofNumber
of Combinations
. . total number of permutations
Num b er of com b matlons = -------------------
number of permutations of each one combination
Before pro ceeding with examples, it is helpful to define some symbols.
DEFINITIONS:
Symbols
forNumbers
of Combinations
andPermutations
nCr = number of different combinations of n elements taken rat a time
Pronounced: "n, C, r"

nPr = number of different permutations of n elements taken rat a time
Pronounced: "n, P, r"
Example 1 shows you how to calculate a number of combinations with the help
of these symbols .
.... EXAMPLE
1
Solution
Section
9-5: Probabilities
ofVarious
Combinations 413
t:'.x)
~
.... EXAMPLE
2 Write 9 P4 as a ratio of factorials . Interpret the answer in terms of the number of
elements in the set and the number of elements selected for the permutation.
P
9 4
: Peruu.d:atwn,oj
9~ ) 4 take,,,,
Solution 9P 4 = -9 · -8 · -7 · -6
=9·8·7·6· ~5 ·~~~~
4 ·3 · 2 · 1
Multiply by a clever form of 1.
5 ·4 ·3 · 2 · 1
9·8·7·6·5·4 ·3·2·1
5 ·4 · 3 · 2 · 1
9!
51
The 9 in the numerator is the total number of elements in th e set from which
elements are selected for the permutation . The 5 in the denominator is the
numb er of elements not selected for the permutation . "4111
.... EXAMPLE
3 Write 9 C4 as a ratio of a factorial to a product of factorials. Interpret the answer
in terms of the number of elements in the set and the number of elements
selected for the combination.
Solution Use th e pr ecedin g propert y.
9!/ 51
From the solution to Exampl e 2.
4!
9!
4! 5!
The 9 in the numerator is the total number of elements in the set from which
elements are selected for the combination. Th e 4 and 5 in the denominator
are th e numb er of elements selected for the combination and the number of
elements not selected for the combination, respectiv ely.
414 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
From Examples 2 and 3, you can find relatively simpl e patterns to us e for
calculating a number of combinations or permutation s.
TEC
HNIQUE:
Calculation
of Numberof Permutations
or Combinations
EXAMPLE: PERMUTA TIONS EXAMPLE: COMBINA TIONS
Same Same
f:'~
9 4 51
~~
41 51
gC4 -
'
Nwnb er of
se lected
element s
\ Numb er not
selected
Same
vv·Add up to
num eral in
numerator.
With these techniques in mind , you are read y to solve problems in which you
must find the probability that a specified combination occurs .
~ EXAMPLE
4 In how many different ways could you form a committee of three people from a
group of seven p eople? Explain how you know that a number of combinations is
being aske d for, not a number of permutation s.
Solution Committees with th e same members are different only if the peopl e on th e
commi tt ees have special roles. If there are no special rol es, how th e committee
mem b ers are arranged does not matter . So the answer is a numb er of
combina tion s, not a number of permutations . Let n( 3 people) stand for th e
number of different three -person committees.
7!
n(3 people)= 7 C3 = , , = 35 committees Use the pattern for
3 4 combinations.
~ EXAMPLE
5 If a commi ttee of five is selected at random from a group of six women and
three men, find the probability that it will include
a. Eileen and Ben (two of the nine people)
b. Exactly thr ee women and two men
c. At least thr ee women
Section
9-5: Probabilities
ofVarious
Combinations 415
t~:x)
~
Solution The sample space for all these probabilities is the set of all possible
five-member committees.
9!
n(sample space)= 9 C5 = - - = 126 committees
5! 4!
. d n (Eileen and Ben)

a. P (EI1een an Ben) = - -- - -- - Definition of probability.
n(sample space)
To find n(Eileen and Ben), first select Eileen and Ben (one way), then select
the other three committee members from the seven who remain. There are
7 C3 ways to select the three committee m embers.
7!
n(Eileen and Ben)= 1 · 7 C3 = -- = 35
314!
By the counting principle for sequential events.
35
:. P(Eileen and Ben)= - = 0.2777 ... ""28%
126
The definition of probability.
b. To find the number of three-woman, two-man committees, notice that

people are being selected from two different group s. You can divide the
"hard" problem of selecting the committee into two "easy" problems,
selecting the women an d selecting th e men. So, by the countin g principle
for sequential events,
n( 3 women and 2 men)= n(3 women)· n( 2 men)
= 5C3 · 3C2
51 31
3! 3! 2! l!
= 20 · 3 = 60
60
.·. P(3 women and 2 men)= - = 0.4761... ""48%
126
416 Chapter
9: Probability
, andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
c. If the committee has at least three women, it could have three women or
four women or five women. In each case, the remainder of the committee
consists of men. Turn this problem into three easier problems.
n( 3W, 2M) = 60 From part b.
6! 3!
n (4W lM) = 6 C4 • 3 C1 = -- · -- = 15 · 3 = 4 5
' 4! 2! l ! 2!
6! 3!
n(5W, OM)= 6 C5 • 3 C0 = 51 l! · O! ! = 6 · 1 = 6 Recall that O!= 1.
3
Because these are mutually exclusive events, you can add the numbers of ways.
n(at least 3 women)= 60 + 45 + 6 = 111
111
.". P(at least 3 women)= = 0.8809 ... "'88%
126
Note that most graphers have built-in functions to calculate numbers of

permutations and combinations directly. For instance, to calculate 9 C4 , you
might enter 9 nCr 4. The answer would be 126, the same as 9!/(4! 5!).
Problem Set 9-5
Reading Analysis il!J} For Problems 1-12, evaluate the number of

combinations or permutations two ways:
you consider to be the main idea? What question a. Using factorials, as in the examples of this
can you ask yourse lf to decide whether a particular section
problem involves combinations or permutations? b. Directly, using the built-in features of your
How is the symbol 9 C4 pronounced, and how can grapher
you calculate this quantity using factorials?
l. s C3 2. 5C4
3. 27C19 4. 44 C 24
Quick Review
5. rnC10 6. 100C100
01. 4! = -?-
4! 3! 7. 10Co 8. 100Co
02. -= -?-! 03. -= -?-!
4 3 9. 5P 4 10. 11Ps
2! l! 11. 47 P 30 12 . so P 20
a4. = -? - ! 05. -= -?-!
2 1
13. Twelve people apply to go on a biology field
06. Why does O!equal 1, not O? trip, but there is room in the car for only five of
them. In how many different ways could the
07. Write 5 P5 as a factorial.
group of five making the trip be chosen? How
QB. Write nPn as a factorial. can you tell that a number of combinations is
being asked for, not a number of permutations ?
09. Express 0.43856 ... as a percent rounded to the
nearest integer. 14. Seven people come to an evening bridge party.
Only four people can play bridge at any one
010. The exact value (no decimals) of tan 1 is -?-.
time, so they decide to play as many games as it
Section
9-5: Probabilities
ofVarious
Combinations 417
()
.
L X
takes to use every possible foursome once. How 20. The diagonals of a convex polygon are made
many games would have to be played? Could all by connecting the vertices two at a time.
of these games be played in one evening? However, some of the combinations are sides,
not diagonals (Figure 9-5a). How many
15. A donut franchise sells 34 varieties of donuts.
diagonals are there in each convex figure?
Suppose one of the stores decid es to make
sample boxes with six different donuts in each Side is not a diagonal.
boy-i ow many different sample boxes could
be made? Would it be practical to stock one of
each kind of box?
16. Just before each Supreme Court session, each
of the nine justices shakes hands with every
other justice . How many handshakes take
place? Figure 9-5a
17. Horace Holmsley bought blueberries, a. Pentagon (five sides)

strawberries, watermelon, grapes, plums, and
b. Decagon (ten sides)
peaches. Find the number of different fruit
salads he could make if he uses c. n-gon (n sides). From the answer, write a
a. Three ingredients simple formula for the number of diagonals.
b. Four ingredients 21. A set has ten elements . Find the number of
subsets that contain exactly
c. Three ingredients or four ingredients
a. Two elements
d. All six ingredients
b. Five elements
18. A pizzeria offers 11 different toppings. Find
c. Eight elements (Explain th e relationship
the number of different kinds of pizza it
between this answer and the answer to
could make using
part a.)
a. Three toppings
22. A set has five elements, {'it, 0, al,+,~}.
b. Five toppings
a. Find the number of different subsets that
c. Three toppings or five toppings
contain
d. All 11 toppings
i. One element
19. A standard deck of playing cards has 52 cards. ii. Two elements
a. How many different five-card poker hands iii. Three elements
could be formed from a standard deck?
iv. Four elements
b. How man y different 13-card bridge hands
v. All five elements
could be formed?
vi. No elements
c. How can you tell that numbers of
combinations are being asked for, not b . How many subsets are there altogether?
numbers of permutations? What relationship does this number have to
the numb er of elements in the set? ·
c. Based on your answer to part b, how many
subsets would a ten-element set have?
A 100-element set?
418 Chapter
9: Probability
, andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
23. Review Problem 1: You draw a 5-card hand 26. In a group of 15 peopl e, 6 are left-handed and
from a standard 52-card deck and then the rest are right -handed . If 7 people are
arrange the cards from left to right. selected at random from this group, find the
a. After the cards have been selected, in how probability that
many different ways could you arrange a. Three are left-handed and four are
them? right-handed
b. How many different five-card hands could be b. All are right-handed
formed without considering arrangement? c. All are left-handed
c. How many different five-card arrangements d. Harry and Peg, two of the left -handers, are
could be formed from the deck? selected 1
d. Which part(s) of this problem involve
2 7. Three baseball cards are selected at random
permutations and which involve
from a group of seven cards . Two of the car~
combinations ?
are rookie car ds. 1._,L:,-~ L
24. Revi ew Problem 2: At South High School, a. What is the probability that exactly o~ ~l
5 5 students entere d an essay contest. From the three selected cards is a rookie card? ~
these students, 10 are selected as finalists.
S
What is the probability that at least one of
a. After the finalists have been selected, in the three cards is a rookie card?
how many different ways could they be
What is the probabilit y that none of the
ranked from 1st to 10th?
thr ee cards is a rookie card?
b. In how many different ways could th;l
d. What is the relationship between the
ten finalists be selected? ~ answers to parts b and c?
c. How many different ten-student rankings
coul d be made from the 5 5 entrants? 28. Emma, who is three years old, tears the labels
off all ten cans of soup on her mother's shelf
d. Which part(s) of this problem involve
(Figure 9-5b). Her mother knows that there are
permutations and which involve
two cans of tomato soup and eight cans of
combinations?
vegetable soup . She selects four cans at
25. Charlie has 13 socks in his drawer, 7 blue and random.
6 green . He selects 5 socks at random . Find the
probability that he gets
a. Two blue socks and thr ee green socks [J[J[J[J[J
b . Three blue socks and two green socks
c. Two blu e socks and three green socks, or
three blue socks and two green socks
[J[J[J[J[JTomato ?
d. The one sock that has a hole in it Vegetable?
Figure 9-Sb
a. What is th e probabilit y that exactly one of

th e four cans con tain s tomato soup?
b. What is the probability that at least one of
the cans contains tomato soup?
c. What is the probability that none of the
ur cans contains tomato soup?
t hat is the relationship between the

nswers to parts b and c?
Section
9-5: Probabilities
ofVarious
Combinations 419
29. Light Bulb Problem: Light bulb manufacturers c. If the 100 bulbs include 2 defective bulbs,
like to be assured that their bulbs will work. what is the probability that the sampling
Because testing every bulb is impractical, a process will reveal at least 1 defective bulb?
random sample of bulbs is tested. Suppose d. Based on your answers, do you think that
that the quality control department at a light the 5-bulb-in-100 sampling plan is
bulb factory decides to test a random sample sufficiently effective?
of 5 bulbs for every 100 that are made.
30. A standard 52-card deck of playing cards
has four suits, with 13 cards in each suit. In a
particular game, each of the four players is
dealt 13 cards at random.
a. Find the probability that such a 13-card
hand has
i. Exactly five spades
ii. Exactly three clubs
iii. Exactly five spades and three clubs
iv. Exactly five spades, three clubs, and
two diamonds
a. In how many different ways could a 5-bulb b. Which is more probable, getting four aces or
sample be taken from 100 bulbs? getting 13 cards of the same suit? Give
b. To check the quality control process, the numbers to support your answer.
manager of the factory puts 2 defective
bulbs in with 98 working bulbs before the
things you have learned since the last entry. In
sample is taken . How many different ways
particular, tell how large numbers of outcomes
could a samp'Ieo f 5 of these 100 bulbs be
can be calculated, rather than counted, using
selected that contains at least 1 of the
the concepts of factorials, combinations, and
defective bulbs?
permutations.
9-6 Properties of Probability

In the preceding sections you learned how to calculate the probability of an
event using the definition
P(E) = n(E)
n(S)
That is, you divided the number of outcomes in an event by the number of
outcomes in the sample space. In this section you will learn some properties of
probability that will allow you to calculate probabilities without having to go all
the way back to the definition.
420 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Var
iable
OBJECTIV
E Given events A and B, calculate
• P(A and B), the probability of the intersection of A and B
• P(A or B), the probability of the union of A and B
• P(not A) and P(not B), the probabilities of the comp lement of A and the
complement of B
Interse ction of Events

A and B If A and B are two events, then the intersec tion of A and B, A n B, is the set of
all outcomes in event A and event B (Figure 9-6a).
For examp le, suppose you draw 2 cards from a stan dard deck of 52 playing
cards witho ut replacing the first card before you draw the second. What is
the probability that both cards will be black? Here, you are looking for the
probability of the intersection of th e events "the first card is black" and "th e
seco nd car d is black."
The shaded region is A n B.
Figure 9-6a The re are 52 ways to choose the first card and 51 ways to choose the second
card after the first has already been chosen. So the number of outcomes in the
sample space is
n(S) = 52 · 51 = 2652
There are 26 ways the first card could be black. After th e first black card has
been drawn, there are only 25 ways the second card could be black. So
n(both black)= 26 · 25 = 650 By the counting principle for sequent ial
event s.
650
.'. P(both black)= = 0.2450
2652
num.berof fauorab{e,ou±u;1M.,M
Probability= --------- -
total num.berofou±UJIM.,M
A patte rn appears if you do not simplify the numbers of outcomes:
26 · 25
P(both black) = --
52 · 51
26 25
Multiplication prop ert y of fractions.
52 51
= P(first card is black) · P(second card is black after th e
first card is black)
Section
9-6: Properties
ofProbability 4 21
.
(x)
L X
In this example, the events are not independent because the result of the first
draw affects the choices for the second draw. However, if the first card were
replaced before the second card was drawn, then the events would be
independent. In this case,
26
P(2nd is black after 1st is black)= P(2nd is black)= -
52
So, when the two cards are drawn with replacement,
P(both are black)= P(lst is black) · P(2nd is black)
26 26
52 52
676
=--= 0.25
2704
PROPERTY: ProbabilityoftheIntersection of TwoEvents

If P(B I A) is the probability that B occurs after event A has already occurred,
then
P(A and B) = P(A n B) = P(A) • P(B I A)
If A and B a:i;eindependent events, then

P(A an.ct B) = P(A n B) = P(A) · P(B)
Note that this property corresponds to the counting principle for sequential
events, n(A and B) = n(A) · n(B I A).
Union of Events
If A and B are two events , then the union of A and B, A u B, is the set of all
outcomes in event A or event B (Figure 9-6b).
A or B
The shaded region is A u B.

Figure 9-6b
For examp le, suppose a bag con tains 7 chocolate chip cookies, 11 macadamia
nut cookies, 12 oatmeal cookies, 4 gingersnaps, and 9 oatmeal -cho colate
cookies. If you select 1 cookie at random, what is the probability that it will
contain oatmeal or chocolate?
422 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
Here, you are looking for the probability of the union of the events "the cookie
contains chocolate" and "the cookie contains oatmeal."
The samp le space is all the cookies, so
n(S) = 7 + 11 + 12 + 4 + 9 = 43
The events overlap-that is, there are cookies that contain both oatmeal and
chocolate . Use the counting principle for non-mutually exclusive events to count
the favorable outcomes :
n(chocolate or oatmeal) = n(chocolate) + n(oatmeal)
- n(chocolate n oatmeal)
= 16 + 21 - 9
= 28
28
.·. P(chocolate or oatmeal) = = 0.6511...
43
Here again, a pattern appears if you resist the temptation to simplify first
16+21-9
P(chocolate or oatmeal)=
43
16 21 9
=-+---
43 43 43
= P(chocolate) + P(oatmeal)
- P(chocolate n oatmeal)
If two events are mutually exclusive, then their intersection is empty. In this
case, you can find the probability of the union of the events simply by summing
the probabilities of the two events. For example, there are no cookies that
contain both ginger and macadamia nuts, so
P(ginger or macadamia) = P(ginger) + P(macadamia)
4 11
=-+-
43 43
15
= 43 = 0.3488 ...
PROPERTY:
Probability
oftheUnion
of TwoEvents
If events A and Bare not mutually exclusive, then
P(A or B) = P(A u B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A n B)
If events A and B are mutually exclusive, then

P(A or B) = P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B)
Note that the first form of the property reduces to the second form when the
events are mutually exclusiv e.
Section
9-6:Properties
ofProbability 423
L
(x)
Complementary Events
You can accomplish the third section objective using the property for the union
of mutually exclusive events:
Let P(A) be the probability that event A occurs.
Let P(not A) be the probability that event A does not occur.
The events A and "not A" are mutually exclusive, and one or the other is certain
to occur. Thus,
P(A or not A) = P(A) + P(not A) = 1 Probability is 1 if the event is certain to
occur.
P(not A) = 1 - P(A)
Together, the events A and "not A" complete all the possibilities. Therefore, they
are called complementary events.
PROPERTY:
Complementary
Events
The probability that event A will not occur is
P(not A) = 1 - P(A)
~ EXAMPLE
1 Calvin and Phoebe volunteer in the children's
ward of a hospital. The probabilit y that Calvin catches
mumps as the result of a visit to the ward is 13%, and
the probability that Phoebe catches mumps is 7%. Find
the probabilit y of each event.
a. Both catc h mumps .
b. Calvin does not catch mumps.
c. Phoebe does not catch mumps.
d. Neither Calvin nor Phoeb e catches mumps.
e. At least one of them catches mumps.
Solution Using probability notation, P(C) = 0.13 and P(Ph) = 0.07.
a. P(C and Ph)= P(C) • P(Ph) Assuming C and Ph are independent events.
= 0.13 · 0.07
= 0.0091, or 0.91%
b. P(not C) = 1 - P(C) C and "not C" are complementary events .
= 1 - 0.13
= 0.87, or 87%
c. P(not Ph) = 1 - P(Ph) = 1 - 0.07
= 0.9 3, or 93%
424 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
of a Random
Var
iable
d. P(not C and not Ph)= P(not C) · P(not Ph )
= 0.87 · 0.93 From parts b and c.

= 0.8091, or 80.91%
e. P(at leas t 1) = 1 - P(not C and not Ph) Complementary events.
= 1 - 0.8091 From part d.
= 0.1909, or 19.09%
Alternate solution for part e:
P(at least 1) = P(C) + P(Ph ) - P(C and Ph) C and Ph are not mutually
exclusive events.
= 0 .13 + 0.07 - 0.0091 From the given

probabilit ies and part a.
= 0.1909, or 19.09% <1111111
Problem Set 9-6
Reading Analysis m} Q10.The area of a triangle with sides 5 cm and

3 cm and included angl e 30° is- ?- .
you consider to b e th e main idea? In what way do
the properties of probability in this section l. Calculator Components Prob lem: The "heart" of
correspond to the counting principles in Section 9-3? a calculator is one or more chips on which
How do you find the probability that a part icular thousands of components are etched. Chips
event will not happen ? are mass-produced and have a fair ly high
probability of b eing defective . Suppose that a
---v s,,,,. particular brand of calculator u ses two kinds
Quick Review l ~,, ~ of chip. Chip A has probabili ty 70% of bein g
Ql. If A and Bare mutually exclusive , then defe ctive, and chip B ha s probability 80% of
n (A or B) = -?- . b eing defect ive. If one chip of each kinctts
randoml y selecte d, find the probability that
Q2.If A and B are not mutually exclusive , then
a. Both chips are defecti ve
n(A or B) = -?- .
b. Chip A is not defecti ve
Q3. n(A and B) = n(A) · n(B I A), wher e n(B I A) is
c. Chip B is not defective
the number of ways B can ha ppen -?-.
d. Neither chip is defecti ve
Q4.The number of combin ations of five obj ects
\ e. At least one chip is defective
taken three at a time is equal to- ?- .
2. Car Br eakdown Problem: Suppose you plan to
QS.The number of permutations of five objects
drive on a lon g trip. The probability your car
taken thr ee at a time is equal to-? - .
will have a flat tire is 0.1, and the probability it
Q6. Why is a number of permutationsgreater than will have engine trouble is 0 .0 5. What is th e
the corresponding number of combinations? probability of
Ql. What is the definition of resid ual deviation ? a. No flat tire
b. No engine troubl e
QB.Write the exact value (no decimals) of sin- 1 0.5.
c. Neither flat tire nor engine troubl e
Q9. y = 5 · 3x is the p ar ticul ar equat ion of
a(n) -?- function .
Section
9-6: Properties
ofProbability 425
t:'.')
~
d. Both a flat tire and engine trouble Suppose that two generators each have a 98%
e. At least one, either a flat tire or engine probability of working. The system will continue
trouble to operate as long as at least one of the
generators is working . What is the probability
that th e system will continue to operate?
Backup
generator
6. Hid e-and-Seek Problem: The Katz brothers, Bob

and Tom, are hiding in th e cellar . If either one
sneezes, he will reve al th eir hiding place. Bob's
probability of sneezing is 0.6, an d Tom's
probability is 0.7. What is the probability that
3. Traffic Light Problem: Two traffic lights on at least one brother will sneeze?
Broadway operat e independently. Your
7. Basketba ll Problem: Three basketball teams
probability of being stopped at the first light
from Lowe High each play on Friday night . The
is 40%. Your probability of being stopped at
prob abilities that the teams win are 70% for
the second is 70%. Find the probability of
varsity, 60% for junior varsity, and 80% for
being stopped at
freshmen. Find the probability that
a. Both lights
a. All three teams win
b. Neither light
b. All three teams los e
c. The first light but not th e second \
c. At least one team wins
d. The second light but not the first )
d. The varsity team wins and the other two
e. Exactly one of the lights teams lose
4. Visiting Problem: Eileen and Ben are away at 8. Grade Problem: Terry Tory has these
college . They visit home on random weekends. probabilities of passing various courses:
The probability that Eileen will visit on any Humanities, 90%; Speech, 80%; and Latin, 95%.
given weekend is 20%. The probability that Ben Find the probability of
will visit is 2 5%.On a given weekend, find the
a. Passing all three
probability that
b. Failing all three
a. Both of them will visit
c. Passing at least one
b. Neither will visit
d. Passing exact ly one
c. Eileen will visit but Ben will not
d. Ben will visit but Eileen will not 9. Spaceship Problem: Compl ex systems such as
spaceships have many components. Unless the
e. Exactly one of them will visit
system has backup components, the failure of
5. Backup System Problem: Vital systems such as any one component could cause the entire
electric power generating systems have "backup" system to fail. Suppos e a spaceship has 1000
components in case one component fails. such vital components and is designed without
backups.
426 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
a. If each component is 99.9% reliable, what is • If he selects a running play on first down,
the probability that all 1000 components the probability that he will pass on second
work and the spaceship does not fail? Does down is 0.8.
the result surprise you? a. Find the probability that he will pass on
b. What is the minimum reliability needed for i. First down and second down
each component to ensure a 90% probability
ii. First down but not second down
that all 1000 components will work?
iii. Second down but not first down
10. Silversword Problem: The silverswor d is a rare
iv. Neither first down nor second down
relative of the sunflower that grows only on
the 10,000-ft-high Haleakala volcano in Maui, b. Sum the four probabiliti es you have
Hawaii. The seeds have only a small probability calculated . How do you explain the answer?
of germinating, but if enough are planted there 12. Measles and Chic ken Pox Problem: Suppose
is a fairly good chance of getting a new plant . that in any one year a child has a 0.12
Suppose that the probability that any one seed probability of catching measles and a 0.2
will germinate is 0.004. probability of catching chicken pox.
a. If these events are independent of each
other, what is the probability that a child
will get both diseas es in a given year?
b . Suppose statistics show that the probability
of getting measles and then chicken pox in
the same year is 0.006.
i. Calculate the probability of getting both
diseas es.
ii . What is the probability of getting chicken
pox and then measles in the same year?
c. Based on the given probabilities and your
answers to part b, what could you conclude
about the effects of the two diseases on
a. What is the probability that any one seed each other?
will not germinate ? 13. Airp lane Engine Probl em: One reason airplanes
b. If 100 seeds are planted, find the probability are designed with more than one engine is to
that increas e the planes' reliability. Usually a twin-
i. None will germinate engine plane can make it to an airport on just
one engine should the other engine fail during
ii. At least one will germinate
flight. Suppose that for a twin-engine plane the
c. What is the fewest number of seeds probability that any one engine will fail during
that would need to be planted to ens ure a given flight is 3%.
a 99% probability that at least one
a. If the engines operat e independently, what
germinates?
is the probability that both engines will fail
11. Football Plays Problem: Backbay Polytechnic during a flight?
Institute's quarterback selects passing and b . Suppose flight records indicate that the
running plays at random. By analyzing probabilit y that both engines will fail during
previous records, an opposing team finds a given flight is actually 0.6%. What is the
these probabilities: probability that the second engine fails after
• The probability that he will pass on first the first has already failed?
down is 0.4. c. Based on your answer to part b, do th e
• If he passes on first down, the probability engines actually operate independently?
that he will pass on second down is 0.3. Explain.
Section
9-6: Properties
ofProbability 427
9-7 Functions of a Random Variable
Suppose you conduct the random experiment
of flipping a coin five times. The coin is bent
so that the probability of heads on any one flip
is only 0.4. What is the probability of the event
that exactly two of the outcomes are heads and
the other three are tails? In this section you'll
learn how to calculate the probabilities of all
possible events for a random experiment . In
the coin-flipping experiment, each probability
depends on the number of heads in the event.
Thus, the probability is a function of the
number of heads. Such a function is called
a function of a random variable.
OBJECTIVEGiven a random experiment, find and graph the probabilities of all possible
events.
To find P(3T, 2H) for the random experiment just described, it helps to start by
looking at a simpler event, P(TTTHH), the probability of three tails and two
heads in that order:
P(TTTHH) = P(T) • P(T) • P(T) • P(H) • P(H)
= (0.6)(0.6)(0.6)(0.4)(0.4) P(T) =1- P(H) =1- 0.4 = 0.6
= 0.6 3 • 0.4 2
There are ten possible outcomes that have exactly two heads:
HHTTT HTHTT HTTHT HTTTH THHTT
THTHT THTTH TTHHT TTHTH TTTHH
Ten is the number of ways of selecting a group of two of the five flips to be
heads. But this is also the number of combinations of five elements taken two at
a time, or 5 C2 . So
P(3T, 2H) = 10 · 0.6 3 • 0.4 2
= s C 2 • 0.6 3 • 0.4 2 By calculator or by computing factorials,
sC2 = 10.
The expression 5 C2 • 0.6 3 • 0.4 2 is a term in the binomial series that comes
from expanding
(0.6 + 0.4) 5
If x.stands for the number of times tails appears in five flips, then
P(x.) = sCx . 0_5s-x . 0.4x
428 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
As you can see, the probability P(x) is a function of the random variabl e x.
Because this function tells how th e 100% probability is distributed among the
various possible events, it is called a probability distribution. In this case,
because the probabilities are terms in a binomial series, it is called a binomial
distribution . A random experimen t, such as the coin-flipping experimen t, in
which the trials are repeated a number of times and in which there are only two
possible outcomes for each trial is called a binomial experiment. The icon at
the top of each page in this chapter is the graph of a binomial distribution.
PROPERTY:
Binomial
Probability
Distribution
Suppose a random experiment consists of repetitions of the same action and
that the action has only two possible results. Let E be one of the two possible
results.
Let b be the probability that event E occurs in any one repetition.
Let a be the probability that event E does not occur in any one repetition.
Let x be the number of times event E occurs in n repetitions.
Then
P(x) = nCx · an-x · b"
That is, P(x) has the value of the term with b x as a factor in the binomial
series (a+ b)n .
...,_EXAMPLE
1 A bent coin is flipped five times (as described previously). The probability of
getting heads on any one toss is 40%.
a. Find all terms in the probability distribution.
b. Show that the total of the probabilities equa ls 1, and explain the
significance of this fact.
c. Plot the graph. Sketch the result.
d. Calculate the probability that the coin lands heads up at least two of the
five times.
Solution Let P(x) be the probability that there are exactly x heads in five flips.
a. Because the probability of getting heads on any one flip is 40%, or 0.4, the
probability of not getting heads (that is, of getting tails) is 1 - 0.4, or 0.6.
P(O) = 5 C0 • 0.6 5 • 0.4° = 1 · 0.6 5 • 0.4° = 0.07776
P(l) = 5 C1 • 0.6 4 • 0.4 1 = 5 · 0.64 • 0.4 1 = 0.2592
P(2) = 5 C2 • 0.6 3 • 0.4 2 = 10 · 0.6 3 • 0.4 2 = 0.3456
P(3) = 5 C3 • 0.6 2 • 0.4 3 = 10 · 0.6 2 • 0.4 3 = 0.2304
P(4) = 5 C4 • 0.6 1 • 0.4 4 = 5 · 0.6 1 • 0.4 4 = 0.0768
P(5) = 5 C5 • 0.6° · 0.4 5 = 1 · 0.6° · 0.4 5 = 0.01024
Section
9-7: Functions
ofa Random
Variable 429
.
(x)
L X
A time -efficient way to compute all the probabilities is to put the six values
of x, namely, the integers O through 5, into one list and then put the
formula for P(x) into a second list.
b. The sum of the six probabilities in part a is exactly 1. This indicates that
one of th e six events listed is certain to happen and that there are no other
possible events in this random experiment.
P (x) c. Use the stored values in th e two lists to make a scatter plot (Figure 9-7a).
0.4 Note that only integers are in the domain of this function.
0.3
d. P(x ~ 2) = P(2) + P(3) + P(4) + P(5) The results are
0.2
mutually exclusive.
0. 1
X
= 0. 3456 + 0.2304 + 0.0768 + 0.01024 From part a.
2 3 4
= 0.66304 "" 66 %
Figure 9-?a
P(A) = 1- P(1totA)
Alternate solution to part d:

P(x ~ 2) = 1 - P(O) - P(l)
= 1 - 0.0777 6 - 0.2592
= 0.66304 "" 66%
Problem Set 9-7
Reading Analysis Ll!J/ Q3. If A and B happen in that order, then

P(A and B) = P(A) • P(B I A), where P(B I A)
is - ?-.
you consider to be the main idea ? In a function of a
random variable, what is the independent variable Q4. If a fair coin is flipped twice, P(TT) = - ?-.
and what is the dependent variable? Why is the Q5. If a fair coin is flipped twice, P(at least one is
probability distribution for a random exp eriment heads)= - ?- .
with just two possible outcomes that is
Q6. If a fair coin is flipped three times,
performed repeatedly called a binomial
P(TTT) = - ?-.
distribution?
Ql. If a fair coin is flipped three times,
P(THT in that order)= - ?- . Do you find this
Quick Review ~ w.,~ surprising?
Q1. If A and Bare mutually exclusive, then . If g(x) = f(x - 2), then g is a - ?-
QB
P(A or B) = -?- . transformation of f
Q9. If g(x) = f(2x), then g is a-?- transformation
Q2. If A and B are not mutually exclusive, then
P(A or B) = -?- .
off
Q10. Sketch the graph of a logistic function.
430 Chapter
9: Probabil
ity,andFunctio
ns ofa RandomVariab
le
1. Heredity Problem: If a dark-haired mother b. Calculate P(x) for each of the 11 possible
and father ha ve a parti cular combination of values of x. Make a scatter plot of the
i
genes, they have a probability of having a probability distribution, and sketch the
light-haired b aby. result.
a. What is their probability of havin g a c. Which is more probable, that the thumbtack
dark-haired baby ? will land point up more than five times or
b . If th ey have three babies, calculate P(O), that the thumbtack will land point up at
P(l), P(2), an d P(3), the probabilities of most five times ? Show results that support
having zero, one, two, and three dark-haired your answer .
babies, respectively. 4. Traffic Light Probl em: Thre e widely separated
c. Find the sum of the probabilities in part b. traffic lights on U.S. Route 1 operate
How do you interpret the answer? independentl y of one another. The probability
d. Plot the graph of this pro bability distribution. that you will be stopped at any one of the
lights is 40%.
e. What spec ial name is given to this kind of
probability distribution ? a. Show how to calculate the probability of
being stopped at exactly two of the thre e
2. Mu ltipl e-Choic e Test Prob lem: A short multiple- lights.
choice tes t has four questions . Each question
b. Which is more probabl e, being stopped at
has five choi ces, exact ly one of which is right.
more than one light or being stopped at one
Willie Passitt has not studied for th e test, so he
or fewer lights ? Show results that support
guesses answers at random.
your answer.
a. What is the probabili ty that his answer on
c. Suppose that you make the trip four times,
a particular qu estion is right? What is the
encountering a total of 12 lights. Make a
probability that it is wrong?
scatter plot of the probability distribution.
b. Calcul ate his prob abili ties of guessing Sketch the result.
0, 1, 2, 3, an d 4 answers righ t.
5. Color Blindne ss Problem: Statistics show that
c. Perform a calculation that shows that your
about 8% of all males are color-blind.
answe rs in part b are reasona ble.
Interestingly, women ar e less likely to have this
d. Plot the graph of this pro b ability distribution . condition. Suppose that 20 males are selected
e. Willie will p ass th e test if h e gets at least at random. Let P(x) be the probability that x of
three of th e four questions right. What is his the 20 men are color-blind.
probability of p assing? a. Compute the probability distribution and
f. This binomi al prob abili ty distribution is an plot its graph. Use a window that makes the
exam pl e of a func tion of-?-. graph fill most of the screen. Sketch th e
pattern followed by the points on the graph .
3. Thumbtack Problem: If you flip a thumbtack,
it can land either poin t up or point down b. From your output in part a, find P(O), P(l),
(Figure 9-7b). Suppo se the probability that any P(2), and P( 3).
one flip will land point up is 0.7 and that th e c. In a time-efficient way, calculate the
tack is flipped ten times. Let P(x) be the probability that at least 4 of the 20 male s
prob ability that x of ten flips land point up. are color-blind. Show the method you us ed
in the computation.
6. Eighte en-Wh eeler Probl em: Large tractor -trailer
trucks usually have 18 tires. Suppose that th e
Up Down probability that any on e tire will blow out on a
Figure 9-lb
given cross-country trip is 0.0 3.
a. What is th e probabili ty that any one tire
a. Show ho w P( 3) is calculate d. does not blow out?
Section
9·7: Function
sofa Random
Variable 431
t:~
x)
~
b. Find the probability that and all four engines fail during the given
i. None of the 18 tires blows out flight. Show that the probabilities sum to 1,
and explain the significance of this fact.
ii. Exactly one of the tires blows out
b. If the plane will keep flying as long as no
iii. Exactly two of the tires blow out
more than one engine fails, what is the
iv. More than two tires blow out probability that the four-engine plane keeps
c. If a trucker wants to have a 95% probability flying?
of making the trip without a blowout, what c. Suppose a different kind of plane has three
must be the reliability of each tire? That is, engines of the same reliability and that it,
what would the probability have to be that too, will keep flying if no more than one
any one tire blows out"? engine fails. What is the probability that the
7. Perfect Solo Problem: Clara Nett plays a musical three-engine plane keeps flying 7
solo. She is quite good and guesses that her d. Based on your computations in this
probability of playing any one note right is 99%. problem, which is safer, the four-engine
The solo has 60 notes. plane or the three-engine plane?
a. Find the probability that 9. World Series Problem: Suppose the Dodgers and
i. She plays every note right the Yankees are in the World Series. A baseball
ii. She makes exactly one mistake team must win four games to win the World
Series. From their season records, you predict
iii. She makes exactly two mistakes
that the Dodgers have probability 0.6 of beating
iv. She makes at least two mistakes the Yankees in any one game. Assume that this
v. She makes more than two mistakes probability is independent of which team has
b. What must be Clara's probability of playing won a preceding game in this World Series.
any one note right if she wants to have a 95%
probability of playing all 60 notes right?
8. Airplane Engine Problem: One reason
commercial airplanes have more than one
engine is to reduce the consequences should
an engine fail during flight (Figure 9-7c). Under
certain circumstances, some counterintuitive
things happen when the number of engines is
increased . Assume that the probability that
any one engine will fail on a given flight is 0.1
(this is high, but assume it anyway).
a. Find the probability that the Dodgers win

the series by winning the first four games.
b. Find th e probability that the Yankees win the
series by winning the first four games.
c. For a team to win the series in exactly five
4 engines 3 engines
games, they must win exactly three of the
Which is safe r? first four games, then win the fifth game.
Find the probability that the Dodgers win
Figur e 9- 7c
the series in five games.
a. For a plane that has four engines, calculate d. Find the probability that the Yankees win
the probabilities that zero, one, two, three, the series in five games.
432 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
e. Find th e probabili ty of each of these events. d. Plot the graph of th e probability distribution
i. The Dodgers win the series in six games. in part c on your grapher. Do you see any
pattern followed by the points on the graph ?
ii. The Yankees win the series in six games.
iii. The Dodgers win the series in seven 12. First Girl Problem: Eva and Paul want to have a
games. baby girl. They know that the probability of
having a girl on any single birth is 0.5.
iv. The Yankees win the series in seven
games. a. Let x be the number of babies the y have,
and let P(x) be th e probability that the x th
f. Find the probability that the Yankees win
baby is the first girl. Then P(l) = 0.5. P(2) is
the series.
the probability that the first bab y is not a
g. What is th e most probable length of the girl and that the second baby is a girl.
serie s-fo ur , five, six, or seven games? Calculate P(2), P(3), and P(4).
Problems 10-13 involve probability distributions b. Plot the graph of P (x). Sketch the graph,
other than binomial distribution s. showing what happ ens as x becomes large.
10. Dice Probl em: Suppose that a random c. Besides being called a probability
experiment consists of rolling two dice, one distribution, what other special kind of
gray and one white, as in Section 9- 1. function is this?
a. Plot the probabili ty distribution for each of d. Show that the sum of the values of P(x)
these random variabl es. You may count the approaches 1 as x becomes very large .
outcomes on Figure 9- la. 13. Same Birthday Problem: A group of students
i. xis the sum of the numbers on the compares birthdays.
two dice. a. What is the probability that Shawn's
ii. x is th e numb er on the gray die minus birthday is not the same as Mark's?
the number on the white die. b. If Shawn and Mark ha ve different birthdays,
iii. xis th e absolute value of th e difference what is the probability that Frieda's
between the numb er on the gray die and birthday is not the same as Shawn's and not
the numb er on the whi te die. the same as Mark's ?
b. For each probabili ty distribution in part a, c. What is the probability that Shawn and Mark
fin d the most prob abl e value of x. have different birthda ys and that Frieda ha s
a birthday different from both of theirs ?
11. Proper Divisors Problem: An integer from
1 throu gh 10 is selected at ran dom. Let x be d . Using the pattern you observe in part c, find
the number of proper divisors the integer has. the probability that a group of ten students
(A proper divisor of an integer n is an integer will all have different birthda ys. Give a
les s than n that divides n exact ly. For decimal approximation of the result.
example, 12 has five proper divisors: 1, 2, 3, 4, e. What is the probability that in a group of
and 6.) ten students, at least two have the same
a. List th e prop er divisors and the number birthday (that is, not all ten have different
of prop er divisor s for each integer from birthdays)?
1 through 10. f. Write a program to compute a list of
b. For each possibl e valu e of x, identif y how probabilities that at least two people have
many of the integers from 1 through 10 the same birthda y in a group of x people.
ha ve that number of proper divisors. Store the output in lists of x and P(x) for use
in subsequent graphing. Use the program to
c. Let P(x) b e the probab ility that an integer
make a list of P(x) for 2 through 60 people.
from 1 through 10 has x proper divisors.
Calculat e P(x) for each value of x in th e g. Plot the graph of the probability
domain. distribution in part f on your grapher. Use
Section
9-7: Functions
ofa Random
Variable 433
....
t::x)
~
the data in the lists output by the program ii. 99%
without any further computation. Sketch the Do you find this surprising?
pattern followed by the points.
14. Journal Problem:Update your journal with
h. From the graphical or numerical data,
things you have learned since the last entry.
determine how many people must be in a
In particular, explain how the properties of
group to have a probability that at least two
probability and the concept of fun ction lead to
people will have the same birthday equal to
functions of a random variable.
i. 50%
9-8 Mathe matical Exp ectation

One of the main uses of probability is in calculating the expected value
without actually conducting a random experiment. Insurance companies, for
example, can use the expec ted value to calculate the insurance costs and the
expected profit from a particular policy. In this section you will study
mathematical expectation, a value you can calculate based on the outcomes
for each event in a random experiment.
OBJECTIVECalculate the mathematical expectation of a given random experiment.
At a school carnival, students are awarded points for winning games . At the end
of the evening, they may trade in their points for prizes. For a particular game,
students start out with 50 points and roll a single die. The payoffs for the game
are:
• Roll a 6: Win 100 points (and get your 50 points back).
• Roll a 2 or a 4: Win 10 points (and get your 50 points back).
• Roll an odd number: Win nothing (and lose your 50 points) .
Because each outcome is equally likely, you would "expect" to get each number
once in six rolls of th e die. (You probably won't, but that is what you expect to
happen on the average if you roll the die many times.) If you did roll each
number exactly once, your winnings would be
Number Points Won
1 -50
2 10
3 -50
4 10
5 -5 0
6 100
Total: -30
434 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
Because you would lose 30 points in six rolls, your average winnings would be
-30
Average winnings= = -5 points per roll
6
This average is your mathematical expectation. If you play the game thousands
of times, you would expect to lose about 5 points per roll, on average .
A pattern shows up if you do not carry out the addition when calculating the
mathematical expectation in the preceding random experiment. Let E stand for
the mathematical expectation:
-50 + 10 - 50 + 10 - 50 + 100
E=------------ Sum the six values , one for each
6 outcome, and divide by 6.
3(-50) + 2(10) + 1(100)

Combine "like terms."
6
3(-50) 2(10) 1(100)
=-- - +- - +--- Division distributes over addition.
6 6 6
3 2 1
= 6(-50) + 6(10) + 6(100) Properties of fractions.
The fraction~ is the probability of getting an odd number, and -50 is the value
associa ted with getting an odd number . Similarly, ~ and -kare the probabilities
associa ted with 10 and 100, which are the values for the other two events. So
you can calculate the mathematical expectation of a random experiment by
multiplying the probability and the value for each mutually exclusive event
and then summing the results . This fact leads to the algebraic definition of
mathematical expectation.
DEFINITION:
Mathematical
Expectation
Algebraically.- The mathematical expectation, E, of a random experiment is
the sum
E = P(A1 )a1 + P(A 2)a 2 + P(A 3)a3 + · · · + P(An)an
or
n
E= LP(Ak)ak
k- l
for then mutually exclusive events A 1 , A 2, A 3, ... , An in the experiment. The

values ai, a 2, a 3, ... , an correspond to the outcomes of Ai, A 2, A 3, ... , An·
Verbally: The mathematical expectation is the weighted average for a random

experiment each time it is run .
Section
9-8:Mathematical
Expectation 435
[.
()
- .... EXAMPLEI
X
The basketball toss at an amusement park costs

50<t to play. To play, you shoot three balls. If you
make no baskets, you win nothing (and lose your
50<t). If you make just one basket, you win a key
chain worth 5<t.If you make two of the three baskets,
you win a stuffed animal worth 60<t. If you make all
thre e baskets, you win a doll worth $2.50. The
basketball hoop is small, so your probability of
making any one basket is only 30%. What is your
mathematical expectation for the game7 How do you
interpret the answer?
Solution Let P(x) be your probability of making x bask ets . Your probability of missing
any one basket is 100 - 30, or 70% (0. 7 as a decimal). Therefore,
P(O) = 3 C0 • 0. 7 3 • 0.3° = 0.343
P(l) = 3 C1 • 0.7 2 • 0.3 1 = 0.441
P(2) = 3 C2 • 0.7 1 • 0. 3 2 = 0.189
P( 3) = 3 C3 • 0.7° · 0.3 3 = 0.027
Check: Total = 1.000
The payoff for each event is found by subtracting the 50¢ "admissio n fee" from
the amount you win:
X Payoff (in cents)
0 0- 50 = -50
1 5- 50 = -45
2 60 - 50 = 10
3 250 - 50 = 200
E = (0.343 )(-50) + (0.441)(-45) + (0.189)(10) + (0.027)(200)
Definition of expectation.
= -29 .705
So on average you would expect to lose about 30 <tper game if you played many
times. (This is the way amus ement parks make money on such games!)
Once you understand how mathematical expectation is calculated, you can use
list operations on your grapher to compu te the values.
X P(x) Payoff P(x) · Payoff
0 0.343 -50 -17.15

1 0.441 -45 -19.845
2 0.189 10 1.89
3 0.027 200 5.4
Totals: 1.000 -29.705

: . E = -29 .705, or a loss of about 30<t each time you play the game
436 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
Problem Set 9-8
Reading Analysis a. What is the mathematicall y expected

number of neutrons released per fission?
you consider to be the main idea? Assume that a b. The number of neutrons released in any one
random experiment has just two outcomes, A and fission must b e an integer. How do you
"not A," where the probability of A is 0.6. If the explain the fact that the mathematically
payoff for A is 20 and the payoff for "not A" is 30, expected number in part a is not an integer?
what is the mathematical expectation for the 2. Archery Problem: An expert archer has the
experiment? probabilities listed in the table of hitting
various rings on a target (Figure 9-8a).
Quick Review
QJ. Expand: (a + b)2
Q2. Expand: (a + b)3
Q3. Expand : (a+ b) 4
Q4. Evaluate 4 C1 and 4 C 3.
QS.How are the answers to Problem Q4 related to

th e answer to Problem Q3?
Figure 9-Ba
Q6.If a = 0.3 and b = 0.7, th en 4 C 1 a 1 b 3 = - ?- .
Ql. How is the answer to Problem Q6 related to a Color Probability Points
binomial probability distribution ?
Gold 0.20 9
QB.Which equals sec 2 x - tan 2 x: cos 2 x + sin 2 x or Red 0.36 7
cos 2 x - sin 2 x ? Blue 0.23 5
Black 0.14 3
Q9. What is the weighted average of a spinner that
White 0.07 1
ends on +5 two-third s of the time and on - 16
on e-third of the time ? a. What is her mathematically expected
nllillb er of points on any one shot?
Q10. Whose name is associat ed with finding the area
of a triangle directly from its sid e lengths ? b. If she shoots 48 arrows, what would her
expected score be?
1. Uranium Fission Probl em: When a uranium 3. Sales Incentive Problem: Calvin is a salesp erson
atom splits ("fissions"), it releases 0, 1, 2, 3, at a car dealership th at wants to sell last year's
or 4 neutrons . Let P(x) b e the probability that car models to make space for new cars. The
x neutrons are released . Assume that the manager wants minivans to clear out fastest,
probabilit y distribution is station wagons next, and other models last, so
she puts together two choices of incentives
X P(x)
for the sales staff.
0 0.0 5 Option A: Receive a $100 bonus for each
1 0.2 vehicle sold of last year's models.
2 0.2 5
3 0.4 Option B: Receive a $2000 bonus for selling
4 0.1 four minivans, two station wagons, one hybrid
car, and one sedan of last year's models.
Section
9·8: Mathematical
Expectation 437
t::x)
~
Calvin estimates that his probability of selling binomial probability distrib uti on. Suppose the
four minivans is 50%, selling two station probability that outcom e C occurs on any one
wagons is 70%, selling a hybrid car is 80%, and repetition is 0.4. Let P(x) be th e probability that
selling a sedan is 90%. outcome C occurs x tim es in five repetitions.
a. Calculat e the math ematical expec tation for a. Calculate P(x) for each value of x in th e
Calvin's bonus if he choos es Option A and domain.
sells the required eight cars. b. Find the mathemati cally expected value of x.
b. Calculate Calvin's probability of being able (Hint : The value if C occurs x times is x.)
to sell four mini vans, two stat ion wagons, c. Show that the math emati cally expected
one hybrid car, and one sedan. value of xis equal to 0.4 (the probability
c. Calculate the mathematical expectation for th at C occurs on one repe titio n) times 5
Calvin' s bonus if he chooses Option B. (the total number of rep etitions).
d. Based on your answers to parts a-c, which d. If th e probability that C occurs on any
option should he choose? one repetition is b and the probability that
C does not occur on any one repetition is
4. Seed Germination Problem: A package of seeds
a= l - b, prove that in five trials the
for an exotic tropical plant states that the
expected value of xis 5 b.
probabilit y that any one seed germinates is
80%. Suppos e you plant four of the seeds . e. From what you have observed in this
problem, make a conj ectur e about th e
a. Find the probabilities that exactly 0, 1, 2, 3,
mathem atica lly expect ed valu e of x in n
and 4 of the seeds germinate.
repetitions, if the probabili ty that C occurs
b. Find the mathematicall y expected number on any one repetition is b.
of see ds that will germinate.
f. If you plant 100 seeds, each of which has
5. Batti ng Average Probl em : Jacki e Robinson 's prob ability 0. 71 of germina ting, how man y
highest batting average was .342, which means see ds would you expect to two germinate ?
that his probability of getting a hit at any one
7. Multiple-Choice Test Problem: Suppose that
time at bat is 0.342. Suppose that Robinson
you are taking your college entrance exams .
came to bat five times during a game.
You answer all the question s you know and
have some time left over. So you decide to
gue ss the answers to the rest of the question s.
a. Each question is multipl e choice with five
choices. If you gu ess at random, what is the
probability of getting an answer right? Of
getting an answer wron g?
b. When th e testing service grades your paper, it
gives you 1 point if th e answer is right and
subtracts i point if the answer is wrong . What
is your mathematicall y expected score on any
question for which you guess at random?
c. Suppose that, on one question, you can
eliminate one choice you know is wrong and
a. Calculat e the probabiliti es that he got 0, 1, then randomly guess amon g the other four.
2, 3, 4, and 5 hits. What is your mathem atically expected score
on this question ? It's surprisingly low, isn't it?
b. What was Robinson' s math emat ically
expec ted number of hits for this game? d. Calculate your mathematic ally expected score
on a question for which you can eliminate two
6. Expectation for a Binomial Experiment: Suppose of th e choices and then on a question for
you conduct a random exp eriment that has a which you can eliminate thr ee of the choices.
438 Chap
ter9: Probabil
ity, andFunctions
ofa Random
Var
iable
e. Based on your answers in this prob lem, do who dies while he or she is 15 through
you think it is worthwhile guessing answers 20 years old .
on a multiple-choice test? a. Calculate D(15), th e numb er out of 10,000
8. Acciden t/ flln ess In sura nce Problem: Some of the expected to die while the y are age 15. Round
highest -paid mathematicians are actuaries, who to an inte ger.
figure out what you should pay fo~ s b. Calculate A(16), the number out of 10,000
types of insurance. Suppose an insurance expected to be alive on their 16th birthda y.
compa ny has an accident / illness policy that c. Calculate D(16). Round to an integer.
p ays $500 if you become ill during any one year,
d. Make a table of x, P(x), A(x), and D(x) for
$1000 if you have an accident, and $6000 if you
each value of x from 15 through 20.
both become ill and have an accident. The
pr emium, or payment, for this policy is $100 e. Put columns into th e table of part d for I(x)
per year. One of your friends, who has studied and O(x), the income from the $40
actuarial science, tells you that your probability premiums and the amount paid out from
of becoming ill in any one year is 0.05 and that the $20,000 death benefits. Take into
your probability of havin g an accident is 0.03 . account that a person who dies no longer
pays premiums the following years.
a. Find th e probability of each event.
f. Calculate NI(x) = I(x) - O(x), the net income
i. Becoming ill and having an accident
of the company each year . Explain why NI(x)
ii. Becoming ill and not having an accident decreases each year. (There are two reasons!)
iii. Not becoming ill bu t having an accident g. On average, how much would the company
iv. Not becoming ill and not having an expect to make per year? Would this be
accident enough to pay a full-tim e employee to
b . What is the mathematical expecta tion for operate the compan y?
this policy? 10. Life Insuran ce Problem 2: A group of 10,000
c. An insurance policy is act uarially sound if people, each now 5 5 years old, is to be insured
the insurance company is exp ected to make as described in Probl em 9. Upon the death of
a profit from it. Based on the probabilities the insured person at any age from 5 5 through
assumed, is this policy actuar ially sound? 59, hi s or her survivors receive $20,000. Your
job is to calculate the annual premium that
9. Lif e Insurance Problem 1: Functio ns of random
should be charged for this policy. Here is the
varia bl es are used as mathematical models in
portion of the mortalit y table that applies to
th e insurance business. The numbers in the
this age group.
tabl e were taken from a morta lity table. The
tabl e shows the probability, P(x), that a person Age, x P(x)
who is alive on his or her xth birthday will die
b efore he or she reaches age x ~ 55 0.01300
56 0.01421
Age, x P(x) 57 0.01554
58 0.01700
15 0.00146
59 0.018 59
16 0.00154
17 0.00162 a. Make a table showing D(x), A(x ), and O(x),
18 0.00169 the numb er of death s, th e number still alive,
19 0.00174 and the amount paid out in death benefits,
20 0.00179 respe ctively.
A group of 10,000 15-year-olds gets together to b. An administrator is to be paid $30,000 a
form their own life insurance com pan y. For a year to operate the program. Calculat e th e
premium of $40 p er year, they agree to p ay total paid out by th e compa ny over the five-
$20,000 to the family of anyone in the group year p eriod, including th e administrator's
salary and th e death b enefits .
Section
9-8:Mathematica
l Expectation 439
t:~)
~
c. Calculate the total income from premiums that must be charged per person per year
for the five-year period, taking into for the company to break even.
consideration the fact that the number of d. Why is the premium in part c so much
premiums received each year decreases higher than the premium of $40 per year in
after the first year as the insured persons Problem 9?
die. From the result, calculate the premium

In this chapter you analyzed functions in which the independent variable takes
on random values. The dependent variable is the probability that a particular
value of the random variable occurs. You used the definition of probability as a
ratio of numbers of outcomes of a random experiment to derive properties that
allow you to calculate probabilities algebraically. You learned that the binomial
probability distribution has many real-world applications. Such functions are
useful in finding mathematical expectation, which is the potential payoff of a
random experiment.
Review Problems
RO. Update your journal with what you have a. The total is 4.
learned in this chapter . Include things such as b. The total is 5.
the definitions of random variable, probability,
c. The total is 6.
outcome, event, sample spac e, permutations,
combinations, functions of a random variable, d. The total is 7.
binomial probability distributions, and e. The total is odd.
mathematical expectation. Show how what you f. The total is between 4 and 6, inclusive.
have learned allows you to compute numbers
g. The total is between 3 and 6, inclusive.
of outcomes algebraically rather than by
actually counting . h. The quarter shows 2 and the nickel shows 1.
i. The quarter shows 2 or the nickel shows 1.
Rl. Quarter, Dime, and Nickel Problem: A quarter,
a dime, and a nickel are marked with 1 on the R2. Numbered Index Card Problem: Twenty-five
tails side and 2 on the heads side. All three index cards are numbered from 1 through 25.
coins are flipped. The eight possible outcomes The cards are placed number side down on the
are shown in Figure 9-9a. Find the probability table, and one card is drawn at random.
of each event.
800 800
0 c60 0c£0
Figure 9-9a
440 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
a. How man y outcom es are in the sample space? d. Find the number of different permutations
b. How many outcomes are in the event "the of all the letters in
I I
number is odd"? HUMUHUMUNUKUNUKU
c. What is the difference between an outcome \ 1 \ ) \ \ I I ' \
which are th e first 16 letters of the name of
an d an event?
Hawaii's state fish.
d. Find the probabili ty that
i. The number is odd
ii. The number is divisible by 3
iii. The number has two digits
iv. The number is less than 30
v. The number is at least 30
R3. a. An ice cream shop h as 20 flavors of ice
cream and 11 flavors of sherbet. Find the
number of differ ent ways you could select
i. A scoop of ice cream and a scoop of
sherbet RS. a. Evaluate 7 C3 usin g factorials.
ii. A scoop of ice cream or a scoop of b. What is the differen ce b etween a
sherbet permutation and a combination ?
c. The 12th-grade clas s at Scorpion Gulch
High School has 100 students : 53 girls and
4 7 boys . In how man y different ways could
th ey select the following?
i. A group of four stud ents to be class
officers
ii. A president, a vice president, a secretary,
and a treasurer
- \ -1 I -r \ iii. A seven-member debate team consisting
b. Using the letters in EXACTIN
G, find the of four boys and three girls
number of different ways you could select
d. If a seven-member debate team is selected
i. A consonant and then a vowel at random as in part c, what is th e
ii. A consonant and then another consonant probability that it will have four boys and
three girls?
R4. a. The Russian alphabet has 34 characters.
Find the number of different perm u tations R6. a. Car Trouble Problem : Mr. Rhee's car has a
that can be made 70% probability of starting, and Ms. Rhee's
i. Using 3 different charac ters car ha s an 80% probability of starting . Find
the probabilit y of each event .
ii. Using 34 different characters
i. Neither car will start.
b. How many different three-letter "words" can
be m ade from the letters in PRECAL? ii. Both cars will start.
c. Find the probabili ty that a permutation of iii. Either both cars will start or neither car
all th e letters in the word EXACTLYbe gins f"). will start.
with a consonant and ends with a
consonant.
·U Exactly one of the cars will start.
Section
9-9:Chapter
Review
andTest 441
L
(x)
b. Basketball Game Problem: High school records indicate that, on average, there is a 10%
basketball teams often play each other twice probability that any one passenger will not
during the season . Suppose Central High show up. However, if everyone does show up,
has a 60% probability of winning its first one passenger must be "bumped" and given a
game against Tech. If Central wins the first $300 payment. (The $100 is not refunded
game, it has an 85% probability of winning because the ticket can be used on a later flight.)
the second game. If Central loses the first a. What is the probability that all 21 passengers
game, it has a 45% probability of winning show up and the airline makes only $1800
the second game. Find the probability of ($2100 - $300)? What is the probability that
each event. 20 or fewer passengers show up and the
i. Central wins both games. airline makes the full $2100 on that flight?
ii. Central wins the first game and loses the What is the airline's mathematically expected
second game. revenue if it books 21 passengers?
iii. Central loses the first game and wins the b. If the airline books 2 2 passengers, the
second game. revenue is $1600 for zero no-shows,
$1900 for one no-show, and $2200 for two
iv. Central loses both games .
or more no-shows. What is the airline's
v. Show by calculation that the answers in mathematically expected revenue if it books
parts b.i-iv are reasonable. 22 passengers?
R7. Candle Lighter Problem: A butane candle c. Calculate the mathematically expected
light er does not always light when you pull the revenue if the airline books 23 passengers.
trigger. Suppose that a lighter has a 60% Is this more or less than the $2000 it would
probability of lighting on any one pull. You mak e if it did no overbooking ?
pull the trigger six times. Let P(x) be the d. What other things besides a possible loss of
probabilit y that it lights exac tly x times. money might make th e airline limit the
a. Show the method us ed to calculate P(4). amount of overbooking?
b. In a time-efficient way, calculate P(x) for Weighted Average Problem: For parts e and f, a
each value of x in th e domain. college professor gives student:, a weighted
c. Plot the graph of P(x) as a scatter plot on average. Test 1 counts as 10%of the grade.
your grapher. Sketch the result. Tests 2, 3, and 4 count as 20% each . The final
d . Find the probability that the lighter lights at exam counts as 30% of the grade.
least half the time. e. To receive a grade of B or above, a student
e. Why is this random experiment called a must have a weighted average of at least 80.
binomial experiment? Suppose that Nita B. Topaz gets scores of
72, 86, 93, 77, and 98 on the five tests, in
RS. Airline Overbooking Problem: For parts a-d, a that order. Will she receive at least a B?
small commuter airline charges $100 for tickets Show numbers to support your answer.
on a particular flight . The plane holds 20
f. Explain why the mathematics involved in
p eople, so the total revenue for a full flight is
finding a weighted average is the same as
$2000 . The airline expects a higher revenue by
that used to find the mathematical
booking 21 passengers and taking its chances
expectation of a random experiment.
that one or more passengers will not show up
(the tickets are nonrefundabl e). Company
442 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
Concept Problem
Cl. Nuclear Reactor Project: When a uranium atom Assume that

insid e the reactor of a nuclear power plant is
P(leaking) = 0.36
hit by a neutron, it split s (fission s), releasing
energy and some new n eutrons (Figure 9-9b). P(capture by other atom) = 0.2
The mathematically expected number of new
P(nonfission capture)= 0.15
neutrons per fission is 2.3.
Calculate the probability that none of these
(> ~ o things happens and thus that the neutron
o-Q ~~ o
does cause a fission in the next generation.
0 e. Use the probability in part d and the fact
Neutr on ruts Atom New neutr ons that there are 2.3 new neutrons per fission
ur anium ato m. spli ts . are released.
to calculate k, the expected number of new
Figur e 9-9b neutrons in the second generation caused
by one neutron in the first generation.
a. Suppose there are 100 neutrons in the
reactor initially. If all these neutrons cause f. How many neutrons would you expect there
fissions, how many n eutrons would you to be after 1 s under the conditions in part e
expect there to be after this first if each generation still takes 0.001 s as in
"generation" of fission s? part c? Would the reactor explode like a
bomb ?
b. If all the neutrons from the first generation
cause fissions, how man y would you expect g. Why can you say that the number of
after two generations ? After three neutrons is increasing exponentially with
generations? After four generations? What time?
kind of sequence do these numbers form? h. The constant k in part e is called the
c. If each generation takes 0.001 s, how many multip lication factor. The chain reaction in a
neutrons would you exp ect there to be after nuclear reactor is controlled by moving
1 s? Does this answer surprise you? This is control rods out or in to absorb fewer or
what makes atomic bombs explode! more neutrons . If k is slightly more than 1,
the power level increases. If k is less than 1,
d. Not all of the neutrons from one generation the power level decreases . If k equals 1, the
actually do cause fissions in the next power level remains constant and the
generation . Some leak out of the reactor, reactor is said to be critical. What would
some are captured by atoms other than ?(capture by other atom), mentioned in
uranium, and some that are captured by part d, have to equal to make the reactor
uranium atoms do not cause fission. critical?
Chapter Test
PART
1: Nocalculators
allowed(11-18) T3. What is the difference between a permutation
and a combination?
Tl. Calculate the number of permutations of seven
objects taken three at a time. Show your method . T4. If A and Bare independent events and if
P(A) = 0.8 and P(B) = 0.9, find P(A and B).
T2. Calculate the number of combinations of
six objects taken four at a time. Show how TS. If A and Bare independent events and if
this number is calculated using factorials. P(A) = 0.8 and P(B) = 0.9, find P(A or B) .
Section
9-9: Chapter
Review
andTest 443
( )
[ -- X
T6. Suppose that, in each repetition of a random Tl5. What is your mathematically expected number
experiment, the probability that A occurs of points for any problem for which you guess
is 0.8. Find the probability that A occurs the answer?
in exactly two out of three repetitions.
Tl6. Suppose you know that three of the five choices
T7. Explain why the random experiment in are incorrect. What is your probability of
Problem T6 is called a binomial experiment. guessing the right answer from the remaining
two choices? What is your probability of
T8. Suppose that C, D, and E are three mutually
guessing the wrong answer?
exclusive events of a random experiment and
that P(C), P(D), and P(E) are 0.5, 0.3, and 0.2, Tl?. What is your mathematically expected number
respectively. If the payoffs are $10, $6, and of points for a question for which you can
-$100 for C, D, and E, respectively, find the eliminat e three of the five choices?
mathematical expectation for the random
Punctuality Problem: Problems Tl8 -T 23 concern
experiment.
Hezzy Tate, who has a 30% probability of b eing late
to class on any one day.
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(19-128)
Tl8. What is his probability of not being late on any
Pick-Three Problem: Problems T9-T l3 concern the
one day?
11th-grade class, who decides to run a lottery to
help finance the prom. A person pays $1 and picks Tl9 . Show how to calculate Hezzy's probability
three different digits. If all three digits match the of being late on exactly two of the five days
winning digits, the class pays the person $100 (but in a week.
keeps the $1). If not, the class keeps the $1.
T20. Make a list of his probabilities of being late on
T9. The sample space for this random experimen t zero through five days. Write the result.
contains 10 C3 outcomes. What is the
T21. Perform a calculation that shows that your
probability that any one pick is the winning
answers to Problem T20 are reasonable.
combination?
T22. What is the special name of the probability
no. What is the probability that any one pick is not
distribution in Problem T207
the winning combination?
T23. Plot a graph of the probability distribution in
Tll. What is the ll th-grade class's payoff if the
Problem T20 on your grapher. Sketch th e
pick is the winning combination? What is the
graph .
class's payoff if the pick is not the winning
combination? Cup and Saucer Problem: Problems T24-T28
concern Wanda, who washes dishes at a restaurant.
Tl2. What is the class's mathematical expectatio n
Her probability of breaking a cup on any one shift
for any one pick?
is 8%, and her probability of breaking a saucer is
T13. How much would the class expect to make 6%. Calculate the probabilities of these events.
from the sale of 1000 picks?
T24 . P(cup and saucer)
Multiple-Choice Test Problem: Problems Tl4-Tl7
T25. P(cup and not saucer)
refer to a college board test with five different
choices for each problem . A test taker receives one T26. P(saucer and not cup)
point for each correct answer, but for each wrong
T27 . P(not cup and not saucer)
i
answer, point is subtracted.
T28. What did you learn as a result of doing this
Tl 4. If you guess at random in a question, what is
chapter test that you did not know before?
your probability of guessing the right answer?
Of guessing a wrong answer?
444 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
Problem Set 9-10 comprises a comprehens ive review of these topics:
• Graphica l and numeric properties of elementary functions
• Fitting functions to data
• Linear an d other types of regression
• Combinator ics
• Probability
• Functio ns of a random variab le
If you are thoroughly familiar with these topics, you should be able to finish the
pro bl em set in about two hours.
Problem Set 9-1 0
allowed(1-17) 4. Tell what type of function each grap h shows.
l. Write the general equation for a(n) a. y b. y
a. Linear function
b. Quadrati c function
c. Logarithmic function
X X
d. Exponential function
e. Power function
C. y d. y
2. Sketch th e graphs of these functions .
a. f(x) = -2(x - 3) 2 + 5
b. g(x) = e +z
C. h(x) = loglOx - 1 X X
-~,.., e the pattern followed by the y-values of

functions with regularly space d x-values for e. Y f. y
a. Logarithmic functions
b . Power functions
c. Quadrati c function s
X X
Section
9·10: Cumu
lativeReview
, Chapters
7-9 445
.
(xl
L X
For Problems 5-7, Figure 9-lOa shows a set of

points with a dashed horizontal line drawn at y = y, \J'-{0000 y · Y = 5000(0.~ X)
,. '
where y is the m ean of the y-values .
5000
y
I +--,
2000
lo ~1000
f -+
500 J ...i-.
Figur e 9-lO a 200
5. On a copy of the figur e, sketch th e deviation le) 4{)o

from the mean for the rightmost point.
50
6. Sketch what you think is the b est -fitting linear
function . Show the residual for the rightmost
point . How does the size of th e residual 20 .,.
compar e with the siz e of the deviation? X
,. , 10 0 5 10 15
7. Based on what you know about the mean-mean i
point, (x,y), show where x would be on the Figur e 9-lOb
graph in Problem 5. ; ~6 I
14. Take the logarithm of both sid es of the given
. Suppos e that th e regression equation for a set
equation. Use the result to explain why the
f data is y = 3x + 5. What does the residua l
graph of this function is a strai ght line on this
equal for the data point (4, 15)?
kind of graph paper.
t or a regression line , what is true about the

um of the squares of the residuals, SSres?
uppose that the sum of the squares of th e
deviations is SSctev= 100 and that SSres = 36.
What does th e coefficient of determination, r 2 ,
equal ?
15. Suppose that a precalculus test has 20
questions. Using factorials, show the number
of different ways you could select a group of 7
of these questions to answ er. Without actually
calculating th e number, give th e number of
different ord ers in which a student could work
on 7 of these 20 questions.
11. Suppose that you run a power regression on a
set of data. The correlation coefficient, r, is 16. If A and B are independent events with
- 0.99, and the residual plot shows a definite probabilities P(A) = 0.6 and P(B) = 0.8, find the
pattern. What do these two facts tell you about probability that A or B occurs.
how well the power function fits the data7
17. If C and Dare mutually exclusive events and if
For Probl ems 12- 14, Figure 9-lOb shows the graph P(C) = 0.1 and P(D) = 0.2, find
of y = 5000(0 .n x) on a special kind of graph paper. a. The probability that both C and D occur
12. What kind of graph paper is this? Why is this b. The probability that D do es not occur
kind of graph paper useful if th ere is a wide c. The mathematical expectation if the payoff
range of y-values for the function being for C is $6.00, the pa yoff for Dis -$2.00,
graphed ? and th e payoff if neither C nor D occurs is
13. Find th e approximate value of y for x = 8. Find $1.00
the approximate value of x for y = 80.
446 Chap
ter 9: Probability,
andFunct
ionsofa Random
Variable
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(18-24} a. Using regression, fin d the particular
equation of the be st -fittin g logistic function
18. Light Int ensity Prob lem: The table shows the for these data.
intensity, y, of light ben eat h th e water surface
b. Plot the logistic function on your grapher .
as a function of distan ce, x, in meters, below
Sketch th e result on a copy of Figure 9-lOc.
the surface .
Show th e point of inflection.
X y
y
400
0 lOO)of- S
.\-?l. 3
~1?s 50
25 )'1' · S
16
300
200
11 8 100
2 x(months)
17
5 10 15
a. What pattern do th e first three data
Figur e 9- lO c
points follow? What type of fun ction has
this patt ern ? q__,1-('0 c. How man y wells does your model predict
b. Find the particular equation of the function were ultimately drill ed at Spindletop?
in part a algebra ically by substituting th e d. Why is a logistic model mor e reasonable
second an d third points into the general than an exponential model for this problem?
equation . Show that the particular equation
gives values for the last three point s that 20. Cricket Problem: The frequency at which crickets
are close to the valu es in the table . chirp increases as the temperature increases. Let
c. Use the approp riate kind of regression to x be th e temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit, and
find the function of the type in part a that let y be th e number of chirps per second .
best fits all six data points. Write the Suppos e that th e data in th e table have been
corre lation coefficient, and explain how it measur ed. The data are graphed in Figure 9-lOd.
indicates that the fun ction fits th e data X y y
quite well. 200
d. Use the regression equation from part c to 50 35
55 55 150
predict the light inten sity at a depth of
60 74
14 m. Which do you u se, interpolation or
65 93 100
extra polation, to find this intensity ? How do
70 112
yc,u de cide?
75 130 50
19. Spindletop Prob lem : On January 10, 1901, the 80 147 X
first oil-well gusher in Texas happened at 85 165 20 40 60 80 100
Spindletop near Beaumon t. In the following 90 182
months, many more wells were drilled. 95 200 Figur e 9-lOd
Assume that the data in the table are number a. A linear function appears to fit the data.
of wells, y, as a function of number of months, Write th e linear regression equation, and
x, after January 10, 1901. give numerical evidence from the regress ion
x (months) y (wells) result that a linear function fits very well.
b . If you extrapolat e to temperatures below
0 1 50°F, what does the linear funct ion indic ate
1 3 will eventuall y h app en to the crickets? What,
2 10 then, would be a re asonab le lower bound for
3 27 the domain of th e lin ear fun ction?
4 75
5 150
Section
9-10:Cum
ual tiveReview,
Chapters
7-9 447
()
.
L X
c. If you extrapolate to temperatures above c. You flip the thumbtack six times. What is
95°F, what does the linear function indicate the probability that it lands point up exactly
will eventually happen to the crickets? Is two of those times?
this a reasonable endpoint behavior? d. What special name is given to a probability
d. Put a list into your grapher to calculate the distribution, such as in part c, for a random
residuals, y - y.Use the results to make a experiment with only two possible outcomes
residual plot. Sketch the residual plot. What performed several times?
information do you get from the residual e. Show how the number of combinations of
plot concerning how well the linear function six objects taken two at a time is calculated
fits the data? using factorials. How does this number
21. Logarithmic Function Problem: relate to part c?
a. Use the definition of logarithm to evaluate f. Calculate the number of permutations of
y = log 9 53. six objects taken two at a time.
b. Use the log-of-a-power property to solve this 23. Indy 500 Problem: Henry has a 70%probability
exponential equation: 34 x = 93 . of finishing in the top ten places in th e
c. Use the change -of-base property to evaluate Indianapolis 500 car race. His wife, Ann, has an
log 5 4 7 using natural logarithms. 80% probability of finishing in the top ten.
d. Plot the graph of f(x) = 1nx. Sketch the result. a. What is the probability that Henry and Ann
Explain why f(l) = 0. Give numerical evidence both finish in the top ten?
to show how {(5) and f(7) are related to {(35). b. The probability that Henry finishes in the
top ten but Ann does not is 0.14. Show how
22. Probability Distribution Problem: You flip
you could calculate this number.
a thumbtack several times. Suppose the
probability that it lands "point up" on any c. What is the probability that Ann finishes in
one flip is 0.4. the top ten but Henry does not?
a. What is the probability that the thumbtack d. What is the probability that neither finishes
lands point down? in the top ten?
b. The probability that the first time the e. Henry and Ann decide to go on a vacation
thumbtack lands point up is on Flip 2 is the to spend their winnings. They will spend
probability that it is not point up on Flip 1 these amounts, depending on which one
and is point up on Flip 2. Let P(x) be the or ones win.
probability that the first point up is on Flip Hand A: Hawaii, $8000
x. Find P(l), P(2), P(3), P(4), and P(5). Plot H, not A: California, $3000
these values on a copy of Figure 9-lOe. A, not H: Florida, $4000
P(x)
Neither: Stay home, $0
4 Calculate the mathematically expected
3 amount they will spend .
2 24. What did you learn as a result of taking this
X
2 3 4 5
Figure 9-lOe
448 Chapter
9: Probability,
andFunctions
ofa Random
Variable
Three-Di111ensional
Vectors 10
When a building is constructed, it is important for the builders to

know relationships bet ween various planes, such as walls, ceilings,
and roofs . Three-dimensional vectors let you calculate distances,
angles , and intersections of lines and planes in space-quantities
that would be hard to find graphicall y.
449
In this chapter you will extend what you learned about two-
dimensional vectors to vectors in space. You can perform some
operations, such as vector addition and subtraction, by simply
adding a third component to the representation of a vector. Other
operations require new techniques-for example, there are two
different kinds of multiplication for vectors. The payoff is the
ability to calculate things such as the place where a line in space
intersects a plane in space so that parts of three-dimensional
objects will fit together properly when they are constructed. You
will gain this knowledge in four ways.
Numerically Dot product: Cross product:

(47 + 3] + Sk) · (27 + 6] + Bk) (47 + 3] + Sk) X (27 + 6] + Bk)
j k
= (4)(2) + (3)(6) + (5)(8) = 66 4 3 5 = -6 i - 2 2j + 18 k
--+ --+ -+
2 6 8
Graphically A line intersecting a plane z
,
I
I
I
I
X
I y
Algebraically Equation of a line in three-dimensional space:
-+
r = (5 - 2 )--+ ( 1 )--+ ( 2 )-+
3d i + 7 + 3d j + - l + 3 d k
Verbally A dot p,roductruuits ifv a, ft.,U#W~ ca/Led,a, s-~ wludv u w-!ty it u

ojtm referredto as a, "s-CtWif p,roduct."A if Off p,roductruuLts-ifv a, vector,
wluch, u w-!ty
it u ojtm referredto as a, "vectorp,roduct."
4 50 Chapte
r l 0: Three-Dimensiona
lVectors
10-1 Review of Two-Dimensional Vectors
In Chapte r 6, you learn ed that vectors are dir ected line segments . You u sed
them as ma thematical models of vector quantiti es, such as displacement ,
velocity, and force, th at h ave dir ection as well as magnitud e. In thi s chapt er you
will exten d your kn owledge to vector s in sp ace. Fir st, you will refresh your
memory about two-dim en sional vector s.
OBJECTIVE
Given two vectors , find th e resultant vector by addin g or subtracting them.
l. Figure 10-la shows two vectors, a and b.They )'
have magnitude and direction bu t no fixed 3

location . You find the vector sum Zi+ b by
translating b so that its beginning (or tail) is at X
the end (or head) of a.The resultant vector .j
goes from the beginning of a to th e end of b. Figur e 10-1b

Show that you understand how to add two
vectors by drawing a sketch showing a+ b. 4 . In Problem 3, th e vector in th e x-dir ection is
4 unit s lon g. Vector s 7 and J are unit vectors
/;. Figure 10-la

in the x- and y-direction s, resp ectively. A unit
vector is a vector that is 1 unit lon g. So the
x-compon ent of pis the vector 47,a produ ct of
a scalar and a vector. A scalar is a quantit y
th at ha s only magnitud e, not dir ection . Wh at is
th e y-compon ent of p in Figur e 10-1b?
2. You find the vector difference
--+ -+ --+
Zi - b by addin--+g 5. Suppos e that v v
= 67 + 8] . Sketch as a
-b, the opposite of b, to a . Th e opp osite of b po sition vector . Find th e length of v (th e
is a vector of the same length po int ing in the magnitude) by mean s of the Pyth agorean
opposite direction . Show that you und er stan d theorem. Find the me asur e of th e angle v
vector subtraction by sketching a - b. mak es with th e x-axis.
3. The position v ector for a poin t (x, y) in a 6. Suppo se that a =67 + 2] and b.=37 + s].
coordinate system has a fixed loca tion . It goes Draw a on graph pap er as a position vector.
from the origin to the point. Figure 10-1b Draw b with its tail at th e h ead of a. Draw 'fru
shows the position vector p for the p oin t (4, 3). resultant vector , a+ b. Writ e this sum vector
You can think of this vector as the sum of a as a po sition vector. What simpl e method can
vector in the x-direct ion and a vector in th e you think of for addin g two vectors if you
y-direction . On a copy of Figure 10-l b, sketch kn ow th eir compon ent s? What is the length
these two components of p. of a+ b?
Section
l O·l: Rev
iewofTwo-Dimens
ionalVectors 45 1
c c
7. Suppose = -97 + 4]. Sketch as a position 8. Make a list of all the important words in this
e
vector . Its angle in standard position is a section. Put a check mark by the ones you
e
value of arctan (- !). Is equal to the value of understand and a question mark by the ones
you don't quite understand.
tan - 1 (-!) given by your calculator?
10-2 Two-Dimensional Vector Practice

In this section you will consolidate your knowledge of two-dimensional vectors
from Chapter 6 and from Section 10-1. In the next section you will extend these
concepts to vectors in three-dimensional space.
OBJECTIVES
• Given the components of a two-dimensiona l position vector, find its length,
a unit vector in its direction, a scalar multiple of it, and its direction angle .
• Given two two-dimensional position vectors, find their sum and their
difference .
The box on the next page summarizes the definitions and properties of vectors .
Figure 10-2a illustrates some of these definitions. On the top left is a vector v.
On the top right are two equal vectors, and v a,
that are translations of each
v
other . On the bottom left is a vector and its opposite, a
= -v. On the bottom
v u
right is a vector that is 5 units long and a unit vector in the same direction.
Magnitude Head (end)

(length) ;z ·
IVI ~
V
Vector
a=v
Tail (beginning ) Equal vecto rs
v
1}/
/ 5 Vectors play an important
role in aerodynamics. Here a
reproduction of a Wright
Opposite vecto rs Brothers' glider is undergoing
Unit vector
wind tunnel tesHng at NASA's
Figure 10-2a Langley Research Center in
Hampton, Virginia.
452 l 0: Three-Dimensional
Chapter Vectors
Definitions
andProperties
Relating
to Vectors
• A vector quantity is a quantity, such as force, velocity, or displac ement,
that has both magnitude (size) and direction .
• A scalar is a quantity, such as time, speed, or volume, that has only
magnitude, no direction.
• A vector is a directed line segment that represents a vector quantity.
Symbol: v
• The tail of a vector is the point where it begins. The head of a vector is
the point where it ends. An arrowhead is drawn at the head of a vector .
• The magnitude, or absolute value, of a vector is its length. Symbol: lvl
If v = xi + yJ, then lvl = .Jx2 + y 2 by the Pythagor ean theorem .
O A unit vector is a vector that is 1 unit long. Vectors i and J are unit
vectors in the x- and y-directions, resp ectively. A unit vector i1 in the
direction of a given vector v is found by dividing the vector by its length:
-+
-+ V
u = lvl
• Two vectors are equal if they have th e same magnitude and th e same
direction. So you can translate a vector Y
without changing it, but you can't rotat e
or dilate it. / Displacement
/ vector
• The opposite of a vector is a vector of th e
same length in the opposit e direction.
Symbol: -v
• A position vector, v =xi+y],starts at the
X
origin and ends at the point (x, y).
• A displacement vector is the difference
between an object's initial and final positions.
Operations on Vectors
-+ -+
In Section 6-6, you learned that to add two vectors a + b you translat e the
beginning of th e second vector to the end of the first vector . The sum, called the
resultant vec tor, is th e vector that goes from the beginning of the first vector to
th e end of the second, as in Figure 10-2b.
Two vector s Tran slate Swn goes from

head to tail. beginnin g of firs t
vector to end of last.
Figure 10-2b
Vector addition
Section
10-2
: Two-Dimens
ional
Vector
Practice 453
Vector subtraction is defined the same way as subtraction of real numbers-
adding the opposite. Just as 5 - 3 = 5 + (-3), a - b = a+ (-b).Figure 10-2c
illustrates this definition.
I •\ V ;2" =a+(-bl
Figure 10-2c
Vector subtraction
A geometric property of the difference of two vectors is useful in many

app licati ons. If a and b in Figure 10-2c are placed tail-to-tail, the difference
vector , a - b, is the displacement vector that goes from the head of b to the
head of a,
as in Figure 10-2_d.
JYou can remember this property by analogy to a
car's odometer. To find out how far you have traveled on a trip, take "where you
end minus where you began."
"Where it ends
minus where it
begins "
~ Tail-to-tail
Figure 10-2d
Difference vector as a displacement
You can add or subtract two vectors easily if you write them in terms of th~ir
components in the x- and y-directions. As shown in Figure 10-2e, v is the
position vector to the point (x, y) = (-5, 3). Vectors 7 and J are unit vectors in
the x- and y-directions, respectively. So v can be writ~
v = - s7 + 3]
y
3] j
~
-5 - 5/
Figure 10-2e
These examples show how to operate on vectors that are written in terms of
their components.
Chapter Vectors
... EXAMPLE
1 Figure 10-2f shows two vectors, v and w.
a. Write these vectors in terms of their components.
b. On a copy of the figure, translat e wso that its tail is at the head of v.Then
r v r
draw the resultant vector = + w. Find numerically by adding the
compo nent s of v and w,
and show that the answer agrees with your
drawing.
c. Explain how you would find w+ v.Why is the answer equivalent to v + w?
d. Find lvl, lwl, and Iv+ wl. Based on the graph, explain why Iv + wl < lvl + lwl.
y
10
-5 5 10
-5
Figure 10-2{
Solution a. v = 77+ 4], w= 17+ sJ

b. Figure 10-2g shows wtranslated so that v and ware head-to-tail, along
r v
with the resultant vector = + wgoing from the beginning of to the v
end of w.
r = (17+ 4])+ (17+ s]l = s7+ 9]
This answer agrees with Figure 10-2g, which shows rending at the
point (8, 9).
y
10
5
l·
X
-5 5 10
-5
Figure 10-2g
l 0-2: Two-
Section Dimen
sional
Vector
Practice 455
c. To find w + v,
translate v
so that its tail is at the head of w. The resultant
v,
goes from the beginning of w to the end of which is also at the point
(8, 9) shown in Figure 10-2g. Numerically,
v = (17 + 5]) + (77 + 4]) = 87 + 9]
w+
which equals v + w, showing that vector addition is a commutative
operation.
d. lvl = -J?
2
+ 4 2 = 165= 8.0622 .. .
lwl = .J12 + 52 = m = 5.o99o .. .
Jv + wJ = .J3 + 9 2 = .J145 = 12.0415 ...
2
lvl + lwl = 8.0622 ... + 5.o99o ... = B.1612 ... , so Iv+ wl < lvl + lwl.
This is reasonable because the third side of the triangle formed by the
three vectors in Figure 10-2g is shorter than the sum of the lengths of the
other two sides. .....
.... EXAMPLE
2 Consider vectors v and win Example 1.
a. Draw -w, the opposite of w, as a position vector (starting at the orgin).
v.
Then transl ate -w so that its tail is at the head of Using the definition of
v
vector addition, draw + (-w) . Explain why v- v
w is equivalent to + (-w).
b. Draw a displacement vector from the head of w to the head of v.Explain
why this vector is equivalent to v - w from part a.
c. Find v- v
w numerically from the coordinates of and w, and show that the
answer agrees with your drawings in parts a and b.
Solution a. Figure 10-2h shows-was a position vector and -w translated so that v

and-ware head-to-tail. The sum v + (-w) goes from the beginning of
v to the end of -w. By the definition of vector subt raction,
v- v
w = + (-w).
y
10·
: x
-5 10
Figure 10-2h
Chapter Vectors
b. Figure 10-2h also shows that th e
displacement vector from the [)~vector
head of wto the head of v has the ~ - w-i,, w/tere,i,t md£
same length and direction as v - w. UWUI£w/tere,i,t be:Ji-H£
.
C. V - w= (77 + 4]) - (17 + 5]) = 67 - 1J,
which agrees with both v - wand
v + (-w) in Figure 10-2h.
~ EXAMPLE
3 In Figure 10-2f, v = 77 + 4] and w= 17 + 5J.
a. Find the linear combination -3v + 6w.
b. Find a unit vector, i1,in the direction of v.Use the result to find a vector
20 units lon g in the dir ection of v.
c. Find the measure of the angle from the positive x-axis to -w.
Solution a. -3v + 6w
= -3(77 + 4]) + 6(17 + 5])
= -217 - 12] + 67 + 30]
= -157 + 18]
b. lvl = .J12 + 4 2 = J6s = 8.0622 ...
-+
U
v
= --+I =
7-t
~I
4-t
+ ~]
-t
= 0.8682 ... 1 + 0.4961.. .J
-t
Divide the vector by its length .
1v v 65 v 65
2oz1 = 2oco.8682 ...7 + 0.4951...J) = 11.3648 ...7 + 9.9221 .. .J
c. un = arctan _ (-51)= 78.6900 ... + 180

o o o
n"" 258 .7l, using n = 1
~ EXAMPLE
4 Given points C(8, 25) and D(17, 3),
a. Find vector CD,the vector pointing from C to D.
b. Find the position vector of the point ! of the way from C to D.
Solution a. Sketch points C and D and position vectors c and d to these points, as in
Figure 10-2i.
y C
Figur e 10-2i
Vector CDstarts at C and ends at D. Therefore,

CD= a- C Where it ends, minus where it begins.
= (177 + 3]) - (87 + 25]) Write the po sition vectors to the two points.
= 97 - 22]
l 0-2: Two-Dimensional
Section Vector
Practice 4 57
y C b. Sketch a vector starting at C and going% of the way to D, as in Figure 10-2j.
This vector will be %CD.Because this vector and care head-to-tail, the
position vector p will be the vector sum.
--+ -+ 3 -+ -+
= (Bi + 25j) + 4(9i - 22j)
X
= 14.757 + 8.5]
Figure 10-2)
Problem Set 10-2
Reading Analysis t1!J/ QB.--

d
sinD
=-?-by the law of sines
Q9. Find the area in terms of two sides and angle D.
you consider to be the main idea? How do you
find the resultant of two vectors geometrically? QlO. cos 180° =
Numerically from the vectors' components? In A. 1 B. t C. 0 D • _.l2 E. -1
what way is subtraction of two vectors similar
to subtraction of two real numbers? What is
the difference between a position vector and
a displacement vector?
c 1. Figure 10-2m shows vectors
y
a and b.
Quick Review
For Problems Ql -Q6, express the given values for
right triangle ABC in Figure 10-2k.
QI. sinA
X
Q2. cos C {
Q3. tan C
Q4. a 2 + c 2
Q5. The area Figure 10-2m
Q6. Angle A as an inverse tangent a. Write a and b in terms of their components.

B F b. On a copy of Figure 10-2m, translate b so
L
that its tail is at the head of a.Then draw
A b
Figure 10-2k
C
D
/:> '
Figure 10-21
the resultant vector r =a+ b. Find r
numerically by adding the components of a
and b,and show that the answer agrees
with your drawing.
C. Explain how you would find b +a.Why is
Problems Q7-Q9 refer to oblique triangle DEF in the answer equivalent to a + b?
Figure 10-21. d. Find lal,lbl,and la + bl.Based on the graph,
Ql. Find f2by the law of cosines. explain why la+ bl < lal+ lbl.
458 Chapter
l 0: Three-Dimensional
Vectors
2. Figure 10-2n shows vectors e and d. so that its tail is at the head of e.Using
the definition of vector addition, draw
~ ~ ~ ~
y vector c + (-d). Explain why vector c - d
10 is equivalent to c + (-d).
c b. Draw a displacement vector from the head
of d to the head of e.Explain why this
s vector is equivalent to e - d from part a.
Explain verbally how you can tell whether
d c - d goes from c to d or from d to c.
X C. Find C - a numericall y from the coordinates
-5 5 10 of c and d, and show that the answer agrees
with your drawings in parts a and b.
-5
,,r Ed
Figure 10-2n
a. Write e and d in terms of their components.

b. On a copy of Figure 10-2n, tJ.1aJ1slated so
that its tail is at the head of e.Then draw
n-:B<j
D
-
C,
C
the resultant vector = + d. Find r e r Diffu'e1tee,

=
numerically by adding the components of e uul uwuub~iruwtj
and d, and show that the answer agrees
with your drawing. 5. In Figure 10-2m, a= 57 + 3] and b = 27 + 4] .
C. Explain how you would find d + C.Why is a. Find the linear combination 1a+ 6b.
the answer equival ent to e + d? b. Find a unit vector, i1,in the direction of a.
d. Find lei,ldl,and le+ di.Based on the graph, Use the result to find a vector 10 units long
in the direction of a.
explain why le+ di< lei+lch
c. Find the measure of the angle from the
3. Refer to vectors a and bin Figure 10-2m. pQsitive x-axis to -b.
a. On another copy of the figure, draw -b, the
6. In Figure 10-2n, e = 47 + 7] and d = 57 + 2].
opposite of vector b, as a position vector
(starting at the origin). Then translate -b so a. Find the linear combination 3c- 8d.
that its tail is at the head of a. ' sing the b. Find a unit vector, i1,in the direction of c.
definition of vector addition, raw vector Use the result to find a vector 7 units long
a+ (-b). Explain why a - bis equivalent to
-+ -+
in the direction of e.
a + (-b) . c. Find the measure of the angle from the
b. Draw a displacement vector from the head positive x-axis to d.
of b to the head of a.Explain why this
For Problems 7-10, find the vector .
vector is equiva lent to a - b from part a.
Explain verbal ly how you can tell whether 7.ABfor points A(3, 4) and B(2, 7)
a- a
b goe..:from to b or from b to~ ~ EBfor points C(4, 1) and D(3, 5)
c. Find a - b numerically from the coordinates
-+ -+
of a and b, and show that the answer L2·BAfor points A(7, 3) and B(5, -1)
agrees with your drawings in parts a and b. 10. J5cfor points C(-2, 3) and D(4, -3)
4. Refer to vectors c and din Figure 10-2n. 11. Highway Rest Stop Problem: A highway rest
a. On another copy of the figure, draw -d, the stop will be built 40% of the way from the town
opposite of vector d, as a position vector of Artesia, A, to the town of Brooks, B, in
(starting at the origin). Then translate -d Figure 10-20. The two towns are located at
Section
l 0-2: Two-Dimensional
Vector
Practice 459
tJv Y
~
points A(20, 73) and B(45, 10). Big City is
located at the origin. The distances are in
kilometers.
a. Make a sketch showing the given

information.
b. Write the position vectors for C and D and
the vector from C to D.
Figur e 10-20 c. The crew finds the remnants of a wall
65% of the way from C to D. Write the
a. Write the position vectors of Artesia and
vector from C to this point .
Brooks.
d. How long is the trench from C to the wall?
b. Write the displacement vector from Artesia
to Brooks . e. How far is the wall from the origin?
c. Write the displacement vector from Artesia For Problems 13- 16, use the techniques of
to the rest stop . Problems 11 and 12 to find the vector or point.
d. Write the position vector to the rest stop . 13. Find the position vector of the point } of the
e. It has been proposed to supply electricity to way from point A(2, 7) to point B(14, 5).
the rest stop directly from Big City. How
14. Find the position vector of the point j of the
long would the electric lines have to be?
way from point C(ll, 5) to point D(2, 17).
At what angle to the x-axis would the lines
have to run? 15. Find the midpoint of the segment connecting
f. How long would the electric lines have to points £(6, 2) and F(lO, -4). From the result,
be if they came from the closer of the two give a quick way to find the midpoint of the '
towns, Artesia or Brooks? segment connecting two given points.
12. Archaeology Problem: Archaeologists often 16. Find the midpoint of the segment connec tin g
cut a trial trench through an archaeological points G(5, 7) and H(-3, 13). From the result,
site to reveal the different layers under the give a quick way to find the midpoint of the
topsoil. This stratigra ph y helps with dating segment connecting two given points.
the artifacts they unearth and with identifying 17. Vector Properties Problem: Prove these
any geological movements that might have properties of vectors . A sketch may help.
disturbed the original position of objects. They Express the vectors as the sum of their
usually lay a grid on the site, much like a components, and prove the properties
coordinate system. Assume that they dig the algebraically .
trial trench from point C(200, -300) to
point D(400, 500), where the distances
are in yards .
460 Chapter
10: Three-Dimensional
Vectors
a. Vector addition is commutative. What can you say about la+ blcompared
b. Vector addition is associative . to lal+ lbl?
c. Vector subtraction is not commutative. b. Sketch two parallel vectors a and b head-to-
d. Multiplication by a scalar distributes over tail, pointing in the same direction . Then
vector addition. draw the sum a+ b. What can you say
e. The set of vectors is closed under addition . about la+ fl compared to 1a1+ lfl?
(Why is it necessar y for there to be a zero c. Use the appropriate theorems and
vector in order for this closure property to postulates from geometry to prove that this
be true?) triangle inequalit y is true .
18. Triangle Inequality Problem: Prope rty : Triangl e Inequality for Vectors
a. Sketch two nonparall el vectors a and b
head-to-tail. Then draw the sum a+ b.
10-3 Vectors in Space

Up
Suppose that a helicopter rises 700 ft
and then moves to a point 300 ft east
and 400 ft north of its original ground 700
position. As shown in Figure 10-3a,
the position vector has three
components rather than just two. The
techniques you learned for analyzing
two-dimensional vectors in Section 10-2
carry over to three-dimensional
vectors . You simply add a third 'I
: 700 ft up
component perpendicular to the other
two. North
400
------------•'
400 ft north
East
Figur e 10-3a
OBJECTIVES
• Given two three-dimensional vectors, find their lengths, add them, subtract
them, and use the results to analyze real-world problems .
• If a position vector terminates in the first octant, sketch it on grap h paper.
Section
l 0·3: Vectors
inSpace 461
Figure 10-3b shows a two-dimensional z
representation of a three-dimensional 4
coordinate system. In 3-D, the z-axis 3
points upward, so you draw it going up
on your paper. The x-axis is drawn
obliquely down to the left, and the
y-axis is drawn horizontally to the right. -4 -3 2 3 4 y
Imagine looking down from somewhere
above the first quadrant of the
xy-plane. Notice that the x- and y-axes 4
have the same orientation with respect
X
to each other as they do in two -3
dimensions. To assist you visually, the
-4
tick marks on the x-axis are drawn
horizontally, and unit intervals are Figure 10-3b
drawn shorter than on the other two axes.
The xy-plane, yz-plane, and xz-plane divide space into eight regions called
octants. The region in which all three variables are positive is called the
first octant. The other octants are not usually named.
The symbols 7, ], and k are used for unit vectors in the x-, y-, and z-directions,
respectively.
~ EXAMPLE
1 On graph paper, draw a sketch of the position vector p = 37 + 5] + 7k.
Write the coordinates of the point P at the end (the head) of p. Find the
length of p.
Solution Draw the three axes, with the x-axis

z
along the diagonal as in Figure 10-3c.
To get the desired perspective on the
x-axis, mark two units on the diagonal
for each grid line. Because p is a /
? -------,-,,
_____ ./ / II
position vector, it starts at the origin. ~-
'I
I
Starting there, draw a vector 3 units ,

I ,
• 1----
long in the x-direction. From its head,
draw a second vector 5 units long in the y
y-direction by counting spaces. From
the head of the second vector, draw a
third vector 7 units long in the
z-direction . Because the vectors are
head-to-tail, the sum goes from the
beginning of the first vector to the Figure 10-3c
end of the last vector.
If you draw in the dashed lines, they help make the drawing look three-
dimensiona l. They form a box for which p is the main diagonal.
462 Chapter
10: Three-
Dimens
ionalVectors
Because p is the position vector of a point (x, y, z), the point has coordinates
(3, 5, 7).
You can find th e length of th e vector using the three-dimensional Pythagorean
theore m. It is an extension of th e two-dimensional formula, with the square of
the third coordinat e appearing under the radical sign as well. You'll prove it in
Problem 18.
1r1.J3=
2
+ 52 + 72 = m = 9.1104 ...
EXAMPLE
IJlll> 2 Find the displacem ent vector from
point A( B, 2, 13) to point B( 3, 10, 4). I
.r z
Use the result to find the distance

between the two points . I A (8, 2, 13)
B (3, 10, 4)
Solution Sketch two points in three-dimensional
coordinates as in Figure 10-3d. It is not
y
necessary to draw them to scale. Draw
position vectors a and b to the two
points. The vector from A to Bis eq_ual Figur e 10-3d
a._ -
-
to b -
--+
AB=
-+ -+ -+ -+
b - a= (3i + lOJ + 4k) - (Bi + 2) + 13k)
-+ -+ -+ -+
= -5 7 + sJ - 9k Displacement vector from point A to point B.
The distance between A and Bis the length of AB.

IABI
= .J(-5)
2
+ 8 2 + (-9 2 ) = .J170 = 13.0384 ... units
EXAMPLE
IJlll> 3 Find the position vector to the point z
70% of the way from point A(B, 2, 13)
to point B(3, 10, 4) in Example 2. Write
th e coor dinates of the point.
A (8, 2, 13)
Solution · On the diagram you dre w for Example 2,

B (3, 10 , 4)
sketch a vector starting at A and ending at
a point 70% of the way from A to B, as in
y
Figure 10-3e.
This vector, 0. 7AB,added to a is the position
vector of point P, as you can see from the Figure 10-3e
fact that the two vectors are in position for adding (that is, head-to-tail). Using
p for the position vector,
-- --+-+-+-+ -+-+-+
p =a+ 0.7AB =Bi+ 2) + 13k + 0.7(-5i + BJ - 9k)
= 87 + 2] + 13k+ (-3 .57 + 5.6] - 6.3k)

= 4.57 + 7.6] + 6.7k Position vector to point P.
The cofr dinat es of point Par e (4.5, 7.6, 6.7).
Section
10-3:Vecto
rsinSpace 46 3
Problem Set 10-3
. A na Iys,s.
R ea d mg Z.. {, 5. Let a--+
= 4i...
+ 2J...- 3k--+
and b--+
= 7i...
- 5J...+ --+
k.
From wh~t you have read ~n this section, what do a. Find a+ b, a - b, a~d b - a.
you consider to be the mam idea? When you sketch b . Find 3aand 6a- 5b.
a vector in xyz-coordinates, why are the tick marks c. Find la+ bland lal+lbl.
closer together on the x-axis than
. they are on the Does I...
a + -+bl
equa 1 l--+I
a + l--+bl
?
other two axes? How do you fmd the length of a
three-dimensional vector? How do you find the d. Find a unit vector in the direction of b. Find
displacement vector from one point to another point ? a vector 20 units long in the direction of b.
6. Let c = -47+6] +3k and J = 97+8] - 2k.
Quick Review
c
a. Find + d, c- d, and d - c.
--+ --+)
b . Find - (c + d and 3c --+ --+
- 4d.
Ql. Where a vector starts is called its - ?- , and
where it ends is called its - ?- .
lcl +IJI and le+JI.
c. Find
Does le+ JI equal lcl+ IJI?
Q2. A vector may be translated to another position d. Find a unit vector in the direction of d. Find
without changing its- ?- or - ?- . a vector 10 units long in the direction of the
Q3. How do you translate two vectors to add them opposite of a.
geometrically? For Problems 7- 10, find the indicated displacement
Q4. When you have translated two vectors as in vector. Use the answer to find the distance between
Problem Q3, the sum goes from - ?- to - ?- . tl;ie-two points.
Q5. How do you translate two vectors to subtract ~}/ r -
~for points R(5, 6, 12) and S(8, 13, 6)
them geometrically? r8 . PQ for points P(6, 8, 14) and Q(lO, 16, 9)
Q6. When you have translated two vectors as in
Problem Q5, the difference goes from - ?-
---\::V
BAfor points A(9, 11,~ 3, 6, - 10)
to - ?- . 0. OCfor points C(2, 9, 0) and D(l, 4, 8)

Ql. Where does a position vector always start? 11. Tree House Problem: Elmer builds a tree house
J in his level backyard for the children to play in.
QB.The abso lu te value of a vector, lvl,is th e same He uses one corner of the yard as the origin of
as its - ?-. a three-dimensional coordina te sys tem. The
Q9. True or false? "The difference of two vectors is x- and y-axes run alon g the ground, and the
shorter than their sum ." z-axis is vertical. The tree house at the point is
(30, 55, 17), where the dimensions are in feet.
QlO. What makes a vector a unit vector ?
a. Sketch the coordinate axes and the
point (30, 55, 17).
For Problems 1-4, draw the position vector on
b. Write the position vector h to the tree
graph pap er. Shoyv the circumscribed "box" that
makes the vector look three-dimensional. Write the house. How high is the rtree house above
coordinates of the point at the h ead of the vector. the ground? How far is the tree house from
the origin?
l. p = 57+ 9] + 6k c. A wire is to be stretched from the tree
2. p = 87 + 2] + 7k house to the point (10, 0, 8) at the top of the
back door of Elmer's house so that the
3. p = 37 + 8] + 4k children can slide messages down it. Write a
4. p = 107 + 7] + 3k vector representing the displacement from
the tree hous e to the back door .
464 Chapter
10: Three-Dimen
sionalVectors
d. How long will the wire in part c need to b e? c. How far will the space station be from
e. The children slide a message down the wire. Satellite 1? How far will the space station be
It gets stuck when it is only 30% of the way from the point on the ground?
from the tree house to the back door. Write For Problems 13-16, find the position vector of the
a vector representing the displacement from cated point.
the tree house to the stuck message . How
far along the wire did the message go before i of the way from (7, 8, 11) to (34, 32, 14)
it got stuck? kof the way from (5, 1, 23) to (26, 13, 14)
f. Write the position vector of the stuck
5. 30% of the way from (2, 9, 7) to (4, -3, 1)
message. How high above the ground is it?
16. 270% of the way from (3, 8, 5) to (7, 1, -10)
12. Space Station Problem: Two communications
satellites are in geosynchronous o:rbit around 17. Perspective Problem: Prove that if the x-axis is
Earth . (Geosynchronous sate llites orbit Earth drawn obliquely on a piece of graph paper, as
with a p eriod of 1 day, so they don't appear to in Figure 10-3b, and two units are marked off
move with respect to an observe r on the for each grid line crossed, then the distanc es
groun d.) From a point on the ground, the along the x-axis are about 70% of the distances
position vector s to the two sate llites are along the y - and z-axes.
Satellite 1: p1 = 187 + 5] + 12k 18. Three-Dimensional Di stances Problem: Figure
Satellite 2: p2 = 157 + 9] + 14k 10-3g shows point P with coordinates (x, y, z)
at distanced from the origin. Segments x and y
The distances are in thousands of miles . are the legs of a right triangle with hypotenuse
These vectors are shown schema tically (not to a, and segments a and z are the legs of a right
scale) in Figure 10-3f. A space station is to be triangle with hypotenuse d. By applying the
located at point Pon the line between the two two-dimensional Pythagorean theorem to these
satellites, 40% of the way from Satellite 1 to two triangles, prove the three-dimensional
Satellite 2. Pythagorean theorem:
2 d = -Jx2 + y 2+ z2
SatelJite 2
SatelJite 1 \ z
p _____ \
1L---- · -- P(x, y, z)
y z
X
Figure 10-3{ y
a. Find the displacement vector from

Satellite 1 to Satellite 2.
b . Find th e position vector of point P, where
the space station will be located.
Figur e 10-3g
Section
l 0-3: Vectors
inSpace 465
19. Four-Dim ensional Vector Problem: In Ein stein 's e. Write th e position vector of the point 40% of
theory of time and space, time is a fourth the way from the head of a to the h ead of b
dim ension . Although it is impossible to draw in part d.
a vector with mor e than three dimensions, th e
techniques you have learned mak e it possible
to ana lyze them algebraica lly. The definitions
and techniques for addin g, sub trac tin g, and
finding lengths can be extended to higher-
dim ensional vectors . It is convenient to drop
7,], and k and us e ordered quadruples,
order ed quintup les, and so on to represen t
the vectors. Let
a= (3, s, 2, 1)
and
b = (5, 11, 7, 1)
Albert Einste in (1879-1955) published the theory of special
a. Find lal lhi.
and relativ ity in 1905 and the theor y of general relativity in
b. Find ci + b. 1916. He received the Nobe l Prize in physics in 1921.
Hermann Jvlinkowski (1864- 1909) laid the math ematical
C. Find a - b. foundati ons for Einstein 's theory of relativity.
d. If a and b are considered to b e position
vectors, write th e displacem ent vector from
the head of a to the h ead of b.
10-4 Scalar Products and Projections of Vectors

You have learned how to add and subtract two vectors and how to multiply a
vector by a scalar. In this section you will learn about the dot product of two
vectors, one way of multiplyin g vectors, which is u seful for finding the angle
between two vectors numerically and for determining the effect a vector such as a
force vector has in th e direction of a different vector. The dot product is also called
the scalar product or inner product , for rea sons you vv:illsee in this section .
OBJECTIVEGiven two vectors , find their dot product. Use the re sult to find th e angle
b etween the vectors and the projection of one vector on the other.
Dot Products (Scalar or Inner Products)

The symbo l for the dot product of a and bis a · b. It is rea d "vector a dot
vector b." If you tran slat e th e two vectors so that they are tail-to-ta il, as in Figure
10-4a, you find the dot product by mu ltipl ying th e magnitudes of the vectors
and the cosine of the angle between them.
466 Chapter
10: Three-Dimens
ionalVectors
b
a . 'E= <5><1>cos 4 0 °
= 26 .8 11 5 ...
Va . 'E= (5)(7) cos
= - 11.970 7 ...
110°
Figur e 10-4a
Not e that the answer is not a vector . It is a scalar. This is why the dot product is
called the scalar product. Note also that if the angle between the vectors is
acut e, the dot product is positive. If the angle is obtuse, the dot product is
n egative. Three special cases are shown in Figure 10-4b. If the vectors point in
the same direction, the angle between them has measure ,P ecause cos 0°
equals 1, the dot product is the product of the two magnitudes . Similarly, if the
vectors point in opposite directions, the angle has measure 180°. The dot
product is the opposite of the product of the magnitudes because cos 180°
equals -1. Finally, if the vectors are perpendicular, the dot product is zero
because cos 90 ° equ ~ /
//) .Y/· v
a . 'E= 35 a · b =-3 5 a. 'E= o
·
Figur e 10-4b
Here is the formal definition of dot product.
DEFINITION:
091-
Product
(Scalar
Product,
InnerProduct)
a · 'G= Ilall'GI
cos e a
-
lal/
~ .
where eis the angle between the two vectors
when they are translated tail-to-tail (Figure 10-4c)
Figure 10-4c
Unfortunately, the definition is not very useful for finding dot products of
thr ee-dimensional vectors given by components because you don't know the
an gle between the vectors . So you must seek another way to do the calculation.
--+ -+ -+ --+
Let a = 2i + SJ + 7k.
Let b = 97+ 3] + 4k.
--+ -+ -+ -+ --+ -+ -+ --+
a· b = (2i + SJ + 7k) · (9i + 3J + 4k) Subs titut e for the two vector s.
= 187. 7 + 67 . J + 87 . k Distribut e each term in the first
vector to each term in the second.
+ 45] · 7 + 15] · ] + 20] · k
+ 63k · 7 + 21k · J + 28k ·k
Section
l 0-4: Scalar
Produc
tsandProje
ction
s ofVector
s 467
Note that 7 is a unit vector, so 7 · 7 = (1)(1) cos 0° = l. The same is true for J ·J
and k · k. However, 7 · J = (1)(1) cos 90° = 0. Each of the preceding dot
products with perpendicular unit vectors is equal to zero . Therefore,
a. 'G= 18 + o+o
+0+15 +0
+ 0 + 0 + 28
= 61 Th e answ er is 61, a sca lar.
This calculation reveals a reason for calling the dot product the inner product.
The numbers that contribute to the dot product are "inside" in the array shown .
The calculation also reveals a quick way to find a dot product from its
components .
a . 'G= (2)(9) + (5)(3) + (7)(4) = 61
You multiply the x-coefficients, the y-coefficients, and the z-coefficients and
then sum the products.
TECHNIQUE:
Computation
of OatProduct
If
Q = X1i+ Y1}+ Z1k
and b = X21 + Y2} + Z2k
then
Verbally: The dot product of two three-dimensional vectors equals the sum of
the respective products of the coefficients for the 7, and k unit vectors. J,
EXAMPLE
llJJ> 1 Find the dot product c · d if
-+ -+ -+ -+
C = 4i - 6j + 9k
a=27+ 5] - 3k.
-+ -+
Solution C • d = (4)(2) + (-6)(5) + (9)(-3) = -49
f;he,dot fWOduci:,
To caLcul.a±e,
multiplyX r byXz, Y r byYv
Zr byz 21 dwt,add .
468 Chapter
10: Thr
ee-Dimensional
Vector
s
.... EXAMPLE
2 Use the dot product in Examp le 1 to find the measure of angle 8 between
vectors c and d.
Solution c · d = -49 From Exampl e 1.
lcllcll
cos e = -49 Use the definition of dot product .
lcl= .J4 2
+ (-6) 2 + 9 2 = v'i33 Find the lengths of c and d.
1a1
= .J2
2 2
+ 5 + (-3) 2
= m
cos e = -49
v'l33-J3"8 Substitute for the magnitudes of th e vectors.
-49
cos e = .JITIJ38= -o .6892 ...
e = 133 .5709 ... 0
Projections of Vectors
Figure 10-4d shows vectors a and b
placed tail-to-tail. Suppose that an
object is moving in the direction of
b and that a is a force acting on the
object. The component of a in the
direction of b influences things such
as the change in the speed of the
object and the amount of work done
by the force on the moving object .
,-J)\is component is called t~e
vector projection of a on b. Light Figure 10-4d
rays shining perpendicular to ' b in
the same plane as the two vectors
would "project" a shadow on b
corresponding to this component
of a.
Let p be the vector projection of a
on b. From trigonometry, you know
that the length of pis the length of
a times cos e' where e is the ang le
between the vectors. You can
calculate p shown in Figure 10-4d by
~a unit vector in the
dir ection of b b the len th of p. The box slides across the floor as a result
T at is, of the horizo ntal force (FJ acting upon it.
Fx is the vector projection of the force F
exerted by the rope, projected on the
P = ~/a/cos e)l~I horizontal unit vector.
Section
l 0-4:Scalar
Products
andProjection
s ofVectors 469
.....EXAMPLE
3 If b = 87 - sJ + 3k and a is 10 units lon g at an angle e= 10° to b, find p,
the vector projection of a on b.
Solution lbl= )82 + (-5) 2 + 32 = 5s Find the length of b.
Unit vector u = ~ = --i
... b 8 ...
-
s ...
- -J +-
3 ...
-k Find a uni t vector in the
lbl )98 )98 )98 dir ection of b.
Length= Iii!cos e = 10 cos 70 ° = 3.42 02 ...

... = 3.4202 ... ( )98
p
8 --:' 3 -+)
5 )--:>+ )§s
1 - )98 k
p = 2.76 ...7 - 1.72 .. .] + 1.03 ... k.
e
The quantit y la'Icos in Example 3 is called the scalar projection of i1on b.
The letter p (without the vector symbol) will b e u sed for the scalar proj ection.
Scalar projection of a on b.
If e
is acute, the scalar projection equals th e magnitude of p. If is obtuse, the e
scalar projection is negative and thus is the opposite of th e magnitude of p.
Figure 10-4e shows the two cases . If is obtuse, the vector projection points in e
the direction opposite b.
;;
b
a\
\ I
\ b I
I
I
I
I
\ \
~ ve
scaJar proj ect ion sca lar proj ection
Figur e 10-4e
DEFINITIONS:
Projections
of Vectors
If e
is the angle between and a b when they are placed tail-to-tail , th en the
scalar projection of i1on b is
P= cos e
1a1
If i1is a unit vector in the direction of b, then the vector projection of
a on bi s
p = pi1
I
4 Consider a and b, where a =- 47 + sJ + 9k and b = 67 - 8] + k.
.....EXAMPLE
a. Find th e scalar proj ection of a on J;...
___. ----,
-+ I
b. Find the vector projection of ii on b.
470 l 0: Three-Dimen
Chapter sionalVectors
I
-+ -+
Solution a. a · b = (-4)(6) + (5)(-8) + (9)(1) = -55 Find the dot product and the
two lengths.
lal= v (-4)2 + 52 + 92 = 1u2
lbl= V62 + (-8) 2 + 12 = Jim
JI22Fim cos e = -55 Use the definition of dot
product.
-55
cos e= JI22Fim = -o.4954 ...
e = 119.1011 ... 0
... p = Jiz2 cos 119.7011... 0

= -5.4727 ... Use the definition of scalar
projection.
b.
-+
u---
b 67 - 8] + k
Find a unit vector in the direction of b.
-lbl- Flm
.-. 'fJ= pu= -5.4121 ... a = -3 .26 ...7 + 4.3 5 .. .J- o.54 .. J
Problem Set 10-4
Reading Analysis fl[/j Q9.Which functions have constant second

differences in y-values for equally spaced
x-values?
definition of dot product, and why is it also called a QlO. Without using your calculator, what does
scalar product? In what relatively simp le way can cos rr equal?
you compute a dot product without having to find
the angle between the two vectors? What is meant For Problems 1-6, use the definition of dot product
by the projection of one vector on another? to find a. e
b,where is the angle ben,yeen and b a
when they are placed tail-to -tail.
,,.----,
v s
Quick Review \ ),, '% 1. lal= 3o, IEI= 25, and e = 31°
QI. Give two names for the symbol la!. 2. lal= 11, IEI = 8, and e = 23°
Q2. What is they-component of v = 37 - 5] + 2k.? ,,,,.- 3. 1ai= 29, l'EI = 5o, and e = 127°
Q3. Find the length of v in Problem Q2. 4. lal= 4o, IEI = 53, and e = 126°
Q4. True or false? "17 + 1] + 1k.is a unit vector ." 5. li:il= 51, lbl= 27, and()= 90°
QS.Find the position vector to the point (5, 8, 6). 6. lal= 43, IEI = 29, and e = 180°
Q6. Find the displacement vector from the point For Problems 7-12, use the definition of dot
(5, 8, 6) to the point (11, 3, 7). product to find the angle between a and b if the
two vectors are placed tail-to-tail.
Ql. Find the coefficient of determination if
SSres = 5 and SSdev= 100. 1. lal= 20, IEI
= 3o, and a · E= 100
QB.Find the number of permutations of 8. lal= 8, IEI
= 9, and a · E= 24
five objects taken three at a time. 9. 1ai= 11, IE
I= 17, and a· E= - 123
Section
10-4: Scalar
Products
andProjections
ofVectors 471
.
~
?1a1
X
' y
llil= 500, and ii · b = - 100,000

= 300,
.(:YlaJ= 60, llil = 80, and ii · b = 4800
a1= 29, IEI= 31, and a · E= o
12. 1
For Problems 13-18, find a · b and the angle
between a and b when they are tail-to-tail.
(i\_ a=27 + sJ+ 3k
\J b = 7i - ] + 4k
14. a=37+ 2J- 4k
b =Bi+ 5] - 2k
@a=-37 + sJ+ 2k a. Find the resultant force vector.
b = 67 - 3] + k
b. The y-axis runs along the length of the
16. a=47 - 3] - 1k sailboat. The force in the y-direction is what
B!:8~:
:~:
:! b = 37- 4] - 6k
makes the sailboat move forwa!:.9-
in they -direction ?
.:Jfow
many pounds does the resultaritfdrce exert
c. The x-axis runs across the sailboat. The

1s. a = 7 + 3] - sk force in the x-direction makes the ship heel
rl =-77+4] + k over. How many pounds does the resultant
force exert in the x-direction?
lt:.Jailboat Force Problem : Two ropes from the sail
d. The z-axis goes perpendicular to the deck.
of a sailboat are both attached to the same
The force in the z-direction tends to pull the
cleat on the deck. The force vectors created by
cleat out of the deck! How many pounds
the ropes are
does the resultant force exert in the
¥1= 1s7+ 10] + 10k z-direction?
F2= 307 + so]+ sk e. How many pounds, total, does the resu ltant
force exert on th e cleat ?
where the forces are in pounds. The vectors
f. What is the magnitude of each of the two
are shown (not to scale) in Figure 10-4f.
forces ? Do these magnitudes sum to the
z magnitude of the resultant force in part e?
g. Find the dot product of F1 and i\. Use the
answer to find the angle the two forces
make with each other .
'
. Hip Roof Problem: A house is to be built with
a hip roof. The triangular end of the roof is
shown in Figure 10-4g. An xyz-coordinate
y
system is set up with its origin at a bottom
X
" Ropes attach ed

to deck here
Figure 10-4{
corner of the roof at the back of the house .
The position vector h to the front bottom
corner where the angle is marked and the
position vector v to the peak of the roof are
h = 20i + 45] + Ok
v=l0i+35]+8k
472 Chapter
l 0: Three-Dim
ension
alVec
tors
~ Figure 10-4i, v is 10 units long and makes a
The dimensions are in feet.
vs angle with a= 77+ 3] + 4k. Find the
0
vector projection of on v a.
v
Figure 10-4i
23. In Figure 10-4j, vis 100 units long and

Figur e 10-4g makes a 145° angle with b = so7- 60] + 40k.
Find the vector projection of v on b.
a. The floor of the attic is along the xy-plane.
V
How far will the peak of the roof be above
this floor? How can you tell? ~ b
b. How long and how wide will the house be?
How can you tell? Figure 10-4)
c. Builders need to know how long to make the

rafter that goes from the corner with the
marked angle to the peak of the roof along
the slanted ridge. How long will the rafter be?
d. The roof tiles that come next to the slanted
G Shortcuts for Projections Problem: Show that
these formulas give the scalar and vector
projections of a on b.
Techniques: Formulas for Scalar and
ridge will have to be cut at an angle, as shown in Vector Projection
the figure. What measure will this angle have? The scalar projection of a on b is given by
Q•b
e. Is the triangular end of the roof an isosceles
triangle? How can you tell? p=-w-
The vector projection of a on b is given by
21. Dynamic Vector Projection Problem: Go to
www.keymath
.com/precalc
and comp lete the Vector
Projection Exploration in which you can drag
the endpoints of a and b (Figure 10-4h). Use 25. Vocabulary Problem: Give three names
........
the buttons to view the vector projection of commonly used for a · b.
a on b and vice versa, as well as the dot For Problems 26-29, complete parts a and b.
products a · band b · a.Observe the effects a. Find the scalar projection of r on s.
on the vector projections and dot products of
dragging the two vectors, and answer the ~· F~d th~ vec~r projection of r on s.
questions asked. Then explain in writing what
you learned from doing this activity.
4
&s J - r = 3i + 2j + Sk
--+
= 77-
-+ -+
3k
--+
27. r = i + 4j - 7k
--+ -+ -+ --+
s = Si - 2j - 3k
2
--+ -+ -+ --+
28. r=4i-3j+3k
--+ -+ -+ --+
s=-2i+5j+k
29 . r = 67- J - 7k
-2
s = 7 - sJ+ 3k
Figure 10-4h
Section
10-4: Scolor
Products
andProjections
ofVectors 473
t;v Y
a ube Problem : Figure 10-4k shows a cube with

ne corner at the origin of a three-dimensional
oordinate system.
z
a. Find the angle the main diagonal of the cube
mak es with one of the edges of the cube.
b . Find the angle the main diagonal makes
with a diagonal in a face of the cube.
what you have learned since the last entry.
Includ e the definition, computational
technique, and uses of the dot product,
along with its two other names.
y
__.i----
-
xy- _._- _- ___ ,_r_,_:'~,.'
°'Figure 10-4k
10-5 Planes in Space

Figure 10-Sa shows the plane surface of a tilted underground rock formation . By
finding an equation relating the x-, y-, and z-coordinates of points on this plane,
you can calculate how far you would have to drill down to reach the plane . From
algebra you may remember that the equation of a plane in space has the form
Sx + 7y - 4z ~ or, in gen eral, Ax+ By+ Cz = D
where x, y, and z are coordinates of a point on the plane and A, B, C, and D
stand for constants . In this section you will see how to derive the equation of a
plane from a vector normal (perpendicular) to the plane .
z
/Outcropping
Figure 10-Sa
OBJECTIVE
Given a point on a plane and a vector perpendicular to the plane, find the
particular equation of the plane and use it to find other points on the plane.
4 74 Chapter
10: Three-
Dimensional
Vec
tors
Equation of a Plane
Figure 10-5b shows a plan e in spac e with a
vector nnormal to it . Suppos e that z
--+ -+ -+ --+
n = 11 i + 2) + 13 k
P0 (3, 5, 7)
and that point P0 on the plane has coordinates
P(x, y, z)
(3, 5, 7). Point P(x, y, z) is a variabl e point in the
plane. You need to find an equation of the plane
relating x, y, and z. j _
I Plane
y
The dt?placement ve{:tor P0 P goes from P0 to P. x

Subtrac ting coordinates, thi s vector is f' b
1gure 10-5
{PoP
= (x - 3)7 + (y - 5)] + (z - 7)k
Becaus~ is on th e plane and n is perpendicular to the plane, the dot product of
these two vectors equals zero . Some calculations lead to th e equation of the plan e.
n·PoP=O
/ (117 + 2] + 13 k) · [(x - 3)7 + (y - 5)] + (z - 7)k] = 0
l~ Substitut e for th e two vectors.
6 ll(x - 3) + 2(y- 5) + 13(z - 7) = 0 Evaluat e the dot pro du ct.
llx + 2y + 13z - 134 = 0

llx + 2y + 13z = 134 This is th e eq uation of th e plan e
in spac e.
By comparin g th e ans wer with the given information, you see that th e coefficients
in the equation of the plan e are the same as the coefficients of the normal vector.
This is true in general, and you can use this property to find the equation quickly,
as shown in Example 1. (In Problems 15 and 16, you will prove th e property .)
Notice that if the plan e contains the origin, (0, 0, 0), th en the equat ion in the
third step from the end reduces to
llx + 2y + 13z = 0
The equation ll(x - 3) + 2(y- 5) + 13(z - 7) = 0 indicate s a translation of this
plane by 3 in the x-direction, 5 in the y-direction, and 7 in th e z-direction .
... EXAMPLE
1 Find the equation of th e plane con tainin g the point (3, 5, 7) with normal
vector n = 117 + 2] + 13k .
Solution llx + 2y+ 13z= D Substitut e the coe fficient s of the compo nents of Fi
into the equ ation Ax+ By+ Cz = D.
11(3) + 2(5) + 13(7) = D Substitu(e the given point for (x, y, z).
'
·. 134 = D
.·. the equation is llx + 2y + 13z ;_:134. ·
l 0-5: Planes
Section inSpace 475
EXAMPLE
IJJJ,, 2 Find a vector n normal to the plane 7x - 3y + 8z = -51.
Solution n= 77 - 3] + Bk
Note that any multiple of n is also a solut ion to Example 2. In particular,
the opposite of n,
-77 + 3] - Bk,is also a normal vector to the plane
7x - 3y + 8z = -51.
EXAMPLE
IJJJ,, 3 Find an equation of the plane perpendicular to the segment connecting
points P1 (3, 8, -2) and P2 (7, -1, 6) and passing through the point 30% of the
way from point P 1 to point P2 . Figure 10-5c illustrates the problem in general.
Solution The displacement vector M is normal to the z
plane, so you can write

--+ -+ -+ --+
n = (7 - 3)i + (-1 - 8)J + (6 - (-2))k
n = 47 - 9] + 8k
The position vector p to the point on the plane
equals the position vector to point P1 plus 0.3
times the normal vector n.
p = (37 + 8] - 2k) + 0.3(47 - 9] + 8k)
= 4.27 + 5.3] + 0.4k X
Thus, a point on the plane is (4.2, 5.3, 0.4). Figure 10-Sc

4x- 9y+ 8z = D The coefficients in the plane's equation are the
coefficients of the components of the normal
vector.
4(4.2) - 9(5.3) + 8(0.4) = D
-27.7 =D
:. the equat ion is 4x- 9y+ 8z= -27.7 .
This box summarizes the technique for finding the equation of a plane in space.
TJCHNIQUE:
. '\
Equation
ofa Plane
inSpace
( 1. Use the given information to find a normal vector and a point on the
L plane.
2. Substitute the coefficients of the compone nts of the normal vector for
A, B, and C in the general equation
Ax+ By+ Cz= D

3. Substitute the coordinates of the given point for (x, y, z) to calculate th e
value of D.
4. Write the equation.
476 l 0: Three-D
Chapter imensional
Vectors
..,_EXAMPLE
4 If the equation of a plane is -7x + 8y + 4z = 200, find the z-coordinate for
point P(3, 5, z) on the plane.
Solution -7(3) + 8(5) + 4z = 200 Substitute 3 for x and 5 for y in the equation.
4z = 181
z = 45.25
Problem Set 10-5

For Problems 3-8, find a particular equation of the
Reading Analysis tl!J} plane described.
From what you have read in this section, what do 3. Perpendicular to n = 37 - 5] + 4k, containing
you consider to be the main idea? What is the the point (6, -7, -2)
general equation of a plane in space , and how are 4. Perpendicular to n = -7 + 3] - 2k, containing
the coeffic ient s in this equation related to a vector the point (4, 7, 5)
normal to the plane ? Why does the dot product of a
. Perpendicular to th e line segment connecting
vector in a plane and a vector normal to that plane
always equal zero? {; the points (3, 8, 2) and (11, 2, -3) and passing
through the midpoint of the segment
6. Parallel to the plane 3x - 7y + 2z = 11 and
. . v 5 1//,i
Quick Review U,, ~ containing the point (8, 11, -3)
7. Parallel to the plane 5x - 3y- z = -4 and
01. Give a name for a · b. containing the point (4, -6, 1)
02. Give a second name for a · b. 8. Perpendicular to n = 41+ 3] - 2k and having
03. Give the third name for a · b. x-intercept 5 (The x-intercept of a plane is the
value of x when the other two variables equal
04. How can you find the scalar projection of zero .)
a on b? r~ A plane has the equation 3x - 7y + 5z = 54.
05. If pis the scalar projection of aon b and uis lJ Points P1(6, 2, z 1) and P2 (4, -3, z2 ) are on the
a unit vector in the direction of b,what does plane. Find the z-coordinates of the two points.
the vector projection of a on b equal? How far apart are the point ~ at is the
y-intercept of the plane (the value of y when
06. How do you tell from the dot product whether
the other two variables equal zero)?
two vectors are perpendicular?
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 10. A plane has the equation 4x + 2y- lOz = 300.
07. If a= 3i + 2j + lk and b = 4i - 3j - 5k, Points P1 (x1 , 4, 5) and P2 (7, y2 , 8) are on the
find a . E. plane . Find x1 and y 2 . Calculate the distance
OB.Find the supplementary angle of 84°. between the two points . What is the z-intercept
of the plane (the value of z when the other two
09. Find the supplementary angle of an angle variables equal zero)?
measuring 1 radian.
6i\ Geology Prob lem: Figure 10-5d shows an
010. What does cos 2 A equal in terms of sin A? D underground rock formation that slants up and
outcrops at ground level along a line in a field .
For Problems 1 and 2, find two normal vectors to The x- and y-axes run along perpendicular
the plan e, pointing in opposite directions. fence lines. A point on the outcropping has
coordinates (200, 300, 0), where distances are
1. 3x+5y-7z=-13 2. 4x- 7y+ 2z= 9 in meters. A vector normal to the plane of the
underground formation is n = 307 - 17] + llk..
Section
l 0-5: Plones
inSpoce 477
z a. Find particular equations of the two roof
planes.
b. The top end of the valley is at the point
Fence )I (15, 15, z). Use the equation of Roof 1 to
calculate the value of z. Show that the point
satisfies the equation of Roof 2, and give
the real-world meaning of this fact.
c. How high will the ridge of the roof rise
X
Rock formation
:~>~
/</: above the top of the walls?
Figure 10-Sd d. Write the displacement vector from the
bottom of the valley to the top.
a. Find an equation of the plane surface of the e. Find the obtuse angle the valley makes with
underground rock formation. the bottom edge of Roof 1.
b. If you follow the outcropping line to the f. A piece of sheet metal flashing is to be
fences, which axis will it cross first, the fitted into the valley to go underneath the
x-axis or the y-axis? At what point will it shingles. How long will the valley be?
meet the fence?
g. The two roof sections form a dihedral angle
c. If a well is drilled vertically starting at the equal to the angle between the two normal
point (70, 50, 0), how deep will it be when it vectors or to the supplement of this angle.
first encounters the rock formation? The flashing must be bent to fit this angle.
d. The angle between the plane of the rock Calculate the obtuse dihedral angle between
formation and the plane of the ground is the two roof sections.
called a dihedral angle. Geologists call this h. Why do you think builders put flashing in
angle the dip of the formation .1ft is equal to roof valleys?
the angle between the normal ~ ctors to the
two planes or to the supplem ent of this ~ Prove that these two planes are perpendicular.
angle. Find the acute dip angle. 2x - Sy+ 3z = 10
12. Roof Valley Problem: Figure 10-5e shows an 7x + 4y + 2z = 17
L-shaped house that is to be built. Roof 1 and
14. Find the value of A that makes these two
Roof 2 will have normal vectors planes perpendicular.
ri1 = o7+ 6] + 12r Ax+3y-2z=-8
n2= 67+ oJ+ 12r 4x- Sy+ Z= 7
The two roofs will meet at a "valley." ~ Plane's ~qua~on P,:.oofProblem: Prove that
Point (30, 30, 10) is at the lower end of \() if n = Ai + BJ + Ck is a normal vector to a
the valley. The dimensions are in feet. plane, then a particular
-----,....__
equation of the plane is
z
Ax + By + Cz = D, where D stands for a constant.
Flashing
16. Normal Vector Proof Problem: Prove the
converse of the property in Problem 15.
Specifically, prove that if Ax + By+ Cz = D,
where D stands for a constant, then a normal
vector to the plane is n = Ai + B] + Ck.
)I
(30, 30, LO)
478 Chapter
10:Three·Dimensional
Vectors
10-6 Vector Product of Two Vectors
The dot product of two vectors is a scalar. In this section you will learn about
a
the cross product of and b, written ax
band read "vector a cross vector b."
The main uses of cross products are in fields such as alternating electric
current theory and accelerated rotar y motion. You will see some geometric uses
of cross products in this section as well.
OBJECTIVEBe able to calculate cross products of two vectors and use cross products
for geometric computations.
Here is the formal definition of cross product.
DEFINITION:
Cross
Product
(Vector
Product,
OuterProduct)
The cross product of two vectors, a x b,is a vector with these properti es:
1. Q X b iS perpendicular tO the plane COntaining Q and b.
2. The magnitude of Zix b is
/a b/ = /cil/b/Sin()
X
e
where is the angle between the two vectors when they are pla ced
tail-to-tail.
3. The direction of ax
bis determined by the "right-hand rule." Put the
fingers of your right hand so that they curl in the shortest direction from
the first vector to the seco nd vector. The cross produ ct is in the same
direction your thumb points (Figure 10-6a).
Note that the right-hand rule leads you to conclude that b x a is the opposite of
ax b. As shown in Figure 10-6b, curling your fingers from b to makes your a
thumb point in the oppos ite direction. So cross multiplication of vectors isn't
commutative . The cross product b X equals a X b,not -a
X b. a
~ axb
-a ~
[J
Points in
cLirection
of thumb
a
b Points in
direction
of thumb
bxa
The right-hand ru le
Section
10-6:Vector
Product
ofTwo
Vectors 479
z Computation of Cross Products from the Definition
The unit vectors 7, ], and k have special properties when they are cross
i X J= k multiplied. Because the angle between a vector and itself is 0° and because
sin 0° = 0, the cross product of a vector by itself is zero. For instance,
j y 7 x 7 = 0. Also, J x J = 0 and k x k = 0.
Figure 10-6c shows that 7 x J = k. Because 7 and J are perpendicular,
17X JI= 171171
sin 90° = (1)(1)(1) = 1
Figure 10-6c By the right-hand rule, as 7 rotates toward J,your thumb points in the
z-direction. So Tx J = k,a unit vector in th e z-direction. Similarly, J x k = 7 and
k x 7 =] . These special cases are summarized in the box.
PROPERTIES:
Cross
Products of theUnitCoordinate
Vectors
Txt=O Tx]=k j X / = -k
] x]=O j X k_= i k x] = -7
k xk =O k xt=] / X k_= -]
Note that you can remember the cross products in the middle column because they
involve 7 to J to k and k back to 7,in alphab etical order. This fortunate memory
aid occurs because of the right-handed coordinate system that is being used. It is
for this reason that the x-axis is shown going to the left and the y-axis is shown
going to the right, rather than the mor e intuitive but less useful way of drawing the
x-axis to the right. Note also that if you reverse the order, as in the farthest right
column in the box, the cross products are the opposites of the unit vectors.
With these special cases in mind, you can use algebra to compute a cross product.
~ EXAMPLE1 Find ax 'Eif

a=37 + 5] + 7k and b = 117 + 2] + 13k.
Solution a b = (3/
X + 5] + 7k) X (11/ + 2] + 13k) Substitute for a and b.
= 33/ X / + 6/ X j + 39/ X -->k Cross each term in the first
vector with each term in th e
+ 55) X / + 10) X) + 65) X k second vector.
+ 77k_X / + 14k_X) + 91k X k_
= 0 + 6k - 39] Use the special cro ss produ cts.
- 55k + 0 + 657
+ 77] -147 + 0
= 51/ +38 ]-49k. Combin e like terms.
Notice that there are zeros down the main diagonal in the next-to-last step of
Example 1. The only terms that contribute to the cross product are the "outer"
terms in the array, leading to the name outer product for cross product. The
name vector product is also used becaus e th e resu lt is a vector.
480 Chapter
l0: Three-Dimensional
Vectors
Computation of Cross Products
by Means of Determinants
The method for computing cross products in Example 1 can seem tedious
because you must make sure you have the correct unit vector when you
calculate the cross product of unit vectors . Fortunately, there is a more easily
remembered technique .
This square array of numbers is called a third -order determinant.
7 J k
3 5 7
11 2 13
You may have encountered determinants in algebra in conjunction with

inverting a matrix or solving a system of linear equations .
You form the determinant by writing the three unit vectors along the top row,
the coefficients of the first vector in the middle row, and the coefficients of the
secon d vector in the bottom row. Expand this determinant along the top row.
-+15
i213 71 - Jll
-+13 13
71 +kll
-+1 3 2
51 Remember the - sign for the middle term!
You find the first term by writing the top left element, 7,mentally crossing
out its row and its column, and multiplying by the second-order determinant
that remains . You do the same for J and k. The signs of the expanded
determinant alternate, so the second term has a - sign and the third term
has a+ sign.
To expand the second-order determinants, mu ltiply the top left and bottom
right numbers, and then subtract the product of the top right and bottom left
numbers.
7[(5)(13) - (7)(2)] - j[(3)(13) - (7)(11)] + k.[(3)(2) - (5)(11)]
= 517 + 38] - 49k

This is the same as the cross product in Example 1.
Geometric Applications of Cross Products

You can use the cross product to find a vector normal to two other vectors . You
can use the result to find the equation of the plane containing the two vectors,
as you did in Section 10-5. Example 2 shows you how .
.....EXAMPLE
2 Find a particular equation of the plane containing the points P1 (-5, 5, 5),
P2 (-3 , 2, 7), and Pil, 12, 6).
Section
l 0-6:Vector
Product
ofTwo
Vectors 481
Solution Sketch a plane and the three points, as in Figure 10-6d. It helps to show the
coordinates of the points on your sketch.
z
n= p1p2 X P7i Write the displacement vectors from one point to th e other two.
IV 2= (-3 + 5)7 + (2 - 5)) + (7 - 5)k = 27 - 3] + 2k
, ' ' ~ ,( -5, s, 51 JV = (1 + 5)i + (12 -
3 5)] + (6 - 5)k = 67 + 7] + k
P2 ( ~ Find the cross product to find a normal vector, n.
P3 (1, 12, 6) • .... .... ....
i j k
X
y
Yl= PiPzXPiP3= 2 -3 2
6 7 1
Figure 1D-6d
= 11- 3 21- 1--:'1221 + tl2 - 3 1
71 61 67
= 7(-3 - 14) - ](2 - 12) + k(14 + 18) Be careful of double negativ es!
n=-177+10J+32t
.'.-17x+l0y+32z=D The coefficients in the equat ion
equal the coefficients of the
components of the normal vector.
-17(-5) + 10(5) + 32(5) = D Substitute one of the given points.
295 = D
The equation is - 17x + lOy + 32z = 295.
Note that Example 2 is the same kind of

problem as in Section 10-5. The only Tne,
CYO>fprod.adof
differenc e is the way you calcu lat e the two vector, i£per~
norm al vector. to the, orijiit,;,1,vectors.
ax b Geometric Meaning of I a X hi
The magnitude of the cross product of two vectors has a geometric meaning.
Figure 10-6e shows a parallelogram with vectors a and b as two adjacent sides.
The altitude of the parallelogram is
h= IEIsine
The base of the parallelogram is lol.The area formula for a parallelogram is
base times altitude, so
a
Figure 10-6e Area= lallEI
sine
Chapter Vectors
You sho uld recognize that lallbl sine is defined to b e the magnitude of th e
cros s product.
You can find the area of a trian gle with two vectors as sides by the same
technique because its area is half the area of th e corresponding parallelogram.
Example 3 shows you how to do thi s.
9ll-EXAM
PLE3 Find the area of the triangle with vertices at the point s P 1 (-5, 5, 5),
Pi-3 , 2, 7), and P3 (1, 12, 6).
Solution Figure 10-6f shows th e thr ee points (the same as in Example 2), alon g with the
triangle having vectors PiP2 and f\P 3 as adjac ent sides.
From Example 2, fi;P2 x fi;P3 = -17 7 + 10] + 32 k.

The area of th e triangl e is half th e area of the parall elogram havin g vectors fi;P2
and f\P 3 as adjacent sides. The area of this par allelogram is equal to the
magni tud e of Ji;P2 x PiP 3 , which you can calculate usin g the three-dimensional
Pythagorea n th eorem.
IPiP
2 X J\P3I = 1- 177 + 10] + 32 kl = -J(- 17) 2+ 10 2+ 32 2= -J1413 = 37.589 8 ...
P3 (1, 12 , 6)
1
:. area of triangl e = ) 14 13 = 18.7 949 . .. <11111
Figure 10-6{ 2
The box summarizes these geometric properties.
PROPERTY: Areaof a Parallelogram or Triangle

fromtheCrossProduct
The area of the parallelogram having a and Gas adjac ent sides is
Area of parallelogram= la X GI
The area of the triangle having a and b as adjacent side s is
Area of triangle= ! la x bl
Problem Set 10-6
Reading Analysis a . G= 25, 1a1

Q2. If = 5, and IGI= 10, find the
measure of the angle b etween th e vectors.
you consider to be th e main idea? What is the main Q3.Find the length of the vector 7 + J + k.
difference between a cross product and a dot Q4. Find the dot produ ct
produ ct of two vector s? How is the formula for th e (37 + 2] - k.) • (i + 2] + lOk.).
length of a cross-pro duct vector related to the
formula for th e dot produ ct? QS.Is the angle between th e vectors in Problem Q4
obtu ~ or acute ?
Q6. Sketch two non zero vectors whos e sum is zero.
Quick Review ,, Ql. Sketch two non zero vectors whose dot produ ct
QI. If a is 7 units
long and bis 3 units long, what is zero.
can you say about la+GI?
Section
10-6:Vector
Product
ofTwo
Vector
s 483
QB.In l::.ABC, if sin A= 0.6, sinB = 0.2, and the point (-3, 6, 5) and normal to the line of
a= 60, how long is side b? intersection of the planes 3x +Sy+ 4z = -13
and 6x- 2y+ 7z= 8.
09. Sketch the graph of a logistic function.
For Problems 13-16, find the area .
010. Find the amplitude of the sinusoid
y = 3 + 4 cos 5 rr(x - 6). /i 3) The p_.arall:logr~m de~rmi~ed b_y _
V a= 2i + 3J + 6k and b = 3i - 4) + 12k
For Problems 1-4, find the cross product using 14. The parallelogram determined by
determinants. c = 47 + 4] - 7k and d = -27 + sJ- 14k
f) (37 + 4] + 2k) X (57 + 6] + k)
2. (77 + 2] + 3 k) X ( 67 + J + 5k)
& The triangle with vertices (3, 7, 5), (2, -1, 7),
and (-4, 6, 10)
~} 47 -
1
3] - k)X (27 - j + k) 16. The triangle with vertices (7, 8, 11), (-4, 2, 1),
and (3, 8, 2)
4. (-37 + 8] + 2k) X (i + 7] + 6k)
Z. Awning Problem: Figure 10-6g shows a
For Problems 5 and 6, find the dot product. triangular awning for the corner of a building.
27 + 7J - Sk) · (97 + 3] + k) The vertices of the awning are to be -at the
--+ --+ -+ --+ --+ -+ points (10, 0, 8), (0, 15, 8), and 0, 0, 13}/ where
(8i - 4) - 2k) · (Si + 6J - 7k) the dimensions are in feet.
r!i\ Program for Cross Products Problem: Write a a. Find the displacement vectors from the
V program to calculate the cross product of two vertex on the z-axij to the other two
vectors. The program should prompt you to vertices.
enter the .three coefficients of each vector. b. Find a vector normal to the plane.
Then it should calculate and display the
c. Find the area of the awning when it is
coefficients of the cross product. Test your
completed.
program by using it on the vectors in Problem 1.
The correct answer is -87 + 7] - 2k. d . Find the lengths of the three sides of the
awning and the measures of the three vertex J
8. Multipliers of Zero Problem: The multiplication ~ngles so that the people who make the
property of zero states that, for real numbers awning will know how to cut the canvas.
x and y, "if x = 0 or y = 0, then xy = O." Its I
converse is "if xy = 0, then x = 0 or y = O."

e. Finclan
equation of the plane. Use
the equation to find out whether the
a. Show that there is a multiplication property point (5, 6, 9) is above the awning or
of zero for cross multiplication. below it.
b. Show by counterexample that the converse
of the property in part a is false. That is,
find two nonzero vectors whose cross
product equals zero.
For Problems 9-11, find a particular equation of the
plane containing the given points .
. (3, 5, 8), (-2, 4, 1), and (-4, 7, 3)
10. (5, 7, 3), (4, -2, 6), and b.-6,1) y
(0, 3, -7) , (5, 0, -1), and (4, 3, 9)
12. The cross product of the normal vectors to two
planes is a vector that points in the direction
Figure 10-6g
of the line of intersection of the planes. Find
a particular equation of the plane containing
484 Chapter
10: Three-D
imensiona
l Vectors
18. Torque Problem: Figure 10-6h shows a wrench c. Explain why the resu lt of part b is
on a nut and bolt. As you tight en th e nut, you consistent with th e definitio n of cross
exert a force of F = 57+ 2] + Ok, where the product. J
magnitude of the force vector is in pounds.
22. A plan e is determined by the points (2, 1, 7),
The displacement vector from the center of th e
(3, 4, 9), and (6, -4, 5). Find its x-, y-, and
bolt to where your hand applies the force is
z-intercepts.
d = 7i +IO]+ Ok , where the magnitude of the
displacement is in inches. The force exer ts a 3. I i1= 3i + 4] + 6k and v =xi+ J - zk, find
torque on the nut that twists it tight. The · e valu es of x and z that make the cross
torque is defin ed to be the cross product of product i1x v equal 27 + 24] - 17k.
the force vecto r and the displace ment vector.
24. Pythagorean Quadrupl es Problem: You may
Find the torq u e vector . In which direction does
have observed that th e length of a vector
the torque vector act?
sometimes turns out to be an integer. For
exampl e,
i1
ls7+ 9] + 12kl = .Js2 + 92 + 122
? = .J239 = 17
Four positi ve integers a, b, c, and d for which
Figure 10-6h a 2 + b 2 + cz = dz
form what is called a Py thagorean quadruple.
iQons a a
ider and b,where = 57 - 2] + 3 k and
J 'E = 4i + 7] - 6k.
Write a program for your grap h er or other
computer to find all Pythagorean quadrupl es
a. Find a X b. for valu es of a, b, and cup to 20. See if you can
b . Use dot products to show that a x b reall y get the comput er to give only the primitive
is normal to both a and b. Pythagorean quadrupl es by eliminating those
that are multip les of others, such as 2, 4, 4, 6,
c. Calculate a · b,and use it to find the which is twice 1, 2, 2, 3.
e
ang le between and b. a
d. Use e from part c to show that
laX 'Elequal s lall'EI
sine.
-+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+
20. Consid er e and{, where e = 2i + 5j - 3k and
7 = 77- 4] - 2k .
.... ....
a. Prove that e and fare perpe ndicular.
b. Show that lex 71 equals lell71.
c. Explain why the result of part b is
consi stent with the definition of cross
roduct.
nsider g and h, where g = - 31+ 6] - 12k.
and h = Si - 10] + 20k.
Planes in space are vis ible in this geo m e,tric art by
a. Prove that g and h are parallel. Jason Luz titled ElevatOJ N~
b. Show that jg x HIequ als 0. ' {"If>
-""'
Sectionl 0·6: Vector

Product
ofTwo
Vectors 485
10-7 Direction Angles and Direction Cosines
A beam for a building under construction is to be held in plac e by three
triangular gussets, as shown in Figure 10-7a. So that the beam will point in the
correct direction, the gussets must make the correct angles with the three
coordinate axes. In this section you will learn how to calculate these direction
angles. The cosines of these angles are called the direction cosines.
z
Figure 10-1a
OBJECTIVE
Given a vector, find its direction angles and direction cosines, and
vice versa.
Figure 10-7b shows a vector v and its direction z

angles. The first three letters of the Greek alphab et,
()((alpha), /3(beta), and y (gamma), ar e commonl y
used for the three direction angles. The letters ar e
used in alphab etical order, corresponding to th e x-, ;y v
y-, and z-axes.
y
Figure 10-1b
DEFINITIONS:
Direction
Angles
andDirection
Cosines
The direction angles of a position vector are
0<, from the x-axis to the vector
f3,from the y-axis to the vector
y, from the z-axis to the vector
The direction cosines of a position vector are the cosines of the
direction angles .
C1 =COS()(
Cz =COS/3
C3 =COS)'
486 Chapter
Vectors
EXAMPLE
llJi,,, I Find the direction cosines and the direction angles for v = 37 + 7] + Sk.
Solution Find the dot products v · 7,v ·],and v · k. Then use these to find the angles.
v · 7 = (37 + 7] + Sk) · (17 + O] +Ok)= 3 Equal to the coefficient of7 in v.
v · J = (37 + 7] + Sk) · (07 + 1] +Ok)= 7 Equal to the coefficient of Jin v.
v · k = (37 + 7] + Sk) · (07 + O]+ lk) = 5 Equal to the coefficient of kin v.
lvl= ) 3 2 + 1 2 + s2 = \/83
171
= IJI= lkl= 1 They are unit vectors.
3
v83(1) cos ex=3::::}cos ex=)83::::} ex=70.7741.. . 0
Use the definition
of dot product.
7
.Js3 (1) COS /3= 7::::} COS /3= .JB3::::}
/3= 39 .7940 ... 0
5
v83(1) COS}'= 5::::}COS}'= v83::::} }' = 56.7138 ... 0
There is nothing special about the sum of Oi, /3,and y. In Example 1, for
instance, Oi + f3 + y = 167.282 ... However, there is a remarkable property
0
•
relating to the sum of the squares of the direction cosin es .

9 49 25 83
cos 2 ex+ cos 2 f3+ cos 2 y = - +- +- = - =1
83 83 83 83
The sum of the squares of the direction cosines of a position vector is always 1.
This Pythagorean property holds because the three dot products are equal to
the three coefficients of the components of When you square the numeratorsv.
in Example 1 and sum them you get 83, the same as the radicand in the
magnitude of v.The ratio will always be l.
The Pythagorean property explains another property relating to direction
cosines. Find a unit vector in the direction of v in Example 1.
-+ v 37 + 7] + Sk 3 '7 7 '7 5 -+
u = lvl= m = m + mJ + mk 1
Notice that the coefficients of the components of the unit vector are the
direction cosines. These two properties are summarized in this box.
PROPERTIES:
Direction
Cosines
Pythagorean Property of Direction Cosines

If Oi, {3,and y are the direction angles of a position vector and c1 = cos Oi,
c2 = cos /3,and c3 =cosy are its direction cosines, then
cos 2 ex+ cos 2 f3+ cos 2 ;y = 1 or c1 2 + cz2 + cl = 1
Unit Vector Property of Direction Cosines

i1= c17 + c2] + c3 k is a unit vector in the direction of the given vector.
Section
10-7
: Direction
Angles
andDirection
Cosines 48 7
~ EXAMPLE
2 Find th e dir ection angles and th e direction cosines of v = 137 - 6] + l8k
quickly. Use the result to write a unit vector in the direction of v.
Solution lvl= ) 13 2 + 6 2 + 18 2 = ) 529 = 23
13 0
cos lX = 23 => lX = 55.5826 .. .
-6
COS /3= D => /3= 10 5.121 6 ... 0
18 0
cosy= 23 => y = 38.4999 ...
--+ 13- 6 - 18--+

The unit vector is u = -i - -j + -k. The direction cosines are th e
23 23 23 J,
coefficients of 7, and k.
~ EXAMPLE
3 If iX = 152° and /3= 73°, find y.
Solution cos 2 152° + cos 2 73° + c} = 1 Pythagorean property for direction cosin es.
z c} = 1 - cos 2 152° - cos 2 73° = 0.1349 ...
C3 = ±0.3673 ... Don't forget the ± sign!
.)I= 68.4497 ... 0

or 111.5502 ... 0 There are two possible values of y, one
y acute and one obtuse. <111111
X
Example 3 shows algebraically that there are two possibilities for the third
~
direction angle if the other two angles are given. Figure 10-7c illustrates this
V
fact geomet rically. One angle is acute. The other is its supplementary angle,
Figure 10-lc which is obtuse.
Problem Set 10-7
Reading Analysis tZ[lJ Q3. How are the directions of a and b related to
the direction Of Q X b?
From what you have read in this sect ion, what do
--+ --+ --+
you consider to be the main idea? Given Q4. a · (a x b) = - ?-
-+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+
v = 2i + 3) + 5k, find v · i and tell how you can
us e the answer to find cos iX. If you know two
Q5. How is b x cirelated to ci x b?
dir ection angles for a vector, explain why the third Q6. Ifla x "GI
= 50, find the area of the triangle
dir ection angle has two po ssible values. determined by a and b.
Ql. Find a normal vector for the plane
3x+4y- 5z = 37.
Quick Review~
'~ QB. Find another norm al vector for the plane in
QT. Write the definition of ci · b. Problem Q7.
Q2. In the definition of cross product, what does Q9. The equation of the linear fun ction that best
la blequal?
X
fits a set of data is called the-?- function.
488 Chapter
Vector
s
QIO. The equation a 2 = b 2 + c2 - 2bc cos A is a where 5, 11, and 7 are speeds in the x-, y-, and
statement of the-?-. z-directions, respectively, measured in feet per
second. Figure 10-7d shows the azimuth angle
For Problems 1 and 2, sketch the vector and show and the angle of elevation for the cannon.
its direction angles. z Velocity
-+ -+ -+ -+
1. v = 4i + lOj + 3k
2. v = 57+ 4] + 9k
For Problems 3-6, find the direction cosines
and direction angles for the position vector to the
given point.
3. (2, -5, 3) 4. (5, 7, -1)
5. (-4, 8, 19) 6. (10, -15, 6)

For Problems 7-10, find the direction cosines for
the vector from the first point to the second. Figure 10-?d
7. (-3, 7, 1) to (4, 8, -2)
a. At what speed will the dummy leave the
8. (6, 9, 4) to (-2, 10, 1) cannon?
9. (2, 9, 4) to (11, 1, 16) b. Find the three direction angles for v.
10. (4, 2, -9) to (-7, 10, 7) c. Use the direction angles to find quickly the
angle of elevation.
For Problems 11 and 12, find a unit vector in the d. Find p,the vector projection of v on the
direction from the first point to the second point, (horizontal) xy-plane.
and write its direction cosines.
e. The azimuth angle is the angle in the
11. (3, 7, -2) to (11, 23, -9) xy-plane from the x-axis to the vector
12. (-5, 3, 2) to (3, 2, 6) projection p. Find the measure of this angle.
For Problems 13 and 14, prove that the vector is a f. If the angle of elevation were increased by
unit vector, and find its direction cosines and 5°, would this change affect the other two
direction angles. direction angles? Would this change affect
7-+ 4 -+ 4-+ 1-+ 4 -+ s -+
the azimuth angle?
13, g i+ g)- gk 14, g i- g)+gk
22. Shoe Box Construction Project: As shown in
For Problems 15 and 16, find the third direction Figure 10-7e, run a stiff wire (such as coat
cosine and the two possible values of the third hanger wire) or a thin stick on the main diagonal
direction angle. of a shoe box. (The front face of the shoe box is
not shown so that you can see into the interior.)
Let v be the vector running along the wire from
For Problems 17-20, ex,/3,and ;y are direction
z
angles for different position vectors. Find the
possible values of y.
17. ex= 120°, /3= 60° 18. ex= 110°, /3= 70°
19. ex= 17°, /3= 12° 20. ex= 173°, /3= 168°
21. Circus Cannon Problem: In the circus, a
dumm y clown is shot from a cannon. Its
velocity vector as it leaves the cannon is y
v = 57 + 11] + 7k
Figure 10-?e
l 0-7: Direction
Section Angles
ondDirection
Cosines 489
the bottom corner to the diagonally opposite top 23. Proof of the Pyt hagorean Property of Direction
corner. Measure the three sides of the shoe box, Cosines: Prove that if v =Ai+ B] + Ck an d c1 ,
and use the res ults to write v in terms of its c2 , and c3 are the direction cosines of v,then
coordinates . Then calculate the three direction c/ + c/ + c/ = l.
angles. Cut out three triangular pieces of
cardboard, each with one angle equal to a
what you have learned abo u t vectors since
direct ion angle. Do the three triang les fit the
your last ent ry. In particu lar, explain the
direction angles? If so, tape the cardboard
difference between the definitions of cross
pieces in place and check your project with your
product and dot product, and describe how
instructor. If not, repeat your computations and
you calculate these products. Then give some
measurements until the pieces of cardboard do
uses of dot product and cross product .
fit. Write up thi s project in your journal,
describing what you have learned as a result of
the calculations and the construction.
10-8 Vector Equations of Lines in Space

z
A resc u e helicopte r tries to locate people
stran ded on the roof of a house. It shines a
light beam on the roof, as shown in Figure
10-8a. By finding an equation relating the x-,
Light beam y-, and z-coordinates of points on the beam,
you can predict where the spot of light will
Where? appear on the roof and other information to
Y he lp with the task. Unfortunately, there is no
single Cartesian equation for a line in space
X
as there is for a plane . In this section you will
Figure 10-Ba derive a vector equation that gives position
vectors for points on a line.
· OBJECTIVEGiven information about a line in space, fin d a vector equation of the line
and u se it to calcul ate coordina tes of points on the line .
Figure 10-8b shows a line in space.

Vector r is the pos ition vector to a
varia ble point P(x, y, z) on the line .
Point P0 (5, 11, 13) is a fixed point on
the lin e. Unit vector u points along
I~ Displacement
vectordu
the lin e. Let d be the directed
dista n ce from P0 to P. Thus, the
disp lacement vector from P0 to Pis
Line
Pc}= du
y
Figure 10-Bb
490 Chap
ter l 0: Three-
DimensionalVectors
Note that the position vector r to the variable point is the sum of du and the
position vector ~ to the fixed point .
r =~+du General vector equation of a line in spac e.
To calculate points (x, y, z) on the line, you must find the particular equation by
subs tituting for the fixed point and for the unit vector.
~ EXAMPLE
1 Find the particular equation of the line that contains the fixed
point P0 (5, 11, 13) and is parallel to the unit vector
Solution Make a general sketch of the line, as shown in Figure 10-8c.

The general equation is r =~+du. r is the resultant of and du.
15;;
~ = 57 + 11; + 13 k ~ is the position vector to point P0 .
Therefore, the particular equation is

-+
r =(Si+-+ -+ + d (3-+i + 5-+) + 2 -+)
llj -+ + 13k) and u.
15;;
7 7 7k Substitute for
y r = (s + ~d)7+ (11 + ~d)] + (13 + Jd)k Combin e like terms.
The variable d that represents the directed distance from the fixed point to the
Figure 10-Bc
varia ble point is a parameter similar to those you have encountered previously.
PROPERTY:
General
Vector
Equation
ofa LineinSpace
r =~+du
where r is the position vector to variable point P(x, y, z) on the line,
~ is the position vector to a fixed point P0 on the line,
dis a parameter equal to the directed distance from fixed
point Po(Xo,Yo, zo) to P, and
uis a unit vector in the direction of the line.
If unit vector u = c17 + c2 J + c3 k, then the equation is
r = (Xo + C1d)i +(Yo+ C2d)j + (Zo + C3d)k
Once you have the particular equation, you can use it in various ways to find
points on the line. For instance, if you want to find the coordinates of a point at
a particular distance from point P0 , substitute the appropriate value of d and
complete the calculations.
Section
l 0-8: Vector
Equations
ofLine
sinSpace 491
IJ)-EXAMPLE
2 Find the point on the line in Example 1 that is at a directed distance of
-21 units from P0 .
Solution r = [5 + %(-2ll]7 + [ 11 + ¥(-2ll]J + [ 13 + J(-21)]k Substitute -21 ford.

r = (5 - 9)7 + (11 - 18)] + (13 - 6lk
-+ -+ -+ -+
r = -4 i - 7j + 7 k
The point is (-4, -7, 7).
To find a point that has a particular value of x, y, or z, you must first calculate
th e value of d, then proc eed as in Example 2. Example 3 shows how to do this.
IJ)-EXAMPLE
3 Find the point where the line in Example 1 intersects the xy-plane.
Solution For any point on the xy-plane, z = 0. So you set the z-coordinat e of th e line equal
to zero.
Calculate the value of d.
Substitute- ¥- ford.
-+ -+ -+ -+
r = (5 - 19.5)i + (11 - 39)) + (13 - 13)k
r = - 14.57 - 28] + Ok
The point is (-14.5, -28, 0). As a check, the z-coordin ate reall y does equal 0.
By extending the technique of Example 3, you can find the point where a given
line intersects a given plane.
IJ)-EXAMPLE
4 A line containing the point (5, 3, -1) has direction cosines
2
Cz = -11, and
a. Write the particular equation of th e line.
b. Find the point where the line intersects the plane 7x + 4y- 2z = 39 .
Solution a. Make a general sketch of the line and plane, as shown in Figure 10-8d.
z
The genera l equation of th e line is r = l5;;+ du.
l5;;= 57 + 3] - t The coeffic ients of the po sition vector are the
I'
coordin ates of th e fixed point.
The coefficients of the components of the

,, unit vector are th e direction cosines.
-+ +3 J"7 - -+ ( 6 "71 - 9 -+)
X
/ y
r=(51 "7
k)+d 11
2 "7
111 + 11 k Substitute into the general
equation .
... -+
r = (5 + 11
6 d ) "7 2 d )J
1 + ( 3 - 11 "7 9 d )-+
+ ( -1 + 11 k The particular equation
Figure 10-Bd of the line.
492 Chapter
Vectors
b. Assume that the line intersects the plane at the point (x, y, z). So this point is
both on the line and on the plane. This means that the coordinates x, y, and
z will satisfy both the equation of the line and the equation of the plane. So
you can substitute x, y, and z from the equation of the line from part a in to
the given equation of the plane and use the result to calculate d. .
7(5 + .§_
11d) + 4(3 - 1...d)
11 - 2(-1 + 2-d)
11 -- 39
35 + 1fd+ 12 - 11d+ 2 - ~~d=

8
39
~~d= - 10
d=-¥
.'. ---+
r = [5 + IT
6 (- 55)]---+ [ 2 ( 55)]-+ [ 9 ( 55)]---+
8 i + 3 - IT - 8 j + -1 + IT - 8 k Subs titute -¥ for d.
r
r = 1.257 + 4.25] - 6.625k < ,/ I
The point is (1.25, 4.25 , -6.625).
µ
} / I
t' 'I
Problem Set 10-8 ?
Reading Analysis tl!]} 09. If la El

x = 70, find the area of the
From what you have read in this section, what do parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b.
you consi der to be the main idea? What is the 010. What transformation on f(x) is represented by
major difference betwe en the equation of a plane y = f(3x) ?
in space and the equation of a line in space ? Where
do dire ction cosines appear in the equation of a
For Problems 1 and 2, given the equation of a line,
line in spac e?
complete parts a-c.
a. Identif y the coordinates of the fixed point
on the given line. ~
b. Identif y a unit vector, u,in the direction o.:_J

the lin e.
02. For direction angles lX, {3, and ;y, if cos 2 lX = 0.3
and cos 2 f3 = 0.2, find cos 2 ;y. c. Confirm that i1 really is a unit vector .J
1. r = ( 5 + 17
---+ 9 d )'"1 12d )'""t
1 + (-3 + 17 J + (4 + 17
8 d )---+
03. Find the magnitude of v = 17 - 2] + 2k.. k
04. Find the dire ction cosine c for v in Problem

2 Q3. 2. r=(6+ ! d)7 +(1+i d)]+(-5+! d)k
05. Give one major diff erence betwee n a dot 3. Find th e point on the lin e in Problem 1 for
product and a cross product of two vectors. which d = 34 . 1
.....__
06. If pis the scalar proj ection of a on b, then the 4. Find the point on the lin e in Problem 2 for
vector proj ect ion is p = -?-. which d = 27.
07. Find 7 · ]. 5. Find the point where the lin e in Problem 1

intersects th e xy-plane.
QB.Find 7 x ;.
6. Find th e point where th e line in Problem 2
int ersects the yz-plane.
Section
10-8: Vector
Equation
s ofLine
s inSpace 493
For Problems 7 and 8, show that u is a unit vector. a. You set up a three-dimensional coordinate
Then write a vector equation of the line parallel to system as shown in Figure 10-8e, with the
i1 containing the given point. origin at the floor in the back corner of the
-+ 2 --t 6"7 3 -+ house. [r_he bullet pierced the wall at the
7.u= 7 1+ 7J- 7 k,Po=(5,-l,4) ) point (10, 14, 3) and then pierced the ceiling
-+ 11--:> 2 --:> 2-+
8. u = 15 1 - 15J + 3 k, P0 = (-3, 4, 7) . ~ at the point (7, 18, 8). Find a unit vector in
the direction of the bullet's path.
For Problems 9 and 10, find the direction cosines of
v.Then write a vector equation of the lin e parallel b. Using the point (10, 14, 3) as the fixed point,
to v containing the given point. write a vector equation of the line followed
by th e bullet.
9. v = 27 - 3] + 4k, P0 = (1, -8, -5) c. How tall is the interior of the house, from
10. v = 7 + 2] - 5k, P0 = (-6, 3, -4) floor to ceiling? How can you tell?
For Problems 11 and 12, find a vector equation of d. Figure 10-8e shows that the point (0, 0, 8)
the line from the first point to the second. is at the back corner of the slanted roof. If
you run horizontally in the x-direction 6 ft
@ (5, 1, -4) to (14, 21, 8) from this point and then rise vertically in
12. (6, -2, 7) to (10, 6, 26) the z-direction 6 ft, you reach the crest of
the roof. Explain why n = -67 + O]+ 6k is
For Problems 13 and 14, find the point where the a vector normal to the plane of the roof that
given line intersects the given plan ~. ·s shaded in Figure 10-8e.
'@ Line: r = (3 + i d)7 + (4 +id)] : (3 -!d)k e. Find a Cartesian equation of the plane of
. the roof in part d.j
Plane: 7x - 3y + 5z = -2 0
f. Find the point in the roof at which police
14. Line: r = (4 + ! d)7 + (1 +id)]+ (7 + ! d)k may expect to find the bullet.
Plane: x+ 4y- 3z= 35 g. What is the meaning of the word forensic,
and why is the word appropriate in the title
vM· Forensic Bullet Path Problem: A bullet has
pierced th e wall and ceiling of a small house
(Figure 10-8e), and it may have lodged in the
this roblem?
16. Flood Control Tunnel Problem: Suppose that
roof. You have studied vectors, so the you work for a construction company that has
investigators call on you to calculate the point been hired to dig a drainage tunnel under a
in the roof where the bull et is expected to be city. The tunnel will carry excess water to the
found. The dimensions of the house are in feet . other side of the city during heavy rains, thus
z preventing flooding (Figure 10-8f). The tunnel
is to start at ground level and then slant
downward until it reaches a point 100 ft below
the surface. Then it will become horizontal,
extending far enough to reach the other side of
the city (not shown). Your job is to analyze the
slanted part of the tunnel.
Figur e 10-Se
./
494 l 0: Thr
Chapter ee-Dimensional
Vectors
z b. How far along the centerline must the
(30, 40 , 0)
construction crews dig to reach the end
y of the slanted part of the tunnel, 100 ft
below the ground? What are the coordinates
of this endpoint?
X
c. Construction crews must be careful when
they reach a fault plane that is in the path
of the slanted part of the tunnel. The
''
' ', '' ' ' Geology Department has determined that
the point (60, 90, 0) is on the fault plane
Where? ~ ~~~ where it outcrops at ground level and that
Fault plan e the vector n = 27 - 4] + k is normal to the
plane (Figure 10-8f). Find the particular
Figure 10-Bf equation of the plane.
d. How far along the centerline of the tunnel
a. The Engineering Department has determined
must the construction crews dig in order
that the tunnel will slant downward in the
to reach the fault plane? What are the
direction of the vector v = 97 + 12] - 20k..
coordinates of the point at which the
The centerline of the tunnel starts at the
centerline intersects the plane? How far
point (30, 40, 0) on the surface. The
beneath ground level is this point?
measurements are in feet. Write the
particular vector equation of the centerline.

In this chapter you have extended your knowledge of vectors to three-dimensional
space. You extended the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication
by a scalar to three dimensions by simply giving a third component to the
vectors. Two new operations, dot product and cross product, allow you to
"multip ly" two vectors. Dot multiplication gives a scalar for the answer. Cross
multiplication gives a vector perpendicular to the two factor vectors . These
techniques have allowed you to find the angle between two vectors, to project one
vector onto another vector, to find equations of planes and lines in space, and to
find areas of triangles and parallelograms in space.
Review Problems
RO.Update your journal with what you have • The differenc e betw een the way you
learned in Chapter 10. Include things such as calculate a dot product or cross product and
• The difference between a position vector what dot and cross product s mean
and a displacement vector • How dot products are used to find
• The difference b etween a dot product and a equations of planes in space
cross product • How cross products are used to find areas
• The difference betw een a scalar projec tion of triangles and parallelograms in space
and a vector projection
Section
l 0-9: Chapter
Review
andTest 495
Rl. Figure 10-9a shows two-dimensional vectors R4. a. Write the definition of dot product. Give two
a= 37+ 4] and b = 77+ 2]. other names for dot product.
y b. u lal= ISi=
1, 8, and e= a.
1ss find
0
, S.
C. If lal= ISi=
10, a· =
20, and e.
S -35, find
For parts d-h, let cf= 6i - 5] + 2k and
s = 37 + 4] - 7k.
d. Find lal,ISi,
and a . S.
--+ --+
e. Find the angle between a and b when they
are placed tail-to-tail.
X
f. Find a unit vector in the direction of b.
Figur e 10-9a g. Find the scalar projection of a on S.
a. Explain why these vectors, as shown, are h. Find the vector projection of a on S.
position vectors . RS. a. Use a dot product to prove that if
b. On a copy of Figure 10-9a, sketch r =a+ b, n= Ai + B] + Ckis normal to a plane, then
d= a- b,and = v 2a. the equation of the plane is Ax+ By+ Cz = D,
c. Write the displacement vector d = cl - b in where D stands for a constant .
terms of its components. b. Write two normal vectors for the plane
d. Find the length of the resultant vector 3x - 7y + z = 5, pointing in opposite
r =a+ b. directions.
e. Find the angle a makes with the x-axis. c. Find the equation of the plane containing
the point (6, 2, - 1), with normal vector
R2. a. For position vectors a and bin Probl em Rl, n = 27 - 7] - 3k. Use the equation to find z
a
find a displac ement vector from the head for the point P(lO, 20, z) on the plane.
of a to the head of b. l- d. Find the equation of the plane
b. Find a displacemen f vector from the head of perpendicular to the segment with
a to a point 40 % of the way from the head endpoints (5, 7, 2) and (8, 13, 11) if the
of a to the head of b. x-intercept of the plane is x = 15.
c. Find the position vector for the point 40% of
the way from the head of a to the head of b. R6. a. Write the definition of a x b. Give three
names for Q X b.
d. Write the coordinates of the point 40% of
the way from the head of a to the head of b. b. If =7, lb!=8, and e =155°, find laX bl.
1a1
R3. a. Draw v = s7+ 9] + 4k as a position vector. For parts c-e, let a = 37 + 2] - k and
Show the "box" that makes it look three- S = -47 + 3] + Sk.
dimensional. Indicate the unit vectors 7,], C. Find a X b and b X a.
and k on the drawing.
d. Find Zi • band b · a.
b. If a= 67- sJ+ 2k and b = 37+ 4] - 7k,
e. Find the area of the triangle determined by
find 3Zi - 2b. a and b.
c. Find 1a1 for Qin part b . f. Find th e equation of the plane containing
d. Find a unit vector in the direction of cl in the points (2, 5, 8), (3, 7, 4), and (-1, 9, 6).
part b.
R7. a. Sketch a position vector and show its three
e. If a and b in part b are position vectors, direction angles .
find the displacement vector from the head
of a to the head of S. b. Find the dir ection cosines and the direction
angles of v = 67- 8] + Sk.
f. For a and b in part b, find the position
vector to the point 70 % of the way from the
head of a to the head of S.
'
496 Chapte
f l 0: Three-Dimensional
Vectors
c. Vector a has direction cosines C1 = 0.2 and b . Show that you understand the meaning of
c2 = -0 .3. Find the two possible values of c3 the independent variable din the equation
and the two possible values of the third by finding the coordinates of the point
direction angle, y . on the line that is a directed distance
d. Show algebraicall y, using the Pythagorean -18 units from the fixed point. Explain
property, that there is no vector with the significance of the fact that dis
direction angles ex= 30° and /3= 40 °. negative in this case.
Explain geometricall y why such a vector c. Find the coordinates of the point where the
cannot exist . line intersects the xz-plane.
R8. For parts a-d, th e position vector r to a point d . Find the coordinates of the point where the
on a line is given by the vector equation line intersects the plane 3x - 7y + z = 5.
e. Find the vector equation of the line
r = (6+ i d)7 + (3+ ! d)] + (2-! d)k containing the points (2, 8, 4) and
a. Write the fixed point and the fixed vector (11, 13, 7).
that appear in the equation . Show that the
vector is a unit vector.
Concept Problems
Cl. Distance Between a Point a nd a Line Problem: ladder is moved over so that its left foot is
Figure 10-9b shows a line and a point Pi not on at the point (7, 9, 0). The top of the ladder is
the line. Vector v is parallel to the line, and dis 24 ft up the wall. Find a vector equation of
the perpendicular distance between P1 and the th e line along the left side of the ladder.
line. Given that the rungs on the ladder are 1 ft
apart, use the equation to find the rung that
z
is closest to the upper left corner of the
I window, at the point (0, 5, 18). Find the
I
I
I perpendicular distance from the left side of
, Distan ce
I d the ladder to the point (0, 5, 18), taking
v advantag e of the results of part a,
Line
y
Figur e 10-9b
ow su ppo se that th e equation of the line is

-+
r = (5 + 11
6 t )"7
1 + (3 - 2 )"7 ( 9 )-+
11t J + -1 + 11t k
and the outside point is P1(4, 7, 6).
a. By trigonometry, d = IWil·
sine. Multiply
the right side of this equatio n by 1 in
th e form ~ - Take advantage of the fact that
the numerator on the right now equals y
·IWi Xvito find dwithout first finding e.
b. Ladder Problem: Figure 10-9c shows a
25-ft ladder leaning against a wall to reach
a high window. To miss the flower bed, the
Figure 10-9c
Section
l 0-9: Chapter
Review
andTest 497
C2. a. Distance Between Skew Lines Problem: z
Figure 10-9d shows Line 1 containing
the point P1 (3, 8, 5) and parallel to
v1 = 67 + 3] + 5k, and Line 2 containing
(1000, 500, 300)
'\.'\. Flight 1776
v/"'-
»Flight 007
the point P2 (5, 2, 7) and parallel to

v2 = 97 + 7] + lk. Lines 1 and 2 are
skew lines because they are not parallel
yet do not intersect. The cross product
v v
1 x 2 is perpendicular to both lines.
The perpendicular distance d between Figure 10-9e
the two lines is the absolute value of
the scalar projection of f\P2 on this
Find the closest the two planes' paths came
cross product. Find this distance.
to each other using the results of part a,
namely,
d= kv1x v2)· Ml
lv1x v2I
c. The speeds in part b are in feet per second.
Thus, the position vectors of the planes are
Flight 007:
Figure 10-9d r\ = (3000 - lOOt)i + (2000 + 50t)]
+ (0 + 20t)k
b. Airplane Near-Miss Velocity Vector Problem:
Flight 007 took off from the point Flight 1776:
P1 (3000, 2000, 0) on one runway at an r2= (1000 + 40t)7 + (soo+ 2000;
airport, where distances are in feet. At + (300 - lSt)k
the same instant, Flight 1776 was at the
point P2 (1000, 500, 300) preparing to land where the parameter tis time in seconds .
on another runway that crosses the first Write the displacement vector from
one, as shown in Figure 10-9e. Computers Flight 1776 to Flight 007 as a function
in the control tower find that the velocity of time. Using appropriate algebraic or
vectors for the two flights were numerical techniques, find the time tat
which the flights were closest to each other
Flight 001: v1 = -1007 + so] + 20k by finding the value of tat which the
Flight 1776: v2 = 407 + 200] - 15k length of the displacement vector was
a minimum. Explain why the closest the
flights came to each other is not the same
as the closest the two paths came to each
other. Is there cause for concern about
how close the flights came to each other?
498 Chapter
Vector
s
Chapter Test
PART1: Nacalculators
allowed(11-19) T8. Write a vector normal to the plane
- 13x+ lOy- Sz= 22.
Tl. On a copy of Figure 10-9f, complete parts a
and b. T9. What makes a vector a unit vector?
a. Show the direction angles ex,{3,and ;y for v. PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(T10-T27)
b. Mark the three unit vectors 7, ], and k.
Problems T10-Tl7 refer to the vectors
z
v a= s7 + 2] + 9k
b = 37 + 8] + 4k
TlO. Find the resultant of a and b.
Tll . If a and b are placed tail-to-tail, find the
--
y displacement vector from the head of b to the
X
head ofa.
Tl2. Find laland lbl.
Figure 10-9(
Tl3. Find a unit vector in the direction of b.
T2. On a copy of Figure 10-9g, complete parts a
and b. Tl4 . Find the angle between a and b if they are
placed tail-to-tail.
a. Sketch the cross product vector a x LJ
b. Sketch p,the vector projection of a on b. Tl5. Find a vector perpendicular to bot\ a and b.
b Tl6. Find the area of th e triangle with
a and b as two of its sides .
.___.., --+
Tl7. Find the scalar projection of a on b .

~
Problems Tl8-T22 refer to the line with vector

equation
Figur e 10-9g
r = (3 + i d)7+ (s+id)] + (s+ !d)k
T3. What is the major difference in meaning Tl8. Write the coordinates of the fixed point that
between Q ' b and Q X b? appears in th e equation.
T4. Write the definition of a · b. F U i k that
Tl9. Prove that vector i1= + + appears
TS. Given: a= 37 + 2] + 4k in the equation is a unit vector.
b = 17+ 5] + 2k. T20 . Find the point on th e line that is at a directed
a. Find a· b. distance 27 units from the fixed point r
b. Find ax E. ind the directed distan ce from the fixed point
T6. How can you tell quickly whether one three- on the lir\e to t,he poi where the line
intersects the xy-plan .
dimensional vector is perf endicular to another
three-dimensional vector j T22 . Find ;y, the direction angle the line makes with
T7. What does it mean to say that one vector is the z-axis.
normal to another vector?
Sect
ionl 0-9: Chapter
Review
andTest 499
Awning Problem: For Problems T23-T26, an awning T23. Find the particular equation of the plane.
is to be built in the corner of a building, as shown T24. How long will the column on the right be,
in Figure 10-9h. A vertical column on the left of the where x = 0 and y = 12 ft?
awning starts on the x-axis and ends at the point
(10, 0, 7) on the awning. The dimensions are in feet. T25. How high will the awning be at the back
A normal vector to the plane of the awning is corner, where the walls meet?
n = 77 + sJ+ 10k T26. A light fixture is to be located at the
U
oint (4, 6, 9).z ind the vertical distance
between the Ii' ht and tnea ~g. Is th
ght above the awning or below_it? H Iv
an you tell? - -
Figure 10-9h
500 Chap
ter10: Three·Dimensional
Vectors
Matrix Tra nsfor111.ations
and Fractal Figures 11
The gen es of living thin gs contain instructions for the formation

of their par ts . Each part of the chambered nautilus shell is a
transfor mation - a dupli cate of th e original shape, with a different
size an d locat ion . Performing several simple operations iteratively
(over and over, startin g with the pr evious result) can produce an
amazi ngly compli cated obj ect with self -similar parts.
501
r.~
~
In this chapter you will learn how to use matrices (the plural of
matrix.) to transform two-dimensional figures into complex images.
A single transformation, iterated many times, transforms a simple
trapezoid into the snail-like figure below. Iterating several matrix
transformations can produce figures so complex that they have
fractional dimensions. You will study such fractal figures in
four ways.
l0.9 cos 30° 0.9 cos 120° -2 -5

Numerically 0.9 sin 30° 0.9 sin 120°
0 0 rn~ + 5 -5
1 1
-- l5.30 2.19 ...

6.79 ... 4.99 ...
4.35 ...
-4.14 ...
12.141
0.35 ...
1 1 1 1
Graphically Spiraling trapezoids y
Algebraically 50th iteration: [Image]= [transformation] 50 [pre-image]
Verbally iuw.juCMv ~fractional ~iofU.

Surp,ruutjlj;1 Mai:ricM
CMv be,
U£edreuu-sweiyto3enerate,suck,lUW.jM;
c.alledfracta.k/' tUU:lthe,
fractional ~iofU bya.JW.iyW1j
CMv be,ca.LcuLated the, ruuLt of
r~utj iJtfouteiy
thu p,rocus marcy
tU,11,U.
502 Chapter
11:Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figures
11-1 Introduction to Iterated Transformations
In this section you will explore what happens to a two-dimensional figure when
you perform the same transformation over and over, each time app lying the
transformation to the result of the previous transformation. This process is
called iteration. The result of each transformation is also called an iteration.
OBJECTIVESee what happens to the perimeter and area of a square when you perform
the same set of transformations repeatedly (iteratively).
Exploratory Problem Set 11 -1
The left diagram in Figure 11-1a shows a 10-cm by 2. What patt ern do you notice that relates the
10-cm square. To create th e middl e diagram, the total perimeter to the iteration number ? What
original, or pr e-imag e, squar e was transformed into patt ern relates the total area to the iteration
four similar squar es, each with sides whose length number ? What pattern relates the total area to
is 40% of the original sid e length . These image the tota l perimeter?
squares were th en tran slated so that each has a
3. Using the patterns you observed in Problem 2,
corner at one of the corn ers of th e pr e-image. The
find the total perimeter and the total area of
right diagram shows the result of applying the
the third and fourth iterations .
same tran sformation to each of the four squar es
from the first iteration. In this problem set you will 4. Calculate the total perimeter and the total area
explore th e p erim eter and area of various iterations. of the 20th itera tion .
l. Find the perim eter and area of th e pre -ima ge 5. If th e iterations could be performed infinitely
squ are. Find the total p erimeter and area of the man y times, the images would approach a
four squares in the first iteration . Find the total figure called Sierpinski's carpet or Sierpinski's
perimet er and area of th e 16 squares in th e square. What would be the total perimeter of
second iteration. Display th e answers in a table this figure ? What would be the total area? Does
with these column headings: Iteration number, the answer surprise you? (In this chapter you
Side length , Total perim eter, and Total area. will encounter other surprises, such as the fact
that this figure is less than two-dimensional
-o-o
but more than one-dimensional!)
I 168__
_B_a
1. '
loo 1gg_g_a
10 10: :
1 I
I 10
Pre-ima ge
I 10
First iteration
I 10
Seco nd iterat ion
I
Figur e 11-1 a
Section
11-1: Introduction
toIterated
Tran
sformations 503
11-2 Matrix Operations and Solutions
of Linear Systems
In Section 11-1, a pre-image square was duplicated, dilated, and translated to
create four new squares. Iterating these transformations many times creates
images that approach a figure with an infinite number of pieces, zero area, and
infinite perimeter. In this section you will refresh your memory about matrices,
which you may have studied in previous courses. In the rest of the chapter you
will see how you can use matrices to perform these geometric transformations
algebraically.
OBJECTIVES
• Given two matrices, find their sum and product.
• Given a square matrix, find its multiplicative inverse.
• Use matrices to solve a system of linear equations .
A matrix is a rectangular arra y of numbers.
[-12 45 -23] [-~: -~i

9 -8 -6
2 x 3 matrix 3 x 2 matri x 4 x 1 m a trix 2 x 1 ma trix 3 x 3 (square) matrix
The numbers in a matrix are called elements. When the dimensions of a matrix
are stated, the number of rows is always given first. So the first matrix above is
called a 2 x 3 (read "two by three") matrix because it has 2 rows and 3 columns .
A square matrix has the same number of rows and columns. In this section you
will see how to perform operations on matrices.
Additio n and Subtraction

You add or subtract two matrices with the same dimensions by adding or
subtracting their corresponding elements. For instance,
[~
2
3 ~] + [! 6 8]= [98 15
1 3 12
]
6 4
Likewise,
[62 35]-[5427]= [-32 -2]

1
You can add or subtract two matrices only if they have exactly the same
dimensions. Such matric es are called comme nsurate for addition or
subtraction . If you try adding or subtracting incommensurate matrices on
your calculator, you will get an error message.
504 Chapter 11: MatrixTra

nsformat
ionsandFractal
Figures
Multiplication by a Scalar
To multiply a matrix by a scalar (a number), multiply each element of the matrix
by that scalar . For instance,
5[ 2
6
3 4][10
1 -7 = 30
15 20]
5 - 35
Multiplication by a scalar is equivalent to repeated addition. For example,
multiplying a matrix by 5 is equiva lent to adding five of the same matrices.
Multiplication of Two Matrices

To multiply two matrices, use the technique for finding the dot product of two
vectors. The vectors appear as rows in the left matrix and as columns in the
right matrix. The matrix multiplication below shows in boldface the result of
multiplying the third row of the left matrix by the first column of the right
matrix . You enter the result, 33, in the third row and first column of the
product matrix. Notice that the row location corresponds to the row number
from the left matrix and that the column location corresponds to the column
number from the right matrix.
5 -2
~1
[~:~ -~ir~
l~-~[1~
3
1:l 0
=
33 12
Traffic controllers often (row 3) · (column 1) = (5)(6) + (-2)(0) + (3)(1) + (0)(2) = 33

use matri ces to anal yze
traffic flow. For practice, see if you can calculate the other five elements of the product
matrix in your head . To keep your place, slide your left index finger along the
row of the left matrix while sliding your right index finger down the column of
the right matrix.
Make note of these important statements about matrix multiplication .
• To be commensurate for multiplication, the rows of the left matrix must
have the same number of elements as the columns of the right matrix.
• The product matrix has the same number of rows as the left matrix and
the same number of columns as the right matrix .
• Commuting two matrices [Al and [Bl might make them incommensurate
for multiplication . Even when the commuted matrices are commensurate,
the product [B][A] can be different from the product [A][B] . Thus matrix
multiplication is not commutative.
of
Di.uw1.£wn£ produd matri-x
I \
2 x3 3 x4 2 x4
i t
[;)---J c--- -J
Mu,t
v----
~ - - - -
L----=---J
nave, of
Ufua/, ~ers
= - - - -
elemetci:r.
Section
11·2: Motrix
Operations
andSolutions
ofLinear
Systems 50 5
Identitie s and Inverses for Multiplication
of Square Matrices
The 3 x 3 ident ity matrix is the square matrix
[I]=
l O
0
OJ
1 0
[ 0 1
0
An identity matrix is a square matrix with ls along the main diagonal (the
diagonal from the upper left corner to the lower right corner) and Os
everywhere else . Multiplying a square matrix [A] by the identity matrix in either
order leaves [A] unc hanged, as you can check either manually or by calculator.
[~~ ~i[:
0
-; !]
0 1 2 8 -1
= [; -;
2 8 -1
!] and
[: -; ~][~
2
-; ~i
~ ~]=[:
8 -1 0 0 1 2 8 -1
If the product of two square matrices is the identity matrix, then the two
matrices are inverses of each ot h er. The inverse of a matrix [Ml is denoted
[MJ- 1 . For instance,
[83 2][
7 -5
t -tJ[l OJ
5
=
0 1
so
Note that the numerators in the inverse matrix are the elements of the original
matrix but rearranged and changed in sign. The denominators are all 5, which
is the determinan t of the first matrix, written det [M ]. You can find the
determinant of a matrix by using the built-in features on your grapher. For a
2 x 2 matrix, you can calculate the determinant as
det [M] = (upper left times lower right) - (upper right times lower left)
det [! !] = (3)(7) - (2)(8) = 5
An easy way to find the inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix is to interchange the top left
and bottom right elements, change the signs of the other two elements, and
multiply by the reciprocal of the determinant of the matrix. That is,
If[M] = [; !] then [MJ- 1 = 1

det [Ml -c
[ d -b
a
]
The matrix [_~ -;Jis called the adjoint of [M], abbreviated adj [M]. You can
calculate the inverse of any square matrix as
1
[MJ- 1 = · adj [M]
de t [Ml
For square matrices of higher dimension, the adjoint is harder to compute. In
the examples and problems in this text you will use the built-in feature of your
grapher to find the inverse of a matrix.
506 Chapte
r 11: Matrix
Transformatio
ns andFractal
Figures
~ EXAMPLE
I Consid er the matrix [Ml = 5 1 2 .
2 3 4]
6 8 7
[
a. Find [MJ- 1 , and show that [MJ- 1 [Ml equals the identity matrix.
b. Find det [Ml and adj [Ml.
Solution First, enter [Ml using the matrix menu of your grap h er.
a. To find the inverse, pr ess [Ml- 1 .
- 0.18 36... 0.2244 .. . 0.0408. ··]
[MJ- l = - 0.4 693.. . - 0.2040 .. . 0.2365 .. .
[
0.6938... 0.0408 .. . -0. 2653 .. .
To multiply the result by [M], pr ess ans ''[Ml or [MJ-1 [M].
IMJ-'IMI [ ~~ ! ~l Th;sts,h c3 , 3 id enti< y m,,,tx .
b. det [Ml = 49 Press det [Ml on your grapher.
Most graphers cannot calcula te the adjoint of a matrix directly . However,

1
[MJ- 1 = · adj [Ml
det [M]
so you can find adj [Ml this way:
11
1 - 10
adj [Ml = 49 [MJ- = [-;:
34
Note that if the elements of [Ml are integers, then the elements of adj [Ml are
also integers .
Jam es Clerk Maxwell Matrix Solution of a Linear System

(1831-1819), a Scottish
phys icist, deve loped You can use the inverse of a matrix to solve a system of linear equations,
equation s that quantify such as
the relationship between
electricity, magn etism, 2x+ 3y+ 4z= 14
and electromagn etic
Sx + y+ 2z = 24
waves. These equation s
can be expressed in a set 6x+ By+ 7z= 29
of matri x equations.
You can write the left sides of these thr ee equations as the product of two
matrices:
2 3 4][x] [ 2x + 3y + 4zl
5 1 2 y = Sx + y + 2z
[
6 8 7 z 6x + By + 7z
Sec
tion11-2
: Matr
ix Operations
andSolution
sofLinear
Systems 507
So you can write the system as
Let [CJ stand for the coefficient matrix on the far left, [VJ for the 3 x 1 matrix
containing the variables, and [AJfor the 3 x 1 matrix on the right containing the
"answers." You can write this system (or any other system of n linear equations
in n variables) in matrix form:
[CJ[VJ = [AJ
To find the values of the variables in [VJ, you can eliminate [CJ by
left-multiplying both sides of the equation by [CJ-1 :
[CJ- 1 ([CJ[VJ) = [CJ- 1 [AJ
Associating [CJ- 1 and [CJ gives the identity matrix [I].
([CJ-1 [CJ)[VJ= [CJ-1 [AJ
[IJ[VJ = [CJ- 1 [AJ
[VJ= [C] - 1[AJ or [CJ- 1 [AJ = [VJ
For these equations, the calculation is
The solution is x = 4, y = -2, and z = 3.
Problem Set 11-2
Reading Analysis !:J!]} Q3. After two iterations, Sierpinski's square has a
total perimeter that is - ?-% of the
pre-image perimeter .
you consider to be the main idea? The word order
"rows, then columns" appears frequently in Q4.What type of function has the add-multiply
connection with matrices. Explain how this word property for regularly spaced x-values?
order appears in naming the dimensions of a
05. Write the general equation of a power function.
matrix, in determining that two matrices are
commensurate for multiplication, and in writing the 06. Find the slope of the line perpendicular to the
product of two matrices. How can you tell that two graph of the equation 3x + 7y = 41.
matrices are inverses of each other? How can you
Ql. How many degrees are there in an angle with
solve a system of linear equations using matrices?
measure f radians?
QB.Expand the square: (3x - 5)2
Quick Revie ~~
I
09. Find 2% of 300 0.
QI. A square dilated to 40% of its original length
has - ?- % of the original area. QIO.Find (37 - 2] - 7k) · (87 + 6] - k.).
Q2.After two iterations, Sierpinski's square has a
total area that is - ?-% of the pre-image area.
508 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figures
For Problems 1-10, p erform the given operation 9%;loans, 11%. These numbers are represented
by hand . Use your grapher to confirm that your by a yield matrix, [Y].
answers are correct.
[Y] = (0.06 0.09 0.11]
3 5][-5 8] a. Find the product [YJ[M] . Use the produ ct
l.
[ -2
7
4 + 2
1 -7
6
10
matrix to find the annual income the
company earns from investments in Texas.
How much of this comes from mortgages ?
2 [ 1~
7
0 -2 - 6 -4] [4 -5
5 -7
-8
] b . Explain why you cannot find the real-world
11 -3 12 4 -11 3 product [MJ[Y] .
c. Explain why it is impossible in the
3. 4[-8 5 3] - 2[- 5 -1 7] mathematical world to find the product
4. 1[-42 8] + 3[-5
1 2 -6
l] [M][Y] .
12. Virus Problem : A virus sweeps through a high
school, infecting 30% of th e 11th graders and
5. [-2 3 5][~ -1] 20% of the 12th graders, as represented by
matrix [P].
-1 -5
11th 12th
6. [
-1
! ; -~i[-
~ ! ~i
3 4 1 0 2
[P] = [0.3
0.7
0.2]
0.8
Ill
Well
There ar e 100 11th-grad e boys, 110 11th-grade
7. [1 ~][:_:]
7
2 -
girls, 120 12th-grade boys, and 130 12th-grade
girls, as represented by matrix [SJ.
m ~]
0 4 Boys Girls
1 5 [SJ = [ 100 110] 11th grade
8 [~
0 6 120 130 12th grade
9. [: 1][~
~] a. Show that the product [P][S] does not equal
[S][P].
b. Identif y th e rea l-world quantities that th e
3
1
4J[ -3
2 - 23
-1
-1 0 16 2] elements of the product [P][SJ represen t.
10 [~ c. Identif y the real-world quantities that the
5 7 19 8 -13
elements of the product [S][P] represent.
11. Inves tm ent Income Problem: A brok erage
company has investments in four states: For Problems 13 and 14, complete steps a and b.
California, Arkansas, Texas, and South Dakota. a. Find [MJ- 1 . Show th at [MJ- 1 [M] = [I] and
The investments are bonds, mortgages, and that [M][MJ- 1 = [I].
loan s. Matrix [Ml shows the number of b. Find det [M]. Find adj [Ml and show that all
millions of dollar s in each investment in the elements of adj [Ml are integers.
[!! ~i
each stat e.
CA AR TX SD
13 . [M] =
32 8
15
[M] = 15 20 17 9
2] Bonds
Mortgages
5 8 9
i -i-;J1
[
~
14 22 23 7 Loans
The percentages of annual income that the 14. [M]=l
investments yield are bonds, 6%; mortgages,
-5 4 9 7
Section
11-2
: Matrix
Operations
andSolutions
ofLinear
Systems 509
For Problems 15 and 16, find det [Ml. Explain why 20. Quartic Function Problem: The general
your grapher gives you an error message when you equation of a quartic (fourth-degree) function
try to find [MJ-1 . Then state what you think a is y = ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e, where a, b, c, d,
determinant "determines." and e stand for constants. Find the particular
equation of the quartic function that contains
!] l 25 63]
16. [Ml = 4
the points (1, 15), (2, 19), (3, 75), (4, 273), and
15. [Ml= [:
[7 8 9 (5, 751). Use the equation to predict the value
of ywhen x equals -3.
For Problems 17 and 18, solve the system of 21. Show that matrix multiplication is not
equations using the inverse of a matrix. commutative by showing that
17. 5x+ 3y- 7z= 3
lOx - 4y + 6z = 5
15x+ y-8z=-2
22. Show that matrix multiplication is not a
18. w- 5x + 2y- z = -18 well-defined operation, because not all
3w+ x- 3y+ 2z= 17 ordered pairs of matrices can be
4w - 2x+ y- z= -1 multiplied.
-2w+ 3x- y+ 4z= 11
23. Multipliers of Zero Problem: For real numbers,
19. Quadratic Function Problem: Recall that a the zero-product property states that if the
quadratic function has the general equation product of two factors is 0, th en at least one
y = ax 2 + bx + c. To find the equation of the of the factors is 0. Show that this property is
particular function that contains the points false for matrix multiplication by finding two
(4, 13), (6, 29), and (8, 49), substitute each pair 2 x 2 matrices whose product is the zero
of x- and y-values into the general equation matrix (the matrix in which each element is 0)
to get three linear equations with the three but for which no element of either matrix is 0.
unknown constants a, b, and c. Solve them (Find a matrix whose determinant is 0, and
as a system to find the particular quadratic multiply it by its adjoint matrix.) The two
function that contains these three points. Use matrices you find are called multipliers
the equation to predict the value of y when of zero.
x equals 20.
11-3 Rotation and Dilation Matrices

Matrices have many uses both in the real world and in the mathematical world.
One use is transforming geometric figures. In this section you will see how to
write a matrix that will rotate or dilate a figure.
OBJECTIVEGiven a desired dilation and rotation, write a matrix that will perform
the transformations when it is multiplied by a matrix representing a
geometric figure.
510 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figure
s
Dilations
y You can represent a figure in the plane by a matrix with two rows. For instance,
10
you can represent the smaller triangle in Figure ll-3a by this matrix:
5
[M] = [~
51 2l]
L~' x
s 10 Each column represents an ordered pair corresponding to one of the vertices.
The top element is the x-coordinate, and the bottom element is the y-coordinate.
Fig ure ll- 3a If you multiply the identity matrix by 2, you get
[Tl= 2[J] = 2[~ ~] = [~ ~]
You can use [T] as a transformation matrix. The product [Tl[Ml is the image
matrix .
[TJ[Ml = [~
10 2]
2 4
If you plot the ordered pairs represented by this matrix , you get the vertices of
th e larger (solid) triangle in Figure ll -3a. The sides of this image triangle are
twice as long as those of th e original triangle (the pre-image ). Each point on
th e image is twice as far from the origin as the corresponding point on the
pr e-image. The transformation represented by [Tl dilates the entire Cartesian
plane by a factor of 2, doubling the side lengths of any figure on the plane.
1n general, you dilate by a factor of k by multiplying by the general dilation
matrix .
PROPERTY:
General
Dilation
Matrix
Matrix [Tl dilates a figure by a factor of k with respect to the origin:
[T]=[i
~]
Rotations
y You can write the id enti ty matrix this way:
(0, 1)
0
l OJ = [cos 0° cos go
'\ 35° [0 1 sin 0° sin goo
]
''
''
' ,' 35° X The 1 and the O in the first column are the coordinates of the endpoint of a unit
(1, 0) vector along the positive x-axis. Similarly, the O and the 1 in the second column
ar e the coordinates of the endpoint of a unit vector pointing in the positive
Fig ure ll- 3b direction on the y-axis. A rotation 35° counterclockwise moves the endpoints
of these unit vectors as shown in Figure ll-3b. The coordinates of the
new endpoints are (cos 35°, sin 35°) and (cos 125°, sin 125°), respectively.
Section
11-3
: Rotation
andDilation
Matri
ces 511
r.~
Ll.t
Replacing 0° and 90° in the identity matrix with 35° and 125°, respectively,
gives a matrix [Tl that rotates a figure 35° counterclockwise with respect to
the origin.
[Tl= [cos 35° cos 125°1

sin 35° sin 125°
The angle in the first column is the number of degrees by which the figure is
rotated. The angle in the second column is 90° more than the rotation angle.
The general rotation matrix for an angle 8 is shown in the following box .
PROPERTY:
General
Rotation
Matrix
Matrix [Tl rotates a figure in the plane counterclockwise by an angle 8.
[T] = [cos 8 cos (8 + 90°)1

sin 8 sin (8 + 90°)
Verbally: "The x-axis rotates to the position of angle 8. The y-axis rotates to
the position of angle 8 plus 90°."
~ EXAMPLE
1 Write a transformation matrix that will rotate a figure clockwise 70° and
dilate it by a factor of 1.6. Use it to transform the small pre-image triangle in
Figure ll -3a. Plot the pre-image and the image on graph paper.
Solution The desired transformation matrix is the product of the dilation matrix and the
rotation matrix. Note that the rotation is clockwise, so the rotation angle is - 70°.
0 ][cos (-70°) cos 20°] 20° is 90° + (-70 °).

1.6 sin(-70°) sin20°
= [1.6 cos (-70°) 1.6 cos 20°]
1.6 sin(-70°) 1.6 sin 20°
To find the image matrix, multiply [Tl by the earlier pre-image matrix [M]:
1.6 cos (-70°) 1.6 cos 20°1[1 5 211

[T][M]= [ l.6sin(-70°) l.6sin20° 1 1
= [ 2.0507... 4.2396.. . 3.5542 ... J
-0 .9562.. . -6.9703.. . -0.4090 .. .
,x Figure ll -3c shows the pre-image (dashed) and the image (solid) plotted on
10
graph paper . You can confirm with a protractor that the image has been rotated
clockwise 70°. You can confirm with a ruler that each point on the image is
1.6 times as far from the origin as the corresponding point on the pre-image.
Thus, the lengths of sides in the image have been multiplied by 1.6. -<llil
Figure 11-3c
Iterated Transformations
Iterating a transformation means performing the transformation over and
over, each time operating on the image that resulted from th e previous
transformation .
512 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformation
s andFractal
Figures
~ EXAMPLE
2 Write a transformation matrix [A) that will rotate a figure counterclockwise 60°
and dilate it by a factor of 0.9. Starting with the pre -image triangle [Ml from
Example 1, apply [Al iteratively for four iterations . Plot the pre-image and each
of the four images on graph paper. Describe the pattern formed by the triangles.
Solution [A] = [0.9 cos 60° 0.9 cos 150°]

0.9 sin 60° 0.9 sin 150°
-0.3 1.5 -1.1]
[A][M]""'[ 1.2 4 .3 Display only one decimal place to make
1.7 plotting easier.
y
[A l Ans"' [-1.1 -2 .7 -1.8] Multiply [A] by the unrounded result of
0.3 3.1 -0 .1 the previous iteration.
[-0 .7 -3.6
[A] Ans""' _ _
-0 .7]
X
0 7 -0.7 -1.5
-1.1
[A]Ans""' [ 0.2 -1.2 ]
-0.9 -3.2 -1.2
Plot the images on graph paper.
As shown in Figure ll-3d, the images get smaller, and they spiral toward th e
Figure ll- 3d origin as if they were "attracted" to it. ....
In Problem 15, you will write a program to calculate and plot image matrices
iteratively on your grapher.
Problem Set 11 -3
Reading Analysis t1!J/ Q4. Based on your answer to Problem Q3, matrix
addition is a(n) -?- operation.
consider to be the main idea? Write the 2 x 2 identity
matrix and show how it can be written using cosines QS.Find[! ~][~ ; ].
and sines. How would this form of the identity matrix
be changed so that it rotates an image by 2 7°? How
would this rotation matrix be changed so that it also
dilates the image by a factor of 0.7?
Q6. Find[~ ;][! a
Ql. Does [A)[B)always equal [B)[A)?
Quick Review
,---,"v 5
,, '%
LJ QB.Find det [~ a
Ql. Find [! ~] + [~ ;]. 4
Q9. Find [ l
7]-1.
6
Q2.Find [~ ;] + [! ~]. QIO.The position vector for the point (3, -7, 5)
is-? -.
Q3. Does [A] + [BJ always equal [BJ + [A)?
Section
l l-3: Rotation
andDilation
Matrices 513
10. Rotate the pre-image dart in Problem 8
counterclockwise 70°.
11. Dilate the pre-image triangle in Problem 7 by a
factor of 3 and rotate it clockwise 50°.
12. Dilate the pre-image dart in Problem 8 by a
factor of 2 and rotate it counterclockwise 70°.
For Problems 13 and 14, write a matrix for the given
pre-image, describe the effect the transformation
matrix [AJ will have, and then iterate four times. Plot
each image on graph paper or on a copy of the figure .
l3. [A]= [0.8 cos 20° 0.8 cos 110°]
0.8 sin 20° 0.8 sin 110°
During World War II, Navajo Code Talkers
created a code based on the Navajo language - applied to Figure ll-3e
a code that the Germans and Japanese could
14_ [A]= [0.7 cos (-40°) 0.7 cos 50°]
not break. Matrices are often used to create and
break secret codes. 0. 7 sin (- 40°) 0. 7 sin 50°
applied to Figure ll -3f
For Problems 1-6, draw the pre-image represented
by the matrix on the right. Assume that the points y y
are connected in the order they appear to form a
closed figure. Then carry out the multiplication and ~
I
plot the image. Describe the transformation. I

I I ; ?
X X
l.
[~~][~ ~] 2. [~
3
2 ~][~
3
1 !] I
;'
,, \
~
j S::
,.
3. [t f][! - 3 -3 -:J
2 -4 :
[t f][~0 12 1~]
-3 -3 Figure ll-3e Figure 11-3{
4.
15. Grapher Program for Iterat ive Transformations:
3 6 Write or download a program from
0.8 1 2 2 :J
5. [0.8 -0. 6][3 www .keymath
.com/precalc
to perform iterative
0.6
transformations. The program should allow
6. [ 0.8
-0.6
0.6][1
0.8 2
1
5 ~] you to store a transformation matrix as [A] and
a pre-image matrix as [DJ. When you run the
program, the grapher should first store a copy
For Problems 7-12, write a transformation matrix,
and then use it to transform the given figure. Plot of [DJ as [El and plot the pre-image on the
the pre-image and the image, confirming that your screen . When you press ENTER, the grapher
transformation matrix is correct. should multiply [Al times [E], store the result
back in [EL plot the image, and then pause
7. Dilate this triangle by a factor of 3. until the ENTER key is pressed again. Check
your program using the transformation and
[~31 45] pre-image in Example 2.
16. Grapher Program Test: Run your program
8. Dilate this dart by a factor of 2.
from Problem 15 using the transformation
3 5 and pre-image in Problem 14. Sketch the path
[~ 2 1 followed by the uppermost point in the
pre-image. To what fixed point do the images
9. Rotate the pre-image triangle in Problem 7 seem to be attracted?
clockwise 50°.
514 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figures
For Problems 17- 20, write a transformation matrix Transformations Exploration. Use the buttons to
[Al for the transformation described. view the effects of multiplying the pre-image by
the reflection matrix, by the dilation matrix, and
17. Rotation counterclockwi se 90°
by the rotation matrix. Observe the effects on
18. Rotation 180° the image of changing the values of r for the
dilation matrix and e for the rotation matrix.
19. Dilation by a factor of 5 with respect to the origin
Answer the questions asked, and explain in
20. Dilation by a factor of 0.9 with respect to writing what you learned from this problem.
the origin
22. Journal Problem: Write in your journal the
most important thing you have learned as a
result of studying matrix transformations .
21. Dynami c Matrix TransformaHons Problem: Go to
www.keymath
.com/precalc
and complete the Matrix
11-4 Translation with Rotation

and Dilation Matrices
In the previous section you saw how to use a transformation matrix to rotate
and dilate a figure in the plane. In this section you will learn how to use a
matrix to translate a figure to a new position without changing its size or
ori entation. Then you will explore the combined effects of rotating, dilating, and
tr anslating a figure iteratively. Surprisingly, the iterated images are attracted to
a fixed point if the dilation reduces the images in size .
OBJECTIVEGiven a desired dilation, rotation, and translation, write a matrix that will
perform the transformation when it is multiplied by a pre-image matrix, and
find the fixed point to which the images are attracted .
Translations
y Figure ll-4a shows the (dashed) rectangle represented by this pre-image matrix:
20
[Ml=[~
6 6 2]
2 3 3
10 Th e (solid) image shows the rectangle translate d 5 units in the x-direction
and 3 units in the y-direction. You accomplish this translation algebraically
c:::::::::J
lmage
by adding 5 to each x-coordinate in the top row of [Ml and adding 3 to each
C::: Pre-image X y-coordinate in the bottom row. You could perform this translation using
10 20 matrix addition:
Figur e 11-4a
3
5 5
3 !]+ [~
62 36 32]= [7
5
11
5
117]
6 6
However, there is a way to accomplish the translation by multiplying by a
transformation matrix rather than by adding.
Section
11-4: Translation
withRotation
andDilation
Matrices 51 5
First, insert a third row into [Ml containing all ls. Then write a 3 x 3
transformation matrix [Tl containing the identity matrix in the upper left
corner, the translations 5 and 3 in the third column, and the row 0, 0, 1 across
the bottom.
[Tl[Ml = [~
0
~
0
:i[~~ :~i
1 1 1 1 1
If you multiply these matrices, the image matrix is
7 11117]
[Tl[Ml = 5
[1 51 61 61
The translated figure's coordinates appear along the top two rows, and the
bottom row of the image matrix contains all ls. If you multiply the matrices
by hand, you will see what has happened. The ls in the bottom row of the
pre-image matrix, together with the third column of the translation matrix, caus e
the translations by 5 units and 3 units to take place. The row 0, 0, 1 in the
transformation matrix caus es 1, 1, 1, 1 to appear in the bottom row of the
image matrix.
Combined Translations, Dilations, and Rotations

The preceding translation matrix [Tl, as mentioned, has the identity matrix in
its upper left corner:
l O 5]
[Tl=
[ 0 1
0
0
1 3
If you replace this embedded identity matrix with a rotation and dilation matrix,
multiplying a pre-image matrix by [Tl performs all the transformations.
~ EXAMPLE
1 Write a transformation matrix [Tl to rotate a figure counterclockwise 30°, dilate
it by a factor of 0.8, and translate it 5 units in the positive x-direction and
3 units in the positive y-direction. Perform the transformation on the kite
specified by matrix [M). Plot the pre-image and the image.
8 10 12 10]
[Ml= 7 2 7 8
[
1 1 1 1
Solution The transformation matrix has the rotation and dilation matrix in the upper left
corner. The translations appear in the third column.
0.8 cos 30° 0.8 cos 120° 5~]
[Tl = 0.8 s~n 30° 0.8 sin 120°
[
0
516 Chapter
11: Matrix
Tran
sformations
andFractal
Figures
~ 20
y The image is
7.74 25 .. .
[T][M] = 11.0~97 .. .
11.1282 ...
8.3856 ...
10.5138 .. .
12.6497 .. .
8.7282 ... l
12.5~25 .. .
l
[
1 1
-10 c~
N 7.7 11.l
, 10.5 8.7
I '1
\ I :::::11.0 8.4 12.6 12.5
\
,,I [
1 1 1 1
X
10
The pre-image and image are shown in Figure ll -4b. If you are plotting
on paper, you will find it easier if you set your grapher to round to one
Figu re ll -4b
decimal place.
If the transformation of Exampl e 1 is p erformed iterati vely, the images spiral

around and are attracte d to a fixed point . Unlike the pur e dilation and rotation
transfor mations of the previo u s section, howeve r, the attractor is not the origin .
You can use the program from Problem Set 11-3, Prob lem 15, to plot the iterated
images and th en find the approxima te coordinates of this fixed point.
.... EXAMPLE
2 Perform the transformation of Example 1 iterative ly. Sketch the resulting images .
Estimate the coordinates of th e point to which the image s are attracted.
Solution Figure ll-4c shows the images from the first few iterations and the spiral path
followed by the images from subsequent iterations .
y Graphica lly, the images seem to be attracted to the point at about (1.3, 11.5). To
20 1---~t--~t--~+- estimate th e coordinates of th e point num erically, you can displa y the matrix
where the program stores the images (matrix [£]). After 30 iterations, th e imag e
matrix is
1.3122 ... 1.3098 .. . 1.307 3 .. . 1.3098." ]
, ', 11.4~ 14 ... 11.4976 .. . 11.49 14 ... 11.4~01...
I
\ I
/
[
1 1
\
,,I
X As you can see, each po int in th e image has been attract ed to a point close to
10 the point (1.31, 11.49). This point is called a fixe d poin t attractor or simply a
Figure ll -4c
fixed point b ecaus e if you apply the transformation to it, it do es not move -
that is, it remains fixed . <411
Fixed Point Attractors and Limits

The fixed point attractor is the limit of the image point s as the number of
itera tions approaches infinity . The fixed point depen ds only on the
transformation matrix, not on the pre-image. Using (x 0 , y 0 ) for a pre -image
point, (x1 , y 1) for the image after the first iteration, (x2 , y 2 ) for the image after
the seco nd iteration, and so forth, and using (X, Y) for th e fixed point, you can
write the limit as descri bed in the box on th e next page .
Section
11-4:Tra
nslation
withRotation
andDilation
Matrices 5 17
t;.~
~
DEFINITION:
FixedPointLimit
If the images approach a fixed point (X, Y) when a transformation [Tl is
applied iteratively, then
(X, Y) = lim
n,...oo
(Xn, Yn)
where (xn, Yn) is the image of a point (x 0 , y0) after n iterations.

Verbally: "(X, Y) is the limit of (xn, Yn) as n approaches infinity."
It is possibl e to calculate a fixed point algebraicall y and numerically .
.... EXAMPLE
3 Calculate algebra ically the fixed point in Example 2.
Solution If the fixed point is (X, Y), then applying the transformation [Tl to (X, Y)
will give (X, Y) as the imag e. Write the fixed point, (X, Y), as a 3 x 1 matrix and
multiply it by the transformation matrix.
0.8 cos 30°

0.8 sin 30°
0.8 cos 120°
0.8 sin 120°
5][X]
3 =
[X]
Y Y
The image is the same
as the pre-image.
[
0 0 1 1 1
(0.8 cos 30°)x + (0.8 cos 120 °)Y +

(0.8sin30°)x+(0.8sinl20°)Y+3
5]= [X]
Y Multiply the matrices on the left.
[
1 1
(0.8 cos 30°)x + (0.8 cos 120°)Y + 5 = X Equate the top two rows of
the matric es.
(0.8 sin 30°)X + (0.8 sin 120°)Y + 3 = Y
(0.8 cos 30° - 1)x + (0.8 cos 120°)Y = -5 Get X and Yon the left and the
constants on the right.
(0.8 sin 30°)X + (0.8 sin 120° - l)Y = -3
08 300 1 0 8 1200
· cos
[ 0.8 - · cos ][X] = [-S J Write the system in matrix form.
sin 30° 0.8 sin 120° - 1 Y -3
1
X] = [0.8 c~s 30 ° - 1 0.8 cos 120: ]- [-5] = [1.3205 ... ]
[Y 0.8sm30 0 0.8sml20 -1 -3 11.4858... Solve.
The fixed point is (1.3205 ... , 11.4858 .. .), which confirms the approximate values
found graphically and numerically. <111111
If you apply transformation [Tl iterative ly to matrix [M], the images are
Iteration 1: [TJ[Ml
Iteration 2: [Tl([T][Ml) = ([T][T])[Ml = [Tl 2 [Ml
Iteration 3: [Tl([TJ([T][MJ)) = ([T][T][T])[M] = [T ]3[M]
518 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figures
These equations are true because matrix multiplication is associative . To find
[T]30
-0.0012 .. . 0.0000 .. .
= 0.0000 . .. -0.0012 .. .
[
0 0
1.3222 ...
11.5~00 .. .
l
the transformation matrix for the 30th iteration , you would calculate
The four elements in the rotation and dilation part of th e matrix are close to zero
because the dilation, 0.8, is less than 1 and is being rais ed to a high power. The
two elements in th e translation part of the matrix are close to the coordinates of
the fixed point. If the rotation and translation elements were equal to zero, the
res ulting matrix would translate any point (a, b) to the fixed point.
Example 4 shows you how to take advantage of this fact to find the fixed point
numerically.
IJi,-EXAMPLE
4
Solution
0.0000...
[T]l OO= 0.0000...
[
0
0.0000 .. .
0.0000 .. .
0
1.3205 ...
11.4~58 .. .
l
Calcula te the fixed point in Example 2 numerically in a time-efficient way.
Raise [Tl to a high power.

Be sure the rotation- dilation is
close to zero.
The fixed point is (X, Y)"" (1.3205 .. ., 11.4858 .. .). Fixed point is in the
tr anslatio n part of
th e matrix.
The information in Examples 1 through 4 is summarized in this box .
PROPERTY:
General
Rotation,Dilation,
andTranslation
Matrix
When applied to a matrix of the form
X1 X2 , · ·]
[M] = Y1 Y2 · · ·
[
1 1 ...
the transformation matrix
d cos A d cos (A + 90°) h~l

[T] = d sinA d sin(A + 90°)
[
0 0
• Dilates by a factor of d
0
• Rotates counterclockwise A
• Translates by h units in the x-direction and k units in they-direction
The techniques for finding the fixed point are sµmmarized in th e box on the
next page .
Section
11-4: Translation
withRotation
andDilation
Matrice
s 5 19
PROCEDURE:
FixedPointal a Linear
Transformation
If a linear transformation has a fixed point (X, Y), then
(X, Y) = lim
n~ co
(xn, Yn)
where (Xn, Yn) is the image of a point (x 0 , y 0 ) after n iterations of

transformation matrix [T].
To find the fixed point (X, Y) algebraically :
L Wrtte the equation ~ [fl

[T]m
2. Multiply the matrices on the left side of the equation .
3. Equate the elements in the first and second rows of the resulting matrix
on the left to X and Y in the matrix on the right .
4. Solve the resulting system of equations for X and Y.
To find the fixed point (.X,Y) numerically:
1. Raise [Tl to a high power .
2. Make sure the rotation and dilation elements are close to zero .
3. Write the fixed point from the translation part of the resulting matrix .
Problem Set 11 -4
Reading Analysis {![/} Q4.If [Ml = [; !].find det [M].

consider to be the main idea? Translating an image is QS.Find [MJ- 1 for [Ml in Problem Q4.
a process of addition. Explain how a translation can
Q6. Find [MJ- 1 [Ml for [Ml in Problem Q4.
be accomplished by matrix mu ltiplication by a clever
choice of the transformation matrix. What happens
to the images under an iterative application of a
transformation matrix that reduces the size of the
image, translates, and rotates? Why is the word limit
used to describe what happens?
Quick Review ~ w.,~

QI. What is the dilation factor for an 80% reduction?
Q2.Find the image of the point (1, 0) under a

Three-dimensiona l video
rotation counterclockwise 30°.
images are created from
Q3.Find the dimensions of [AJ[Bl if [A] is 3 x 5 and iterated transformations
of a pre-image.
[BJiS 5 X 2.
520 Chapter
11: Matrix
Tran
sformations
andFract
al Figures
07. Find [M]2 for [Ml in Problem Q4. what fixed point do the images seem to be
attracted?
QB.Explain why [DJ = [~ ~] has no multiplicative c. Find the approximate location of the fixed
inverse. point numerically by finding [A]1°0 [Ml.
Does it agree with the answer you found
09. Find the dot product graphically in part b?
(37 + 7] - 2k) · (47 - ] + 5k).
d . Find the location of the fixed point
010. Is the angle between the two vectors in algebraically . Show that your answer agrees
Problem Q9 acute or obtuse? with the answers you found grap hicall y and
numerically in parts b and c.
1. Consider the rectangle with vertices (3, 2), 3. Fixed Point Prob lem: Figure ll-4d shows a
(7, 2), (7, 4), and (3, 4). rectangle that is to be the pre-image for a set
a. Plot the rectangle on graph paper. Write a of linear transformations. In this problem
transformation matrix [A] to rotate this you will find out which matrix determin es the
rectangle counterclockwise 20°, dilate it by fixed point, the tr ansformation matrix or the
a factor of 0.9, and translate it 6 units in the pre-image matrix.
x-direction and -1 unit in the y-direction .
y
Write a matrix [Ml for the pre-image
rectangle, apply the transformation, and
plot the image on graph paper.
b. Enter the matrices into your grapher and
app ly the transformation in part a iteratively,
plotting the images using the program from 5 1-----+--- t-----t----i-----i-
Section 11-3, Problem 15. Sketch the path
followed by the images. To what fixed point X
do the images seem to be attracted? -5 5 10 15 20 25
c. Find the approximate location of the fixed
point numerically by finding [Al100 [Ml.
Does it agree with the answer you found Figure 11-4d
graphically in part b?
d. Find the location of the fixed point a. Describe the transformations accomplished
algebraically. Show that your answer agre es by matrix [Ti].
with the answers you found graphically and 0.8 cos (-20°) 0.8 cos 70° 2]
numerically in parts b and c. [T1 l = 0.8 sin (-20°) 0.8 sin 70° 6
[
2. Consider the dart with vertices (7, 1), (9, 2), 0 0 1
(11, 1), and (9, 5).
b. Write a matrix [Mil for the rectangle in Figure
a. Plot the dart on graph paper. Write a ll-4d . Apply [T1 l iterati vely to [M1] using your
transformation matrix [Al to rotate the grapher program . To what fixed point do the
dart counterclockwise 40°, dilate it by a images converge? Show this fixed point on a
factor of 0.8, and translate it -3 units in the copy of Figure l l -4d, along with the path the
x-direction and 4 units in the y-direction. images follow to reach this point .
Write a matrix [Ml for the pre-image figure,
c. Apply [Ti] iteratively to another rectangle, [M2]
apply the transformation, and plot the
below. Are the images attracte d to the same
image on the graph paper.
fixed point as the images of [Mil? Sketch the
b . Enter the matrices into your grap her and pre-image and the path the images follow.
apply the transformation in part a
iteratively, plotting the images using the
program from Section 11-3, Problem 15.
Sketch the path followed by the images. To
~~
1
-~
~i
1 1
Section
11-4:Translat
ionwithRotation
ondDilation
Matrices 521
d. Write a transformation matrix [T2 ] that attractor, the transformation matrix or the
performs this set of transformations: pre-image matrix? Does applying [T2 ] to [M2 ]
• A 70% reduction; that is, a dilation by a support your conclusion7
factor of 0. 7 4. Third Row Problem: Multiply the given
• A rotation counterclockwise 35° matrices "by hand." From the results, explain
• A translation 7 units in th e x-direction the effect of the elements 1, 1 in the third row
and -3 units in they-direction of the pre-image matrix [M]. Explain the
effect of the elements 0, 0, 1 in the third row
Apply [T2 ] iteratively to the rectangle
of the transformation matrix [Tl and why it
represented by [M 1 ]. Are the images
is important for these eleme nts to have this
attracted to the same fixed point as the
effect.
images generated by [Ti]? On a copy of
Figure ll -4d, sketch the path the images
follow to reach the fixed point. 0 7][85]
2 3 4 9
e. Based on your results in part s b-d, which 0 1 1 1
determines the location of the fixed point
11-5 Strange Attractors for Several Iterated

Transformations
In the previous section you saw how an iterated transformation can cause
images to be attracted to a fixed point . In this section you will see what happens
when several different transformations are applied iteratively. Inst ead of being
attracted to a single point, the images are attr acted to a figure of remarkable
comp lexity. Sometimes thes e strange attractors have shapes that look like trees,
ferns, snowflakes, or island s.
y y
,- - -10
I
- -- - - -- , 10
I
I
. .
I ~Body
I
Leaf
X
~ ---- - -- -- I ~~~-+- X
-2 0 2 -2 0 2
Figur e 11-Sa Figur e 11-Sb
Pre-image First iteration
522 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figure
s
OBJECTIVE
Given several different transformations, apply them iteratively, starting with a
pre-image, and plot the resulting images.
Strange Attractors Graphically

Figure ll-5a shows a rectangular pre-image whose matrix is
[M) = [~
1
1~
1
~~
1
-~i
1
Figure 11-Sb shows the four images that result from applying four
transformations-[A], [BJ, [CJ, and [DJ- to the pre-image in Figure ll-5a .
The image matrices represe nting these transformations are
0.8 cos 3° 0.8 cos 93° OJ [1.6 1.2 -2 .0 - 1.6]

[A][M] = 0.8sin3° 0.8sin93 ° 3 [Ml"" 3.1 11.1 10.9 2.9
[
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
[B][M] =
[0.3 cos 52
' 0.3 cos 142 °
OJ [04
0.3 s: 52° 0.3 sin 142 ° ~ [M)"" \6
-2.0
4.3
-2.7
3.4
-04]
1.5
0 1 1 1
[0.3
cos (-46 ' ) 0.3 cos 44°
OJ [04 2.6 1.7
-04]
[CJ[MJ = 0.3 sin (-46°) 0.3sin44 ° ~ [M]"" \6 4.7 5.5 3.4
0 0 1 1 1
r
Self-similar
pie ces
X X
-2 0 2 -2 0 2
Figure 11-Sc
Second iteration
Section
11-5: Strange
Attractors
forSeveral
Iterated
Transformations 523
0
[D)IM] • [~
OJ [O O O OJ
0.3 0 [M] = 0 3 3 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
The first three transformations are dilations and rotatio n s. Matrix [DJ is a
dilation by 0.3 unit in they-direction and by O unit in the x-direction, shrinking
th e rectang le to a line segme nt along the y-axis.
Figure ll-5c shows the 16 images that result from app lying each of the four
transformations to each of th e four images from the first iteration . Note that the
figure created by this secon d iteration has three pieces that are similar to each
other and to the image from the first iteration. Each piece has a linear "stem," a
large rectangle coming out of the stem (body), and two small rectangles at the
base of the large rectangle (leaves). A fourth piece is a lon g stem extending
down to the origin.
With a third iteration, each of the four transformations is applied to the 16
images from the second iteration, giving 64 new images. The 20t h iteration has
4 20 , or l,099,511,627,776, images and resembles the fern leaf in Figure ll-5d.
Strange Attractors Numerically-Barnsley's Method

As you have seen, plotting images created by applying several transformations
iteratively can be tedious. In 1988, Michael Barnsley pub lished a method for
plotting such images more efficient ly. Instead of starting with a pr e-image
figur e, you start with one point. You then select one of th e four transformations
at random, apply it to that point, and plot the image point. Then you again
select one of the four transformations at ran dom, app ly it to the first image,
and plot the new point. As more and mor e points are plotted, there are regions
to which the points are attracted and regions that they avoid. The resulting
image is an approximation of the image you would get by carrying out the
iterations in Figure ll-5c an infinite number of times. The more points you plot,
the better the approximatio n. Figure ll-5d shows this strange attractor plotted
with 200 points, 1000 points, and 5000 points.
]i{;1:~,
: ::.,·;--
200 point s 1000 po int s 5000 points

Figure 11-5d
If you were to magnify any one of the branches of the fern leaf by the proper
amount, it would look exactly like the whole leaf. Figures with this quality are
said to be self-similar. In Section 11-6, you will learn about such images, called
fractals. They are so "fractured" that their dimensions turn ou t to be fractions.
524 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal Figures
The technique of plotting a strange attractor
pointwise is called Barnsl ey's method. To
give the images reasonable point densities,
you must select a probability for each
transforma tion. For Figur e 11-Sd there was an
80% probability of picking transformation [A],
which produces the main form of the leaf; a
9% probability for each of [Bl and [CJ, which
produce the two side branches; and a
2%probability for [DJ, which draws the
stem of the fern leaf.
Self-similarity is readily appar ent

in cauliflower.
PROCE
DURE
: Barnsley's
Method
To plot a strange attractor pointwise :
l. Select several transformation matrices with dilation factors less than l.
2. Select a probability for each matrix.
3. Select any point to be the pre -image.
4. Pick a transformation at random using the appropriate probability, apply
the transformation to the point, and plot the image.
5. Repeat the previous step on the image from the iteration before. Do this
for as many iterations as you choose.
Problem Set 11 -5
Reading Analysis Ll!J}

you consider to be the main idea? If a strange
attractor is constructed by applying three different
transformations iteratively starting with one pre-
image, how do you find th e number of images in the
second , third, and fourth iterations? How does
Barnsley's method of constructing a strange attractor
differ from constructing all images for each iteration?
The Ba-ila sett lement in southern Zambia has a
fractal design .
Quick Review
03. Write a 3 x 3 matrix for a 60%reduction, a rotation
counterclockwise 23°, an x-translation 4 units,
and a y-trans lation -3 units.
Q2. Write a 2 x 2 matrix to rotate a figure 04. After a 60% reduction, a segment 10 cm long is
clockwise 12°. -? - cm long .
Section
11-5
: Strange
Attractors
forSeveral
Iterated
Transformations 525
Q5. A 60% reduction transforms a 100-cm 2 y
rectangle to a rectangle with area-?-.
Q6. If a rotation takes the x-axis to e = 40°, then it
takes the y-axis to e = -?-.
Ql. Write cos 30° exactly, in radical form.
QB.By the cofunction property, what does

sin(¥ - x) equa l?
Q9. How many degrees are there in If radians? X
Q10. a is 7 units long, bis 8 units long, and the

angle between them when they are placed
tail-to-tail is 38°. How long is a x b?
l. Sierpinski's Triangle Problem: Figure ll -5e Figure 11-5{

shows a triangular pre-image whose matrix is First iteration
15 0 -15] a. Write the transformation matrices [AJ, [BJ,

[M] = -10 20 -10 and [CJ.
[
1 1 1 b. Apply the nine transformations required for
the second iteration. That is, calculate the
Figure ll-5f shows the first iteration of three
images [AJ[A][M], [A][B][M], [A][ CJ[M],
transformations. Each transformation reduces
[B][A][M]. [B][B][M], [BJ[CJ[M]. [CJ[AJ[M].
the triangle by 50%.Transformation [A]
[CJ[BJ[M]. and [CJ[CJ[MJ.
translates the dilated image so that its lower
right vertex coincides with the lower right c. On graph paper, plot the nine images from
vertex of the pre-image. Transformation [B] the second iteration in part b.
translates the dilated image so that its lower left d. How many images will be in the
vertex coincides with the lower left vertex of the third iteration ? The 20th iteration?
pre-image. Transformation [Cl translates the e. Find the area of the pre-image triangle. Find
dilated image so that its upper vertex coincides the total area of the three triangles in the
with the upper vertex of the pre-image. first iteration. Use what you observe in
these calculations to find a formula for the
y total area of the nth image.
f. If the iterations are performed infinitely,
the figure is called Sierpinski's triangle
or Sierpinski's gasket. What is the area
of Sierpinski's triangle? Does the answer
surprise you?
1 :
~•~u:-----••••• •··-•-· :~-•- .. : • •
2. Sierpinski's Square Problem: Figure 11-Sg
i i shows the square pre-image whose matrix is
! ! X
20 20 0
-is li
:
l
1
'
!
j
15
[M] = 2~
[
0 0
1 1
2~]
i i
Figur e 11-5e
Pre-image
526 Chapter
l l: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figure
s
Figure 11-Sh shows the first iteration of select a transformation at random, apply it to
four transformations. Each transformation the preceding image, and plot the new image.
reduces the square by 40%. The four trans-
4. Barnsley's Method Program Debugging : Test
formations then translat e the reduced images
your program for Barnsle y's m ethod by
to the four corners of th e original pre-image.
plotting the fern-shaped strange attractor in
Figure 11-Sd. Use the transformation matrices
[A], [BJ, [CJ, and [DJ shown on page 523, with
probabilities 0.8, 0.09, 0.09, and 0.02,
: : :
respectively. Use (1, 1) as the initial pre -image
point, and plot a sufficient number of points
10 .........; ......... i.........
("""".. 10 ................... . to get a reasonably good image. When your
program is working, run it again using a
-·-------·--------············'·········· ·· different pre-image point. Does the pre-image
[CJ[j'11 : [b][M]
X X
you select seem to change the final imag e?
10 20 10 20 Run the program again using five times as
Figur e 11-5g Figure 11-5h many points. Describe the similarities and
Pre·imag e First iteration differences in the final image created by
using more points.
a. Write a transformation matrix for each of
5. Use your Barnsley's method program to
the four transformations.
plot Sierpinski's triangl e from Problem 1.
b. Apply the 16 transformations required for t
Use probability for each of the three
th e second iteration. Plot the 16 images on transformations. Only three transformations
graph paper . are involved, so use probability O for the
c. How many images will there be in the fourth transformation. You should get an
third iteration? The 20th iteration? image similar to that in Figure 11-Si.
d. Find the perimeter of the pre-image. Find
the total perimeter of the squares in the
first iteration. Find the tota l perimeter of
th e squares in the third iteration. By
extending the patt ern you observe in your
answers, find the total perimeter of the
squares in the 20th iteration. What happens
to the total perim eter as the number of
Figur e 11-5i
iterations becomes very large?
e. As a research proj ect, find out about 6. Use your Barnsley's method program to
Waclaw Sierpinski, the man for whom plot Sierpinski's square from Problem 2.
Sierpinski's triangle and square are named. t
Use probability for each of the four
3. Barnsley's Method Program: Write or download transformations. You should get an image
a program that will plot a strange attractor similar to that in Figure 11-Sj.
using Barnsley's method. You can find both a
program for the graphing calculator and a
sketch for use with The Geometer's Sketchpad at
www .keymath
.com/precolc
. Both are named Barnsley.
Before rurming the progr am you should store
up to four transformation matrices and the
probability associated with each matrix. The
program should allow you to input a starting
pr e-image point and the number of points to Figure 11-5j
plot. Then the program should iteratively
Section
11-5:Strange
Attractors
forSeveral
Iterated
Transformations 527
7. Change the matrices for Sierpinski's square in a. Write the pre-image on the left as a 3 x 2
Problem 6 so that the dilation factor is 0.5 matrix, [DJ, with two ls in the bottom row.
instead of 0.4. You must also change the b. Write three 3 x 3 transformation matrices to
translations so that the upper right square's perform these tasks:
upper right corner still goes to point (20, 20),
and so forth. Explain why the pattern of points [AJ should transform the pre-image to the
in Figure ll-5j disappears when the dilation left branch.
factor is changed to 0.5. [BJ should transform the pre-image to the
8. Change the matrices for Sierpinski's square in trunk.
Problem 6 so that the dilation factor is 0.6 [CJ should transform the pre-image to the
instead of 0.4. You must also change the right branch.
translations so that the upper right square's
upper right corner still goes to the point c. Figure 11-51 shows the three images in the
(20, 20), and so forth. Does any pattern seem first iteration. To get the nine images in the
to appear in the points? second iteration, you multiply each image
by [A], [BJ, and [CJ. Calculate the nine
9. Foerster'sTreeProblem:Figure ll -5k shows a images [AJ[A][D], [A][B][D], [A][C][D],
vertical segment 10 units high, starting at the [B][A][D], [B][B][DJ, [Bl[ C][D], [ C][A][D],
origin . This pre-image is to be transformed [C)[B][D], and [C][C][D]. Round the entries
into a "tre e" with three pieces, each 6 units of the image matrices to one decimal pla ce.
long, as shown in Figure 11-51.The three Plot the nine images on graph paper.
pieces satisfy these conditions:
d. Use your Barnsley's method program to
• The left branch is rotated +30° from the see what the tree would look like if the
trunk and starts at y = 5 on the y-axis. iterations were performed infinitely
• The trunk starts at the origin. many times. Use probability t for each
• The right branch is rotated -30 ° from the transformation.
trunk and starts at y = 4 on the y-axis. e. The tree in this problem "attracts" the
points. What special name is given to such
y y
an attractor?
f. Calculate the sum of the lengths of the
images in the first, second, third, and 100th
10
iterations of this tree. If the iterations were
performed infinitely many times, what
would the sum of the lengths of the images
approach? Does the answer surprise you?
g. Calculate the fixed points for each of the
three transformations in this problem . How
do these points relate to points on the
X X graph in part d?
-3 3 -3 3
Figure 11-Sk Figure 11-51
528 Chapter
11: Matrix
Tran
sformat
ionsandFractal
Figures
10. Koch's Snowflake Problem: Figure ll-5m shows
the line segment represented by the pre-image
matrix
t cos (-60 °)
[ C] = } sin b-60°)
[
1 sin 30°
3 2.4641...
l
l3 cos 30° 11.7320 ...
12
[M] = [ ~
12]
-~ [DJ=
[
~l
0
O
} -4
0 1
8 l 0 1
y
a. Draw a sketch showing how [Al dilates [Ml
by a factor of} and then translates the
dilated image so that its top point is at the
.5 top of the pre-image .
b. Show algebraically that the rotation and
dilation part of [BJ moves the point (12, 6)
X.
at the top of the pre-image to the point
.s . LO. . 15 .
(4 cos 60° + 2 cos 150°, 4 sin 60° + 2 sin 150°).
Then show how the translation part of [BJ
-5
moves this point to the point (12, 2) at the
bottom of image [A][MJ.
c. Based on your answers to parts a and b,
Figur e 11-Sm describe the effects transformations [CJ and
Pre-imag e [M] [DJ have on the pre-image segment.
d. In the second iteration, the four
y transformations are applied to each of the
four images. Write matrices for the 16 images
in the second iteration, with elements
.5 rounded to one decimal place. Plot these
images on dot paper or graph paper.
e. If the transformations are applie d infinitely
many times, the result is part of Helge von
5 . LO. Koch's snowflake curve.
-5 1----IDJIM]
Figur e 11-Sn
Imag es [A][M], [B][M], [C][M], and [D][M]
Figure ll -5n shows the images of these four

transformations applied to the pre-image
matrix:
[A]=[!00 8] l3 4
[
1
l cos 60° lcosl
3 50° 11.7320 ...
[BJ= t s~60 ° l3 sin 150° -2.4641.. .
0 1
l
Section
11-5
: Strange
Attractors
forSeveral
Iterated
Transformations 529
The first and second iterations of that curve 0.8 cos 3° 0.8 cos 93° OJ
are shown, respectively, in Figure 11-So and [A] = 0.8 sin 3° 0.8 sin 93° 3
Figure 11-Sp. The result of many iterations [
0 0 1
is shown in Figure 11-Sq. On a copy of
Figure 11-Sq, circle two parts of the a. Find the fixed point for this transformation.
snowflake curve of different sizes that show To what part of the fern image does this
that the snowflake curve is self-similar. fixed point correspond?
f. The length of the pre-image in Figure 11-Sm b. Make a conjecture about the approximate
is 12 units. The first iteration in Figure 11-Sn locations of the fixed points for
has total length 16 units because it has four transformations [BJ, [CJ, and [DJ for the
segments that are each 4 units long. What is fern image in Figure 11-5 d.
the total length of the second iteration? c. Compute the fixed points in part b
The third iteration? The fourth iteration? numerically by raising the transformation
Find the length of the 100th iteration. What matrices to a high power. Do the
would be the total length of this portion of computations confirm or refute your
the final snowflake curve? Does the answer conjecture?
surprise you?
12. Sketchpad Fractal Project: Download the sketch
g. Use Barnsley's method to show that you get Barnsley.gsp at www.keymath .com/precalcand
the same strange attractor when you start explore the fractal images presented by
with one point as a pre-image and apply the changing the parameters. If you would like
four transformations iteratively, at random, to investigate how this sketch was made,
on the resulting images . Use probability i download the document Fractal Fern.pdf and
for each transformation . the sketch Fractal Fern .gsp . Describe what you
11. Fixed Points in a Strange Attractor: learned from doing this project .
Transformation [A] for the fern image in
Figure 11-Sd is
First
iteration
Figure 11-So Figure 11-Sp Figure 11-Sq
11-6 Fractal Dimensions

In Section 11-5, you had the chance to explore Koch's snowflake curve
and Sierpinski's triangle. These are shown in Figure ll -6a. You may have
found in your explorations that the lengths of successive iterations of the
snowflake curve follow an increasing geometric sequence: 12, 16, 21.3333 ...,
28.4444 ... , . ...
530 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figures
The areas of successive iterations of Sierpinski's triangle form a decr easing
geome tric sequence: 337 .5, 253.125 , 189.84375, .. .. So th e length of th e
snowflake cur ve app roach es infinity and the area of Sierpinski 's triangle
approac hes zero .
Snowflake curve, Sierpin ski's triangl e,

infinite length zero area
Figure 11-6a
In this section you will make sen se out of these seemin g contradictions by
lear ning a precise definition of the dimension of a figur e. Both figur es in
Figure ll -6a are called fractals because their dimensions are fractions. As
you'll see, the dim ensions of both these fractals are betw een 1 and 2.
OBJECTIVEGiven a figure formed by iteration of several transformation matrices,

determine its fractal dimension .
A solid (thr ee-dimensional) cube is a self-similar object becaus e it can be broken

- into smaller cubes that are similar to one anoth er and to th e original cube.
Figure ll -6b shows a cube with edge length 1 unit divid ed into sma ller cube s,
v.,,v
v
.,,v each with edge leng th f unit . Note that each of the small er cubes is also
v self-similar.
.,,v ,,v
vv
,, ,..Y There are N = 53 , or 125, small cubes . The exponent 3 in this equation is th e
v dimension of th e cube. With the help of logarit hms, you can isolate the
,,v ,,v
,,vv exponent 3.
H log 53 = log N
r= f
Figure 11-6b 3 log 5 = log N
= log N
3
log 5
The 5 in the equatio n is equal to i, where r, in this case t, is the ratio of the edge
length of one small cub e to the length of th e original, pr e-image cub e.
Substitu ting this information into th e last equation gives
_ log N
3
- log}
This equation is the basis for th e definition of dim ension credited to
Felix Hausdorff, a German mathematician who lived from 1868 to 1942.
Section
11-6:Fra
ctalDimensions 531
DEFINITION:
Hausdorff
Dimension
If an object is transformed into N self-similar pieces and the ratio of the
length of each piece to the length of the original object is r, and the
subdivisions can be done infinitely many times, then the dimension D
of the object is
D- log N
- log~
This is called the Hausdorff dimension.
To see how this definition applies to the sno wflake curve, consider the
pre-image and first iteration of any one segme nt in the curve. As Figure ll-6c
shows, the segmen t is transformed to four self-similar segments, each of which
is one-third as long as the original segment, so N = 4 and r = f.
Pre-image
N= 1, r = I
First iteration
N= 4, r =f
Figure ll -6c
The iterations are performed infinitely many times in the same pattern, so
Hausdorff's definition of dim ension applies. Thus the dimension of the
snowflake curve is
D = log 4 = log 4 = 1.2618 _..

1. log 3
1ogT
3
So the snowflake curve is 1.2618 ... -dimensional! The dimension of a fractal
measures the fractal's "spa ce-filling ability." The curve's infinite length helps
explain why it has a fractional dimension. If it had finite length, it could be
"straighten ed out" into lin e segments and would therefore be one-dimensional.
However, because the snowflake curve is infinite, it can never be straightened out
all the way; there will always b e "spikes" that extend into the second dimension.
~ EXAMPLE
1 At each iteration in the generation of the snowflake curve, any one segme nt in
the preceding iteration is divid ed into four se lf-similar segments, each of which
is one-third as long as the pr evious segment.
a. For iterations O through 4, make a table of value s showing the iteration
number (n), the numb er of segments (N), the ratio of the length of each
segment to the length of the pre-image (r), and f
b. Calculate the dimension D of the snowflake using N and r from iteration l.
Show that you get the same valu e of Dusing N and r from iteration 4.
How does the name used for this sor t of figur e reflect th e fact that the
Hausdorff dimension is not an integer?
532 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figure
s
c. Perform a linear regression on log N as a function of log (f:).
Plot the points
and the equation on the same screen . Show numerically that the slope of
the line equals the dimension of the snowflake.
d. If the pre-image is 12 units long, calculate the total length of the images at
each iteration, 1 through 4. Use the pattern you observe to calculate the
total length of the images at the 50th iteration. Explain why the total length
of the snowflake approaches infinity as the iterations continue.
Solution a. The total-length values are computed in part d .
1
Iteration, n N r Total Length, L
r
0 1 1 1 12(1)(1) = 12
1
1 4 3 3 12(4)(!) = 16
1
2 16 9 9 12(16){!)= 21.3333 ...
I
3 64 27 27 12(64)(2\) = 28.4444 ...
l
4 256 81 81 12(256)(8\) = 37.9259 ...
log 4 log 4
b. D = -- = -- = 1.2618 ...
1 log 3
1ogT
3
log 256 log 256
D= = = 1.2618 ... , which is the same value
1 1og 81
1ogT
81
It's called a fractal, indicating that its Hausdorff dim ension is a fraction.
1
log N
C. log N = (l.2618 .. .) log - + 0 Fit is exact becaus e the correlation
r coefficient r equals l.
,- Slope equals
' dimension. The slope 1.2618 ... equals the dimension from part b, as shown in
Figure ll -6d.
logf
2 3 4 d. The total lengths are given in the tabl e in part a. The total length at each
iteration is the original length, 12, multiplied by the number of segments N
Figure 11-6d times the ratio of the length of each segment to th e original length . From
this pattern, the equation for the length L as a function of the iteration
number n is
Substituting 50 for n in this equation gives
L = 12(~r o = 21,189,371.5 .. .
The values of L form a geometric sequence with common ratio Thus the l
values of L are unbound ed as n increases. The number of iterations
performed to generate the snowflake curve is infinite, so the length is
infinite. -<11111
Section
11·6: Fractal
Dimensions 53 3
r.~
~
Note that the data for Nin Example 1, part a, lie on a straight line when
plotted on log-log graph paper, as shown in Figure ll-6e. This result
confirms that Nis a power function of~-
N
1000
500
200
100
50
The coast line of Cape Cod,

Massachusetts. The total 20
length of a coastline
increases as you use 10
shorter rulers, giving the
length the characteristics 5
of a fractal.
2
1
r
2 5 10 20 50 100
Figure 11-6e
Problem Set 11 -6
Reading Analysis tl[IJ 0.7 cos (-35°) 0.7 cos 55° -4]
From what you have read in this section, what do you 0.7sin(-35°) 0.7sin55° 2
consider to be the main idea? Write the formula for [
0 0 1
the Hausdorff dim ension, and explain the meaning of
each of the three variables that appear in the QS. What dilation results from the matrix in
formula. Problem Q4?
,,.--.,
v 5 Q6. What x-translation results from the matrix in
Quick Review 1),, "'4 Problem Q4?
QI. What is the common ratio of this geometric Ql. What y-trans lation results from the matrix in
sequence? 100, 90, 81, 72.9, .. . Problem Q4?
Q2. If you apply one linear transformation QB.Explain the purpose of the elements 0, 0, 1 in
iteratively, the images can be attracted to the bottom row of the matrix in Problem Q4.
a -?- .
Q9. What type of function has the
Q3. If you apply several linear transform ations "multiply-multiply" property?
iteratively, the imag es can be attracted to
QIO. If g(x) = f(}x),what transformation is applied
a -?- .
to f(x) to get g(x)?
Q4.What rotation results from the application of
this matrix?
534 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figures
1. Dimension Definition App li ed to a Square a straight line tell you about the type of
Problem: Figure ll -6f shows a square region function that relates the points? Measure
divided into 25 self-similar squares, each with the slope of the line with a ruler, and record
side length one-fifth the side length of the the result.
original square. c. Perform a power regression on N as a function
of~- Write the regres sion equation. How does
the exponent in the equation compare with
the slope you measured in part b?
d. Calculate the dimension D of Sierpinski's
triangle using iterations 1 and 4. How does
the result compare with the slope you
measured in part b and with the exponent
of th e power function in part c?
e. If the pre -image is an equilateral triangle
Figure 11-6(
with sides 16 cm long, calculate the total
a. Show that the Hausdorff dimension perimeter of the images in each iteration,
leads you to conclude that a square is two- 1 through 4. Use the pattern you observe to
dimensional. calculate the total perimeter of the images
in the 50th iteration. Explain why the total
b. If the square were cut into smaller
perimeter of Sierpinski's triangle approaches
squares with sides r equal to 0.01 times the
infinity as the iterations continue.
length of the original sides, show that the
Hausdorff dimension would still lead to the 3. Dimension of Sierpinski's Square Problem:
conclusion that a square is two-dimensional. Figure ll-6h shows the pre-image and the first
c. What allows you to conclu de that th e iteration of Sierpinski's square . The original
Hausdorff dimension really does apply pre-image is divided into four self-similar
to the square when it is cut into smaller squares, each of which has side lengths that
self-similar squares? are 40% of the side lengths in the pre-image.
2. Dimension of Sierpinski's Triangle Problem: Figure
ll -6g shows the pre-image and the first iteration
of Sierpinski's triangle. The original pr e-image
triangle is transformed into three self-similar
triangles, each of which has sides one-half the
length of the sides in the pre -image.
Pre-image

Figur e 11-6h
a. The complete Sierpinski's square is formed

Figur e 11-6g by iterating infinitely many times. What is the
dimension of the final Sierpinski's square?
a. For iterations O through 4, make a tabl e of
b. Calculate the tota l area of the final
values showing the iteration number (n), the
number of triangles (N), the ratio of the side Sierpinski's square. How does the result
length of each triangle to the side length of correspond to the dimension of the square?
the pre-image (r), and~- c. Calculate the total perimeter of the final
b. On log-log graph paper, plot N as a function Sierpinski's square. How does the result
correspond to the dimension of the square?
of~- What does the fact that the points lie in
Section
11· 6: Fractal
Dimensions 535
d. Suppose that the self-similar squares at each lengths in the coastline. Plot N as a function
iteration had side lengths that were 50% of of~ on log-log graph paper, and draw a line
the side lengths of the preceding image . How that you think best fits the data . Measure
would this change the dimension of the the slope of the line with a ruler and
square? Why is it not correct to call record the result .
Sierpinski's square a fractal in this case? b. Assuming that the coastline follows the
e. Suppose that the self-similar squares at same pattern for shorter and shorter rulers,
each iteration had side lengths that were calculate the Hausdorff dimension of the
60% of the side lengths of the preceding west coast of Great Britain. Use the values
image. How would this change the of~ and N for the shortest ruler. How does
dimension of the square? How would it the result compare with the slope you
affect the total area of the square? measured in part a?
4. Coastline Length Problem : Lengths of the west c. On your grapher, calculate and record in two
coast of Great Britain as measured on a map other lists the values of log ~ and log N.
by rulers of varying length are listed in the Perform a linear regression on N as a
table. The numbers are based on data collected i-
function of log How does the slope of this
by Lewis F. Richardson and reported in Benoit linear function compare with the slope you
Mandelbrot's book Fractals: Form, Chance, and measured in part a and with the dimension
Dimension. you calculated in part b?
Ruler (mi) Coastline (mi) d. Use power regression to find an equation
i-
for N as a function of What do you notice
10.2 3020 about the exponent in this equation? Use the
30 2090 equation to predict what the total length of
100 1580 the coastline would measure if a 1-in. ruler
500 1000 were used. Does the answer surprise you?
950 950 5. Conclusions Problem: At the beginning of this
section you read that the snowflake curve has
The total length is greater for shorter rulers
infinite length and that Sierpinski's triangle
because they can measure around smaller
has zero area . How is the fractal dimension of
features (Figure ll -6i).
a figure related to its total length and area?
a. Enter the data into two lists in your grapher.
Use your grapher to calculate and record in 6. Journal Problem: Write an entry in your journal
two other lists the values of~ (the reciprocal relating the most significant things you have
of the ratio of ruler length to 950, the learned about iterated transformations and
longest ruler) and the number N of ruler fractals by studying this chapter.
Figur e 11-6i
536 Chapter
11:Matrix
Transformations
andFracta
l Figures
In this chapter you have seen how you
can use the concept of matrix to solve
systems of linear equations and to apply
linear transformations to geometric
figures. Applied iteratively, a linear
transformation can cause the images
to be attracted to a fixed point. If several
such transformations are applied
iteratively, the images can be attracted to
a figure of great complexity, sometimes
resembling an object in nature, such as a
fern or a tree . These strange attractors
App ly ing linear transformations to a
are called fractals because they have simple starting shap e can produce images
fractional Hausdorff dimensions rather of startling realism-evident in this
than integer dimensions. computer-generated landscape.
Review Problems
RO.Update your journal with what you have the total length approach as the number of
learned in this chapter. Include things such as iterations increases without bound ?
• The most important thing you have learned --------- Pre-image, 1 unit long
as a result of studying this chapter --- First iteration
• The new terms you have learn ed and what - Second iteration
they mean Figure 11-7a
• The ways matrix transformations can
change an image
R2. a. Evaluate : 9[~ _ ~] 6[!
• How Barnsley's method for generating
fractal images differs from repeating
transformations on all images in the 3
b. Evaluate: [
previous iteration -1
• Hausdorff's definition of dimension
Rl. Figure ll-7a shows a line segment 1 unit long . c. Evaluate: det [! !]
In the first iteration, an image is formed by
d. Solve this system using matrices.
removing the middle third of the segment. In
the second iteration, an image is formed by 3x - 5y+2z= -7
removing the middle third of each segment 4x + y- 6z = 33
in the first iteration. If the iterations are
performed infinitely many times, the image is 9x-8y-7z=38
called the Cantor set, after Georg Cantor, a
R3. a. Describe the transformations produced
German mathematician who lived from 1845 by [T].
to 1918. How many segments are there in the
10th iteration? What is the total length of the [ T] = [0.6 cos 30° 0.6 cos 120°]
segments in the 10th iteration? What does 0.6 sin 30° 0.6 sin 120°
Section
11-7:Chapter
Review
andTest 537
b. Plot the pre-image triangle specified by [M]. y
10
[M] = [~ ~ ;J [A][Ml
[M] __ (/'
c. Plot the image that results from the third X
iteration, [T][T][T][M], on the same grid as - 10 <2"----' 10

the pre-image triangle. [B][M]
d. By how many degrees has the image in part c
been rotated from the original pre-image? - 10
e. Show that the image vertex closest to the Figure 11-lb
origin in part c is exact ly 0.6 3 times as far
from the origin as the corresponding vertex a. Write a matrix for transformation [BJ.
in the pre-image. b. The two rectangles in Figure ll-7b form
the first iteration for a more complicated
R4. a. Describe the transformations produced
geometric figure. In the second iteration,
by [A].
transformations [A] and [Bl are applied to
0.6 cos 30° 0.6 cos 120° 5] both images in the first iteration. Apply
[A] = 0.6 sin 30° 0.6 sin 120 ° 2 these transformations and plot the resulting
[ four images on graph paper.
0 0 1
b. Plot the pre-image rectangle specified by [M]. c. The figure that results from applying [A]
and [Bl iteratively infinitely many times can
10 be plotted approximately using Barnsley's
0
10 OJ
3 3 method. Use probability 50% for each
1 1 1 transformation. The result is shown in
Figure 11-7c. Confirm on your grapher that
c. Plot the image at the third iteration, the attractor in Figure ll -7c is correct . Write
[A][A][A][M]. a paragraph describing the procedure used
d. To what fixed point are the images attracted in Barnsley's method.
when transformation [A] is applied
iteratively many times? How do you
calculate this point numerically in a
time-efficient way?
e. Calculate the fixed point in part d
algebraically, and show that it agrees with
the result you found numerically in part d.
f. Explain the purpose of the row 1, 1, 1, 1 in Figure 11-lc
[Ml and of the row 0, 0, 1 in [A]. d. On a copy of Figure 11-7c, circle two parts
RS. Figure 11-7b shows the rectangular pre-image of the figure of different size, each of which
is similar to the entire figure.
-3 3 3
e. On the copy of Figure 11-7c, plot the fixed
[Ml= -~ -1 1
[ point you found for transformation [Al in
1 1 Review Problem R4, part d. How does this
It also shows the images of [A][M] and [B][M], fixed point seem to correspond to the
where [Al is the transformation in Review fractal image?
Problem R4, part a, and [Bl rotates and dilates f. For the pre-image and the first three
the same as [Al but translates in the opposite iterations, make a table showing the iteration
direction. number, the number of rectangles, the
538 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformat
ionsand
. Fractal
Figures
perimeter of each rectangle, and the total agree with the dimension you calculated in
perimeter of the figure. From th e pattern part b?
in the table, find the total perimeter in th e e. Suppose that the dilation factors for
50th iteration. If the iterations were matrices [AJ and [BJ from Review
performed infinitely many times, the result Problems R4 and RS were changed from
would be the strange attractor in Figure 0.6 to 0.5. Use Barnsley's method to plot
11-7 c. What is the total perimeter of the th e resulting figure. Use probability 50%
strange attractor? for each matrix .
R6. a. State the definition of the Hausdorff f. Calculate the dimension of the figure in
dimension. part e. Calculate the number that the total
b. Show that the fractal in Figure 11-7c is perimeter of the rectangles approaches as
more than one-dimensional but less than the number of iterations approaches infinity.
two-dimensional. How do the results of these calculations
explain the change in the figure caused by
c. How does the result in part b agree with the
reducing the dilation factor to 0.5?
total perimeter of the fractal in Figure 11-7 c?
g. If the dilation factor in transformations [A]
d. Find the area of the pre-image rectangle and
and [Bl were reduced to 0.4, what would be
the total areas of the rectang les in the first,
the dimension of the resulting figure? What
second, and third iterations. What number
number would the total perimeter of the
does the area of the fractal in Figure 11-7 c
figure approach7 How does this number
approach as the number of iterations
correspond to the dimension of th e figure?
increases without bound? Does this number
Concept Problems
Cl. Why Barnsley's Method Works Problem: In y

this problem you will gain some insight into 20
why Barnsley's method works by consi dering
a simple case involving Sierpinski's triangle .
Figure 11-?d shows the nine images in the
second iteration from Problem Set 11-5,
Problem l. The three transformation
matrices are
[05 0.50 75]

-5
[AJ= ~
0 1 X
[05 0.50 -7
-5
5]
[BJ= ~
0 1
[CJ =
[05 0.50
~
0
1:0 l Figure 11-ld
Sec
tion11-7: Chapter
Review
andTest 539
a. Show that the fixed points of the three ensure that Sierpinski's triangle will have
transformations [A ], [B], and [Cl are the regions in which there are no points?
three vertices of the largest triangle.
C2. Research Problem: Explore literature about
b. On a copy of Figure 11-?d, mark the point fractals. From the information you find, choose
(10, -10), which is on the boundary of the a topic and write a detailed report. Mention
shaded region . Write this point as a pre- how your topic corresponds to what you
image matrix and then apply transformation have been learning in this chapter and how
[CJ to it. Mark the image point on the copy it has extended your knowledge of iterated
of the figure, showing that it is on the transformations and fractals. Here are some
boundary of another shaded region but it suggested sources.
has skipped over two of the unshaded
• Barnsley, Michael F. Fractals Everywhere.
regions.
Boston: Academic Press, 1988.
c. The transformation in part b took the point
• Mandelbrot, Benoit B. The Fractal Geometry
(10, -10) halfway from where it was to the
of Nature. New York: W. H. Freeman &
fixed point (0, 20) at the top vertex of the
Company, 1983.
largest triangle. Make a conjecture about
where the image point in part b will go if
you apply transformation [CJ to it. Then
confirm (or refute) your conjecture by
actually applying the transformation.
d. Apply transformation [Bl to the image from
part b. Show that the new image is halfway
from the image in part b to the fixed point
at the lower left vertex of the largest
triangle, is on a boundary of a shaded
region, and has skipped over an unshaded
region.
e. Demonstrate that Barnsley's method really
works by showing that it produces a self-
similar fractal. Specifically for Sierpinski's
triangle, show that if point Pis anywhere in The set of points in the center, dark region of the
image is called the Mandelbrot set.
or on the largest triangle, the result of any
one of the specified transformations • Peitgen, Heinz-Otto, Hartmut Jurgens, and
performed on Pis a point in or on one of Dietmar Saupe. Fractals for the Classroom.
the three large corner triangles (those with New York: Springer-Verlag, 1992.
side length 15). Why does this • Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw, and Aristid
demonstration that the largest triangle is Lindenmayer. The Algorithmic Beauty of
reproduced into the three corner triangles Plants. New York: Springer -Verlag, 1990.
Chapter Test
allowed(Tl-16) T3. In what way is matrix multiplication similar to
TL Multiply [~ : -f! ~] the multiplication of two vectors?
T4. Find det [32 8]

7
. Use the result to find [3s]-
Show that the product of the matrix and its
2 7
.
1
T2. Explain why the matrices in Problem Tl are inverse is equal to the identity matrix .
commensurate for multiplication.
540 Chapter
11: Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figur
es
TS. What transformation is r epresente d by this [BJ should transform the pre-image to the trunk.
matrix? [CJ should transform the pre-image to the
0.9cosl5 ° 0.9cosl05 ° 3] right branch .
0.9sinl 5° 0.9sin l 05° 2 T8. Multiply the pre-imag e matrix [DJby each of
[ (AJ, [B], and [CJ. Write the three image
0 0 1
matrices, rounding th e entries to one decimal
T6. A line segment is transformed by iterative place . Plot the three images on graph paper.
matrix multiplication. The matrices for the
pr e-image and the images of the first and T9. The three images in Problem T8 are the
second iterations ar e results of the first iteration. If the three
transformations are applied to each of these
6.7 5.1] three images, the nine resulting images form
6.4 9.2 the second iteration. Calculate the image
[! ~] [
1 1 [AJ[CJ[DJof the second iteration, and plot it on
Pre-image First iteration Second iteration
the same axes as the images in Problem T8.
TlO. If the iterations are performed infinitely many
Plot these three imag es on graph paper or dot
times, the resulting tree is a fractal. If the
pap er. Explain what will happen to the images
transformations are applied at random to a
as more and more iterations are performed.
single point, each time using the previous
image, the points are attracted to the same
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(17-119) fractal figure. Use Barnsley's method with 1000
For Problems T7-Tl8, the graph in Figure 11-?e points to plot this strange attractor.
shows a vertical segment 10 units high, starting at
Tll . Figure 11-?f shows the strange attractor from
the origin. This pre-image is to be transformed into
Problem no plotted with 4000 points. On a
a "tree" made from three segments, each 5 units
copy of Figure 11-7f, illustrate self-similarity
long. The three segments sati sfy these conditions :
by circling two parts of the figure of different
• Th e left branch starts at the point (0, 5) and is size, each of which is similar to the whole tree.
rotated +20° from the trunk.
• The trunk extends from the point (0, 0) to the
point (0, 5).
• The right branch starts at the point (0, 5) and
is rotated - 30° from the trunk.
y
10
Figure 11-7(
X
-3 3
Tl2. The first iteration has three images, each
Figure 11-7e 5 units long . The second iteration has nine
T7. Write three 3 x 3 transformation matrices to images, each 2.5 units long. Calculate the sum
perform thes e tasks: of the lengths of the images at iterations 0, 1,
2, 3, and 100.
[AJ should transform the pre-image to the
left branch.
Section
11-7:Chapter
Review
andTest 541
Tl3. If the iterations were performed infinitely Tl? . Calculate the dimension of the tree that would
many times, what would the sum of the result if the iterations were performed
lengths of the images approach? infinitely many times.
Tl 4. Each iteration divides each previous segment Tl8. Strange attractors such as the one in
into three self-similar pieces, each 0.5 times as Figure 11-?f result from iterating several
long as the previous segment. Let N be the different transformations. If just one
number of pieces, and let r be the ratio of the transformation is itera ted, the images are
length of each piece to the length of the attracted to a single fixed point. Find the fixed
original pre-image. Complete a table for point to which the images are attracted if [Al is
iterations O through 5 listing values for n, r, f, applied iteratively to the pre-image [DJ. On a
and N. copy of Figure 11-7f, mark this fixed point.
How does it relate to the fractal figure?
Tl 5. Complete the statement: "Each time f is
multiplied by 2, Nis multiplied by -?-. " Tl9. What did you learn as a result of taking this
Tl6. Write Hausdorff's definition of dimension.
542 Chapter
11:Matrix
Transformations
andFractal
Figures
Analytic Geometry of
Conic Sections and
Quadric Surfaces 12
Three-dimensional figures that model objects such as the

Kobe Port Tower in Japan and the parabolic antenna are
generated by rotating conic sections-hyperbolas, parabolas,
or ellipses-about an axis of symmetry. These figures have
rich geometric and algebraic properties. The general name
conic sections comes from the fact that they can be generated
geometrically by a plane slicing through (sectioning) a cone.
543
In this chapter you will1earn how to apply algebraic techniques to
analyze ellipses, hyperbolas, parabolas, and circles, all of which
are formed by planes sectioning a cone. Fixed focal points and
directrix lines help define these conic sections. The shapes of
spaceship and comet paths are conic sections, and reflective
surfaces are formed by rotating the conic section shapes about
their axes. You will study conic sections in four ways.
Graphically Ellipse y
5
Algebraically Cartesian equation of an ellipse:
x2 + 4y 2 - 12x- 24y+ 56 = 0
Parametric equations of an X
ellipse: 5 10
X =6 +4 COS t
y = 3 + 2 sin t
Numerically t = 1: X =6 +4 COS 1 = 8.1612 .. .

y = 3 + 2 sin 1 = 4.6829 .. .
Verbally Topf,ot tUv ~e,0/1/1v3r~ eii::her

use,parauui:riv ettuatwm or sowe,
the, CartuialvetfUAtw/1/x 2 + 4f - t12x - 24f + SG= ofar 7 80th,
2
met:/wd£
jeif.llate,the, sauu,,3rapk. Aljebrai&teclutujuu CtU1.ttra1UjorUv
thhparauui:Yu:,UJUAtwmWo Cartuiai'v ftrut"AfUl ~ tJerStv.
544 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
12-1 Introduction to Conic Sections
Figures 12-la to 12-ld show the graphs of a circle, an ellipse, a hyperbola, and a
parabola. These graphs are called conic sectio ns- or, in short, conics-because
they are formed by a plane cutting , or sectioning, a cone. They are relations
whose equation s are quadratics with two variables.
y y y
/
/
3 3 Parabola 3
/
/
Ellip se /
/
"--- -r---
/
/
/
/
/
X X / X
3 -3 3 -3 3
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
-3 -3 -3 -3
Figure 12-la Figure 12-lb Figure 12-lc Figure 12-ld
OBJECTIVE
Given a quadratic equation with two variables, plot its graph and formulate
conclusions.

1. Plot x2 + y 2 = 1 by solving for yin terms of x. 4. Plot x2 - y 2 = 1 by solving for y in terms of x.
Enter the two solutions as y, and y2 . (One is a Show that the result is the hyperbola in
positive square root, and the other is a Figure 12-lc. Plot th e two lines y = x and
negative square root.) Use a friendly window y = -x. How are these lines related to the graph?
that includes the integers as grid points and 5. Plot the hyp erbola 4x2 - 9y 2 = 36. Use a
has equal scales on the two axes. Based on the friendl y window with an x-range of about
Pythagorean theorem, explain why the graph is [-10, 10], and use equal scales on th e two axes.
the unit circle in Figure 12-la. Show that th e asymptotes now have slopes ±i
2. Plot 4x2 + 9y 2 = 36 by first solving for yin instead of ±1.
terms of x. Show that the result is the ellip se in 6. Transform the equation in Problem 5 to make
Figure 12-lb. the right side equal 1, as in Problem 3. Show that
3. The ellipse in Problem 2 is a dilation of the unit the hyperbola in Problem 5 is a dilation of the
circle by a factor of 3 in the x-direction and by hyperbola in Figure 12-l c with an x-dilation of 3
a factor of 2 in the y-direction . By making the and a y-dilation of 2. Where do th ese dilation
right side equal 1, transform the given equation factors appear in the transformed equation?
to this equivalent form: 7. The equation x + y 2 = 1 has only one squared
Gt+
(ft= 1
term. Solve the equ ation for y in terms of x and
plot the two solutions as Yi and y2 . Show that
the graph is the parabola in Figure 12-ld.
This form is sometimes called the center-
radius form of the equation of the ellips e. 8. How could you tell from an equation before it
Where do the two dilation factors show up in is transformed whether its graph will be a
the transformed equation ? circle, an ellipse, a hyp erbola, or a parabola ?
Section
12-1:Introduction
toConic
Sections 545
Dl
12-2 Parametric and Cartesian Equations
of the Conic Sections
The paths of sate llites or comets traveling in space under the action of gravity
are circles, ellipses, parabolas, or hyperbolas . Figure 12-2a shows how these
conic sections are formed by a plane sectionin g one or both nappes of a cone at
various angles. The graphs of quadratic equations in two variables are conic
sections, as you saw in Section 12-1.
Napp e
/
/
/
/
/
Ellipse
Figur e 12-2a
You may have seen shad ows cast by a cone of light from a floor lamp that is cut
by the planes of walls and ceilings, as in Figure 12-2b. The wall cuts both
nappes of the cone, forming a hyperb ola. The horizontal ceiling cut s the cone at
right angl es to its axis, forming a circle. The sloped ceiling can form an ellipse, a
parabola, or a hyperbola, depending on the slope.
Circl e on
horizontal------------..
~ Ellip se on
ceilin g
\
\ I
~ ,,,.u;,,.
,,
\ \ I
\ \ I
\ \ I
\ I \ I
\ I \ I \ I
\ I \ I
,,,
\ I
,' '
/'
I
;\
\
I I
I \ I
I \ I
I \ I
Hyperbola ' Cone \ I \ I
I \ I
on wall ' i of light '
\ I
I,'\ '.I Lamp ---------..\ ,'

shade ,,
I I \ I\
\
I
\ I \
I
\ I \
I
\ I \
I
\ I \
I
\ I
I
I
Figur e 12-2 b
546 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
OBJECTIVE
Given a Cartesian or parametric equation of a conic section, sketch or plot the
graph, and given th e graph, find an equation.
Cartesian Equations
Figure 12-2c shows five par ent grap hs. The equation of each conic section is given
below its graph. The parent graph for circles is also th e parent graph for ellipses.
Hyperbolas approa ch asymptotes as x approac hes po sitive or negative infinity.
For the unit hyperbolas in Figure 12-2c, th e asymptotes have equ ations
y =x and y= -x
You can tell th e type of graph th e equation has by looking at the signs of the
squared terms.
y y y
'' /
'' ,
3 ' 3 /
/
3 ,,
/
' /
' /
/
'' /
'' /
/
'' /
'' /
' :r
/
'
/
/
'' /
X ''
/
X
'' /
/
( X
' ' /
-3 3 -3 /
/ /
'' 3 -3 /
/
/
3
/
/
/
'' /
/
/
/
'' /
/
/
/
' /
/
'' /
-3 -3 '' /
/
-3
' /
/
Unit circle : x2 + y2 =l Unit hype rbol a openin g in Unit hyp erbol a op ening in
th e x-dir ec tion: x 2 - y 2 = 1 th e y-direc tion : - x 2 + y 2 = 1
-3 3 -3
-3 -3
Unit parab ola op ening in Unit parabo la op enin g in

th e y-dir ection: y = x 2 th e x-dir ec tion : x = y 2
Figure 12-2c
PROPERTIES:
Recognition
ofConic
Sections
fromEquations
If a quadratic equation in two variables has no xy-term, then the graph is
• A circle if x2 and y 2 have equal coefficients
• An ellipse if x2 and y 2 have un equal coefficients but the same sign
• A hyperbola if x2 and y 2 have opposite signs
• A parabola if only one of the two variables is squ ared
You can form any conic section with its axis of symmetry parallel to the x- or
y-axis by dilating and translating its parent grap h. For instan ce, the ellips e
Section
12-2
: Parametric
andCar
tesianEquation
s oftheCon
icSect
ions 547
in Figure 12-2d is formed by dilating the unit circle by a factor of 2 in the
x-direction and by a factor of 3 in the y-direction.
y y-radius = 3 y
3
x-radius = 2
,
' '\ X
X
-3 I 3
\
,
' '
-3
Recall from previous work that you dilate a graph in a particular direction by
dividing the respective variable by the dilation factor. So the equation of the
ellipse in Figure 12-2d is
GY(fY= + 1
Here you can call the dilation factors 2 and 3 the x-radius and the y-radius,
respectively.
You translat e a graph in either direction by subtracting a constant from the
respective variable. Figure 12-2e shows the ellipse of Figure 12-2d translated so
that its center is at the point (- 4, 1) instead of (0, 0). In this case, the particular
equation of the ellipse is
As before, the translations are the values of x an d y that make the quantities
inside the parentheses equal zero. The box presents the general equations of
dilated and translated circles, ellipses, and hyperbolas.
PROPERTIES:
Cartesian
Equations
of Circles,
Ellipses,
andHyperbolas
The center is translated to the point (h, k).
rx is the x-radius (x-dilation by a factor of rJ.
ryis the y-radius (y-dilation by a factor of ry),
Cin:Ie or ellipse:
h)2
(X~x kr= 1
+ (y;y Circle if rx = rY'
Hyperbola:
(x·-rxh.)2
-(yr-yk)2
__1 Opening in the x-direction.
_(x-rxh) + (yr-y
k) 1 2 2 __ Opening in the y-direction.
548 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
~ EXAMPLE
1 Sketch the graph of (X;2)2+ (y;4 r = 1.
Solution Analysis:
• The graph will be an ellipse . x2 and y 2 have coefficients with the
same sign.
• The center is at the point (2, 4). The x- and y-translations are 2 and 4,
resp ectively.
• The x-radiu s is 5 and the y-radius is 3. The same as the dilation factors.
First plot the center point (2, 4). Then plot points ±5 units from the center in
the x-direction and ±3 units from the center in the y-dire ctio n . These points
are ends of the major axis (the longer axis) and the min or axis . The endpoints
of the major axis are called vertices (plural of vertex). Sketch the ellipse by
connecting the four points you have plotted with a smooth curve, as shown in
the right graph of Figure 12-2f.
y y
7 7t--r---
Minor axis
I
• ------4
---
---- t -----------
-+----+-
·
Major axis - I
------4 ---- t -- ----- -----
I
I
~-
X X
-3 2 7 -3 2 7
Figur e 12-2f
~ EXAMPLE
2 Transform the equation in Example 1 into the form
Ax 2 + Bxy+ Cy 2 + Dx + Ey+ F = 0
where A, B, C, D, E, and Fare constants.
Solution (x;2)2 + (y;4)2 = l
(x - 2) 2 (y - 4) 2
---+ =l
25 9
9(x - 2) + 25(y- 4)2 = 225
2
Multiply both sides by (25)(9)
to eliminat e the fractions.
9(x2 - 4x+ 4) + 25(y 2 - Sy+ 16) = 225
2 2
9x - 36x + 36 + 25y - 200y + 400 = 225
9x2 + 25y 2 - 36x - 200y + 211 = 0 Commute and associate the
terms and make the right
side equal zero. -<11111
Note that the x2 - and y 2 -terms in Examp le 2 have the sam e sign but unequal
coefficients, indicating that the graph is an ellipse . Note also that there is no
xy-term. In Section 12-5, you will learn that an xy-term rotates the graph.
Section
12-2: Parametric
andCartesian
Equations
oftheConic
Sections 549
3 Sketch the graph of- (-X+ -5)2+
.....EXAMPLE (y
- --4)2= 1.
2 3
\
Solution Analysis:
• The graph is a hyperbola. The squared terms have opposite signs.
• It opens in the y-direction. The y-containing term is positive.
• The center is at the point (-5, 4). These values make the x- and y-terms zero,
respectively .
. y-dilanon
• The asymptotes have slopes ±l Slope 1s ± x-dil anon
Sketch the center, vertices, and asymptotes (Figure 12-2g, left). The asymptotes
cross at the center and have slopes given by
y-dilation
Sope=±----
1
x-dilation
Then sketch the graph (Figure 12-2g, right). Be sure the branches of the graph
get closer and closer to the asymptotes and do not curve away.
\ y '
\
\ Hyperbola
'
\ (one bran ch)
'\/
\
\
\
X X
\ \
-5 \ \
\
\
Vertex \ \
\ \
\ /
"'
\
Hyperbola
\
\ (other branch)
Figure 12-2g
Conic Sections by Grapher from the Cartesian Equation

The general Cartesian equation of a conic section is
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
550 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
where A, B, C, D, E, and Fare constants. You can plot th e graph by first writing
the equation as a quadratic function of y and th en usin g th e quadratic formula:
Cy2 + (Bx + E)y + (Ax2 + Dx + F) = 0
-( Bx + E) ± ) (Bx+ £) 2 - 4(C)(Ax2 + Dx + F)
y= 2C By the quadratic formula.
You can write or download a program from www .keymath.com/p recalc

to use thi s
result. The input would b e the six coefficients, A, B, C, D, E, and F. The
program should past e the two equations for y, one with the+ sign and
one with the - sign, into the y= menu. Then the graph er should plot the
two functions .
..,,_EXAMPLE
4 Plot the grap h of 9x 2 + 25y 2 - 36x - 200y + 211 = 0. Sketch th e result .
Solution .Use a friendly window with an x-range of at leas t [-3, 7] that has the inte gers as
gri d point s. Use a window with a y-rang e that gives both axes equal scales.
y
Run the program. Input 9 for { 0 for B, 25 for C, -36 for D, 200 for E, and
211 for F.
The result is shown in Figure 12-2h. Use the zoo m square feature to make equal
X
scales on both axes . Note that if you us e low-reso lution graphics, or if the
-3 2 7
window is not fri endl y, the two branches of the ellipse may appear not to
connect, as in Figure 12-2i. If this is the case, your sketch should show them
Figu re 12-2h
connec ted, as in Figure 12-2h. <111111
Parametric Equations of Ellipses , Circles,

and Hyperbolas
X
-3 2 7 You can also plot an ellips e, a circle, or a hyp erbola param etri cally using the
center and the two dilations . The parametric equations of the unit circle and
Figur e 12-2i two unit hyperbolas are shown in the box.
PROPERTIES:
Parametric
Equations
al theUnitCircle
andUnitHyperbola
For the unit circle centered at the origin:
X = COS t
y = sin t
For the unit hyper b ola centered at the origin:
x =sect Opening in the x-direct ion .
y = tan t
x = tan t Opening in the y-direction.

y= sect
where O::; t ::; 2rr
Sec
tion12·2: Parametric
andCartesian
Equation
s oftheConic
Sections 55 1
1ll
~ EXAMPLE
5 Use parametric equations to plot the hyperbola in Example 3:
Solution The hyperbola has x- and y-dilations of factors 2 and 3 and x- and y-translations
of -5 units and 4 units, respectively. The secant goes with y because the
hyperbola opens in the y-direction.
x = - 5 + 2 tan t The value add ed indicat es translation; the multiplication
coefficient indicates dilation. ·
y = 4 + 3 sect Enter this as y = 4 + 3/cos t.

X
Graph these equations with your grapher in parametric mode. Use radian mode
and at-range of Oto 2rr (one revolution). Use a window centered on the point
...( 5 1 4 ), the ..c.e a£ rbe byp erbollJ. Use equal scales on the two axes. l n e graph
;i::i,tirr
Figure 12-2) is shown in Figure 12-2jr1 ~
Cartesian and Parametric Equations of Parabolas

The Cartesian equations of the parent parabolas in Figure 12-2c have only one
squared variable.
Opening in the y-dir ection.
Opening in the x-direction.

You can form any parabola opening in th e x- or y-direction by dilating and
translating these parent parabolas. Figure 12-2k shows the two parabolas
y = 4 - 0.4(x - 5)2 and X = - 7 + 2(y - 3)2
y
I Y Vert ex
I 10 Vert ex 10 x-dila tion
Parent-- \ tr ans lat ed by 2
parabola , \0 (5, 4) i
I
\ 5 \
\
I
\
X X
- 10 -5 -10 -5 10
Par ent/ -
-5
parabola
- 10
Figur e 12-2k
C'eparabola on the left has been dilated by a factor of - 0.4 in the y-direction,
J~:king it open downward and compressing it vertically. The vertex has been
translated 4 units in the y-direction and 5 units in the x-direction. Substituting
5 for x in the equation makes the quantity (x - 5) equal zero, resulting in the
, maximum possible y-vallill The parabola on the right has been dilated by a
factor of 2 in the x-direction, stretching it horizontally. The vertex has been
translated to the point (-7, 3). Again, substituting 3 for yin the equation makes
the quantity (y - 3) equal zero.
The equations y = 4 - 0.4(x - 5)2 and x = -7 + 2(y- 3)2 are said to be in vertex
form. The coordinates of the vertex can be read directl y from the equation.
552 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
Either equation can be plotted on your grapher using parametric mode. You
would enter the equations this way:
X1 T =t For th e left graph in Figur e 12-2k.
Yn = 4 - 0.4(t - 5) 2
X2T = - 7 + 2(t- 3)2 For th e right graph in Figur e 12-2k .
Y2T= t
Th e box contains conclusions about the graphs of parabolas.
PROPERTIES:
Equations
ofParabolas
The vertex is translated to the point (h, k).
The parabola is dilated by a factor of a in the direction in which it opens.
y= k+ a(x- h) 2 Opening in the y-direction.
X = h + a(y - k) 2 Opening in the x-direction .
EXAMPLE
IJ)JJ- 6 Figure 12-21 shows the graph of a parabola.
y
a. Find the Cartesian equation of the
parabola.
b . Plot the parabola on your grapher
using parametric mode. Does the X
result agree with the given graph? 5 10
Solution Start by analyzing the graph. -5

a. The parabola opens in the x-direction
and the vertex is at t~e .J20int (5, 2), so Figure 12-21
the equation has the form
X = 5 + a(y - 2)2 x-translation is 5, y-translation is 2.
To find the dilation factor, a, notice that the x-intercept is 3. Substitute 0

for y and 3 for x.
3 = 5 + a(O - 2)2
-2 = 4a
-0. 5 = a
The equation is x = 5 - 0.5(y- 2)2.
b . In parametric mode, enter
Xn = 5 - 0.5(t - 2)2
Yn = t
The graph agrees with Figure 12-21.
Section
12-2
: Parametric
andCartesian
Equati
onsoftheCon
icSections 553
Problem Set 12-2
Reading Analysis Llf/j c. Transform the given equation into an

equation of the form
do you consider to be the main idea? Why are Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
parabolas, ellipses, circles, and hyperbolas called d . Plot the Cartesian equation using the result
conic sections? Why does a hyperbola have two of part c. Does it agree with part b?
branches, while a parabola has only one? How can
you form an ellipse by dilating and translating the
unit circle? What is the major difference between
C
9(x;3)2
+ (y~
1)2
=1
the Cartesian equation of a conic section and the
parametric equations of the same conic section? 6_(x;2)2 + (y;4)2 =1
7-( ~ 2y+ (y;1)2= 1

Quick Review~ \£( ~
For Problems Ql -Q4, identify the transformations 8_(X:3)2_(y;3)2= l
applied to the parent cosine function to get the
circular function y = 3 + 4 cos S(x - 6). x + 1)2 + (y
-- -- -2)
2=l
~ ( 6 6
Ql. What is the horizontal translation?
Q2. What is the vertical translation? 10.(~)2+ (~)2 =I \
~
0
Q3. What is the horizontal dilation?
11. y~~ - 0.2(x~ 1) 2
Q4. What is the vertical dilation?
12. x = - 6 + l.5(y - 3) 2
QS.What is the distinguishing characteristic of
For Problems 13- 20, complete steps a-c.
fractal figures?
a. Name the conic section simply by looking at
Q6. If ii= 37+ 5] and b = 47- 6], find ii+ b. the parametric equations.
Ql. Find a · b for the vectors in Problem Q6. b . Sketch the graph .
QB.If the probability that Event A happens is 0.8, c. Plot the parametric equations. Does your
what is the probability that Event A does not sketch in part b agree with the graph?
happen? 13. X= COS t 14. x =sect
Q9. How many per mutations are possible of the y = sin t y = tan t
letters in the word PIANO? 15. x = 3 tan t 16. X = 3 COS t
Q10. Write the Pythagorean property involving y = 2 sect y = 2 sin t
cosine and sine.
17. x = 4 + 5 sect 18. x = -2 + 3 tan t
y = 3 + 2 tan t y = 1 + 4 sect
For Problems 1-4, sketch the graph.
. X = -6 + 5 COS t 20. X =3+4 COS t
l. x2 + y 2 = 1 2. x 2 - y2 = 1
<' y = - 2 + 5 sin t y = - 2 + 4 sin t
3. - x2 + y 2 = 1 '> 4. X = y2
For Problems 21-26, complete steps a- c.
For Problems 5- 12, complete steps a- d. a. Write a Cartesian equation of the
a. Name the conic section simply by looking at conic section.
the Cartesian equation. b. Write parametric equations of the
b . Sketch the graph. conic section .
554 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuad
ricSurfaces
26. Y.
g -10 -5 5 10
X
10 -5
)
.,,. 1s 27. Spaceship Probl em: A spac eship orbits in an

elliptical path clos e to the Sun, which is at th e
origin . Let x and y be distance in millions of
22. y
mil es . The equation of the orbit is
5
(X~3
12)2
+ (f)2
=1
~-0
X
-10 -5 10 ' a. Sketch the elliptic al orbit .

b. What is the closest the spaceship is to the
'--
-5 Sun? The farthest?
~
c. If x = 20, what are th e two possibl e valu es
of y?
y
d. At th e points in part c, how far is the
' '
' '
spaceship from the Sun?
'? 28. Meteor Problem: Astronomers detect a meteor
---:-
,
xs, approaching Earth. They determine that its
,; ,;
path is the branch of the hyp erbol a defined by

-10 ' ',
5-'
' '
10
(1r-2) x = -5 0 + 40 sect
' '
' '
' ' y = 30 tan t
'
as t ranges from -0.5 rr to 0.5 rr. The center

24. y of Earth is at th e origin, and x and y are
distan ce in thousands of miles .
5
a. Plot the bran ch of th e hyp erbola. Sketch •
the result.
X
5 10
L'
' The Willamette Meteorite in the A merican Museum
of Na tural History in New York. For the Clackama s
tribe, this meteorite represented a union of sky,
earth, and wzmi r.
Section
12-2: Parametric
andCartesian
Equation
s oftheConic
Sections 555
ill b. When t = -1 radian, what are the x- and b. You can transform the expressions inside
y-coordinates of the meteor? How far the parentheses to trinomial squares by
is it from the center of Earth at this time? taking half the coefficient of the linear term ,
c. At what value of tis the meteor closest to squaring it, and adding it inside the
Earth? At that time, how far is the meteor parentheses. Show the steps involved in
from the surface of Earth? (Earth's diameter transforming the equation to
is about 7920 mi.)
16(x2 - Bx+ 16) - 25(y 2 + 4y + 4)
d. Before Earth's gravity deflected the meteor
= -556 + 256 - 100 = -400
into its curved path, it was traveling straight
along one asymptote of the hyperbola.
c. Show the transformations that give the
What is the Cartesian equation of this
equation
asymptote?
e. What do you suppose is the physical
significance of the other asymptote?
29. Hyperbola Proof Problem: For the hyperbola in
d. Plot the original equation. Show that the
Problem 17,
graph is the same hyperbola you would get
x = 4 + 5 sect by sketching the equation in part c.
y = 3 + 2 tan t 32. Ellipse from the Cartesian Equation Problem: By
a. Transform the first equation so that sect is completing the square, transform this equation
expressed in terms of x, 4, and 5. Transform of an ellipse to make the dilations and
the second equation so that tan tis transformations visible.
expressed in terms of y, 3, and 2.
25x 2 + 4y 2 -150x+ By+ 129 = 0
b. Square both sides of both transformed
equations . Don't expand the squares on the Confirm, by plotting the given equation, that
side that involves x or y. the ellipse actually does have the features your
c. Subtract the squared equations. transformed equation indicates.
----..__.;
d. Based on the Pythagorean property for 33. xy-Term Problem: Figure 12-2m shows the
secant and tangent, explain why the result graphs of
in part c is equivalent to the Cartesian
equation of a hyperbola. 9x2 + 25y 2 = 225 and
2 2
30. Ellipse Proof Problem: Transform these 9x - 20xy + 25y = 225
parametric equation s into Cartesian form, as
in Problem 29, taking advantage of the y
Pythagorean property for cosine and sine:
X= 3 + 2 COS t X
y= 1 + 5 sin t
31. Completing the Square Problem: It is possible
to go from the Cartesian equation back to
the form showing translations and dilations Figure 12-2m
by reversing the process of squaring the
binomials. The process, called completing the a. Plot these graphs usin g the program of
square, is illustrated here. Suppose that Example 4. (With low-resolution graphics,
the ends of the second graph may
16x2 - 25y 2 -12Bx -100y+ 556 = 0 not close.)
a. Show the steps involved in transforming the b. What changes and what does not change
equation to when an xy-term is added to the
16(x2 - Bx ) - 25(y 2 + 4y ) = -556 equation?
556 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
12-3 Quadric Surfaces and Inscribed Figures
Figure 12-3a shows a parabola in the xy-plane in a three-dimensional
coordinate system. The axis of symmetry is along the y-axis. Figure 12-3b shows
the three-dimensional surface generated by rotating this parabola about its axis
of symme try. The surface is called a paraboloid. The suffix -aid means "like,"
so a paraboloid is "parabola-like ."
y y
Real-world objects such as reflectors in flashlights

and receivers that pick up quarterbacks' voices
at football games have this shape. 1n general, the
three-dimensional analog of a conic section is a
quadric surface. Quadric surfaces in general are
defined by quadratic equations in three variables .
In this section you'll encounter some special A paraboloid surface reflects
quadric surfaces that are generated by rotating the parallel elect romagn etic
conic sections about their axes, such as a rays of television broadcast s
into its focal point.
paraboloid. You'll also study plane and solid
figures that can be inscribed inside these surfaces.
OBJECTIV
E Given the equation of a conic section, sketch the surface generated by rotating
it about one of its axes, and find the area or volume of a figure inscribed
either in the plane region bounded by the grap h or in the solid region
bounded by the surface.
The parabola in Figure 12-3a was rotated about its axis of symmetry . The axes
of symmet ry of ellipses and hyperbolas are given different names to distinguish
between them . Figure 12-3c shows that for an ellipse th e names are major axis
and minor axis. The names refer to the relative sizes of the two axes, not to the
directions in which they point. For a hyperbola, the nam es are transverse axis
(from vertex to vertex) and conjugate axis (perpendicular to the transverse
axis). The latter name comes from the conjugate hyperbola, which has the
same asymptotes but opens in the other direction.
Section
12-3
: Quadric
Su~aces
andInscribed
Figures 557
Conjugate Transverse
Major axis
Minor axis axis axis
~
Vertex
V,ne, '-"' e-, Vcne,
Center
/ '~\
"' Ellipse
~ ce7
Hyperbo la
Figure 12-3c
Rotating an ellipse about one of its axes generates an ellipsoid. If the rotation is
about the major axis, the ellipsoid is called a prolate spheroid, reminiscent of a
football or an egg. If the rotation is about the minor axis, the ellipsoid is called
an oblate spheroid, similar to a round pillow. Figure 12-3d shows these shapes.
Prolate spheroid Oblate sphero id

The somewhat flattened
Figure 12-3d
ball is akin to an oblate
spheroid. Rotating a hyperbola about one of its axes generates a hyperboloid. If the
rotation is about the transverse axis, the two branches of the hyperbola form
two disconnected surfaces, called a hyperboloid of two sheets. If the rotation
is about the conjugate axis, the surface is connected and is called a hyperboloid
of one sheet. The icon at the top of each even-numbered page in this chapter is
a hyperboloid of one sheet. Figure 12-3e shows these shapes.
y
X
Hyperboloid of two sheets Hyperboloid of one sheet
Figure 12-3e
Hyperboloids of one sheet have the remarkable property that they can be
generated by rotating a line about an axis that is skew to the line. The
decorative table in Figure 12-3f shows this property. The power plant cooling
towers in the figure take advantage of the fact that they can be built with
straight reinforcing materials, without any internal support structure.
558 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
Figure 12-3f
EXAMPLE
lliJJ,- 1 Sketch the hyperboloid formed by rotating about the y-axis the hyperbola
-9x 2 + y 2 = 9 from x = 0 to x = 2.
Solution -9x 2 + y 2 = 9
-Gr+
(fY =1
Figure 12-3g shows the hyperbola centered at the origin, opening in the
y-direction with asymptotes having slopes ±3. Show the circular cross sections
in perspective, using dashed lines where the cross section is hidden. <111111
-1
-3
Le Corbusier used hyp erbolic-paraboloid surfaces

Figure 12-3g in the archit ectural desig n of this 1958 World
Expo building, the Phillips Pavilion .
EXAMPLE
lliJJ,- 2 Recta ngles of various proportions are inscribed in the region under the
hal f-ellipse 64x 2 + 25y 2 = 1600, y ~ 0, as shown in Figure 12-3h. A vertex of the
rectangle is the sample point (x, y) that lies on the ellipse. The rectangle can be
tall an d skinny, short and wide, or somewhere in between , depending on where
the sample point is placed on the ellipse. The area of the rectangle depends on
the location of the sample point. Place the sample point in Quadrant I.
Section
12-3:Quadric
Surfaces
andInscribed
Figures 559
y
Tall and skinny 8
-5 5
Figure 12-3h
a. Write the area of a representative rectangle in terms of the values of x and

y at the sample point.
b. Transform the equation in part a so that the area is a function of x alone.
c. Make a table of values of area as a function of x for each 1 unit from x = 0
to x = 5. Based on your table, approximately what value of x in this interval
seems to give the maximum area?
d. Plot the graph of area as a function of x. Use the maximum feature on your
grapher to find the value of x that produced the maximum area and to find
that maximum.
Solution Let A represent the area .

a. A= 2xy The width of the rectangle is 2x, not x.
b. 64x2 + 25y 2 = 1600, y::: 0 Transform the ellipse equation to give

yin terms of x.
25y 2 = 1600 - 64x2
64
y 2 = -(25 - x2 )
25
y = §_-J2 5 - x2 Use only the positive square root,

5 because y 2 0 .
.·.A = 3.2x-J25 - x2 A = 2xy
c. X A
0 0
A 1 15.677 ...
50 2 29.328 ...
40 - -- - - -- - -
3 38.4
4 38.4
10 X 5 0
2 3 4
The maximum area seems to occur at a value of x between 3 and 4.
Figur e 12-3i d. Figure 12-3i shows the graph of area as a function of x. The maximum,
40, occurs at x = 3.5355.... ~
560 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
..,._EXAMPLE
3 The part of the parabola y = 4 - x2 in the first quadrant is rotated about the
y-axis to form a paraboloid. A cylinder is inscribed in th e region under this
surface with the center of its lower base at the origin and the points on the
circumference of its upper base on the parabola.
a. Sketch the paraboloid and the cylinder.
b. Find the volume of the cylinder as a function of its radius.
c. Find the maximum volume the cylinder can have, and then find the radius
of this maximal cylinder.
Solution First sketch the par abola as in Figure 12-3j.

a. Pick a sample point (x, y) on the parabola in Quadrant I. Then draw the
paraboloid by cons idering what happens as the parabol a rotates about its
axis of symmetry. The uppe r base of the cylinder will be traced by the
sam ple point. The two circu lar bas es will appear as ellips es in the figur e
b ecause they are bein g viewed in pers pectiv e.
y
4
Radius
-2
Figure 12-3}
b. Let Vrepresent the volume of the cylinder.

V= rrx 2 y Volum e = rr (radius) 2 (aititude)
V = rr x2 (4 - x2 ) Substitute for y.
c. Plot the volum e function as shown in Figure 12-3k.
V
lS
10
Figure 12-3k
The maximum featur e of your grapher gives th e maximum volume,

12.5663 ... cubic unit s, at x = 1.4142... (which is the square root of 2). -<1111
Section
12-3: Quadric
Surfaces
andInscrib
edFigure
s 561
Recall that th e lateral area of a solid is its surfac e area, excluding the area of
the bas es . Th ese formulas from geometr y will h elp you with the problems in
Problem Set 12-3.
PROPERTIES:
Geometry
Formulas
Figure Volume Surface Area
Cylinder V= rrr 2 h L = 2rrrh Lateral area
2
S = 2rrrh + 2rrr Total area
Cone V= ! rrr 2 h L = rrrl Lateral area
(l = slant height)
S = rrrl + rrr 2 Total area
Sphere 3
S = 4rrr 2
V= ! rrr
Problem Set 12-3
Reading Analysis tlfJ} For Problems 1-10, sketch the quadric surface.
From what you have read in this sec tion, what do 1. Paraboloid form ed by rotating the part of the
you consider to be the main idea ? What is the gra ph of y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 3 about the
differ ence b etween a prolate spheroid and an oblate y-axis
spheroid? Why do hyp erboloids ha ve two sheets 2. Paraboloid form ed by rotating the part of
when the rotation is about the tr ansve rs e axis of the graph of y = 9 - x2 that lies in th e first
the hyperbola, but only one sheet when th e rotation quadrant about th e y-axis
is about the conjugate axis?
3. Ellipsoid formed by rotating the graph of
4x2 + y 2 = 16 about the x-axis
Quick Review 4. Ellipsoid formed by rotating the graph of
For th e equations in Probl ems Ql -Q7, name the 4x 2 + y 2 = 16 about the y-axis
conic section. 5. Hyperboloid form ed by rotating the p art of th e
2 2
Q1. x + 4y + 5x + 6y = 100 graph of 4x 2 - y 2 = 4 from x = 1 to x = 2 about
the y-axis
Q2. x2 - 4y 2 + 5x + 6y = 100
6. Hyperbo loid form ed by rotating the part of th e
Q3. -x 2 + 4y 2 + 5x + 6y = 100 graph of - x2 + y 2 = 9 from y = 3 to y = 6 about
Q4. 4x2 + 4y 2 + 5x + 6y = 100 the x-axis
QS. 4x2 + 5x + 6y = 100 7. Hyperboloid form ed by rotating th e part of the
graph of x2 - 4y 2 = 4 from x = -5 to x = 5
Q6. 4y 2 + 5x + 6y = 100
about the x-axis
Ql. X = 3 + 5 COS t
8. Hyperboloid form ed by rotating th e part of th e
y = 4 + 2 sin t graph of - x 2 + y 2 = 9 from x = -6 to x = 6
QB.Compl ete the square : 5x2 + 30x + 58 about the y-axis
Q9. Compl ete the square: y 2 + lOy + 10 9. Cone formed by rotating the part of the line
y = 3x from x = -2 to x = 2 about th e y-axis
QlO. Which operation causes dilation of a figur e,
multiplication or addition? 10. Con e formed by rotating th e part of the line
y = 0. 5x from x = - 6 to x = 6 about th e x-axis
562 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Su~aces
11. Ellipsoids in Sketchpad Problem: Go to value of x that maximi zes the area of the
www .keymath
.com/precalc
and open the sketch rectan gle, and find thi s maximum area.
Surfaces.gsp. (Note that this req uir es th e u se
y
of The Geometer's Sketchpad software.) By
double-clicking on the parameters A and B, 9
change their valu es to graph the ellips e 4x 2 +
y 2 = 16 from Problems 3 and 4. Click on th e
Paintx Surface button and observe the result.
Then click on the Clear Tracesbutton , then the
Painty Surface button. Write a par agraph telling
what you observed and describing h ow th e
Sketchpad surfaces compare with your
sketches in Problems 3 and 4. For instance,
what do you notic e about the orientatio ns of
X
th e three axes? How can you make Sketchpad's
surfaces look the same as your sketc hes?
12. Hyperboloids in Sketchpad Problem: Following
Figure 12-31
the directions given in Problem 11, plot the
hyp erboloid from Problem 5 formed by rotating 15. Cylinder in Sphere Volume Problem: The circle
th e graph of 4x 2 - y 2 = 4 about the y-axis. Then x 2 + y 2 = 25 is rotated about the y-axis to form a
clear th e trace and rotate this hyperbola about sphere (Figure 12-3m). A cylinder is inscrib ed in
the x-axis. Note the differences between the two the sphere, with its axis along the y-axis. Write an
hyp erboloid s. Finally, plot the hyperbo loid equation expressing the volum e of the cylinder
from Problem 7 formed by rotating the graph of in terms of a samp le point (x, y) in the first
x2 - 4y 2 = 4 about th e x-axis. Write a paragraph quadrant where the upp er base of the cylinder
telling what you observed and describing how touches the circle. Plot the volume of the
the comput er graphs compare with the graphs cylinder as a function of x, and sketch the result.
you sketched in Problems 5 and 7. What do th e Find th e value of x that gives the maximum
results of this problem help you understand volume, and find this maximum volume .
about quadri c surface s?
y
13. Triangle in Parabola Problem: A triangle is
inscribed in the region bounded by the graph
of the parabola y = 9 - x2 and the x-axis (Figur e
12-31).A vertex of the triang le is at the origin,
and th e opposite side is paralle l to the x-axis. X
Another vertex touches the parabola at the

sample point (x, y) in the firs t quadrant. Plot
the area of the triangle as a func tion of x, and
sketch the result. Find the value of x th at
maximi zes the area of the triang le, and find
the area of this maximal triangle . Figur e 12-3m
14. Rectangl e in Ellipse Problem: A rectangle is 16. Cy lind er in Ellipsoid Probl em: The ellip se
ins cribed in the ellips e 9x2 + 25y 2 = 225 . The x2 + 4y 2 = 4 is rotated about the x-axis to form
sides of the rectangle are para llel to the an ellipsoid . A cylinder is inscribed in the
coordinate axes. Sketch the ellipse and the ellipsoid , with its axis along th e x-axis. The
rectangle. Then find the area of the rectangle right ba se of th e cylinder touches th e ellips e
in terms of a sample point at which a vertex of at the sample point (x, y) in the first quadrant.
the rectan gle touches the ellipse in the first Sketch th e ellipsoid and the cylinder. Then plot
qu adrant. Plot th e area of the rectang le as a the volume of the cylind er as a fun ction of x.
function of x, and sketch the res ult . Find th e Sketch the graph. Find the value of x that
Section
12-3
: Quadric
Surfaces
andInscribed
Figures 563
maximizes the volume of the cylinder, and 19. Submarine Problem: The bow of a submarine has
find this maximum volume. the shape of the half-ellipsoid formed by rotating
about the x-axis the right half of the ellipse
17. Cylinder in Sphere Area Problem: A cylinder is
inscribed in a sphere with radius S units, as in 22Sx2 + 900y 2 = 202,500
Figure 12-3m.
where x and y are length in feet. The ellipsoid
a. Find the radius and altitude of the cylinder (a doubly curved surface) is to be shaped from
with maximum lateral area . thin metal that is relatively easy to mold. The
b. Find the radius and altitude of the cylinder pr essure hull, made of thick metal, is in the
with maximum total area. form of a cylinder (a singly curved surface)
c. Does th e cylinder with maximum lateral inscribed in the ellipsoid (Figure 12-3n). How
area also have the maximum total area? should th e cylinder be constructed to give it
the maximum volume? How much of the heavy
d. Does the cylinder with maximum total
steel plate will be needed to form the curved
area also have maximum volume, as in
walls of the cylinder?
Problem 15?
18. Cylinder in Ellipsoid Area Problem: A cylinder
is inscribed in the ellipsoid in Problem 16.
a. Find the radius and altitude of the cylinder
with maximum lateral area. X
b. Find the radius and altitude of the cylinder

with maximum total area.
c. Does the cylinder with maximum lateral
area also have the maximum total area?
d. Does the cylinder with maximum total Figure 12-3n
area also have maximum volume, as in
Problem 16?
12-4 Analytic Geometry of the Conic Sections

For each vertex of a conic section, there is a special fixed point on the concave
side called the focus as shown in Figure 12-4a. For ellipses, light or sound rays
starting at one focus are reflected toward the other focus, making the ellipse a
us eful shape for auditoriums and "whispering chambers." For parabolas, rays
starting at the focus are reflected parallel to the axis of symmetry, making the
parabola a useful shape for headlight reflectors and dish TV antennas. For
hyperbolas, the reflected rays diverg e, but when extended backward they pass
through the other focus.
Parabola Reflected rays
Ellipse : Reflected rays are parallel.
converge to other focus .
:
The Old Senate Chamber
in the U.S. Capitol in
Washington, D.C., is a Figure 12-4a
famous whispering chamber.
564 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sect
ionsandQuadric
Suriaces
For each focus of any conic section, there is a fixed line on the convex side,
called the directrix, perpendicular to the axis of symmetry. For each point on
th e graph, its distance from the focus is directly proportional to its distance
fr om the corresponding directrix. The proportionality constant is called the
eccentricity, written e. As shown in Figure 12-4b, if d 1 is the distance from a
point on the graph to the directrix and d 2 is the distance from that point to the
focus, then
d2 = ed1
The name eccentricity is given because the closer e is to zero, the rounder an
ellips e is. The closer e is to 1, the longer and more "eccentric" the ellipse is. If the
eccentricity is 1, the graph is a parabola. If the eccentricity is greater than 1, the
graph is a hyperbola. You can see dynamically how varying the eccentricity
pro duc es different conic sections by viewing the Unified Conics Exploration at
www.keymoth.com/precolc
.
Direc tr ix
d,
------ -- Para bola , d2 = ed 1, e = 1
I
I
I
/ d')
I -
I Axis of symm et r y
Focus
I
Major axis
Focu s Focu s
Ellipse, d 2 = ed" 0 < e < 1 Dir ectri x
Hyperbola
d2 = ed 1, e > 1
-- I
- I
I
,' d2
----- - - d3 I
I
I
Tran svers e md s Focu s

Oth er
focu s
Direc trix
Figure 12-4b
OBJECTIVEGiven the equation of a conic section, find the foci, the directrix, and the
eccentricity, and vice versa.
The focus, directrix, and eccentricity properties of conic sections are

summariz ed in the box on the next pag e.
Section
12-4
: Analytic
Geometry
ofthe Conic
Sections 565
PROPERTIES:
. Focus,
Directrix,
andEccentricity
of a Conic
Section
If d 1 is the distance from the point .(x, y) on a conic section to its directrix and
d 2 is the distance from (x, y) to the corresponding focus, then
d2
or, equivalently, e =-
d1
Verbally: "The distance to the focus is e times the distance to the directrix."
distance from point to focus ,,
"The eccentricity is the ratio
distanc e from point to directrix·
e> 1 =} Hyperbo la
e=1 =} Parabola
0 <e< 1 =} Ellipse
e=0 =} Circle The directrix is infinitely far away.
Radii of an Ellipse and of a Hyperbola

An ellipse has four constant "radii," identified with letters in Figure 12-4c.
• a, major radius, from the center to a vertex, along the major axis
• b, minor radius, from the center to one end of the minor axis
• c, focal radius, from the center to a focus, along the major axis
• d, directrix radius, from the center to a directrix, alon g th e major axis
Y Directrix
Hyperbola
Figure 12-4c Figure 12-4d
The radii for a hyperbola are labeled with the same letters in Figure 12-4d. Each
focus is on the concave side of the corresponding vertex, and the directrix is on the
convex side. Recall that the transverse axis goes from vertex to vertex and that the
conjugate axis goes through the center, perpendicular to the transverse axis. You'll
learn how the transverse, conjugate, and focal radii are related later in this section.
• a, transverse radius, from the center to a vertex, along the transverse axis
• b, conjugate radius, from the center to one endpoint of the conjugate axis
(length of the tangent segment from the vertex to an asymptote)
• c, focal radius, from th e cen ter to a focus, along the tra ns verse axis
• d, directrix radius, from the center to a directrix, along the transvers e axis
566 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Su~aces
Focal Distances for an Ellipse or a Hyperbola
Figure 12-4b shows distances d2 and d3 from a point on an ellipse or a hyperbola
to the two foci. An ellipse has the property that the sum of these distances is
constant . For a hyperbola, the difference between these distances is constant.
These properties allow you to define the ellipse and the hyperbola geometrically.
DEFINITIONS:
Ellipse
andHyperbola
An ellipse is the set of all points Pin a plane for which the sum of th e
distances from point P to two fixed points (the foci) is constant .
A hyper bola is the set of all points Pin a plane for which the ab solute valu e
of the difference of the distances from point P to two fixed points (the foci) is
constant.
Figure 12-4e shows how you can demonstrate this property for ellipses . Tie
two pins to a string so that, when stretched out, the pins are 10 cm apart. Then
stick the pins into a piece of cardboard, foam boar d, or wood so that the pins
are 8 cm apart. Set up a coordinate system with the pins at the fixed points
(-4, 0) and (4, 0), as shown in the figure. Place a pencil as shown and draw a
curve, keeping the string taut. For any point (x, y) on the resulting ellipse, the
sum of its distances from the two foci equals the constant length of the string,
10 cm in this case. This distance is the length of the major axis or major
diameter, 2a, twice the major radius.
Pin Pin
J
..,-~
Strin g '\
-:\"-
1+-~~~~1 oc m ~~ ~ ~--+-I
y
(x, y)
X
X
Focus (- 4, 0) Focus (4, 0)
Figure 12-4e
PROPERTIES:
Two-Foci
Properties
farEllipses
andHyperbolas
If d2 and d 3 are the distances from point (x, y) on an ellipse or a hyperbola to
the two foci and a is the major radius or transverse ra dius, then
d 2 + d3 = 2a for ellipses
ld2 - d3I = 2a for hyper b olas
Section
12-4:Analytic
Geometry
oftheConic
Sections 567
ill
Pythagorean Property of an Ellipse or a Hyperbola
The major, minor, and focal radii of an ellipse are related by a Pythagorean
property. Placing the pencil of Figure 12-4e at the end of the minor axis
(Figure 12-4[) shows that the major radius, a (half the length of the string),
equals the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose legs are the minor radius, b,
and the focal radius, c. By the Pythagorean theorem, a 2 = b 2 + c 2 .
y
-a
Figure 12-4{
Figure 12-4g shows that for hyperbolas the focal radius equals the hypotenuse
of a right triangle whose legs are the transverse radius, a, and the conjugate
radius, b. Thu s, c 2 = a 2 + b 2 .
b "
Hyperbola
Figure 12-4g
PROPERTIES:
iPythagorean
Properties
ofEllipses
andHyperbolas
For ari ellipse, if a is the major radius, b is the minor radius, and c is the focal
radius, then
a z = b2 + c2
For a hyperbola, if ais the tran~verse radius , bis the conjugate radius, and c
is the focal radius, then
cz = a2 + bz
568 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
Radii and Eccentricity Properties of an Ellipse
or a Hyperbola
The major (or transverse) rad ius, focal y Directrix
radius, and directrix radius of an ellipse
or a hyperbola are relate d by the
eccentricity, e. Figure 12-4h shows a
point on the ellipse at the end of the
minor axis. Here, th e distance d 1 to the X
directrix equa ls d, the directrix ra diu s,
and the distance d 2 to the focu s equals
a, the major radius. Substituting a for
d 2 and d for d 1 in the equ ation Figure 12-4h
d 2 = ed 1 , you get
a= ed Major (transverse) radius equals

e times the directrix radius.
If the point is at the vertex of the ellipse, then d 1 = d - a and d2 = a - c.
Substituting a - c for d 2 and d - a for d 1 in the equ ation d 2 = edi, you get
a - c = e(d- a)
Knowing that a= ed, you can transform this equat ion to
c= ea Focal rad ius equals e times the major (transverse) radiu s.
Figure 12-4i shows a similar relationship for a hyper b ola. The equations a= ed
and c = ea are also true for hyperbo las . ·
Figure 12-4i
PROPERTIES:
RadiiandEccentricity
ofanEllipse
ora Hyperbola
If e is the eccentricity of an ellipse or a hyper b ola, th en
c= ea Focal radi us equals the eccentricity times the
major (transverse) radius.
a= ed Major (transverse) radius equals the

eccentric ity times the directrix radius .
C a focal radius major radius

e=- and e=- Eccentricity= = -----
a d major radius directrix rad ius
Section
12-4: Analytic
Geometry
oftheConic
Secti
ons 569
111 The geometric prop erties of ellipses and hyperbol as are summar ized in this box.
PROPERTIES:
Geometric
Relationships
inEllipses
orHyperbolas
Properties for Any Point on the Graph
This equals
e times tha t.
Focus
Directrix Directrix
Focus-directrix Focus-directrix
property prope rty
This plu s this equals

that.
o.- ---+- 2a
Two-foci prop erty Two-foci prop erty
Properties Relating the Radii

This equals that.
This equal s that.
Focu s ,, Focus
I \
I \
I \
Hypotenu se prope rty Hypotenu se property
c= ea c = ae
a= ed a= ed
Vertex
/ Focus
d
Directrix - Directrix
Eccentri city prop erti es Eccentricity pr operties
570 Chapt
er 12: Ana
lyticGeometry
ofConicSec
tions andQuadric
Surfa
ces
... EXAMPLE
1 Consider the ellipse 49x 2 + 16y 2 = 784.
a. Sketch the graph . Show the two foci and the two directrices (plural of
directrix).
b. Find th e major, minor , and focal radii, the eccentri city, and th e directrix
radius.
c. Calculate y for x = 3. Show that the distance from the point (x, y) to one
focus is e times its distance to the correspon ding directrix .
Solution First, transform th e equation to find the two dilation factors .

a. 49x 2 + 16y 2 = 784 Write the given equation.
(~)2
+ (t)2
=1 Make the right side equal 1 to find th e two dilation
factors.
Sketch the graph (Figure 12-4j, left) with x-radius 4 and y-radius 7. Show
the foci on th e concave side of the corresponding vertices and the
directric es on the convex side.
y y y
Direc trix
I
7 7 I
Focu s :d,
I
-- I
d 2-- X= 3
d a
C y
-4 4
X
-4
l b 4
X
-4
! 4
X
-7 -7 -7
Direc trix
Figure 12-4)
b. Major radius: a=7 The major rad ius is th e lon ger rad ius
(Figur e 12-4j, middl e).
Minor radius: b=4

2 2
c =a - b = 72
2
- 4 2 = 33 Use th e Pythagorean prop erty:
Hypo tenu se = major radius .
Focal radius: C= -ffi = 5.7445 ... Store as c in your grapher.
Eccentricity:
CJD = 0.8 206 ...
e= - = - e is between O and 1, as is true
a 7 for ellipse s. Stor e as e.
a a 7 49
e=- => d=~= JD= .JD =8 .5298 ... dis distanc e from
d center to dir ectrix.
7
Sec
tion12·4:Analytic
Geometry
oftheConci Section
s 571
rn Note that d = 8.5298 .. . is greater than 7, which means that the directrix is
on the convex side of the vertex, and that c = 5.7445 ... is less than 7, which
means that the focus is on the concave side .
C. 49(3 2 ) + 16y 2 = 784 Substitute 3 for x in the given
equation.
y = ±)31~ = ±4.6300 ...
The right ellipse in Figure 12-4j shows the point (3, 4.6300 ... ) and
distances d 1 and d2 •
d1 = d - y = 8.5298 ... - 4.6300 ... = 3.8997 ...
d 2 = V32 + (c -y )2 = v 32 + 1.1144 ... 2 = 3.2003 ...
Use th e Pythagorean theorem .
ed 1 = (0.8206 .. .)(3.8997 ... ) = 3.2003 ... , which equals d 2
~ EXAMPLE
2 Consider a conic section with eccentricity 1.25 and foci (6, 2) and (-4, 2).
a. Identify the conic and find its equation.
b. Sketch the graph, showing the foci and directrices. You may first plot the
conic parametrically or using a program like the one in Section 12-2.
Solution Start by making a sketch of the foci (Figure 12-4k).

a. The conic is a hyperbola because e is greater than l. The hyperbola opens in
the x-direction becaus e the transverse axis (through the foci) is horizontal.
y
Center
(1, 2)
(-4, 2) / • (6,2)
X
Figure 12-4k
The center is at the point (1, 2). Average - 4 and 6 to find the
x-coordinat e.
c=6-1=5 Focal radius goes from center to

focus .
C C 5
e=-=} a=-=--=4 Use the eccentricity to find the
a e 1.25 transv erse radius.
b 2 = c2 - a 2 = 25 - 16 = 9 =* b = 3 Use the Pythagorean property to

find the conjugate radius.
Equation is ( -X - - 1)2- (y-

- -2)2
= 1. a goes under the positive term;
4 3 b goes und er the negative term.
572 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
b. Use the eccentricity to find the directrix radius.
a a 4
e= - =} d = - = -- = 3.2
d e 1.25
See the graph in Figure 12-41. Each focus is on the concave side of the vertex,
and each directrix is on the convex side.
y
'
''
Figure 12-4/
Parametrically,
x = 1 + 4 sect Secant goes with the direction in which the hyperbola opens.
y = 2 + 3 tan t
To use the program in Section 12-2, first transform the Cartesian equation into
9x2 - 16y 2 - 18x + 64y - 199 = 0
~ EXAMPLE
3 Find the Cartesian equation of the conic with y
focus (-1, 2), directrix x = 3, and eccentricity e = l (x,y)
~ -- (3, y)
How is the result consistent with the eccentricity
property of conics? Plot the graph on your grapher
using the program in Section 12-2. Sketch the result. I X =3
'.
(-1, 2)
X
Solution Draw a sketch showing the given directrix and focus
and a point (x, y) on the graph (Figure 12-4m) . Show
d 1 from point (x, y) to the directrix and d2 from point Figure 12-4m
(x, y) to the focus.
d 2 = ed 1 Focus-directrix property of
conics.
V(x + 1) 2 + (y- 2) 2 = ~ Ix- 31 By the distance formula.
16(x2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 - 4y + 4) = 9(x 2 - 6x + 9) Square both sides and

simplify.
X
7x 2 + 16y 2 + 86x- 64y- l = 0 Make the right side equal zero.
The squared terms have the same sign but unequal coefficients, indicating
an ellipse. This is consistent with the fact that e is between O and l.
Figure 12-4n Figure 12-4n shows the ellipse with the given focus and directrix.
Section
12-4
: Analytic
Geometry
oftheCon
icSections 57 3
[l
Focal Distance of a Parabola
The radius properties given previousl y do not apply to parabolas b ecaus e
a parabola has only one vertex and no center. For a parabola, d 2 = d 1
because the eccentricity equals 1. This property lets you define parabolas
geometrically.
DEFINITION:
Parabola
A parabola is the set of all points Pin a plane for whic h point P's distance to
a fixed point (the focus) is equal to its distance to a fixed line (the directrix).
Using this property you can find the equation of a parabola with vertex at
the origin in terms of the distance p from the vertex to the focus or directrix
(Figure 12-40). This distance, p, is called the focal distance of a parabola.
Focus
(0, p)
T ____
d~
p
X
p :d,
!~~ _-~~ ___t - -- ---- • --------
E>~r!~t~i:' I
(x, -p)
Figure 12-40
Pick a point (x, y) on th e parabola (Figure 12-40).

dz= d1 The eccentr icity of a parabola is 1.
.Jx2 + (y - p) 2 = Jy+ Pl By th e distanc e formula.
x2 + y z _ Zpy + P2 = yz + Zpy + p2 Squar e both sides and expand .

2
x = 4py
1 2
or y= -x
4p
574 Chapter
12: Anal
yticGeometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
PROPERTY:
Focus-Directrix
Equation
of Parabolas
The equation of a parabola with vertex at the origin and axis of symmetry
along a coordinate axis is
1 1
y=-x 2 or x=-y2
4p 4p
where pis the distance from the vertex to the focus or to the directrix .
.....EXAMPLE
4 Find th e particular equation of the parabola with y
focus at the point (2, 3) and directrix y = 5. Plot the
equa tion on your graph er and sketch the result .
Calculate the two x-intercepts, and show that the
graph agrees with th e calculations.
y-5
l
_ (x , 5)
'
Solution Sketch the focus and directrix as shown in

Figure 12-4p. Figure 12-4p
Pick (x, y) representing a point on the parabola, and draw on the sketch the
distances d 1 from th e point (x, y) to the directrix and d2 from (x, y) to the focus.
Because th e graph is a parabola, the eccentricity equals l. Thus, d 1 and d 2 are
equa l.
d2 = d1 Write an equation .
.J(x- 2)2 + (y- 3)2 = ly- 51 Substitut e for the distances in terms
of x and y.
x2 - 4x + 4 + y 2 - 6y + 9 = y 2 - lOy + 25 Square both sides, and expand.
4y = -x 2 +4x+ 12 Solve for y as a function of x.

2
y= -0.25x + x+ 3
y The graph in Figure 12-4q shows the vertex of the parabola halfway between the
focus and the directrix.
2
0 = -0.25x + x+ 3 Set y = O to find the x-interc epts .
x=6 or x = -2 By the quadrati c formula .
The graph agrees with these values.

Figur e 12-4q
Section
12-4: Analytic
Geometry
oftheConic
Sect
ions 575
Problem Set 12-4
Reading Analysis {lf/j y

do you consider to be the main idea? How does
the eccentricity of a conic section act as a
proportionality constant relating the distances from
a point on the curve to two fixed objects? Explain
why the major radius of an ellipse can also be
depicted as the hypotenuse of a right triangle X
within the ellipse. Why does a parabola have only

one focus and one vertex, while both ellipses and
hyperbolas have two?
Quick Review ,,----.~~

••L;( ' ::!J
For Problems Ql -Q6, tell what quadric surface you
get by rotating as stated. Figure 12-4r
Ql. An ellipse about its major axis

b. Use the Pythagorean theorem and the result
Q2.An ellipse about its minor axis of part a to calculate these distances:
Q3. A hyperbola about its transverse axis • d 1 from the point (7, y) to the directrix
Q4. A hyperbola about its conjugate axis • d 2 from the point (7, y) to the focus (5, 0)
QS.A circle about its diameter • d 3 from the point (7, y) to the focus (-5, 0)
Q6. A parabola about its axis of symmetry c. Show that d 2 = ed 1 .
d. Show that ld2 - d3 I = 6, the length of the
Ql. How do you recognize a hyperbola from its
transverse axis (between the vertices).
Cartesian equation?
e. Find the x- and y-dilations. Which of these is
QB.How do you distinguish between a circle
the transverse radius, a, and which is the
and an ellipse from the Cartesian conjugate radius, b?
equation?
f. As shown in Figure 12-4r, the focal radius
Q9.How do you tell which way a parabola opens is c = 5. Show that c 2 = a 2 + b 2 , the
from its Cartesian equation? Pythagorean property of hyperbolas.
Q10. What is the origin of the word ellipse? g. Show that the directrix radius, d = 1.8,
satisfies the equation a = ed and that the
focal radius, c = 5, satisfies the equation
1. Hyperbola Problem: Figure 12-4r shows the c= ea.
hyperbola 16x2 - 9y 2 = 144. Its foci are at the
points (-5, 0) and (5, 0), and a directrix is the 2. Ellipse Problem: Figure 12-4s shows the ellipse
l
line x = 1.8. Its eccentricity, e, is 25x 2 + 9y 2 = 225. Its foci are at the points
(0, -4) and (0, 4), and a directrix is the line
a. A point on the hyperbola in Quadrant I has
y = 6.2 5. Its eccentricity, e, is 0.8.
x-coordinate 7. Calculate y for this point.
Does the value agree with the graph? Store a. A point on the ellipse in Quadrant I has
the answer as y in your grapher. y-coordinate 3. Calculate x for this point.
Does your answer agree with the graph?
Store the answer as x in your grapher.
576 Chapter
12: Ana
lyticGeometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
y 3. Parabola Problem: Figure 12-4t shows the
parabola y = }x2 . Its focus is at the point (0, 2),
Directrix , y = 6.2 5
and its directrix is the line y = -2.
5
y
-3
-5 Directrix, y = - 2
Figure 12-4s
Figure 12-4t
b. Use the Pythagorean theorem and the result
of part a to calculate these distances : a. The vertex is at the origin, (0, 0). Explain how
• d 1 from the point (x, 3) to the directrix this fact confirms that the parabola's
eccentricity is 1.
• d 2 from the point (x, 3) to the focus (0, 4)
b. The point shown in the first quadrant ha s
• d3 from the point (x, 3) to the focus (0, - 4) x = coordinate 6. Calculate y for this point.
c. Show that d2 = ed1. Does your answer agree with the graph?
d. Show that d 2 + d3 = 10, the length of the c. Calculate these distances:
major axis. • d 1 from the point (6, y) to the directrix
e. Find the x- and y-dilations . Which of these is • d 2 from the point (6, y) to the focus
the major radius, a, and which is the minor
radius, b? d. Show that d 2 = d 1 and that this fact is
consistent with eccentricity 1 for a parabola.
f. As shown in Figure 12-4s, the focal radius
is c = 4. Show that a 2 = b 2 + c 2 , the The paraboloid
Pythagorean prop erty of ellipses. mirror behind
g. Show that the directrix radius, d = 6.25, the lightbulb in
a headlight' s
satisfies the equation a = ed and that the focus reflects its
focal radius, c = 4, satisfies the equation light in parallel
c= ea. rays.
4. Circle Problem: The circle x 2 + y 2 = 25 can be

considered an ellipse with major and minor
radii equal to each other.
a. Find the major and minor radii.
b. Based on the Pythagorean property of
ellipses, explain why the focal radius of a
circle is zero. Where, then, are the foci of
a circle?
c. The eccentricity of an ellipse, e, is ii•where c
The Coliseum in Rome, Ital y, is an elliptical
and a are the focal radius and major radius,
amphitheater that once seated 50,000 people.
respectively. Explain why the eccentricity of
Section
12·4:Analytic
Geometry
oftheConic
Sections 577
rn a circle is zero. Why is the name eccentricity directrix? What happens to the ratio of these
appropriate in this case? distanc es? Why is it correct to say that the
d. The eccentricity of an ellipse is also equal eccentricity of a given ellipse is constant?
to ~' where dis the directrix radius. Based c. Click on the Hyperbola button. Describe the
on the answer to part c, explain why the changes in the figur e and in the eccentricity.
directrix of a circle is infinitely far from Drag point Pon the hyperbola. Does the
its center . eccentricity remain constant as the
distances between point P and the focus and
5. Conic Construc tion Problem 1: Plot on graph
between point P and the directrix change?
paper the conic with focus (0, 0), directrix
x = -6, and eccentricity e = 2. Put the x-axis d. Click on the Parabolabutton. What happens
near the middle of th e graph paper and the to the second branch of the hyperbola?
y-axis just far enough from the left side to fit What happens to the eccentricity? Drag
the directrix on the paper. Plot the points for point Pon the hyperbola and describe what
which the distance d 1 from the directrix equals you notice.
2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 units . Connect the points with e. Click on the Animate E button. Describe the
a smooth curve . Which conic section have you changes that occur in the graph and in the
graphed? eccentricity as point E moves closer to the
focus and as it moves closer to the directrix.
6. Conic Construction Prob lem 2: Plot on graph
paper the conic with focus (0, 0), directrix f. What do you understand better about conic
x = -6, and eccentricity e = l. Plot points for sections as a result of working this problem?
which the distance d 1 from the directrix equals
3, 6, 10, and 20 units. Connect the points with e=2
a smooth curve. Which conic section have you
graphed?
- ~ ;.
~
7. Computer Construction Problem: Use geometry
software such as The Geometer's Sketchpad to
plot the conics in Problems 5 and 6. Sketch the
results. How do the graphs confirm your /
conclusion about the kind of conic section Directrix
plotted? Figure 12-4u
9. Mars Orbit Problem: Mars is in an elliptical

•:11:.
orbit around the Sun, with the Sun at one
8. Dynamic Conics Problem: Figure 12-4u shows a focus. The aphelion (the point farthest from
fixed directrix and a fixed focus, with conics the Sun) and the perihelion (the point closest
of varying eccentricity. Open the Unified to the Sun) are 155 million miles and
Conics Exploration at www.keymath.com/precalc 128 million miles from the Sun, respectively,
and drag point E to view each conic shown as shown in Figure 12-4v (not to scale).
in Figure 12-4u. Then return to the ellipse.
a. Click on the Distancesbutton. Explain why
the eccentricity is equa l to the distance
from the vertex, point E, to the focus, point
F, divided by the distance from point E to
point A on the directrix.
b. Drag the point Pon the ellipse. What
happens to the distances between point P
and the focus and between point P and the Figure 12-4v
578 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
a. How long is the major axis of the ellipse? d. The comet is closest to Earth when it is at
What is the major radius? the vertex . How clos e does it come to the
b. Find the focal radius and the minor radius center of Earth? How close does it come to
of the ellipse. the surface of Earth, 4000 mi from the
center?
c. Write a Cartesian equation of the ellipse,
with the center at the origin and the major
axis along the x-axis.
d. At the two equinoxes (times of equal day
and night), the angle at the Sun between the
major axis and Mars is 90 °. At these times,
what is the value of x? How far is Mars from
the Sun?
e. Find the eccentricity of the ellipse.
f. How far from the Sun is the closer directrix
of the ellipse?
g. Write parametric equatio ns of the ellipse.
Plot the graph using parametric mode .
Zoom appropriately to make equa l scales
on the two axes .
e. Write parametric equations of the
h. The ellipse you plotted in part g looks hyperbola. What ran ge of t-values will
almost circular . How do the major and generate the branch shown?
minor radii confirm this ? How does the
f. When the comet is at the point shown,
eccentricity confirm this ?
x equals 200,000 mi. At this time, what does
10. Comet Path Problem: Figure 12-4w shows the the parameter t equal? What does y equal?
path of a comet approaching Earth . The path How far is the comet from the center of
is a conic section with eccentricity e = 1.1 and Earth?
directrix radius d = 100,000 mi.
For Problems 11-20, complete steps a-c .
y a. Identify the conic section.
Cent er at b. Calculate the four radii, if applicable, and
origin the eccentricity.
/ X
\
c. Plot the gra ph. Sketch the result.
''
'' x2 y 2 x2 y2
', ) "-- 11. -+-= 1 12. - + -= 1
Cornet 9 25 289 64
Figur e 12-4w x2 y 2 x2 y 2
13. --+-= 1 14. ---= 1
36 9 9 16
a. How can you tell from the given information
that the path is a hyperbola? x -1 )2 + (y+
15. (-- -- 2)2 = 1
b. The center of the hyperbola is at the origin 4 3
in Figure 12-4w, and the transverse axis is
along the x-axis. On a sketch of the figure, x +1 )2 + (y
16. - (-- -- -2) 2 = 1
show the focus and th e directrix. 3 16
c. The center of Earth is at the focus of the 17. 5x2 - 3y 2 = -30 18. 16x2 + 25y 2 = 1600
hyperbola. Find the coordinates of the 1 1
2
focus. 19. X = --y +3 20. X = y2 + 1
4 8
Section
12·4: Analytic
Geometry
oftheConic
Sections 579
For Problems 21-32, complete steps a-c . 28. Hyperbola with foci (0, 5) and (0, -5) and
a. Draw a sketch showing the given constant difference of distances equal to 8
information. Sketch the conic section. 29. Hyperbola with vertices (-1, 3) and (5, 3) and
b. Find the particular equation (Cartesian or slope of asymptotes ± i
parametric) .
30. Ellipse with vertices (4, -2) and (4, 8) and
c. Plot the graph on your grapher. Does your minor radius 3
sketch in part a agree with the plot?
31. Parabola with focus (2, 3) and directrix y = 5
21. Focus (0, 0), directrix y = 3, eccentricity e = 2.
Identify the conic section. 32. Parabola with focus (4, 5) and ver tex (4, 2)
22. Focus (0, 0), directrix x = 5, eccentricity e = £. 33. Latus Rectum Problem: The latus rectum of a
Identify the conic section. conic section is the chord through a focus
parallel to the dir ectrix (Figure 12-4x). By
23. Focus (0, 0), directrix y = -4, eccentricity e = 1. appropriate substitution into the equations,
Identify the conic section. find the length of the latus rectum for the
24. Focus (0, 0), directrix x =! , eccentricity e = 1. conics in Problems 9, 11, and 17.
Identify the conic section.
25. Focus (2, -3), directrix y = 0, eccentricity e = !.
26. Focus (3, 1), directrix x = 2, eccentricity e = 4.
Directrix
27. Ellipse with foci (12, 0) and (- 12, 0) and
constant sum of distances equal to 26 Figur e 12-4x
12-5 Parametric and Cartesian Equations

of Rotated Conics
Previously in this chapter you saw how to write parametric equations of
circles, ellipses , hyperbolas, and parabolas. In this section you will see how
you can transform the parametric equations to rotate the conic through a
given angle using a rotation matrix as in Section 11-3. The Cartesian equations
of these rotated conics turn out to contain an xy-term as well as x 2 - and
y 2 -terms .
OBJECTIVES
• Plot a conic section rotated by a specified angle to the coordinate axes .
• Identify a rotated conic from its Cartesian equation.
• Plot a rotated conic using its Cartesian or parametric equations.
Parametric Equations
The parametric equations of the conic sections centered at the origin and with
major or transverse axis along the x- or y-axis are given in the box.
580 Chapt
er12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Suriaces
PARAMETRIC
EQUATIONS
OFCONIC
SECTIONS:
Center
at Origin
Where a is the major radi u s or tra n sverse radius and bis the minor
radius or conju gate radius
x-axis y-axis
Circle or ellipse: X = a COS t X = b COS t a 2! b
y = b sin t y= a sin t
Hyperbola: x = a sect x = b tan t
y= b tan t y = a sect
Parabola: X= at2 x=t Vertex at origin.
y=t y= at 2
Notice that when the major radius is along the y-axis, the parametric equations
for x and y are switched. Interchanging these equations results in the inverse
function, which is a reflection across the line y = x, transforming a horizontally-
oriented conic into a vertically-oriented conic. Exampl e 1 shows you how to find
other orientations .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Plot the hyperbola centered at the point y
(1, 3) and with transverse radius 5 and
conjugate radius 2 if the transverse
axis makes an angle of 25° with
the x-axis (Figure 12-5a). X
Figure 12-5a
Solution The parent equations of the unrotated hyperbola centered at the origin with
transverse axis along the x-axis are
x = 5 sect See the preceding box; a and b are
also equ al to dilations.
y = 2 tan t
cos 25° cos ll5 °][ 5 sect] Multiply by the rotation matrix
[ sin 25° sin ll5° 2 tan t
(Section 11-3): ll5° = 90° + 25°.
= [ 5 cos 2 5° sec t + 2 cos ll 5° tan t]

5 sin 25° sect+ 2 sin ll5 ° tan t
4.5315 ... sect- 0.8452 ... tan t]
[
= 2.ll30 ... sect+ 1.8126 ... tan t
x= 1 +4.5315 ... sect-0.8452 .. . tant Write x and y from the matrix and
add the tran slations.
y = 3 + 2.1130 ... sect+ 1.8126 ... tan t
With your grapher in parametric mode and degree mode, plot these two
parametric equations . Use a t-range of [0°, 360°]. The graph should look
like the on e in Figure 12-Sa. Be sure to use equa l scales on the two axes. <111111
Section
12-5:Parametric
andCartesian
Equation
s ofRotated
Conics 58 1
Cartesian Equation with xy-Term
Beginning in Section 12-2, you have been using a program to plot conics in
function mode if the equation has the form
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
You can use this program to explore the graphs of conics for which the xy-term
is not zero .
.....EXAMPLE
2 Plot the graph of the equation 9x 2 - 40xy + 25y 2 - 8x + 2y- 28 = 0. Which conic
section do es the graph app ear to be? Does this conclusion agree with what you
have learned about the coefficients of the x2 - and y 2 -term s?
Solution Graph the conic hyperbola usin g the program in

Section 12-2. The graph is shown in Figure 12-Sb.
The result appears to be a hyp erbo la whose axes
are tilted at an angle to the coordinate axes. Based
on th e coefficients of x2 and y 2 , the graph would
be expected to be an ellipse, not a hyperbola. <11111
Figure 12-Sb
.....EXAMPLE
3 Plot the graph of the equa tion 9x 2 - 20xy + 25y 2 - 8x + 2y- 28 = 0 on the
same screen as the hyperbola in Figure 12-Sb. Describe the similarities and
differences.
Solution The graph is shown in color in Figure 12-Sc,

superimposed on the hyp erbola of Example 2.
With -2 0xy instead of -40xy , the graph is now a
rotated ellipse. The ellipse an d the hyperbola have
the same x- and y-intercepts because the xy-term
equals zero if either x or y is zero. <111111
Figur e 12-Sc
.....EXAMPLE
4 Plot the graph of the equation 9x2 - 30xy + 2 5y 2 - 8x + 2y - 28 = 0 on the same
screen as the hyp erbola and ellipse in Figure 12-Sc. Describe the similarities and
differ ences.
Solution The new graph is a parabola, shown in color in Figure 12-Sd. An xy-term
with the right coefficient makes the rotated conic a parabola. The
x- and y-intercepts of the graphs are the same as before.
Identifying a Conic by the Discriminant

In Examples 2, 3, and 4, the xy-coefficient takes on different values. As the
absolute value of the coefficient increases, the graph changes from an ellipse to
a parabola to a hyperbola. It is possible to tell which figure the graph will be
Figure 12-Sd
from the coefficients of the three quadratic terms, x2 , xy, and y 2 . To see what
that relationship is, start with the equation of the hyperbola in Example 2, and
solve it for y in terms of x using the quadratic formula.
582 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
9x 2 - 40xy + 25y 2
- Bx+ 2y- 28 = 0 Write the equation
from Example 2.
25y 2 + (-40x + 2)y + (9x 2 - Bx - 28) = 0 Write the equa tion
as a quadratic in y.
-(-4 0x + 2) ± V(-40x + 2)2 - 4(25)(9x 2 - Bx - 28)

Use the quadratic
y= 2(25) formula.
20x - 1 ± Vl 75x2 + 160x + 701
y= 25 Simplif y.
This transformation is the basis for the program you have b een using since
Section 12-2. The grapher plots two equations for y, one with the + sign and one
with the - sign . Repeating the calculation for the equations in Examples 3 and 4
gives thes e results.
2
lOx - 1 ± v -125x + 180x + 701
Ellipse, -20xy: y= 25
15x- l ±-JOx2 + 170x+ 701

Parabola , -30xy: y= 25
20x - 1 ± Vl 75x 2 + 160x + 701

Hyperbola, -4 0xy: y= 25
Johannes Kepler's diagram The graph will be an ellipse if the coefficient of x2under the radical sign is negative,
of the elliptical path of a para bola if the x2-coefficient is zero, and a hyperbola if the x2-coefficient is
planet m around the Sun pos itive. To find out what this coefficient is in general, repeat the steps given for
at point n-from his book the hyperbola in Example 2 using A, B, C, D , E, and F for the six coefficients.
Astronomia ova (1609).
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 Write the genera l equation .
2 2
Cy + (Bx + E)y + (Ax + Dx + F) =0 Write the equation as a
quadratic in y.
-(Bx+ E) ± V(Bx + E)2 - 4(C)(Ax 2

+ Dx + F)
y= C Use the quadratic formula .
2
Expand th e expression under the radical sign and regroup.
B 2 x 2 + 2BEx + E 2 - 4ACx 2 - 4CDx - 4CF
= (B2 - 4AC)x + (2BE- 4CD)x + (E2
2 - 4CF)
The x2 -coefficient, B 2 - 4AC, is called the discriminant, like b 2 - 4ac in the

familiar quadratic formula. This box summarizes the results so far.
PROPERTY:
Discriminant
of a Conic
Section
For the general equation Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, the discriminant
is B 2 - 4AC.
B2 - 4AC > 0 =} Hyperbola
B2 - 4AC =O =} Parabola
B2 -4AC< 0 Circle or ellipse
(The graph is a circle only if B = 0 and A = C.)
Section
12-5
: Parametric
andCartesianEqua
tions
ofRotated
Conics 583
~ EXAMPLE
5 For the equation 2x2 - Sxy + 8y 2 + Sx - 56y + 120 = 0, use the discriminant to
identify which conic the equation represents. Confirm by plotting on your
grapher.
Solution B2 - 4AC = 25 - 4(2)(8) = -39 < 0 Graph will be an ellipse.
y
The graph in Figure 12-Se confirms that the conic is an ellipse.
0 ', y
Note that if you are using a low-resolution grapher,
X
such as a handheld graphing calculator, the two
branches of the ellipse might not meet. Figure 12-Sf
0 7
<:::::
Branches appear
10 shows you what the graph in Example 5 might look not to connect.
like. When you sketch the graph, you should show it 5 10
Figure 12-5e closing, as in Figure 12-Se.
Figure 12-5(
Problem Set 12-5
Reading Analysis 0g} Q6. Find the focal radius of the hyperbola in
Problem Q5.
you consider to be the main idea? What two major Ql. Find the eccentricity of the hyperbola in
changes are caused by introduction of an xy-term Problem QS.
into the Cartesian equation of a conic section?
Q8.Find the directrix radius of the hyperbola in
What feature does not change when an xy-term is
Problem Q5.
introduced ? How can you use matrices to rotate a
conic section by a given number of degre es without 09. How far apart are the vertices of the hyperbola
changing its proportions ? in Problem QS?
QlO. What is the eccentricity of the parabola
y = 0.lx 2?
Quick Review
QI. Find the major radius of this ellipse: For Problems 1-6, find the parametric equations of
the conic section shown, and confirm that your
answer is correct by plotting the graph on your
grapher.
02. Find the focal radius of the ellipse in l. Ellipse
Problem Ql.
y
03. Find the eccentricity of the ellipse in
Problem Ql.
(- 4, 2)
Q4.Find the directrix radius of the ellipse in
20°
Problem Ql. X
05. Find the conjugate radius of this

hyperbola:
(~Y
-(iY= 1
584 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
2. Ellipse 6. Parabola
y
(Use a t-range of [-10, 10].)
y
Vertex Focus
(-5, 3)
X
X
--y.
- 15 0
/ ---
3. Hyperbola For Problems 7-12, find the parametric equations of

y
the conic section described. Plot the graph on your
grapher and sketch the result.
7. Ellipse with center (8, 5), eccentricity 0.96,
and major radius 25 at an angle of -30 ° to
the x-axis. Use a window with an x-range of
X
[-30, 30] and equal scales on the two axes.
8. Ellipse with center (6, -2), eccentricity 0.8, and
major radius 5 at an angle of 70° to the x-axis.
Use a window with an x-range of [-10, 10] and
equal scales on the two axes.
4. Hyperbola 9. Hyperbola with center (0, 0), eccentricity 1.25,

and transverse radius 4 at an angle of 15° to the
x-axis. Use a window with an x-range of [-10, 10]
and equal scales on the two axes.
10. Hyperbola with center (-5, 10), eccentricity ~l,
and transverse radius 24 at an angle of -20° to
X the x-axis. Use a window with an x-range of
[-50, 50] and equal scales on the two axes.
,'
11. Parabola with vertex at the point (-8, 5), focus
! unit from the vertex, and axis of symmetry at
an angle of -30° to the x-axis, opening to the
lower right . Use a t-range of [-5, 51, a window
5. Parabola with an x-range of [-10, 10], and equal scales
(Use a t-range of [-10, 10].) on the two axes .
y 12. Parabola with vertex at the origin, focus in the
first quadrant 10 units from the vertex, and axis
of symmetry at an angle of 45° to the x-axis. Use
a t-range of [-10, 10], a window with an x-range
of [-10, 10], and equal scales on the two axes.
X
< 0 ~ cirde, OY eLLip,,e,

2
8 - 4AC
8
2
- 4AC = 0 ~ para/Jou;.,
8
2
- 4AC > 0 ~ hj;perbou;.,
Section
12-5:Parametric
andCartesian
Equations
ofRotated
Conics 585
[l
For Problems 13-18, use the discriminant to makes with the x-axis. Show by graphing
determine which conic section the graph will be. that your answers are correct.
Confirm your conclusion by plotting the graph.
22. Parabolic Lamp Reflector Project: Figure 12-5g,
Sketch the result. (In your sketch, connect any gaps
left, shows in perspective a paraboloid that
left by low-resolution graphers.)
forms the reflector for a tabl e lamp. The
13. 3x2 - 5xy+ 9y 2 - 2lx+ 35y - 50 = 0 reflector is 12 in. long in th e x-direction and
14. 10x2 - 4xy + 2y 2 + 87x - 13y + 100 = 0
has radius 5 in. The circular lip with 5-in.
radius is shown in perspective as an ellipse
15. 3x2 - lOxy + 6y 2 - 12x + 4y + 10 = 0 with major radius 5 in. and minor radius 2 in.
16. 8x 2 + 40xy + 2y 2 - 20x - lOy- 31 = 0 y
y
17. x2 + 6xy+ 9y 2 - 3x - 4y-10 =0

18. 16x2 - 40xy + 25y 2 + 80x - 150y- 200 = 0
19. Discriminant of Unrotated Conics Problem: If X
there is no xy-term, you can identify a conic

section from the signs of the squared terms.
For instance, the conic is an ellipse if x 2 and y 2 Figur e 12-Sg
have the same sign. Show that the property
you have learned about identifying a conic a. Write param etric equations of the parabola
from the sign of the discriminant is consistent shown. Pick a suitable t-range and plot the
with the properties you have learned for graph. Does the parabola start and end at
identifying an umotated conic from the signs the points shown in the figure?
of the squared terms. b. Write parametric equations of the ellipse .
20. Inverse Variation Function Problem: An inverse Plot the ellipse on the same screen as the
variation power function has the particular parabola. If your grapher does not allow you
equation y = \~. Prove that the graph is a to pick different t-ranges for the two curves,
hyperbola. What angle does its transverse axis you will have to be clever about setting the
make with the x-axis? period for the cosine and sine in the
parametric equations so that the entire
21. Rotation and Dilation from Parametric Equations ellipse will be plotted.
Problem: Here are the general parametric
c. Figure 12-5g, right, shows the same lamp
equations of an ellipse centered at the origin
reflector rotated and translated so that its
with x- and y-radii a and b, respectively, that
axis is at an angle of 40° to the x-axis. Write
has been rotated counterclockwise through an parametric equations of the rotated parabola
angle lX. Assume at-range of [O,2rr]. and rotated ellipse. Plot the two graphs on
x = (a cos lX) cos t + [b cos (lX + -lf)] sin t the same screen. If the result does not look
y = (a sin lX) cos t + [b sin (lX + -lf)] sin t like the given figure, keep working on your
equations until the figure is correct.
a. Use a rotation matrix to show how these
equations follow from the umotated ellipse
equations
- ,
... 1:1:m::) -
X = a COS t 23. Variable xy-Term Problem: Go to

and open the General
y = b sin t
Conic Exploration. Plot the equation
b. A particular ellipse has parametric equations
x2 + y 2 - lOx - By+ 16 = 0
x = 3 cos t - 2 sin t
y= 5 cost+ 1.2 sin t by changing the sliders for A, B, C, D, E, and F
to the appropriate values.
Calculate algebraically the major and minor
radii and the angle lX that one of the axes
586 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
a. Describ e the graph th at app ears. How is the c. Move the slider to B = 2. Give numerical and
r esult consist ent with what you have graphical evidence to support the fact that
learned about th e relationships between the the graph is a parabola . Is it still a parabola
graph of a conic section and its equation? if B = -2 ?
b. Move th e slider to vary B from - 4 to 4. d. How has working this problem clarified
Describ e what happ ens to the graph as Bis your understanding of the properties of
var ied. What stays the sam e about the conic sections?
graph, and what chan ges?
12-6 Applications of Conic

Sections
You have learned how to find equations of
ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas, and circles
from th eir anal ytic properties . These
figures appear in the real world as paths
of thrown objects, orbits of planets and
comets, and shapes of bridges. They even
appe ar in solutions of business problems.
In this section you will consolidate your
kn owled ge of conic sections by applying
th em to some real-world problems. This giant parabolic mirror is a solar
furna ce on the side of a building
harvesting solar power in Odei/lo,
France.
OBJECTIVEGiven a situation from the real world in which conic sections appear, create a
mathematical model and use it to make predictions and interpretations.
Problem Set 12-6
Quick Review Q6.Sketch a paraboloid.

Ql. Why are p arabolas , ellipses, hyp erbola s, and Ql. Write the definition of eccentri city in terms of
circles called conic sec tions? the distances d 1 from th e dir ectrix and d 2 from
the focus .
Q2. Why do es a hyp erbol a have two branch es,
while a parabol a ha s only on e branch ? QB.Sketch an ellipse, showing the approximate
location of the two foci.
Q3. Write a Cart esian equ ation of a unit hyp erbola
openin g in th e y-dir ection . Q9. What is special about th e distances from the
two foci to a point on an ellipse?
Q4. Write param etric equation s of a unit hyperbola
openin g in th e y-dir ection . Q10.If an ellipse has major radius 7 and minor
radius 3, what is the focal radius?
Q5. Complet e the square: x2 - lOx + - ?-
Section12-6: Appl
ication
sofConic
Sections 587
ill
l. Coffee Table Problem: A furniture sea t takes about 0.8 square yar d, what will
manufactur er wishes to make elliptical tops be the approximate seating capacity of the
for coffee tables 52 in. long and 26 in. wide, sta dium ?
as shown in Figure 12-6a . A pattern is to be e. Show that the familiar formula for the area
cut from plywood so that the outline of the of a circle is a special case of the form ul a
tabletops can easily b e marked on the for the area of an ellipse .
tabletop's surface. Give detailed instructions
for a rapid way to mark the ellipse on the 3. Bridge Problem: Figure 12-6c is a photograph
plywood. What will be the eccentricity of the of Bixby Bridge in Big Sur, California. A
tabletops? similar bridge under construction is shown
in Figure 12-6d. The span of the bridge is to
be 1000 ft, and it is to rise 250 ft at the vertex
of the parabola. The roadway is horizontal
and will pass 20 ft above the vertex. Vertical
columns extend between the parabola and
the roa dway, spaced every 50 ft horizontally.
Figure 12-6a
2. Stadium Problem: The plan for a new football

stadium calls for the stands to be in a
region defined by two concentric ellipses
(Figure 12-6b). The outer ellipse is to be
240 yd long and 200 yd wide . The inner ellipse
is to be 200 yd lon g and 100 yd wide. A
football field of standard dimensions, 120 yd
by 160 ft, will be laid out in the center of the
inner ellipse.
y
Stands in here Figure 12-6c
Roadway
~
X
1 1000 rt I
Figure 12-6d
Figure 12-6b a. Using convenient axes, find the particular

equation of the par abola .
a. Find particular equations of the two ellips es .
b. The construction company that builds the
b. Find the eccentricit ies of the two ellipses . bridge must know how lon g to make each
c. How mu ch clearance will there be between vertica l column. Make a table of values
the corner of the field and the inner ellip se showing these lengths .
in the direction of the en d line? c. To order enough concrete and stee l to make
d. The formula for th e area of an ellipse is the vertica l column s, the constructio n
rrab, where a and bare the major and minor company must know the total lengt h. By
radii, respectively. To th e nearest squa re appropriate operations on the values in the
yard, what is the area of the stands? If each table in part b, calcul ate this total length.
588 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
Observe that there is a row of columns on b . Confirm your conclusion in part a
both sides of the bridge. algebraically by solving the system of
equations
4. Halley's Comet Problem: Halley's comet moves
in an elliptical orbit around the Sun, with the x2 + y 2 = 40
Sun at one focus. It passes within about x 2 - 18y= 144
50 million miles of the Sun once every 76 years.
The other end of its orbit is about 5000 million To do this, try eliminating x algebraicall y
miles from the Sun, beyond the orbit of Uranus. and solving the resulting equation for y.
a. Find the eccentricity of the comet's orbit . c. The second meteor you observe is moving
b. Find the particular equation of the orbit. Put along a path whose equation is ·
the origin at the Sun and the x-axis along x2 - 4y 2 + 80y= 340
the major axis.
c. The orbit's major diameter is 5050 million What geometrical figure is the path?
miles. What is its minor diameter? Confirm graphically that the path does
intersect Earth's surface. Find numerically
d. How far is the comet from the Sun when
the point at which the meteor will strike
the line from its position to the Sun is
Earth.
perpendicular to the major axis?
d. Find algebraically the point at which the
e. Where is the directrix of the ellipse
meteor in part c will strike Earth.
corresponding to the Sun?
6. Meteor Tracking Problem 2: A meteor originally
5. Meteor Tracking Problem 1: Suppose that you
moving along a straight path will be deflected
have been hired by Palomar Observatory near
by Earth's gravity into a path that is a conic
San Diego. Your mission is to track incoming
section . If the meteor is moving fast enough,
meteors to predict whether they will strike
the path will be a hyperbola with the original
Earth. Because Earth has a circular cross section,
straight-line path as an asymptote. Assume
you set up a coordinate system with its origin at
that a meteor is approaching the vicinity of
Earth's center (Figure 12-6e). The equation of
Earth along a hyperbola with general
Earth's surface is
equations
2
·X + y 2 = 40
x = a sect
where x and y are distances in thousands of
kilometers. y = b tan t
y a. Suppose that at t = -1.4, the position of the
meteor, (x, y), is (29.418, -11.596), where
x and y are displacements in millions of
Second met eor
miles. Find the particular values of a and b.
\ ~/
b . Plot the branch of the hyperbola in the
t-range [-f , f] . Sketch the result.
c. Earth is at the focus of the hyperbola that
is closest to the vertex in part b. What is
the focal radius? How far is the meteor
Figure 12-6e from Earth when it is at the vertex of the
hyperbola?
a. The first meteor you observe is moving
along a path whose equation is d. Assuming that the meteor does not hit
Earth, its path as it leaves Earth's vicinity
x2 -18y= 144 will approach the other asymptote of the
What geometrical figure is the path? hyperbola. What is the equation of this
Find out graphically whether the meteor's other asymptote? Show both asymptotes on
path intersects Earth's surface. your sketch in part b.
Section
12-6:Applications
ofConic
Sect
ions 589
7. Marketing Problem 1: A customer located at d. From which supplier should you purchase
point (x, y) can purchase goods from Supplier 1 the goods if you are located at the point
located at the point (0, 0) or from Supplier 2 (7, 20)? Justify your answer.
located at the point (6, 0), where x and y are in
9. Hyperboloid Project: The icon at the top of the
miles (Figure 12-6f). The charge for delivery of
even-numbered pages in this chapter is a
the goods is $10.00 per mile from Supplier 1
hyperboloid of one sheet. An enlarged version
and $20.00 per mile from Supplier 2.
of the hyperboloid is graphed in Figure 12-6g.
y The top and bottom ellipses in the figure
(x, y) represent the circular bases of hyperboloid in
dl ,' ~, d perspective. Find parametric equations of the
/_,. I 2
X
/ I
ellipses and hyperbola, and use the results to
(0, 0) (6, 0)
plot the hyperboloid. If your grapher does not
allow you to set different t-ranges for different
graphs, find a clever way to make the figure be
Figure 12-6( graphed correctly.
a. To decide which supplier to use for a given y

point (x, y), it would help the customer to
know all points for which the total cos t of
shipping is the same for either supplier.
These points will satisfy the equation
l0d1= 20d2
where d 1 and d 2 are the distances from
Supplier 1 and Supplier 2, respectively, to
the point (x, y). Find the particular Cartesian
equation of this set of points. Show that the
X
graph is a circle.
10
b. If point (x, y) is close enough to Supplier 2,
it is cheaper to pay the higher cost per mile. Figure 12-6g
Shade th e region in which it is cheaper to 10. Elliptical Pendulum Project: Make a pendulum by
receive goods from Supplier 2. tying a small weight to the end of a string, as
c. If a customer is located at the point (15, 0), shown in Figure 12-6h. Tie the other end of the
which supplier is closer? Which supplier's string to the ceiling or an overhead doorway so
shipping charges would be less? Is this that it clears the floor by 1 to 2 cm. Place two
surprising? metersticks perpendicular to each other to
8. Marketing Problem 2: Suppose that th e
shipping charge from both suppliers in
Problem 7 is $10.00 but that the purchase
price of the goods is $980 from Supplier 1 and
$1000 from Supplier 2.
a. Find the particular equation of the set of
points (x, y) for which the total cost (shipping
plus goods) is the same for both suppliers.
b. Explain why the graph of the set of points in
part a is a hyperbola.
c. Explain why one branch of the hyperbola in
part a is not relevant to this application.
Sketch the other branch . Figure 12-6h
590 Chapter
12: AnalyticGeo
metryofCon
icSections
andQuadric
Su~aces
represent the x- and y-axes. The origin should Write param etric equations of the elliptical path
be under the rest position of the pendulum . that the pendulum traces in terms of the
Measure the period of the pendulum by pullin g param eter t, th e time, in seconds, since the
it out to x = 30 cm on th e x-axis and counting pendulum was started. Using the equation s,
the time for ten swings . Confirm that the period calculate the expected position of the pendulum
is the same if you start the pendulum from at time t = 7 s. Then set the pendulum in
y = 20 cm on the y-axis. Then set the p endul um motion again. Start timing at t = 0 when the
in motion by holding it at x = 30 on the x-axis pendulum crosses the positive x-axis the second
and pushing it in the y-direction just hard time. Does the pendulum pass through the
enough so that it crosses the y-axis at y = 20. point you calculated for t = 7 s?

In this chapt er you ha ve studied ellipses, circles, parabolas , and hyperbolas.
These conic sections get their names from plane slices of cones. Each one has
geometric or analytic properties, such as foci, directric es, eccentr icity, and axes
of symmetry . You hav e analyzed th e gra phs algebraically, both in Cartesian form
and in parametric form. Rotatio n of conic section graphs about their axes of
symmetry produces three-dimensional quadric surfaces. You have also seen
how conic section s appear in the real world, such as in the shapes of bridges
and the paths of celestia l objects .
Review Problems
RO. Update your journal with what you have C. 4x 2 - y 2 = 36 d. 4x 2 - 4y 2 = 36
learned in this chapter . Include things such as 2
e. 4x + y= 36
• The way conic sections are formed by slicing
a cone with a plane R2. a. Write the equation of the specified parent
function .
• The origins of the names ellip se, parabola,
and hyperbola i. Cart esian equation of the unit circle
• Cartesian equations of the conic sections ii. Param etric equations of the unit
circle
Parametric equations of the conic sect ions
iii. Parametric equations of the unit I
• Dilations, translations, and rotations of the
hyperbola openin g in th e x-direction ,
conic sections c--
iv. Cartesian equation of the unit hyperbola
• Quadric surfaces formed by rotating conic
opening in the y-direction
sections about axes of symmetry
v. Cartes ian equation of the unit parabola
• Focus, directrix, and eccentricity prop ert ies
opening in the x-direction
of conic sections
vi. Cartesian equation of the unit parabola
• Some real-world situations where conic
opening in the y-direction
sections appear
b. Consider the ellipse with equation
Rl. Without plotting, tell whether the graph will b e
a circle, an ellipse, a parabola, or a hyperbola.
a. x2 + y 2 = 36 b. x2 + 9y 2 = 36
Sect
ion12-7
: Chapter
Review
andTest 591
Ul
i. Sketch the graph. iii. Hyperboloid formed by rotating the
ii. Transform the equation into the form graph of 4x 2 - y 2 = 4 about the y-axis,
using an x-range of [1, 2]
Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
b. A paraboloid is formed by rotating about
iii. Plot the graph using the program in the x-axis the part of the parabola x = 4 - y 2
Section 12-2. Does it agree with your that lies in the first quadrant. A cylinder is
sketch in part b.i? inscribed in the paraboloid, with its axis
iv. Write the parametric equations and use along the x-axis, its left base containing
them to plot the graph. the origin, and its right base touching
the paraboloid (Figure 12-7c). Find the radius
c. For the hyperbola in Figure 12-?a, complete
and altitude of the cylinder with maximum
steps i-iii.
volume. Find this maximum volum e.
i. Write a Cartesian equation. y
ii. Write parametric equations.
iii. Plot the parametri c equations . Does the
graph agree with Figure 12-7a?
X
Figure 12-7c
R4. For parts a and b, Figure 12-?d shows an

ellipse with eccentricity 0.8, with foci at the
Figure 12-7a points (-6.4, 0) and (6.4, 0) and one directrix
x = 10. The point shown on the ellipse
d. For the parabola in Figure 12-?b, complete has x-coordinate 3.
steps i and ii.
y
i. Write a Cartesian equa tion .
ii. Plot the graph using parametric mode.
Does the graph agre e with Figure 12-7b?
X
y
- 10
- 10 .. -5 ;..., 10
Figure 12-7d
a. Measur e the three distances d 1 , d 2 , and d 3
-5
using the scales shown. Confirm that
d 2 = ed 1 . Confirm that d 2 + d 3 = 16, the
Figure 12-7b major diameter.
b . Write a Cartesian equation of the ellipse.
R3. a. Sketch the quadric surface.
Use th e equation to calculate y for the
i. Ellipsoid formed by rotating the graph of point with x-coordinate 3. Use the value of y
4x 2 + y 2 = 16 about the y-axis and the Pythagorean theorem to calculate d 2
ii. Hyperboloid formed by rotating the and d3 exactly. Do your measurements in
graph of x2 - 9y 2 = 9 about the x-axis, part a agree with the calculated values?
using an x-range of (-6, 6] Does d 2 + d 3 equal 16 exactly?
592 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
c. Billiards Table Problem: An elliptical billiards i. 4x2 + 2xy + 9y 2 + 15x - 13y- 19 = 0
table is to b e built with eccentricity 0.9 and ii. 4x2 + 12xy + 9y 2 + 15x - 13y- 19 = 0
foci at the points (0, -81) an d (0, 81), where
iii. 4x2 + 22xy + 9y 2 + 15x - 13y- 19 = 0
x and y are in centimeters. Find th e major
and minor radii . Write parametric equations e. What graphical feature do all three conics in
of the ellips e, plot them on your grapher, part d have in common?
and sketch the result. If a ball at one focus is R6. Parabolic Antenna Probl em: A sate llite dish
hit in any direction and bounces at th e edge antenna is to be constru cted in th e sha p e of
of the table, through what spec ial point will a paraboloid (Figure 12-?f) . The paraboloid is
the path of the ball go? formed by rotating about the x-axis the
d. Identify th e conic section whose equation is parabola with focus at th e point (25, 0) and
given here. Sketch the graph. Find the four dir ectrix x = -25, wher e x and y are in inches.
radii and the eccentricity . The diameter of the antenna is to be 80 in.
(~)2
-({)2
=1
e. A parabola has directrix x = 4 and focus at
the p oint (0, 0). Sketch this information.
Write the particular Cartesian equation. Plot
the graph and sketch the result.
f. Write parametric equations of the hyperbola
i
with eccentric ity and foci at the point s
(2, 1) and (2, 7). Plot the graph and sketch
the result.
RS. a. Write param etric equa tions of the ellips e in
Figure 12-?e. Confirm that your answer is Figure 12-7{
correct by plottin g on your graph er. a. Find the equation of the p arabo la and the
domain of x.
b . Sketch the graph of the parabola, showin g
the focus and the dir ectrix.
c. A receiver is to b e pla ced at the focus.
Figure 12-?f suggests that the receiver
would touch the groun d if the antenna were
pla ced "facedown ." Determine algebraicall y
Figur e 12-7e wheth er thi s obs ervation is correct.
b. Write parametric equations of the hyperbola

with eccentricity 2 centered at the point
(3, -4) if its transverse radi u s is 6 and its
transverse axis makes an angle of 35° with
the x-axis. Confirm that your answer is
correct by plotting on your grapher.
c. Write parametric equ ations of the parabola
with vertex at the point (1, 2) an d focus at
the poin t (4, 5). Confirm that your answer is
correct by plotting on your graph er.
d. Use th e discriminant to identify the conic.
Confirm by plottin g the graph. Sketch the
grap h .
Section
12-7
: Chap
terReview
andTest 593
ill
Concept Problems
Cl. Reflecting Property of a Parabola Problem: line at angle C with the incoming ray tangent
Figure 12-?g shows the parabolic cross section to the graph at the point where the incoming
of the satellite dish antenna shown in ray strikes the graph? How do you know ?
Figure 12-?f. The equation of the parabola is g. Write a conjecture about the direction the
x = O.Oly 2 • reflected ray takes whenever the incoming ray
a. Confirm that the focus of the parabola is at is parallel to the axis of the parabola. Your
the point (25, 0) as shown in Figure 12-7g. conjecture should give you insight into why
b. A television signal ray comes in parallel to the name focus is used and why television
the x-axis at y = 20. Find the coordinates of satellite antennas and other listening devices
the point at which the ray strikes the are made in the shape of a paraboloid.
parabola. C2. Systems of Quadratic Equations Problem:
c. Calculate the angle A between the incoming Figure 12-?h shows an ellipse, a hyperbola,
ray and a line to the focus from the point and a line. The equations of each pair of these
where the incoming ray strikes the parabola. graphs form a system of equations. In this
d. An incoming ray and its reflected ray make problem you will solve the systems by finding
equal angles with a lin e tangent to the the points at which thes e graphs intersect
curved surface. Use your answer to part c to each other .
calculate angles B and C if these angles have a. Solve the ellipse and hyperbola system
equal measure. With a protractor, measure graphically, to one decimal place.
A, B, and C in Figure 12-7g to confirm your b. Solve the ellipse and line system graphically,
calculations. to one decimal place.
c. Solve the hyperbola and lin e system
y
graphically, to one decimal place.
y
Incoming ray
y = 20
Reflected ray
X
Focus X
(25, 0)
Tangent
line
Figure 12-7h
Figure 12-?g
d. The equations of the ellipse and hyperbola
e. Find the particular equation of the tangent in Figure 12-?h are
line. Use angle C to find its slope. Plot the x2 - y 2 + 4x - 5 = 0
parabola and the tangent lin e on your
x 2 + 4y 2 - 36 = 0
grapher. Zoom in on the point of tangency.
What do you notice about the tangent line Quick! Tell which equation is which . How do
and the graph as you zoom in? you know?
f. Pick another incoming ray. Calculat e the e. Solve the ellipse and hyperbola system
measure of angle A Let C be half th e algebraically. To do this, first eliminate y by
supplement of angle A, as in part d. Is the adding a multiple of the first equation to the
594 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
second. Solve the resulting quadratic Solve the ellip se and line system
equation for x. Finally, substitute the two algebraically. To do this, first solve the
resulting x-values into one of the original linear equation for yin terms of x an d then
equations and calculate y. What do you substitute the result for yin the ellip se
notice about two of the four solution s? How equation . After you solve the resulting
does this observation agree with the graphs? quadratic equation, substitute the two
f. Solve the ellipse and hyperbola system values of x into the linear equati on to find y.
numerically . Do this by plotting the two Do the answers agree with your solution in
graphs on your grapher and then u sing the part b?
intersect feature . Do the answers agree with h. Solve the hyperbola and line system
your solutions in parts a and e? algebraically. Which solution does not
g. The equation of the line in Figure 12-?h is appear in the graphi cal solution of
part c?
2x - y = 5
Chapter Test
allowed(11-110) PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(111-118)
For Problems Tl -T6, identify the conic section. Tll. Sketch the graph of
Tl. 4x2 + 9y 2 + 24x + 36y- 72 = 0
T2. 9x2 - 25y 2 + 36x + 200y - 589 = 0
-(x~ 3)2+ (y;l = l r
T3. x2 - 14x - 36y + 13 = 0 Tl2. Write parametric equations of the graph in
Problem Tll. Plot the graph. Does your sketch
T4. x2 + 3xy+ 4y 2 - 400 = 0 in Problem Tll agree with the plotted graph?
2 2
TS. x + 4xy+ 4y - 400 = 0 T13. Transform the equation in Problem Tll into
T6. x2 + Sxy+ 4y 2 - 400 = 0 the form Ax 2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F= 0.
T7. Sketch a hyperboloid of one sheet. Tl4. An ellipsoid is formed by rotating the ellipse
x2 + 4y 2 = 16 about the y -axis. A cylinder is
T8. Give another name for an ellipsoid formed inscribed in the ellipsoid with its axis along the
by rotating an ellipse about its major axis. y-axis and its two bas es touching the ellipsoid
Name something in the real world that has (Figure 12-?i). Plot the graph of the volume of
(approximately) this shape. the cylinder as a function of its radius, x. Find
T9. Sketch an ellipse. Show the approximate numerically the radius and altitude of the
locatio ns of the foci and the directrices. Pick a cylinder with maximum volume and the
point on the ellipse and draw its distances to a approximate value of this maximum volume.
directrix and to the corresponding focus. How y
are the two distances related to each other? 2
TlO. Draw a sketch showing an ellipse as a section
X
of a cone.
Figure 12-?i
Section
12-7
: Chapter
Review
andTest 595
Tl5. Satellite Problem: A satellite is in elliptical orbit about 4000 mi. What is the closest the
around Earth, as shown in Figure 12-7j. The satellite comes to the surface of Earth?
major radius of the ellipse is 51,000 mi, and the
Tl6. Find the particular equation of the parabola with
focal radius is 45,000 mi. The center of Earth is
focus at the point (-4, -5) and directrix y= 2.
at one focus of the ellipse.
Tl? . Figure 12-7k shows an ellipse centered at the
Center of Eart h
y is at focus .
point (1, -2), with major radius 7 units making
an angle of - 2 5° to the x-axis and minor radius
X
3 units. Find parametric equations of the ellipse.
Confirm your answer by plotting the graph.
y
Figure 12-7}
X
a. Where is the center of the ellipse? What is
the minor radius? What is the eccentricity?
b. Write the Cartesian equation of the ellipse.
Use the equation to find they-intercepts of Figure 12-7k
the ellipse.
c. The satellite is closest to Earth when it is at Tl8. What did you learn as a result of taking this
a vertex of the ellipse. The radius of Earth is test that you did not know before?
596 Chapter
12: Analytic
Geometry
ofConic
Sections
andQuadric
Surfaces
Polar Coordinates,
Co111plexNumbers, and
Moving Objects 13
Paths traced by rotating objects can be modeled by coordinates in

which the independent variable is an angle and the dependent
variable is a directed distance from the origin. These polar
coordinates, along with the parametric functions of Chapter 4, give
a way to find equations for things such as the involute of a circle,
which is the shape of the surfaces of the gear teeth seen in the
photograph. This shape allows one gear to transmit its motion to
another in a smooth manner.
597
In this chapter you will learn about polar coordinates, in which
rand 8 are the variables instec:i.dof x and y. Polar coordinates
allow you to plot complicated graphs such as the five-leaved rose
in the icon at the top of each even-numbered page andinthe
graph below. These coordinates have surprising connections to
imaginary and complex numbers and to the parametric functions
you studied in earlier chapters. You will study polar coordinates in
four ways.
Graphically Five-leaved rose

(3.5, -2.92 ...)
Algebraically r = 3 sin 58 Polar equation Of a rose.
Numerically e = 3.5 radians: r ==-2.9268 .. . units Th e r-valu e can b e negative !
Verbally Topl,ottvpow (Y;8) {)'vpow C()0YtW1.A±M,youfirit rotde-to the, al1jte, e.

IfY UpbSii:we-,30 fiud: ~ WedWrv M tU1jfb8. IfY
.wutr {)'vthe, Saute,
u !Ujdwe- 1 30 U'v~direc:twrvo~si:tt-a11jlb8. T~ MvtUtjte,fA'v~
tlurd 1uadraJt:tC()YYMpbnti.£ to a,[MW tA'v~f-Yit 1uadraJt:tif~ radu.u
u Kf-ja:tive,·
598 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
13-1 Introduction to Polar Coordinates
The graphs of the trigonometric functions you have plotted so far have been
in the familiar Cartesian coordinate system, in which points are located by
x- and y-coordinates. A more natural way to plot su ch graphs is to locate points
by an angle ein stan dard pos ition and a disp lacement r from the origin. Such
grap hs are said to be plotted in pol ar coordin ates.
OBJECTIVEGiven an equation in polar coordinates, plot the graph on polar coordinate

paper.
l. On po lar coor din ate pap er (Figure 13-la), plot e

Enter the polar equati on r = 2 + 8 cos into
the point (r, 8) = (7, 30°) by going around to an the y= menu and plot th e graph. Use th e zoom
angl e of 30° and then going out 7 units from square feature to mak e the scales equal on the
the pole (the origin). two axes . What do you notice about the graph?
2. Plot the point (r, 8) = (- 7, 210°) by going 5. From the format menu , select polar grid
around to 210° and then going back 7 units e
coordinates. Th en trace to = 150°. Does
from the pole. What do you notice about this the point on the graph agree with the point
point and the point in Problem 1? in the table ?
3. Plot the points list ed in the table. Connect the 6. What did you learn as a result of doing this
points in order with a smoot h curve . problem set tha t you did not know befor e?
e r e r
oo 10.0 195° -5 .7 goo
15° 9.7 210° -4 .9
30° 8.9 225° -3 .7
45° 7.7 240° -2 .0
60° 6.0 255° 0.0
75° 4.1 270° 2.0
goo 2.0 285° 4.1
105° 0.0 300° 6.0
120° - 2.0 315° 7.7
135° - 3.7 330° 8.9
150° -4 .9 345° 9.7
165° -5 .7 360° 10.0
180° -6 .0
4. Set your grapher in polar mo de and degr ee
e
mode . Use a window with a range for of 0°
270 °
to 360° and a 8-step of 5°. Use an x-range of at
least (-10, 10] and a y-range of at least (- 7, 7]. Figure 13-la
Section
13-1
: Introduction
toPolar
Coord
inates 599
13-2 Polar Equations of Conics and Other Curves
Figure 13-2a shows the graph of the polar equation r = 2 + 8 cos e that you
plotted in Problem Set 13-1. The figure is called a limac;on of Pascal. The r in
lima ron is pronounced like an s. Limaron is a French word for "snail." Graphs
of polar functions may also be familiar conic sections, such as the ellipse
r= 5 - lcos/J graphed in Figure 13-2b. In this section you will use algebra to see
why the graphs of some polar functions are conic sections.
goo goo
27 0° 270°
Figure 13-Za Figure 13-Zb
OBJECTIVES
• Given a polar equation, plot the graph.
• Given the polar equation of a conic section, transform it into Cartesian
coordinates.
Background on Polar Coordinates

On the left graph in Figure 13-2c, a point is labeled with
its Cartesian coordinates (x, y). In the middle graph, the
same point is labeled with its polar coordinates (r, 8).
In the polar coordinate system, the origin is called the
pole and the positive horizontal axis is called the polar
axis. The figure on the right shows the relationships
among X, Y, r, and 8.
Airplanes use a form of polar coordinates for navigation where

north is the polar axis. The direction of an object, called the
az imuth , is the angle m eas ured clockwise around the horizon
from north.
600 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Obiects
y y
X (X, y) (r; 8) X (X, y)
--- ~
I , (r, 8)
r
:y
I
:y
I
X
8 8: X
/.
Po1ar axis X = rCOS 8
y = r sin 8
r 2 = xz + y z
Figur e 13-2c
DEFINITIONS:
PolarCoordinates
The pole in the polar coordinate system is the same as the origin in the
Cartesian coordinate system. The polar axis is shown in the same position
as the positive x-axis in the Cartesian coordinate system.
A point in polar coordinates is written as an ordered pair (r; 8), where
• 8 is the measure of an angle in standard position whose terminal side
contains the point.
• r (for "radius") is the displacement (directed distance) from the pole to
the point in the direction of the terminal ray of e.
(5, 60°)
No te: Although th e angle 8 is the independent variable, it is customary to write
r = 5 (5, 420 °) ordere d pairs as (r; 8) instead of (8, r). Also, it is customar y to use 8 for the
(5, -300 °) angle whether it is in degrees or radians.
60 °
PROPERTIES:
PolarandCartesian
Coordinates
If a point with Cartesian coordinates (x, y) has polar coordinates (r; 8), then
r 2 = x2 + y 2 A Pythagorean prope rty.
Many polar coordinates
for the same point X
Figure 13-2d - = cos 8 or equivalently X = r COS 8
r
-Y = SID
. e or equivalently y= rsin8
r
Because an infinite numb er of coterminal angles pass through any given point, a
point in polar coordinates may be represented by an infinit e number of ordered
pairs . Figure 13-2d shows three ordered pairs representing the same point.
Points in polar coordinates can have negative values of r. To plot the
point (-7, 130°), imagine a number line rotating about the pole to an
angle of 130° (Figure 13-2e). Because r = - 7, go 7 units in the negative
Figure 13-2e direction along the rotated number line .
Section
13-2:Polar
Equation
s ofConic
s andOthe
r Curve
s 601
Graphs of Polar Equations
To plot the graph of a polar equation such as
r= 1 + 2 cos 8
set your grapher in polar mode. Use a window with equal scales for the x- and
y-axes. You must also select a range for the independent variable e.Usually a range
of (0°, 360°] with a 8-step of 5° or a range of [O,2rr] with a 8-step of 0.1 radian or
4~ radian will give a fairly smooth graph in a reasonable length of time.
90°
Like the graph you plotted in Section 13-1, the graph of r = 1 + 2 cos e in
Figure 13-2f is a lirnac;on of Pascal. If you trace the graph, you'll find that the inner
loop corresponds to 8-values between 120° and 240°. To see why, it helps to
180° change mode and plot the auxiliary Cartesian graph (Figure 13-2g) of the equation
Y = 1 + 2 cos e
270°
The Cartesian graph reveals that wh en e is between 120° and 240° , r is negative.
So the points are plotted in the opposite direction (Figure 13-2h) for e in this
Figure 13-2{
range. Note also that where the graph goes through the pole, it is tangent to the
e
lines = 120° and = 240°. e
y
3 Tangent lin e
oo
e 180° / 1
360 °
ebetween
- 1 120° and 240 °
Loop is betw een

th ese valu es. Tangent line
270°
Figure 13-2g Figure 13-2h
You can see dynamically how polar graphs and Cartesian graphs are related by
viewing the Polar Graphs Exploration at www .keymath.com/precalc
. Use the sliders to
enter the equation for the limac;on discussed. Then drag the slider that changes
the angle e or click on the Animate button. Observe how the location of the
moving point on the auxiliary Cartesian graph is related to its location on the
polar graph, and notice how the point is plotted in the opposite direction from
angl e e when r is negative, forming the inner loop.
DEFINITION:
Limaion
inPolarCoordinates
A limac;:onis a figure with polar equation
r = a + b cos e or r = a + b sin e
If lal < lbl,then the lirnac;on has an inner loop.
If lal> lbl,then the lirnac;on has no inner loop.
If lal= lbl,then
the lirnac;:onhas a cusp at the pole and is called a cardioid
(which means "heartlike").
602 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
A cusp is a point at which the graph of a relation changes direction abruptly .
..,_EXAMPLE
I Plot the graph of the five-leaved rose r = 6 sin 58. Find numerically the first
range of positive 8-values for which r is negative . Confirm your answer by
plotting this part of the graph .
Solution The graph is shown in Figure 13-2i. Notice the five "leaves."
goo
180° 180 °
270° 270 °
Figur e 13-2i Figure 13-2j
e r e
Make a table of values for and r starting at 0° and stepping by 15°. Negative
values first occur at 45° and 60°. By narrowing your search, you will find that r
oo 0 changes from positive to negative at 36° and from negative back to positive at 72°.
15° 5.795 5 ... e
So 36° < < 72° is the first range of positive 8-valu es for which r is negative .
30° 3
45 ° -4.24326 ... You can confirm the answer graphically (Figure 13-2j) or algebraically by
60° -5.1961... e
solving the equation 6 sin 58 = 0 to find = 0°, 36°, 72°, 108°, . . . . ~
75° 1.5529 ...
Note that the icon for this chapter is a five-leaved rose .
Conics in Polar Coordinates

If you graph the reciprocal of the polar equation of a lima<;on, the result is,
surprisingly, a conic section! Figure 13-2k shows two examples .
goo goo
oo oo
180 ° 3 180°
270° 270 °
r= 1 r= 1
1 + 2 cos e 2 + 1 cos e
Figure 13-2k
. 9
..,_EXAMPLE
2 Plot the graph of the equation r=
5 - 4 cos
e goo
Show algebraically that the graph is an ellipse.
Solution The graph (Figure 13-21)has an elliptical shape.

For a dynamic, high -resolution graph , use the Polar
270 °
Conics Exploration at www .keymath .com/precalc
. To
verify that the graph is an ellipse, transform the
Figure 13-21
equation into Cartesian form.
Section
13-2
: Polar
Equat
ionsofConic
s andOther
Curves 60 3
Sr- 4rcos 8 = 9 Eliminate the fraction by multiplying both
sides by 5 - 4 cos e.
s.Jx 2 + y 2 - 4x = 9 Substitute .Jx 2 + y 2 for r, and x for r cos e.

2 2
s.Jx + y = 4x+ 9 Isolate the radical term on one side of the
equation.
25x2 + 25y 2 = 16x2 + 72x + 81 Square both sides to eliminate the radical
term.
9x 2 + 25y 2 - 72x- 81 = 0
Therefore, the graph is an ellipse. x2 and y 2 have th e same sign but
different coefficients.
One focus of the ellipse in Example 2 is at the pole. The eccentricity is 1-54 1,
or 0.8, th e absolute value of the ratio of the coefficients in the denominator of
the polar equation . The general properties of conics with one focus at the pole
are summarized in the box.
PROPERTIES:
Conic
Sections
inPolarCoordinates
The general polar equation of a conic section with one focus at the pole is
k k
r=---- or r=----
a + b cos 8 a + b sin 8
The eccentricity of the conic is e = 1~1-
lkl = laepl, where pis the distance between the focus and the directrix.
• If lbl < !al, then the graph is an ellipse (e < 1).
• If lbl > lal, then the graph is a hyperbola (e > 1).
• If lbl = lal, then the graph is a parabola (e = 1).
This box summarizes the relationship between conics and limac;:ons.
PROPERTY:
Relationship
BetweenConics
andLimarons
The r-values for a conic section are reciprocals of the r-values for a limac;:on.
• If the limac;:onhas a loop, then the conic is a hyperbola.
• If the limac;:onhas no loop, then the conic is an ellipse.
• If the limac;:onis a cardioid, then the conic is a parabola.
Polar Equations of Special Circles and Lines

Figure 13-2m shows a circle with diameter 9 units centered on the polar axis
passing through the pole. Point (r, 8) is on the circle. The triangle shown is a
right triangle because the angle at the point (r, 8) is inscribed in the semicircle.
By the definition of cosine, fi= cos 8. So a polar equation of the circle is
r = 9 cos 8
604 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
90 °
(r, 8)
() oo
180 ° 180° 6
270° 270°
r = 9 cos () r = 6 sec()
Figure 13-2m Fig ur e 13-2 n
Similarly, the graph of r = 9 sin e is a circle passing through the pole centered
e
on the line = 90°.
Figure 13-2n shows a point (r, 8) on th e line perpendicular to the polar axis and
6 units from the pole. In th e right triangle formed by r, the line, and the polar
axis, f = sec e. So a polar equation of the line is
r= 6 sec 8
The graph of r = 6 csc eis a line parallel to the polar axis and 6 units from the
pole. For a dynamic, high-resolution graph, use the Polar Lines Exploration at
www .keymath.com/precalc. The box contains a summar y of th e equations of thes e
sp ecial circles and lines.
PROPERTIES:
PolarEquations
ofSpecial
Circles
andLines
The equatio ns apply to the circles and lines shown.
r= a cos e r= a sine
r= a sec e r= a csc e
Section
13-2: Polar
Equations
ofConics
andOther
Curves 605
Problem Set 13-2
Reading Analysis {l[;/J For Problems 1 and 2, plot the points on polar
coordinate paper and connect them in order with a
smooth curve.
you consider to be the main idea? Can you think
of a real-world situation in which it might be l. e r e r
more advantageous to use polar coordinates oo 0 105° -4.8
than Cartesian coordinates? Why are there many
15° 1.3 120° -7.5
different ordered pairs for the same point in polar
30° 4.3 135° -7.1
coordinates? How do you interpret a negative
45 ° 7.1 150° -4.3
r-value? How is the polar equation of a limac;:on
60° 7.5 165° -1.3
related to the polar equation of a conic section?
75° 4.8 180° 0
goo 0
Quick Review~ w.,~ 2. e r e r
For Ql-Q7, refer to Figure 13-20.
oo 0 105° -7.2
15° 0.1 120° -3.0
I
I
30° 0.6 135° -1.4
, r
b: 45° 1.4 150° -0.6
e 60° 3.0 165° -0.1
a
75° 7.2 180° 0
goo (infinite)
;
3. Plotting the points in Problem 1 gives the

Figure 13-20
e e.
bifolium r = 20 cos sin 2 Plot the graph in
QI. What does sine equal? the domain [0°, 360 °], or view the Bifolium
Exploration at www.keymath .com/precalc
. Trace to
Q2. What does cos 8 equal? e = 225 ° and sketch the result. What is
Q3. What does tan e equal? e
happening to the graph as goes from 180° to
360°? Search for bifolium on the Internet or in
Q4.What does cot e equal? some other source and tell what you found.
Q5. What does sec e equal? ~ ~
Q6. What does csc 8 equal? ~
4. Plotting the points in Problem 2 gives the
Ql. Which of the six trigonometric functions of
angle ewill be negative?
cissoid of Diodes r = 2 sine tan Plot the e.
graph in the domain [0°, 360°], or view the
. What is the exact value of cos 150°?
QB Cissoid Exploration at www.keymath.com/precal.
Q9. What is the exact value of sin i?
e
Trace to = 240 ° and sketch the result. What
is .the root of the word cissoid? Look up Diodes
QJO.If one value of arcsin xis 15°, then the other on the Internet or in some other source and
value between 0° and 360° is tell what you find.
A. 75° B. 105° C. 165° D. 195° For most of the remaining problems in this section,
E. None of these you can create dynamic, high-resolution graphs by
using the Dynamic Precalculus Explorations for
Chapter 13 at www .keymath
.com/precalc
. Because the
606 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
equations in these sketches are expresse d in terms the pole. Explain why there are values of e for
of cosine, you need to change the value of d to 90° which there is no graph. Explain why there are
for problems expressed in terms of sine . no negative values of r. Look up the name
Bernoulli on the Internet or in some other
5. Plot the three-leaved rose r = 10 sin 38. Find
source. See how man y different members
the first range of positive 8-values for which
of the Bernoulli family you can find. Tell
r is negative. Confirm your answer by plotting
approximate ly when each person lived and in
this part of the graph .
what country .
6. Plot the four-leaved rose r = 5 cos 28. Find the goo
first range of positive ti-values for which r is
negative. Confirm your answer by plotting this
part of the graph. 180°
7. Plot the circle r = 6 sine . Use a domain of

270°
[0°, 360°]. Trace to 8 = 300°. Draw a sketch
to help you explain why the point is in the Figure 13-2q
second quadrant even though e = 300° is a 13. Figure 13-2r shows th e first three revolutions
fourth-quadrant angle. of the spiral r = 2: , where eis measured in
radians . Plot the graph on your grapher in the
e.
8. Plot the line r = 2 csc Use a domain of
domain [O,6rr]. At what thre e posit ive values
[0°, 360°]. Trace to e = 240°. Draw a sketch to
of r does the grap h cross the polar axis?
help you explain why the point is in the firs t
Extend the domain to [-6rr, 6rr]. Describe what
quadrant even though e = 240° is a third-
you see on the grap h er.
quadrant angle.
goo
9. Show algebraically that the graph of r = 6 sin e
in Problem 7 is a circle through the pole.
10. Show algebraically that the graph of r = 2 csc e oo
in Problem 8 is the line y = 2. 180°
11. Figure 13-2p shows the graph of r = 9 cos f

Plot the grap h using two revolutions. Find th e
first range of positive 8-values for which r is Figure 13-2r
negative. Sketch this part of the graph.
goo
oo
180° g
270 °
Figure 13-2p
; :.
•,:::::
12. Figure 13-2q shows a lemniscate of Bernoulli,

r = V9 cos 28 . Plot the graph on your grap her. 14. Figure 13-2s shows a conchoid of Nicomedes,
Describe the behavior of the grap h as it goes to r = 8 + 3 csc 8 . Plot the graph on your grapher .
Section
13-2
: Polar
Equations
ofConics
andOther
Curves 607
* Use a range for e of [0°, 360°) with a 8-step of
5°. What happens to the graph as approaches
180° and 360°? At the point P shown in the
figure, is r positive or negative? What range
of 8-values generates the loop below th e
e
d. goo
oo
180°
horizontal axis? Look up the name Nicomedes
on the Internet or in some other sourc e.
Describe what you find out.
goo 270 °
16. Lines Problem: Each of these graphs is a line

oo 1 unit from the pol e. Write the polar equation
180° 10 of each line.
/ goo
p a.
270°
Figure 13-2s
15. Circles Problem: Each of these graphs is a circle oo

180° 1
of diameter 1 unit passing through the pole.
Write the polar equation of each circle.
a. goo
270°
b. goo
oo
180° 1
oo
180 ° l
270 °
b. goo
270 °
C. goo
oo
180°
oo
180° 1
270 °
C. goo 270°
d. goo
oo
180° 1 oo
180°
270 °
270 °
608 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
17. Hyperbola Problem : Consider the polar Confirm that your equation is correc t by
. 8
equation r = 3 + 5 cos fJ· plotting the graph.
a. Plot the graph. Sketch the result. c. Explain the difference in the effect of
b. Show algebraically that the graph is a subtracting a constant from in polar e
hyperbola by transforming the equation coordinates and subtracting a constant from
into Cartesian form . e in Cartesian coordinates .
c. Where is one focus of the hyperbola? What d. The graph of r = 3 sec is a line e
is the eccentricity? perpendicular to th e polar axis 3 units from
the pole. Write an equation that would
18. Ellipse Problem: Consider the polar equation
10 rotate the line 60° clockwise. Plot the graph.
r = 3 + 2 sin fJ· Where does the line cross the polar axis?
a. Plot the graph. Sketch the result . Is the line still a perpendicular distance of
b . Show algebraically that the graph is an 3 units from the p ole? How can you tell?
ellipse by transforming the equatio n into 21. Roller Skating Problem: Figure 13-2u shows a
Cartesian form. roller skating loop as it appears in a manual of
c. Wher e is one focus of the ellipse? What is th e Roller Skating Rink Operations of America.
the eccentricity? The figure is composed of arcs of circles that
19. Parabo la Problem: Consider the polar equation are easy to mark on the rink floor . The finished
6 figure resembl es a lima c;:onwith a loop. Write a
r = T+cose·
polar equation of the limac;:on.Confirm your
a. Plot the graph. Sketch the result.
answer by plotting the limac;:onon your grapher.
b. Show algebraically that the graph is a
parabola by transforming the equatio n into
Cartesian form . / fs1
c. Where is the focus? How can you tell from , t A
the equation that the eccentricity equals 1?
20 . Rotated Polar Graphs Problem: Figure 13-2t
shows two ellipses, __________ R
''
'
___ ' , y , '
_/~:~
'
_______
li
19 D
r=--- -- and
10 - g cos e
19
r =---- ---
10 - 9 cos (8 - 30°)
goo
Figur e 13-2u
Loop Dimensions
' ' D 240 cm
'
'\ oo SI(! D) 30 cm
180° , ) 20
, ,
, LL(t D) 60 cm
270°
------------- A 90 cm
Figur e 13-2t W (i D) 40 cm
a. Which graph is which? What is the effect

of subtracting 30° from e in the second
equation?
b. Write an equation that would rotate the
dashed graph 90 ° counterclockwise.
Section
13-2
: Polar
Equations
ofConics
andOther
Curves 609
*
22. Rose Problem: The general equation of a rose in
polar coordinates is
r= k cos ne
where n is an integer.
the points marked on the polar coordinate
graph .
d. Which part of the graph in rectangular
coordinates correspond s to the inner loop
on the limac,:on?
a. Plot the four -leaved rose r = 9 cos 28 . e. Explain why r = 2 + 4 sin is a function e
b. Plot the three-leaved rose r = 9 cos 38. even though it fails the vertica l line test.
c. What is the relationship betwee n n and the
y
number of leaves in the rose? You may
want to plot other ros es to confirm your 6
conclusion.
d. Write the equation of the five-leaved rose
that appears in the icon at th e top of each X
even-numbered page. Use a distanc e from
the pole to the tip of a leaf of 7 units. Plot -2
the graph on your grapher. Does your graph
agree with the icon? Figur e I3-2v
23. Comparing Graphs Problem: Figure 13-2v 90°
shows th e graph of y = 2 + 4 sin x over the
domain [- 1, 7]. Figure 13-2w shows the graph
of r = 2 + 4 sin 8.
a. Find the rectangular coordinates of the
marked points in Figure 13-2v.
b. Find the polar coordinates of the marked 180° O'
points in Figure 13-2w.
c.Explain how the five marked points on the 270 °
rectangular coordinate graph correspond to Figure I3 -2w
13-3 Intersections of Polar Curves

The limac,:on r 1 = 3 + 2 cos e and goo
the four-leaved rose r 2 = 5 sin 28

(Figure 13-3a) appear to intersect at
eight points, for instance, P1 and P2 •
Normally, a point of intersection
repr esen ts a solution to a system of l80 °
equations, but in this section you will
discover that P1 is a solution to this
system of equations but P2 is not. In
fact, only four of the eight points are 270 °
solutions. The other four intersection s Figur e I3-3a
are points where the graphs cross, but
for different values of e.
OBJECTIVE
Given two polar equations, find the solutions to the system of equations and
relate them to the intersections of the polar curves.
610 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates
, Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
If you plot the equatio ns r 1 = 3 + 2 cos 8 and r2 = 5 sin 28 with your grapher in
simultaneous mode, the two graphs will be drawn at the same time.
Figure 13-3b shows the effect of pausing at about 65°. Both graphs are at
point P1 for a value of e close to 65°. But if you continu e plotting to about 105°
(Figure 13-3c), the lima<;:onis at point P2 and the rose is at point P3 • Because
the rose has a negative r-value and the lima<;:onhas a positive r-value at this
angle e,
point P2 is not a solution to this system of equations.
goo goo
180 ° 180°
270 ° 270 °
Figure 13-3b Figure 13-3c
IJi,,EXAMPLE
1 Find the solution to the system that includes the lima <;:onr1 = 3 + 2 cos 8 and
th e four-leaved rose r2 = 5 sin 28.
Solution To see which points are solutions, it helps to plot auxiliary Cartesian graphs .
Figure 13-3d shows the graphs of Yi = 3 + 2 cos 8 and y 2 = 5 sin 28. The
solutions occur where the auxiliary graphs intersect. You can find the precise
values using the intersect feature on your grapher.
(4.6529 ..., 34.2630 ... 0 ), (3.8511 ... , 64.8126 ... 0 ), (l.0103 ... , 185.8289 ... 0 ),
(2.4855 ... , 255.0953 ... 0 )
These solution points are circled in Figure 13-3e.
goo
yo r r
180°
270°
Section
13-3:Intersections
ofPolar
Curves 611
*
Problem Set 13-3
Reading Analysis Llf/J Q9.Write a polar equation of the circle in

Figure 13-3f.
you consider to be the main idea? How is it possible Q10. Write parametric equations of the circle in
for an intersection of two polar curves to not be a Figure 13-3f.
solution to the system of equations? How can you
use auxiliary Cartesian graphs to find the solution
points?
8
Quick Review
QI. Find the Cartesian coordinates of the polar
point (r, 8) = (6, 30°).
Q2. Find polar coordinates of the Cartesian Figure 13-3(
point (x, y) = (3, 7).
For Problems 1-8, find the solutions to the system
of equations and mark the solution points on a
y sketch of the graphs.
7
. 5
x = r w,e l. Ellipse r 1 = and hyperbola
3 - 2 cos 8
y = r,ilt,€) 5 .
r2 = a (Figure 13-3g)
2 + 3 cos u
X
For Q3-Q6, write another ordered pair for the polar

point (6, 30°) with the given specifications.
Q3. rand e are both positive. Figure 13-3g
Q4. r is positive and e is negative.
2. Limac;on r 1 = 2 + 3 cos 8 and ellipse
as.r is negative and e is positive. 5 .
r2 = e (Figure 13-3h)
Q6. rand e are both negative. 3 + 2 cos
Ql. What geometric figure has the polar equation

r = 5(3 + 4 cos 8)?
QB.What geometric figure has the polar equation

5
r= 7
3 + 4 cos e·
Figure 13-3h
612 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
3. Limac;:onr 1 = -1 - 5 cos (8 - 180°) and limac;:on 7. Spiral r 1 = 0.58 and ro se r 2 = 5 cos 28
r 2 = 3 + 2 cos 8 (Figure 13-3i) (Figure 13-3m). Use radian mod e and posit ive
values of e.
Figur e 13-3i
4. Limac;:onr 1 = 1 + 5 cos 8 and line

r 2 = 3 sec (8 - 30°) (Figure 13-3j) Figure 13-3m
8. Spiral r 1 = 0.58 and circle r 2 = 5 cos 8

(Figure 13-3n). Use radian mode and positi ve
values of e.
Figur e 13-3)
5. Conchoid r 1 = 3 + csc e an d ellipse

5
r2 =
3- 2
.
Sill
e
(Figure 13-3k)
Figu re 13-3n
9. Finding Other Int ersect ion Points Problem: Plot

on th e same scre en th e limac;:ons
5
r1 = 3 + 2 sine
r2 = -3 - 2 sin(e - 180°)
Figure 13-3k
Use simultaneous mod e and path style.
6. Limac;:onr 1 = 3 - 2 sin 8 and rose r2 = 5 cos 28 Descr ibe what you obs erve about the point s at
(Figure 13-31) which each graph is being plotted and the final
graphs. Tracing to a particular value of e on
the final graphs might help. Then plot the
circle r 3 = 4. Show that the intersections of r 3
with r2 do not represent solutions to the
system of those two equations, but do
repr ese nt th e solutions to the system of r3 and
r 1 . From what you have observed, write
instructions that could be used to find the
Figure 13-31 inter sections of two polar curves that are not
solutions to the system of equations.
Section
13-3: Inter
sections
ofPolar
Curves 613
13-4 Complex Numbers in Polar Form
An imaginary number is a square root of a negative number. Using i for the
unit imaginary number Fl, you can write
--Ri= if9 = 3i
A complex number is the sum of a real number and an imaginary
number. For instance, the complex number z = 4 + 3 i is the sum of
the real number 4 and the imaginary number 3 i.
You can represent complex numbers by points in a Cartesian coordinate system
called the complex plane, as shown in Figure 13-4a. The horizontal coordinate
of a point is the real part of the number, and the vertical coordinate is the
imaginary part.
Imaginary
Si
4i
4 + 3i
3i ----------
e Real
- 5 -4 - 3 - 2 - ]
- li
- 2i
-3 i
- 4i
- Si
Figure 13-4a
You can write a complex number in polar form by writing the real and
imaginary parts in terms of the polar coordinates of the point. In this section
you will make remarkable discoveries about products and roots of complex
numbers by writing the numbers in polar form.
OBJECTIVE
Operate with complex numbers in polar form.
These definitions apply to complex numbers in Cartesian form.
DEFINITIONS:
Imaginary
andComplex
Numbers
i= -Fi The unit imaginary number.
2
i =-1 Squaring a square root removes the radical sign.
z =a+ bi General form of a complex number in Cartesian form.
The real number a is called the real part of z.
The real number b is called the imaginary part of z.
a- bi The complex conjugate of a + bi.
614 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
You operate with complex numbers in the same way you operate with other
binomials. For example, to add or subtract complex numbers, combine like terms:
(4 + 3i)-(5 - 2i) = 4 + 3i- 5 + 2 i
=- l+Si
To multiply complex numbers, expand and combine like terms:
(4 + 3i)(S - 2i) = 20- 8i+ lSi- 6i 2
= 20 + 7i - 6(-1)
= 26 + 7i
Imaginary Figure 13-4b shows the number z = a + bi in the complex plane. The polar
z = a+ bi coordinates of z are (r, 8).
a= rcos e
r a= r cos 8 and b = r sin 8

b = r sine
Therefore, z can be written
e Real z = (r cos 8) + i(r sin 8) or z = r(cos 8 + i sin 8) Factor out r.
The express ion (cos e + i sin 8) is written "cis 8," pronounced "sis" as in
Figure 13-4b
"sister." The c comes from cosine, the i from the unit imaginary number, and
the s from sine. Thus, any complex number can be writt en
z = r cis 8
DEFINITION:
PolarForm
ofa Complex
Number
z = r cis 8 = r(cos 8 + i sin 8)
where r is called the modulus (or magnitude) of z and 8 is called the
argument of z (either degrees or radians) .
The absolute value of a complex number is the modulus of that number:
lzl= r
These relationships let you convert between the polar and Cartesian forms of a
complex number.
PROPERTY:
Relationships
BetweenPolarandCartesian
Forms
If z = a + bi = r cis 8, then
a= rcos 8
b= r sine
r 2 = a2 + b2
Section
13-4
: Complex
Numbers
inPolar
Form 615
* ~ EXAMPLE
1
Solution
Transform the complex number z = -5 + 7i into polar form.
-5
Sketch the number in the comp lex
Figure 13-4c plane (Figure 13-4c).
r = .J(-5) 2 + 72 = .fi4 Use only the coefficient 7, not 7i.
7
8 = arctan - = -54.4623 ... + 180n°0
= 125.5376 ... 0
-5
8 is in Quadrant II.
.". z = m cis (125.5376 ... 0
)
~ EXAMPLE
2 Transform z = 5 cis 144° into Cartesian form.
Solution z = 5(cos 144° + i sin 144°) Definition of cis 8.
= -4.0450 ... + (2.9389 ... )i

""-4.05 + 2.94i
~ EXAMPLE
3 If z 1 = 3 cis 83 ° and z 2 = 2 cis 41 °, find the product z 1 z 2 .
Solution Long Way
z 1 z 2 = 3(cos83° + isin83°) · 2(cos41° + isin41 °) Definition of cis 8.
= (3)(2)[cos83° cos41° + i(sin8 3° cos41°) + i(cos83° sin41°)

+ i 2 (sin 83° sin41 °))
= 6[cos83° cos41° - sin83° sin41°)
+ i(sin83° cos41° + cos83 ° sin41°)]
= 6[cos (83° + 41 °) + i sin(83° + 41 °))
Composite argument properties from Chapter 5.
= 6 cis 124°
Short Way
Z1Z2 = (3 cis83°)(2 cis41°)
= 6 cis 124° Multiply the moduli; add the arguments.
616 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
Sum:
PROPERTY:
Product
of TwoComplex
Numbers
inPolarForm
If z 1 = r 1 cis 8 1 and z 2 = r2 cis 8 2 , then
z 1 z 2 = r 1 r 2 cis(8 1 + 82 )
83°
Produ ct:
/ Verbally: "Multiply the moduli; add the arguments."
2 X 3=6
Figure 13-4d illustrates this property using the complex numbers from Example 3.
Figur e 13-4d
.....EXAMPLE
4 Find the reciprocal of z = 2 cis 29°.
Solution Long Way

1 1
Definition of cis 8.
z 2(cos 29° + i sin 29°)
1 1 cos 29° - i sin 29°
- Multiply by a clever form
2 cos 29° + i sin 29° cos 29° - i sin 29° of 1.
1 cos 29° - i sin 29°
Product of conjugat e
2 cos 2 29° - i 2 sin 2 29° binomials in the
denominator.
1 cos 29° - i sin 29°
- ;2 = -1
2 cos 2 29° + sin 2 29°
1
= 2(cos 29° - i sin 29°) Pythagorean property of
cosine and sine.
1
= [cos (-29°) + i sin (-29°)] Odd-even properties of
2 cosine and sine .
= 1 cis (-29 0) Definition of cis e.

2
Short Way
1 1
-- -- = .!_cis (-29°) Take the reciprocal of the modulus and the
z 2 cis 29° 2 opposite of the argument. <11111
PROPERTY: Reciprocal
ofa Complex
Number
inPolarForm
If z = r cis 8' then
1 1
- = - cis (-8)
z r
Verbally : "Take the reciprocal of the modulus and the opposite of the
argument ."
Section
13-4
: Complex
Numbers
inPolar
Form 617
* ~ EXAMPLE
5
Solution
If z 1
Long Way
= 5 cis 71° and z 2
z1 5 cis 71°
= 2 cis 29°, find ~ -
Z2 2 CiS 29°
= (5 cis 71 °) [i cis (-29°)] Apply the reciprocal property.
5 0
= - cis 42 Apply the multiplication property.
2
Short Way
5 cis 71 ° 5 . 20
---=-CIS4 Divide the moduli; subtract the arguments.
2 cis 29° 2
PROPERTY:
Quotient
of TwoComplex
Numbers
inPolarForm
If z 1 = r 1 cis 8 1 and z2 = r 2 cis 8 2 , then
Z1 r1
- = - cis ((\ - 8 2)
Zz r2
Verbally: "Divide the moduli; subtract the arguments."
EXAMPLE
IJJl,,, 6 If z = 2 cis 29°, find z 5•
I " /I/
(2 ci, 29°)(2 ci, 29°)(2 ci, 29 °) ...
'-
4 ci, S8°
I
7
'::::-. I
/
..........
8 ci, 87°
Solution Long Way

z 5 = (2 cis 29°) 5
= (2 cis 29°)(2 cis 29°)(2 cis 29°)(2 cis 29°)(2 cis 29°)
= 2 5 cis (5 · 29°) Apply the product property repeatedly.
= 32 cis 145°
Short Way
z 5 = 2 5 cis (5 · 29°) = 32 cis 145° Raise the modulus to the power; multiply
the argument by the exponent. ~
The "short way" to rais e a complex number to a power is known as

De Moivre's theorem.
618 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
PROPERTY:
DeMoivre's
Theorem
If z = r cis e' then
Verbally: "Raise the modulus to the power, and multiply the argument by
the exponent."
Because De Moivre's theorem is true for fractional exponents, you can use it to
find roots of a complex number in polar form. There is a surprise, as you will
see in Example 7.
.... EXAMPLE
7 If z = 8 cis 60°, find the cube roots of z, Vz.
Solution There are multiple polar coordinates for a given point. In general,
z = 8 cis (60° + 360° k), where k stands for an integer. So there are multiple
cube roots of a complex number:
Vz= zl / 3
= (8 cis 60° + 360° k)113
1
= 8 113 cis -(60 ° + 360°k) By De Moivre's
3 theorem.
= 2 cis (20° + 120°k)
2 = 2 cis 20°, 2 cis 140°, 2 cis 260°, 2 cis 380°, ...
But 2 cis 380° is coterminal with 2 cis 20°, so only the first three results are
distinct cube roots.
Vz= 2 cis 20°, 2 cis 140°, or 2 cis 260°
In general, a complex number has exactly n distinct nth roots. Figure 13-4e
shows that the three cube roots of z = 8 cis 60° are equally spaced around the
Figure 13-4e pole in the complex plane.
Problem Set 13-4
Reading Analysis t:l[/j Quick Review ~

~
From what you have read in this sect ion, what do QI. Write Cartesian coordinates for the polar
you consider to be the main idea ? What is the point (3, 90°).
definition of i, and why does i2 equa l -1? What does
Q2. Write polar coordinates for the Cartesian
e
cis mean, and why is this form of a complex
point (-3 , 3).
number useful for multiplication ? What is the
graphical relationship among the three cube roots Q3. What geometric figure is the graph of
of a complex number? r= 10 cos 8 ?
Section
13-4:Complex
Numbers
inPolar
Form 619
*Q4. If the limac;:onr = a + b cos 8 has a loop, how
are a and b related?
QS. If the limac;:onr = a + b cos 8 is a cardioid, how
are a and b related?
25. z 1
26. z1
=
=
4 cis 238°, z2
6 cis 19°, z2 =
= 2 cis 51°
4 cis 96°
For Problems 27-36, find the indicated roots and
sketch the answers on the complex plane.
Q6. How do you decide whether a point where two
27. Cube roots of 27 cis 120°
polar curves cross is a true intersection?
28. Cube roots of 8 cis 15°
Ql. How are the graphs of r 1 = 2 cos 8 and
r2 = 10 cos 8 related? 29. Fourth roots of 16 cis 80 °
QB.How are the graphs of r 1 = 2 cos 8 and 30. Fourth roots of 81 cis 64 °
r3 = 2 cos (8 - 50°) related?
31. Square roots of i
Q9. Find the discriminant: 3x2 + 5x + 11 = 0
32. Square roots of -i
10
Q 10. The polar graph of r = is a(n) 3 3. Cube roots of 8
2 + 3 cos 8
34. Cube roots of -27
A. Hyperbola B. Ellipse C. Parabola
D. Circle E. None of these 35. Sixth roots of -1
36. Tenth roots of 1
For Problems 1-12, write the complex number in
polar form, r cis 8.
1. -l +i 2. 1 - i
3. )3 - i 4. 1 + i)3
5. -4 - 3i 6. -3 + 4i
7. 5 + 7i 8. -11 - 2i
9. 1 10. i
11. -i 12. -8
For Problems 13-22, write the complex number in

Cartesian form, a + bi.
13. 8 cis 34° 14. 11 cis 247° Complex numbers are used to analyze flow of
alternating current in electrical circuits.
15. 6 cis 120° 16. 8 cis 150°
17. F2cis 225° 18. 3V2 cis 45°
37. Triple Argument Properties Problem: By
19. 5 cis 180° 20. 9 cis 90° De Moivre's theorem,
21. 3 cis 2 70° 22. 2 cis 0° (cos 8 + i sin 8) 3 = cos 38 + i sin 38
For Problems 23-26, complete steps a-d. Expand the expression on the left. By equating
the real parts and the imaginary parts on the left
. Z1 and right sides of the resulting equation, derive
b. Fmd-.
Z2 triple argument properties expressing cos 38
c. Find z/. d. Find Z 23 . and sin 38 in terms of sines and cosines of 8.
23. z 1 = 3 cis 47°, z 2 = 5 cis 36°
24. z 1 = 2 cis 154°, z 2 = 3 cis 27°
620 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
38. Res earc h Project: From the Internet or some
other source, find out about De Moivre. For
instance, learn about his major mathematical
contributions, the books he wrote, and
his life.
39. Journal Problem: Update your journal. Include
Ab raham D e Moivr e thin gs such as the us e of polar coordinates to
(1667-1154) represent comp lex numbers and how pola r
introduced complex coordinates make it relativel y easy to find
numbers in
trigonometry. (The products , quotients, ro ots, and powers.
Granger Collection,
New York)
13-5 Parametric Equations of Moving Objects

So far in this chapter you have seen how you
can plot ellipses, limac;:ons,and other graphs
relatively easily using polar coordinates and how
p olar coordinates lead to a way of analyzing
complex numbers. In this sectio n you will return
to the polar graphs you stuclied at the beginning
of the chapter and analyze them with the h elp
of parametric functions and vectors . Many of
the graphs you will encounter in this section
come from moving objects, such as a wheel
rolling along a line or around a circle, a string
unwinding from a circle, or a projectile moving
through the air .
OBJECTIVE
Given a geometric description of the path followed by a moving object, write
parametric equations to describe the path and plot it on your grapher.
Section
13-5
: Parametr
icEquations
ofMoving
Objects 621
~ EXAMPLE
1 A ship moves with an eastward velocity of 21 km / h and a northward velocity of
13 km/ h. At time t = 0 h the ship is at the point P0 (-4 3, 19), where the distances
are in kilom eters from a lighthouse (Figure 13-Sa).
y, North
a. Write parametric equations of
the ship's path, using t, in hours,
as the parameter .
,-''S hip' s path
b. Confirm that your equations are
correct by plotting them on your
grapher.
c. Predict the time when the ship
will be 60 km north of the
lighthous e. How far east or west x, East
of the lighthouse will it be at
this time ? Lighthous e
Figure 13-Sa
Solution a. X= - 43 + 2lt
y=l9+13t Distance= (rate)(time)
y b. The graph (Figure 13-Sb) confirms that the equations repres ent the given
path . Use equal scales on the two axes.
- 50 so
Figur e 13-Sb
---~
1_3_~-~}
; 21
t3t
+--+ 21t
1 lwur
2 /wur,
t/wur,
C. 60 = 19 + 13t=> t= 3.1538 ... ""3.15 h"" 3 h 9 min

Set y equal to 60 and solve for t.
X = -43 + 21(3.1538 ... ) = 23.2307 ...

Substitute the solution int o the x-equation.
The ship will b e approximately 23.23 km east of the lighthou se. <11111
622 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Object
s
llll-EXAMPLE
2 As a wheel rolls along a
straig ht-line path, a fixed
point on the rim of th e
whee l traces a curve called
a cycloi d. The wheel in
Figure 13-Sc has radius
6 cm and rolls in a positiv e
directio n along th e x-axis.
Let the parameter t
represe nt th e numb er of
radians th e wheel has
rolled since a point P(x, y)
on its rim was at th e origin. Write param etric equation s of the cycloid tra ced by
point P. Check your equation by graphin g.
I
6 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
X
6 12 18 24
Figur e 13-Sc
Solution Let r b e th e position vector to th e point P(x, y) on the circle after it has rolled
t radians.
Figure 13-Sd show s that you can writer as the sum of thr ee other vector s:
''
'
' \
6 12
Figure 13-Sd
Vector v1 is horizontal, and its length is the distance the wh eel ha s rolled.
Arc length = (radius)(central angle in radians)

Vector v2 is vertical , with constant length 6 unit s.
v2 = 6]
Section
13·5: Parametric
Equations ofMoving
Objects 623
Vector ~\ extends from the center of the wheel to the point P(x, y) . It has
e
constant length 6 units, but it rotates clockwise . Let be the angle in standard
position for v3 . Then
'\\ = (6 cos 8)7 + (6 sin 8)J Definitions of cosine and sine.
To get e in terms oft, observe that e starts at l. 5TTradians (270°) at t = O and
decreases as t increases. Therefore,
8 = l.5TT- t
v3 = [6 cos (1.5 rr - t)]7+ [6 sin (1.5 rr - t)]J
r = (6t)i + 6] + [6 cos (1.5 rr - t)]7+ [6 sin (1.5 rr - t)]J
Add the thr ee vectors.
r = [6t + 6 COS(1.5 TT - t)]i + [6 + 6 Sin (1.5 TT - t)]J Combine like terms.

This is called a vector equation of the cycloid. The parametric equations are th e
x- and y-components of the vector equation .
x= 6t+ 6 cos(l.5TT- t)
y = 6 + 6 sin (l. 5 rr - t)
y The graph is shown in Figure 13-5e. Use radian mode and equal scales on
30 both axes. For a dynamic demonstration, view the Cycloid Exploration at
www .keymath.com/precalc.
Note that although y is a periodic function of x,
it is not a sinusoid. The low points are cusps rather than rounded curves.
You can use the composite argument properties from Chapter 5 to simplify the
cosine and sine terms in Example 2. Because cos 1.5TT equals O and sin 1.5TT
Figure 13-Se equals -1,
cos (1.5 rr - t) = cos 1.5 rr cost+ sin l.5rr sin t = -sin t
sin (1.5 TT- t) = sin 1.5 TT cost- cos 1.5 TT sin t =-cost
Thus the parametric equations are
x = 6t- 6 sin t
y = 6 - 6 cost
The general parametric equations of a cycloid are listed in the box.
PROPERTY:
Parametric
Equations
of a Cycloid
As a wheel of radius a rolls along the x-axis, a point on the rim of the wheel
that starts at the origin traces the path of a cycloid whose parametric
equations are
x = a(t - sin t)
y= a(l - cost)
where tis the number of radians the wheel has rolled since the point was at
the origin .
624 Chapter
13: PolarCoordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Object
s
Problem Set 13-5
Reading Analysis
From what you have read in this section, what do you b. If the plane continues on this path, when
consider to be the main idea? What is the relationship will it be due north of the FAA station? How
between the vector equation of the path of a moving far north of the station will it be?
object and the parametric equations of the path? Give c. What is the plane's actual speed?
two examples of paths of moving objects that can be
modeled by parametric equations or by a vector 2. Walking Problem: Calvin is walking at a speed of
equation . 6 ft/s along a path that makes an angle of 55°
with the x-axis.At time t = 0 s he is at the point
Quick Review (263, 107), where the distances are in feet from
a particular traffic light (Figure 13-5g).
Ql. Add: (3 - 7i) + (5 + 6i)
y
Q2. Add: (37 - 7]) + (57 + 6]) Path
03. Add: 20 cis 80° + 10 cis 50°

04. Multiply: (20 cis 80°)(10 cis 50°)
X
Q5. Divide: (20 cis 80°) -;-(10 cis 50°)
06. Expand: (2 cis 20°)3 Figur e 13-Sg
07. Write 20 cis 80° in the form a+ bi. a. What are Calvin's speeds in the x- and
. Write 3 - 7 i in polar form.
QB
y-directions?
b . Write parametric equations of his position
Q9. Write the composite argument property for as a function of the parameter t, in seconds.
cos (A - B).
c. A street goes along the x-axis. Assuming
010. Which two of the six trigonometric functions Calvin was walking at his 6 ft/s pace before
are even functions? time t = 0 s, at what time t did he cross the
street?
1. Airplane's Path Problem: An airplane is d. How far from the light does the path cross
flying with a velocity of 300 km/ h west and the street?
100 km/ h north. At time t = 0 h the plane is at 3. Projectile Motion Problem: Sir Francis Drake's
the point (473, 155), where the distances are in ship fires a cannonball at an enemy galleon.
kilometers from a Federal Aviation Agency At time t = 0 s the cannonball has an initial
station located at the origin (Figure 13-5f). velocity of 200 ft/ s and a 20° angle of
y
elevation (Figure 13-5h). Find the cannonball's
position P(x, y) as a function of time . Assume
the point (0, 10) represents the point from
which the cannonball was fired.
X Sir Francis Drake
y
FAA station
Cannonball's path
Galleon
Figure 13-Sf
a. Write parametric equations of the plane's

""'-- /~ o P(x, y)
I X
path, using t, in hours, as the parameter. 900
Figur e 13-Sh
Section
13-5
: Parametric
Equations
ofMoving
Objects 625
* a. Find parametric equations of the
cannonball's path. To do this, assume
there is no air friction, so the horizontal
velocity remains what it was at time t = 0 s.
The vertical position equals the height
b. Plot the parametric equations for both ships
on the same screen. Use simultaneous mode
so that you can see where each ship is with
respect to the other as the graphs are being
plotted. Based on what you observe, do the
the cannonball is above the water plus the ships collide, almost collide, or miss each
distance the cannonball would travel at the other by a significant distance?
initial upward velocity at time t = 0,
c. Use the distance formula to help you write a
minus 16t2 to account for the effects of
Cartesian equation for the distance between
gravity.
the ships as a function of time. Plot this
b . Plot the parametric equations . Use a window function on another screen and sketch the
with an x-range large enough to show the result.
point where the cannonball hits the water.
d. By appropriate operations on the function of
Sketch the result.
part c, find numerically the time the ships are
c. The galleon is at distance x = 900 ft from Sir closest to each other and how close they get.
Francis's ship . The tops of the sails are 40 ft Based on your answer, should the ships have
above the surface of the water. Will the changed their courses to avoid a collision,
cannonball fall short of the galleon, pass or will they miss each other by a safe
over the galleon, or hit it somewhere distance?
between the waterline and the tops of the
sails? Show how you get your answer. ~
. .
'
)'
;u::n:
d. To be most effective, the cannonball should e. In July 1956, there was a serious collision
hit the galleon right at the waterline (y = 0). At between the ships Andrea Doria and
what angle of elevation should the cannonball Stockholm. On the Internet or in some
be fired to accomplish this objective? other reference source, find out what
happened.
e. On the Internet or in some other reference

source, find out who Sir Francis Drake was,
when he lived, and to which country the
enemy galleon might have belonged.
4. Ship Collision Project: Two ships are steaming
through the fog. At time t = 0 min, their
positions and velocities are
Ship A: Point (x, y) = (2000, 600),
velocity 500 m/ min at an angle of 140°
Ship B: Point (x, y) = (200, 300),
velocity 400 m/min at an angle of 80°
a. Write parametric equations representing the
position (x, y) of each ship, with x and yin
meters and the parameter tin minutes.
6 26 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
5. Ellips e from Geometric Properti es Problem: 6. Serpentine Curv e Problem: Figure 13-5j shows
Figure 13-5i shows conce ntric circles of radii the serpentine curve, so called for its snakelike
3 units and 5 units centere d at the origin of a shape. A fixed circle of radius 5 units has its
Cartes ian coor dinat e syste m. A ray from th e center on the x-axis and passes through th e
center at an angle of t radians to the x-axis origin. A variable line from the origin make s an
cuts the two circles at points A and B, angle of t radians with the x-axis. It int ersects
respectively. From point A a horizontal line is the circle at point A, and it intersects th e fixed
drawn, and from point B a vertic al line is line y = 5 at point B. A hori zontal line from
drawn. These two lines intersect at point Pon point A and a vertical line from point B intersect
the graph of a curve . at the point P(x , y) on the serpentine curve.
y y
- ---- -- -- - ----- -- - 5
Figur e 13-5j
Figure 13-5i
a. On a copy of Figure 13-Si, pi ck oth er values a. On a copy of Figure 13-Sj, pick a different
of the angle t and plot more point s using value of t betwee n O and ¥ and plot the
the given sp ecifications. Conn ect th e corresponding point Pas describ ed. Plot
resulting p oints with a sm ooth curv e. Does another point for a t-value betwe en ¥ and TT.
the graph seem to be an ellips e? Show that the resulting points reall y are on
b. Write parametric equations for the the serpentine curve.
point P(x, y) in terms of the parameter t b . Write parametric equations expressing x and
using the given geometric description. Is the y in terms of the param eter t. (To find y, first
result the same as th e para m etric equations find th e distanc e from the origin to point A
of an ellipse from Section 4-5? You can do this by recalling the polar
c. Plot the parametric equations on your equation of a circle or by drawing a right
triangl e inscri b ed in the semicircle with
graph er. Use equal scales on the two axes.
Also plot the two circles. Do the circles ha ve right angle at point A and hypotenuse
10 units .)
the same relationship to the curve as in
your sketch ? c. Confirm that your parametri c equations are
d. The param eter t can be eliminated from the correct by plotting th em on your grapher.
two p arametr ic equations to get a single Use a window with an x-range at least as
equation involving only the variables x and large as th e one shown, and use equa l scales
y. Clever u se of the Pythagorean properties
on both axes .
will allow you to do this . Write a Cartesian d. The point Pin Figure 13-5j corr esponds to
equation of this curve. How can you tell t = 0.35 radian. Confirm that thi s is corr ect
whet h er the equation represents an by showing that the values of x and y you
ellipse ? find from th e equation agre e with th e values
in the figure .
Section
13-5:Parametric
Equation
s ofMoving
Objects 627
*7. Flanged Wheel Prolate Cycloid Problem: Train
wheels have flanges that project beyond the
rims to keep the wheels from slipping off the
track. A point Pon the flange traces a prolate
cycloid as the wheel turns. Figure 13-5k shows
c. Vector v3 goes from the center of the wheel
to the point P(x, y). Write v3 as a function
of t. Use the result to writer as a vector
function of t.
d. Plot the graph of r using parametric mod e.
an example. The radius of the flange has been
Does the graph look like Figure 13-5k?
exaggerated so that you can see more clearly
what a prolate cycloid looks like. Assume that e. How far does point P move in the x-direction
the wheel has radius 50 cm, the flange has between t = 0 radians and t = 0.1 radian?
radius 70 cm, and the wheel has rotated How do you explain the fact that the
t radians since the point P(x, y) was farthest displacement is negative, even though
below the track. the wheel is going in the positive
x-direction?
8. Epicycloid Problem: Figure 13-51 shows the
epicycloid traced by a point on the rim of a
wheel with radius 2 cm as it rotates, without
slipping, around the outside of a circle with
radius 6 cm. The wheel starts with point
P(x, y) = (6, 0). The parameter tis the number
of radians from the positive x-axis to a line
from the origin through the center of the
wheel.
• Let r (not shown) be the position vector to
• Let r (not shown) be the position vector to the point P(x, y) .
the point P(x, y) on the flange. • Let v1 be the vector from the origin to the
• Let v1 be the vector from the origin to the center of the wheel.
point where the wheel touches the track. • Let v2 be the vector from the center of the
• Let v2 be the vector from that point to the wheel to the point P(x, y).
center of the wheel. y
• Let v3 be the vector from the center of the
wheel to the point on the flange.
10
i.--
--
y
P(x , y)
Circl e
Rotation( X
10
Track X
v,
Wheel rim
Figure 13-Sk
a. Explain why r = v1 + v2 + v3 .
b. The length of v1 equals the distance the Figure 13- 51
wheel has rolled . Vector v2 is a constant
vector in the vertical direction. Write v1 and
v2 in terms of their components.
628 Chapter
13: PolarCoord
inates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
y the counterclockwise direction. The involute
is the spiral path followed by the pen as the
string unwinds. The curve is interesting
because gear teeth made with their surfaces in
this shape transmit the rotation smoothly
from one gear to the next.
6
Epicycloid
''
'I I
\ X
Figure 13-Sm
a. Find v1 in terms of t and the unit vectors 7

and]. Find v2 in terms e
of angle in
Figure 13-51and the unit vectors 7 and J.
e
b. Write in terms of t by observing that e
starts at - rr radians when t = 0. Thus, () is Figure 13-Sn
given by the sum - rr + A + B, where angle A
and angle Bare as shown in Figure 13-Sm. a. The parameter t is the radian measure
Express angles A and Bin terms of t. Note of the angle between the positi ve x-axis and
that the arc of the wheel subtended by angle the line from the origin to the point of
B equals the arc of the circle subtended by tangenc y of the string. Vector v1 goes from
angle t, because the wheel rotates without the center of the circle to the point of
slipping. Note also that the length of an arc tangency . Vector v2 goes along the string
of a circle equals the centra l angle in from the point of tangency to the point
radians times the radius. P(x, y) on the involute. Write a vector
c. Write a vector equation for r as a function equation for position vector r (not shown)
of tby observing that r = v1 + v2 . Use to point Pin terms of the parameter t. Note
the result to plot the epicycloid using that v1 and v2 are perpendicular because v1
parametric mode. Use at-range large is a radius to the point of tangency. Confirm
enough to get one complete cycle, and use that your equation is correct by plotting
equal scales on both axes. Does the graph it on your grapher. Use at least three
agree with Figure 13-Sm? If not, go back and revolutions for the t-range.
check your work. b. Construct an involut e by wrapping a string
d. Plot the 6-cm circle on the same screen as in around a roll of tape, tying a pencil or pen
part c. Does the result agree with the figure? to the end of the string, and tracing the path
as you unwind the string. Does the involute
9. Involute of a Circle Problem: Figure 13-Sn you plotted in part a agree with this actual
shows an involute of a circle. A string is involute ?
wrapped around a circle with radius
5 units. A pen is tied to the string at the
point (5, 0). Then the string is unwound in
Section
13-5:Parametric
Equations
ofMoving
Objects 629
y
Line y = 20
15
Rollin g circle
5 10 15 20
Figure 13-Sp
11. Parametric Equations of Polar Curves Problem:

Figure 13-Sq shows the ellips e with this polar
equation, superimposed on a rectangular
coordinate grid:
10. Roller Coaster Problem : Figure 13-So shows part 9
of a roller coaster track whose shape is a prolate r=----
cycloid (see Problem 7). This shape can be
5 - 4 cos e
generat ed through this method: Imagine a circle y
with radius 5 ft rolling along the underside of
the line y = 20 (Figure 13-Sp). The prolate
cycloid results from tracing point P(x, y),
located at 12 ft from the center of the rolling X
circle, as it rotates through an angle of 9
t radians. Point P(x, y) is at its top position,
directly above the origin, when angle t = 0.
The position vector r (not shown) to the point
P(x, y) is the sum of four other vectors starting
at the origin, v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 . Find a vector Figure 13-Sq
equation for the track in terms of t. By plotting a. Confirm on your grapher that the equation
on your grapher, show that your equation is gives the graph in Figure 13-Sq. Note that
correct . the value of e shown in the figure is
y 0.5 radian .
b. Use the definitions of cosine and sine and
the valu e of r from the polar equation to
write the parametric equations of the ellipse
using tin place of e.Confirm that your
parametric equations give the same ellipse
- 20 - LO 10 20 and that tracing to t = 0.5 radian gives the
Roller coa s ter tra ck point shown .
(prolat e cycloid )
Figur e 13-So
c. The ellipse in Figure 13-Sq has center at the
point (4, 0), x-radius 5, and y-radius 3. Use
630 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
this information to write another set of part b. Use path style so that you can see
parametric equations of the ellipse in terms where each function is being plotted as t
of the parameter t. increases from Oto 2rr . Do the two finished
d. With your grapher in simultaneous mode, graphs coincide? Does the parameter tin part
plot the parametric equations of part c on the c represent the same angle as tin part b?
same screen as the parametric equations of

In this chapter you started by plotting graphs in po lar coordinates. Polar
coordina tes allowed you to writ e complex numbers in polar form. You then saw
that the product of two complex numbers has a magnitude equal to the product
of the two magnitudes and an angle measure equal to the sum of the two angle
measures. By De Moivre's theorem you were able to find powers and roots of
comp lex numbers . Vectors and parametric functions gave you a way to describe
the path followed by a point on a moving object.
Review Problems
RO.Upda te your journal with what you have () r

learned in this chapter. Include things such as
45° 7.1
• Multiple ways to write polar coordinates for
60° 5.0
the same point
75 ° 2.6
• Graphs such as lima<;:onsand conic sections goo 0
.in polar coordinates 105° -2.6
• The fact that r can be negative in polar 120° -5 .0
coordinates 135° -7.l
• False and true intersections of polar curves R2. a. Plot the three-leaved rose r = 10 cos 38.
• How a complex number can be written in Sketch the graph.
polar form b. Plot the lima<;:onr = 3 - 5 cos 8. Sketch
• De Moivre's theorem and products, the graph .
quotients, and roots of complex numbers c. Plot the hyperbola r = 3 _ 58cose· Sketch
• Parametric equations of cycloids and other the graph .
paths of moving objects d . Plot the circle r = 2 cos (8 - 60 °). Sketch
Rl. Plot these points on polar coordinate paper. the graph.
Show especially what happens when r is e. Plot the line r = 2 sec (8 - 60°). Sketch
negative. Connect the points with a smooth the graph .
curve . f. Prove algebraically that the graph in part c
is a hyperbola by transforming the equation
into Cartesian form. Where is the focus of
the hyperbola? What is its eccentricity?
Section
13-6:Chapter
Review
andTest 631
*
R3. Find the solutions to the system r 1 = 4 + 6 cos
and r 2 = 5 - 3 cos e,
shown in Figure 13-6a.
At what other point(s) do the graphs
intersect?
e t radians with the x-axis. Point Pon the dime
traces an epicycloid. The quarter has radius
12 mm, and the dime has radius 9 mm.
Figur e 13-6a
Figure 13-6b
R4. a. Write in polar form : -5 + 12 i y
b. Write in Cartesian form: 7 cis 234° Epicycloid
c. Find th e product: (2 cis 52°)(5 cis 38°)

d. Find the quoti ent: (51 cis 198°)--,-
(17 cis 228° )
e. Raise to th e pow er: (2 cis 2 7°) 5
f. Raise to th e po wer: (8 cis 120°) 113
g. Sketch the thr ee answers to part f on the Quarter
complex plane.
h . Express this sum in Cartesian form:
10 cis 43° + 7 cis 130° - 5 cis 215°
X
i. Write the answer to part a as a complex
number in polar form .
Figure 13-6c
RS. a. Parametric Lin e Problem: As you travel
eastward on Highway 1-90 from Cleveland to i. Do you agree that the circles in
Erie, th e highway makes an angle of 24° Figure 13-6b really are the size of a
north of eas t. Suppose you start at Cleveland quarter and a dime? Do you agree that
at time t = 0 h and drive at 60 mi/h. Write the radii are 12 mm and 9 mm,
parametri c equations expressing your respectively?
position P(x, y) as a function of t, in hours, ii . Derive a vector equation for the point
where x and y are th e number of miles east P(x, y) on the edge of the rolling dime in
and north of Cleveland , respectively. The terms of t. To help you do this, notice
highwa y passes through Erie, which is 50 mi that the position vector r to point P (not
east of Cleveland . How far north of v v
shown in Figure 13-6c) is equal to 1 + 2 ,
Cleveland is Erie? where v1 extends from the origin to the
b . Quart er and Dim e Epi cyclo id Prob lem: center of the dime and v2 extends from
A quarter is pl ace d with its cente r at the the center of th e dime to point P. Once
origin of a Cartesian coordinate system. A you find v2 in terms of e in Figure 13-6c,
dime is placed with its cen ter on the x-axis, e
you can find = ~t by realizing that arc a
as shown in Figure 13-6b. The quarter is on the quarter equals arc a on the din1e,
held fixed while the dime rotates thus letting you write exin terms of t.
counterclockwise around it without iii. Plot one complete cycle of the epicycloid
slipping . Figure 13-6c sho ws the dime with your grapher in parametric mode.
rotated to the pla ce where a line from the Note that it takes more than one
origin throu gh its center makes an ang le of revolution for the graph to close.
632 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
Concept Problems
Cl. Planetary Motion Science Fiction Prob lem: e. Plot the graph of th e path of point Punder
Figure 13-6d shows a small planet with a thes e conditions.
3-mi radiu s orbiting a black hole . The orbit
i. The plan et slows from 12 radians per
is circular with radius 10 mi. As it orbits hour to 8 radian s per hour.
the black hole, th e plan et rotates
coun terclockwise . Vector v1 goes from the ii . The planet rotat es clockwise at
center of the bla ck hol e to the center of the 12 radians per hour instead of
plan et. Vector v2 goes from the center of counterclockwise.
the planet to the point P(x, y) on the surface iii. The planet rotat es at exactly the right
of the planet. Angles A and B are in standar d angular velocity to make cusps instead
position at the centers of the black hole and of loops in the path.
the planet, respectively. Vector r (not shown)
is the position vector to the point P(x, y) . C2. Gear Tooth Prob lem: The surfaces of gear
teeth are made in the shap e of an involute
y of a circle (Figure 13-6e). This form is used
because it allows the motion of one gear to
be transmitted uniformly to the motion of
---- another. An involute is the path traced by the
/
/ end of a string as it is unwound from around
/
/
/
Plane t a circle . In this problem you will see how the
I
I
I polar coordinates of a point on an involute
I
I
10 are related to the Cartesian coordinates that
I
I v, can be found from par ametr ic equation s. You
I
A X
I
I
will do this by using vectors in th e form of
Black hole I
I complex numb ers.
I
I
y I
Figure 13-6d I
Involut e \
J.Q I
a. Write r in terms of the unit vectors 7 and J /

/
an d angles A and B. /
/
I
I
/ I
I I
b. At time t = 0 both angle A and angle B I
I
/
I
I
measure O ra dians. The planet rotates I X
count erclockwise at 12 ra dians per hour, I

I
I
and it orbits the black hole counterclockwise \
\
at 2 radian s per hour. Write equations \

\
expressing A and Bin terms of t. Use the \
'' /
/
results to writer as a function of t.

c. Plot the path of point Po n your grapher.
Use radian mode and equa l scales on both Figur e 13-6e
axes . Sketch the result.
a. Suppose a gear is to have radius 10 cm (to
d. Explain why there are only five loops in the
the inside of the teeth). The gear tooth
grap h, in spite of the fact that the angular
surface is to have th e shap e of th e involute
velocity of the planet is six times the formed by unwrappin g a string from this
angular velocity of the orbit.
Section
13-6
: Chapter
Review
andTest 6 33
circle. Vector v1 (Figure 13-6f) goes from the C3. General Polar Equation of a Circle Problem:
center of the circle to the point of tangency of The general polar equation of a circle that does
the string. Write v1 as a comp lex number in not pass through the pole can be found with
polar form, in terms of the angle t, in the help of the law of cosines. Suppose a
radians. circle with radius a is centered at the
point with polar coordinates (k, ()(),as in
Figure 13-6g.
(k,a)
10
Stationar y circle
Figure 13-6(
Figure 13-6g
b. Vector v2 goes along the string from the
point of tangency to the point on the a. Use the law of cosines to write an equation
involut e. Explain why its length is the same re lating r; a, k, and the angle (0 - oc). Solve
as that of the arc of the circle subtended by the equation for r with the help of the
angle t. Write v2 as a comp lex number in quadratic formula.
polar form. Observe that, with respect to the b. The quadratic formula has an ambiguous
horizontal axis, the angle for v2 is ¥ radians ± sign in it . Use the form of the solution
less than tbecause v2 is perpendicular to 'i\. with the + sign to plot the circle with
Use the appropriate properties to write v2 in radius 3 centered at the point (7, 40°). Use a
terms of functions of t. 0-range from 0° to 360°. Does the grapher
c. Vector r is the position vector to the point plot the graph as one continuous
P(x, y) on the involute. Show that
circle?
c. Use the form of the solution with the - sign.
r = lO(cos t + t sin t) + lOi(sin t - t cos t) How does the graph relate to the graph in
d. Show that r (the length of r) is given by the part b?
equation r = 10\/l+t2. d. Find the two values of r if e equals 50°.
e. The gear teeth are to be 2 cm deep, which e. Show algebraically that there are no values
means that the outer radius of the gear will of r if e equals 90°.
be 12 cm. If the inside of the tooth shown in
Figure 13-6f is at t = 0, what will be the
value of tat the outside of the tooth? What
will be the value of e for this value of t?
f. Machinists who make the gear need to know
the degree measure of angle e in part e.
Find this measure in degrees and minutes,
to the nearest minute.
634 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Object
s
Chapter Test
allowed(T1-T9) PART2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(T10-T17)
Tl. Plot these points on polar coordina te paper. TlO. The polar equation of the graph in Problem
Connect the points with a smoot h curve. Tl is
() r () r 5
r=----
150° -8.4 195° -5.6
2 + 3 cos e
165° -5.6 210° -8.4 Eliminate the fraction by multiplying both
180° -5.0 sides by the denomin ator of the right side.
Then derive a Cartesian equation, thus
T2. Write the polar equation of the circle in
showing that the graph really is a hyperbola.
Figure 13-6h.
Tll. The graphs of r = 3 sin 48 and r = 3 sin 58 are
T3. Write the polar equation of the line in
both roses. Plot each equatio n on your
Figure 13-6i.
grapher. How many "leaves" are on each rose?
How can you tell from the coefficient of howe
many leaves will be in a rose graph?
Tl2. Write 24 - 7i as a complex number in polar
form.
10 Tl3. Write 6 cis 300° as a complex number in
rectangular form .
Tl4 . Figure 13-6j shows th e two polar curves
r1 = 5 + 4 cos e and r2 = 1 + 6 sine
Figure 13-6h Figure 13-6i
a. Which graph is which? What special name is
T4. Write the definition of rcis e. given to each graph?
TS. Find the product: (5 cis 37°)(3 cis 54°) b. The graphs cross at 8 = 90°. Is this a true
intersection? Explain.
T6. Find the quotient: (3 cis 100°) + (12 cis 20°)
c. The graphs cross at a point in the first
T7. Raise to the power: (4 cis 50°)3 quadrant. Show that this is a true
intersection, and find its polar
T8. Write i as a complex number in polar form. Use
coordinates.
the result and De Moivre's theorem to find the
two square roots of i. Plot the answers on a
sketch of the complex plane.
T9. Write two other polar ordered pairs for the
point (7, 30°), one with a positive r-value and a
e
positive value of and the other with a 9
negative r-value and a positive value of ().
Figure 13-6j
Section
13·6:Chapter
Review
andTest 635
Tl5. Airplane Looping Problem: A stunt pilot is means "shortened." The words curt and curtail
doing a loop with her plane. As shown in have the same origin.) The wheel rotates an
Figure 13-6k, three forces are acting on the angle t, in radians, from a point where the
plane: valve stem was at its lowest.
Wing lift: 2500 lb at 127° y
Propeller thrust: 700 lb at 3 7° Curt ate cycloid
(perpendicular to the lift)
Gravitational force: 2000 lb straight down 30
30
Lift
~
Thru st Figure 13-61
y
a. The wheel has radius 30 cm. The valve stem
is 17 cm from the center of the wheel. Write
--- j the position vector to point Pon the curtate
cycloid as a sum of three other vectors: v1
from the origin to the point where the tire
Gravit y
touches the road, v2 from the head of v1 to
Figure 13-6k
the center of the wheel, and v3 from the
center of the wheel to the valve stem. Use
Write the sum of these three force vectors as a
complex number in polar form. the result to write parametric equations for
x and yin terms of the parameter t.
b. If you have not already done so, simplify
your equations in part a using the
composite argument properties to get
equations that have only t as the argument.
c. Confirm that your equations are correct by
plotting three cycles of the curtate cycloid.
Use equal scales on the two axes.
d. On the same screen, plot a sinusoid with
the same period, amplitude, and high and
Tl6. Car Wheel Curtate Cycloid Problem: low points as the curtate cycloid. Sketch
Figure 13-61shows the curtate cycloid path the results. Tell how you can distinguish
traced by the valve stem (where you put in the between the two graphs.
air) on a car tire as the car moves. (Curtate Tl7. What did you learn as a result of taking this
comes from the Latin word curtus, which test that you did not know before?
636 Chapter
13: Polar
Coordinates,
Complex
Numbers,
andMoving
Objects
•
Sequences and Series 14
Positioning spaceships requires highly accurate computations

because slight errors can make a difference of many miles in the
landing point or cause an unacceptable reentry angle . Using a
series of powers, you can calculate cosines and sines to as many
decimal places as desired, simply by using the operations of
addition, subtraction, and multiplication many times . In this
chapter you will learn about these power series as well as other
series that may be used to calculate things such as compound
interest on money in a savings account and the cumulative effects
of repeate d doses of medication.
63 7
L. n
In this chapter you will learn about sequenc es of numb ers and
about series, which are sums of the terms of sequences. Geometric
and arithmetic series are logical mathematical models for
functions such as compound interest, where the amount of
money in an account increases by jumps each month rather
than rising continuously. You will look at sequences and series in
four ways.
Numerically Sequence: 3, 6, 12, 24, .. .

Series: 3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + · · ·
Partial sum: S10 = 3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + · · · + 1536 = 3069
1- 2 10
Algebraically S10 = 3 · = 3069
1- 2
Graphically The graph shows the terms of the

t/1
geometric sequence as a function I
I
of n, the term number. The dotted

I
I
I
I
"
line indicates the continuous
function graph that fits the ,., I
I
I
"
I
discrete values of the sequence. ,.- I

I
I
I
.K
,.-
I I I I
n
1 2 3 4 5 6
Verbally Ar~ a.Jtd

3eo/111.driv
seri.Mare,sU11.il,ar.
lf!v ar~ seri.Mthe,
terms pro3re£sby~ tv ~Mt~ a.JtdUv3eo/111.driv
seri.Mthe, terms
fYOjYMS bym,ui;tip!yut!}
bytv ~rt£ttU1±. Theyare,tUUllo30U£ to wteara;u;l
e-xparlelttiaL/unctwrt£.
638 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSerie
s
14-1 Introduction to Sequences and Series
Most of the functions you have studied so far have been continuous -t heir
grap hs have no discontinuities. Many of these graphs have been smooth curves.
Where discrete data points have been measured, you looked for the continuous
functio n that best fit these points. In this chapter you will study se quences of
numbers, such as
5, 7, 9, 11, 13, . . .
and series formed by summing the terms of a sequence, such as
5+7+9+ 11 +13+·· ·
OBJECTIVES
• Given a few terms in a sequence or series of numbers, find more terms.
• Given a series, find the sum of a specified number of terms.
1. The infinite set of numbers 5, 7, 9, 11, .. . is an the 100th partial sum of the series. Show how
arithmetic sequence. It progresses by adding you found it.
2 to one term to get the next term. What does
6. Calculate the first ten partial sums of the
the tenth term equal? How many 2s would you
series in Problem 4 and enter them into a third
ha ve to add to the first term, 5, to get the tenth
data list. Make a point plot of partial sum as
term ? How could you get the tenth term
a function of numb er of terms, using th e
quickly? Find the 100th term quickly.
term numbers in one of the data lists of
2. Enter the first ten terms of the sequence in Problem 2. Sketch the result.
Problem 1 into a list on your grapher, and
7. Run regressions to find out which type of
enter the term numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... , 10 into
continuous function exactly fits the partial
another list. Make a point plot of term value as
sums in Problem 6. Write its particular
a function of term number . Sketch the plot .
equation. Use the result to find quickly the
3. What type of continuous function contains all 100th partial sum of th e series.
the points in the plot of Problem 2?
8. The infinite set of numbers 6, 12, 24, 48, ...
4. The infinite sum 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + · · · is an is a geometric sequence. How do the terms
arithmetic series. Because the series has an progress from one to the next ? Find th e tenth
infinite numb er of terms, you canno t add them term of the sequence.
all. But you can add part of the terms. Find the
9. The infinite sum 6 + 12 + 24 + 48 + · · · is a
tenth partial sum by adding the first ten
geometric series . Find the tenth partial sum of
terms.
the series.
5. Find the average of the first and tenth terms in
10. What did you learn as a result of doin g this
the partial sum of Problem 4. Multiply this
problem set that you did not know befor e?
numb er by 10. What do you notice about the
answer? Use the pattern you observe to find
Section
14·1: Introduction
toSequences
andSeries 639
L. n
14-2 Arithmetic, Geometric, and

Other Sequences
Suppose you have $40 that you are saving in a piggy bank to spend on a special
project. You take on a part-time job that pays $13 per day. Each day you put this
cash into the piggy bank. The number of dollars in th e bank is a function of the
number of days you have worked.
Days (term numbers, n): 1 2 3 4 5
Dollars (terms, tn): 53 66 79 92 105
This is a discrete function rather than a continuous function. A discrete
function is a series of disconnected points, whereas a continuous function has
no gaps or discontinuities . After 3! days you still have the same $ 79 that you
(The Granger Collection, had after 3 days . A function like this, whos e domain is the set of positive
New York) integers, is called a sequence. In this section you will look for patterns in
sequences that allow you to calculate a term from its term number or to find
th e term number of a given term.
OBJECTIVES
• Represent sequences explicitly and recursively.
• Find a term in a sequence given its term number.
• Find the term number of a given term in a sequence.
1J1,,EXAMPLE
1 For the sequence of dollars 53, 66, 79, 92, 105, ... at the beginning of this
section,
a. Sketch the graph of the first few terms of the sequence.
b. Find t 100 , the 100th term of the sequence .
c. Write an equation for tn, the nth term of the sequence, as a function of n.
Solution a. The graph in Figure 14-2a shows discrete points. You may connect the
points with a dashed line to show the pattern, but don't make it a solid line
becaus e sequences are defined on the set of natural numbers. So there are
150 no points between consecutive terms in a sequence.
100 ,• b. To find a pattern, write the term number, n, in one column and the term, tn,
,• in another column . Then show the 13s being added to the preceding terms
,"
50 , .-
to get the next terms.
n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n
Figure 14-2a 1
2
3
4
640 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
To get the fourth term, you start with 53 and add 13 three times. So to get
the 100th term, you start with 53 and add 13 ninety-nine times.
t 100 = 53 + 99(13) = 1340
C. tn = 53 + 13(n - 1) or t,, = 40 + 13n
The sequence in Examp le 1 is called an arithmetic sequence. You get each term
by adding the same constant to the preceding term. You can also say that the
difference of consecutive terms is a constant. This constant is called the
common difference.
The pattern "add 13 to the previous term to get the next term" in Example 1 is a
recursive pattern for the sequence. You can write an algebraic recursion formula:
tn= tn- 1 + 13
Of course, in this examp le it is necessary to specify the value of the first term,
t 1 = 53. The sequence mode on your grapher makes it easy to calculate terms
recursively. Here's how you would enter the equatio n into the y= menu on a typical
grapher:
nMin = 1 Enter the beginning value of the term numb er, n.
u(n) = u(n - 1) + 13 Enter the recursion formula; u(n) stands for t,,.
u(nMin) = {53} Enter the first term. The bra ces are used in case there is
more than one given term.
Pressing TABLE gives

n u(n)
1 53
2 66
3 79
The pattern tn = 53 + 13(n - 1) you saw in Example 1, part c, is called an explicit

formula for the sequence. It "explains" how to calculate any desired term
without finding the terms before it.
.... EXAMPLE
2 When you leave money in a savings account, the interest is compounded. This
m eans that interest is paid on the previously earned interest as well as on the
amount originally deposited. If the interest rate is 6% per year, compounded once
a year, the amount at the beginning of any year is 1.06 times the amount at the
b eginning of the previous year. Suppose that parents invest $1000 in an account
on their baby's first birthday.
a. Find recursively the first four terms, t 1 , t2 , t3 , and t4 , in the sequence of
amounts.
b. Make a point plot of tn as a function of n for the first 18 birthdays.
c. Calculate explicitly the value of t18 , the amount on the 18th birthday.
d. Write an explicit formula for the amount, tn, as a function of the birthday
number, n.
Section
14-2: Arithmetic
, Geometric,
andOther
Sequences 641
L. n
e. If the money is left in the account and the interest rate stays the same,
when will the amount first exceed $ ll,000?
Solution a. Birthday, n Dollars, tn

1 1000.00
2 1060.00 ) Xl.0 6
3 ll23.60 )x1.o6
4 ll92.02 ) Xl.0 6 Calculate without rounding; round the answers.
. b. With your grapher in sequence mode, enter the recursion formula into the
........··
y= menu.
..
2000
nMin = 1
····· n
u(n) = u(n - 1) '' 1.06
18 u(nMin) = {1000}
Figure 14-2b Figure 14-2b shows the point plot.
c. For the fourth birthday, you multiply 1000 by three factors of 1.06. So, for
the 18th birthday, you multiply 1000 by 17 factors of 1.06:
t 18 = 1000 · 1.06 17 = 2692.7727 ... ""$2692 .77
d. tn = 1000 · l.06n - l Multiply 1000 by (n - 1) factors of 1.06.
e. Algebraic solution:
1000 · l.06n - l = 11,000
l.06n - l = 11
(n - 1) log 1.06 = log 11
log 11
n - 1= = 41.1522 ... =} n = 42.1522 ...
1og 1.06
The amount would first exceed $ll,OOO on the 43rd birthday.
Realize that n was rounded upward in this case .
Numerical solution: With your grapher in sequence mode, make a table

and scroll down to n = 43, the first year in which tn exceeds ll,000. <11111
The sequence in Example 2 is called a geometric sequence. You get each term
by multiplying the previous term by the same constant. You can also say
that the ratio of consecutive terms is a constant. This constant is called the
common ratio. Notice that this pattern is the same as the add-multiply
property of exponential functions, which you learned about in Chapter 7.
~ EXAMPLE
3 Consider the sequence 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, 56, 72, ....
a. Write a recursion formula for tn as a function of tn- I· Use it to find the next
few terms.
b. Write an explicit formula for tn as a function of n. Use it to find t 100 .
642 Chapter
14:Sequences
andSeries
Solution a. Make a table showing the term number and the corresponding term value.
n tn
1 6 2 X 3
2 12 )+ 6 3 X 4
3 20) + 8 4 X 5
4 30) + 10 5X 6
s 42 ) + 12 6 X 7
) + 14
6 7 X 8
7
;~) + 16 8X9
The terms progress by adding amounts that increase by 2 each time. ·for
instance , to get term 5, you add 12, which is 2 times the quantity (n +·~).So
tn = tn- l + 2(n + 1)
Enter this recursion formula into they = menu with nMin = 1 and
t 1 = u(nMin) = 6. Scroll down the table to find the next few values of tn.
Note that the value 72 for t7 confirms that your formula is correct.
n
7 72
8 90
9 110
10 132
b. The terms are also the products of consecutive int egers , term numb er plus
1 and term number plus 2, as shown in the table in part a. So an explicit
formula is
t,, = (n + l)(n + 2)
t 100 = (101)(102) = 10,302
Example 3 illustrates that th e recursion formula is useful for finding the next
few terms but the explicit formula for tn in terms of n lets you find terms
farther along in the sequence without having to find all the intermediate terms.
These definitions pertain to sequences .
DEFINITION:
Sequences
A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers . The
independent variable is the term number, n, and the dependent variable is the
term value, t 11 •
A recursion formula for a sequence specifies t11 as a function of the preceding

term, tn-1 ·
An expli cit formula for a sequence specifies tn as a function of n.
Section
14-2: Arithmetic,
Geometric,
andOther
Sequences 643
L. n
Notes:
• Although a sequence has an infinite number of terms, it could have a finite
number if the domain is restricted.
• A recursion formula gives an easy way to find the next few terms in a
sequence.
• An explicit formula is useful for calculating terms later in the seque nce or
for calculating the term number of a given term.
DEFINITIONS:
Arithmetic
andGeometric
Sequences
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which each term is formed
recursively by adding a constant to the previous term . The constant added is
called the common difference.
A geometric sequence is a sequence in which each term is formed recursively
by multiplying the previous term by a constant . The constant multiplier is
called the common ratio.
Notes:
• An arithmetic sequence is a linear fu nction of the term number.
• A geometric sequence is an exponential function of the term number.
There are techniques for finding a specified term and for finding the term
number of a given term.
TECHNIQUES:
Terms,
TermNumbers,
andGraphs
of Sequences
To find more terms in a sequence, make a table of term numbers and terms
and then
• Find a recursive pattern and follow the pattern to the desired term.
• Write an explicit formula for tn in terms of n and substitute a value for n.
To find the value of n for a given term,
• Follow the recurs ive pattern until you reach the given term.
• Substitute the given term into the explicit formula and solve for n.
To plot the graph of a sequence ,
• Make a table of n and tn on your grapher, then plot the points (n, tn).
• Set your grapher in sequence mode, enter the formulas for tn, and
then graph .
644 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
Problem Set 14-2
Reading Analysis t1[/J b . Write the next two terms.

From what you have read in this section , what do c. Find t 100 -
you consi der to be th e main idea? How is a d. Find the term numb er of the term after the
sequ ence related to other types of functio n s you first ellip ses.
have studied in this course? What is the differ ence
l. 27, 36, 48, ... , 849490.02 ... , .. .
betw een a recursion formula and an explici t
formul a? An arithmetic sequence has the add-add 2. 27, 31, 35, . . , 783,,,,
I
prop erty, and a geometric sequence has the

3. 58, 45, 32, ••• I - 579, • • ,
add-mult iply property. What other types of
functions that you have studied have these 4. 100, 90, 81, • • • 3.0903 ... , , , ,
I
properti es?
5. 54.8, 137, 342 .5, . •• I 3266334.53 ... ,, , ,
6. 67.3, 79, 90.7, . . . , 38490.1, . . .
Quick Review
7. 50, -45 , 40 .5, ... , - 15.6905 ... , ...
QI. What type of function has the add-m ultipl y
property? 8. -1234, - 1215.7, -1197.4, . .. I 2426,., ,
Q2. What type of function has the multiply - add 9. 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35,48, 63, 80, 99, , ,. I 3248,, ,.
prop erty?
10. 4, 10, 18, 28, 40, 54, 70,, •• I 178504,,,,
Q3. What type of function has the add-add
11. x, 2x - a, 3x - 2a, . .. , 240x - 239a, . . .
property?
12. 5, 5V2 10, • , , 20480, , , ,
I I
Q4. What type of function ha s the
multiply-multiply property ? 13. Grai n of Rice Problem: A story is told that the
person who invented chess centuries ago was to
Q5. If y is a direct-cube pow er function of x, th en
be rewarded by the king. The inventor gave the
what does doubling x do to y?
king a simple requ est: "Place one grain of rice on
Q6. What is an integer ? the first squar e of a chessboard, place two grains
on the second, then four, eight, and so forth, till
Ql. Solve: x 2 + 7x + 6 = 0
all 64 squares are filled ." What type of sequence
QB.Add the vectors 37 + 4] and 27 - 5]. do the numbers of grains form? On which square
would the number of grains first exceed 1000?
Q9. Add the comp lex number s 3 + 4 i and 2 - 5 i.
How many grains would be on the last squ are?
QlO. Write polar coordinates of the point (-5 , 30°) Why do you think th e king was upset about
using a positive value of r. having granted the inventor's request?
For Problems 1-12, complete steps a-d.

a. State whether the sequence is arit hm etic,
geometric, or neith er.
Aritnutetic, "1ueitil,f: yeom,etrl,c, SUfueitil,f:

t, +d+d+ . .. t , . y. y .. ..
L____J t__J
t2
~
t3
Section
14-2: Arithmetic,
Geometric
, andOther
Sequences 645
L. n
14. George Washington's Will Problem: Suppose a. What type of sequence do the deposits
you find that when George Washington died form? How much will you deposit at the end
in 1799, he left $1000 in his will to your of the tenth week? In what week will you
ancestors. The money has been in a savings deposit $99?
account ever since, earning interest. The b. Find the total you would have in the bank at
amounts 1 yr, 2 yr, and 3 yr after Washington the end of the tenth week. Show that you
died were $1050.00, $1102.50, and $1157.63, can calculate this total by averaging the first
respectively. Show that these numbers form a and the tenth deposits and then multiplying
geometric sequence (allowing for round-off, if this average by the number of weeks.
necessary). When will (or did) the total in the
c. What is the total amount you would have in
account first exceed $1 million? How much
the bank at the end of a year? (Do the
would be in the account this year? Why do you
computation in a time-efficient way.)
think banks have rules limiting the number of
years money can be left in a dormant account 17. Laundry Problem: An item of clothing loses a
before they stop paying interest on it? certain percentage of its color with each
washing. Suppose that a pair of blue jeans
15. Depreciation Problem: The Internal Revenue
loses 9% of its color with each washing. What
Service (IRS)assumes that an item that can
percentage remains after the first, second, and
wear out, such as a house, car, or computer,
third washings? What type of sequence do
depreciates by a constant number of dollars
these numbers form? What percentage of the
per year. (If the item is used in a business, the
original color would be left after 20 washings?
owner is allowed to subtract the amount of the
How many washings would it take until only
depreciation from the business's income
10% of the original color remains?
before figuring taxes.) Suppose that an office
building is originally valued at $1,300,000. 18. Ancestors Problem: Your ancestors in the first,
a. If the building depreciates by $32,500 second, and third generations back are your
per year, write the first few terms of the biological parents, grandparents, and great-
sequence of values of the building after grandparents, respectively.
1, 2, 3, ... yr. What type of sequence do a. Write the number of ancestors you have
these numbers form? How much will the (living or dead) in the first, second, and
building be worth after 30 yr? How long will third generations back. What type of
it be until the building is fully depreciated? sequence do these numbers form? How
Why does the IRS call this straight-line many ancestors do you have in the
depreciation? 10th generation back? In the 20th
b. Suppose that the IRS allows the business generation back?
to take accelerated depreciation, each year b. As the number of generations back gets
deducting 10%of the building's value at the larger, the calculated number of ancestors
beginning of the year. Write the first few increases without limit and will eventually
terms in the sequence of values in each year exceed the population of the world. What do
of the building's life. How much will the you conclude must be true to explain this
business get to deduct the first, second, seeming contradiction?
and third years of the building's life? How
19. Fibonacci Sequence Problem: These numbers
old will the building be when the business
form the Fibonacci sequence:
can deduct less than $32,500, which is
the amount using straight-line 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, . . .
depreciation?
a. Figure out the recursion pattern followed by
16. Piggy Bank Problem: Suppose that you decide these Fibonacci numbers. Write the next
to save money by putting $ 5 into a piggy bank two terms of the sequence. Enter the
the first week, $7 the second week, $9 the recursion formula into your grapher. You
third week, and so forth. will need to enter u(nMin) = {l, l} to show
646 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
that the first two terms are given. Make a 20. Factorial Sequ ence Probl em: These numbers
table of Fibonacci nu mbers and scroll down form th e sequence of factorials:
to find th e 20th term of th e sequence.
I, 2, 6, 24,1 20, 720, ...
b. Find the first ten ratios, rn, of the Fibonacci
numbers, where a. Figure out a recursi ve pattern in the
sequence, and use it to write the next two
tn+l factorials.
r =--
n tn
b. Recall from Chapter 9 that you use th e
Show that th ese ratios get clos er and clos er exclamation mark, !, to designate a factorial.
to the golden ratio, For example, 6! = 720. Write a recursion
formula and us e it to find 10! and 20!.
Js + 1 What do you notic e about the magnitude of
r= - - = 1.6180 339 8 ...
2 the values? Think of a possible rea son why
c. Find a pinecone, a pin eapple, or a sunflower, the exclamation mark is used for
or a picture of one of these . Each has factorials.
sect ions formed by intersections of two 21. Stair case Probl em: Debbie can take the steps of
spira ls, one in one direction and anot her in a staircase one at a tim e or two at a tim e. Sh e
the opposite direction. Count the number of wants to find out how many different ways
spira ls in each direction. Wh at do you notice sh e can go up staircases with different
about these numbers ? numb ers of steps . She rea lizes that there is
one way she can go up a staircase of 1 step
and two ways she can go up a staircase of
2 steps (on e step and one step, or both steps
simultaneously).
a. Explain why the numbers of ways she can
go up 3- and 4-step sta ircases are thr ee and
five, respective ly.
b. If Debbie wants to get to the 14th step of a
staircase, she can reach it by taking eith er
one step from the 13th step or two steps
from the 12th step. So th e numb er of ways
to get to step 14 is th e numb er of ways to
; :. get to step 13 plu s the number of ways to
u::,r:: get to step 12. Let n be th e number of steps
d. Look up Leonardo Fibonacci (also known as in the stair case, and let tn be the number
Leonardo of Pisa) on th e Internet or in of differ ent ways Debbie can go up that
another reference source . Find out when and staircase. Write a recursion formula for tn
where he lived. See if you can find out how as a function o ft,, _ , and tn-z · Use the
he related the sequence to the growth of a recursion formula to find the number of
population of rabbits an d why, therefor e, his ways she could go up a 20-step staircase .
name is attached to the sequence . On your graphe r, you must enter u(nMin ) =
{2, l} to show that t 2 = 2 and t 1 = 1.
~
c. How does the numb er of ways of climbing
~o 0
ko ffo stairs relat e to the Fibonacci seque n ce in
Probl em 19?
~
0
(2) (3) (5) (8) (13)
The successive tones in one of Bela Bart6k's musical
scales increase in a Fibonacci sequence of hal~on es.
Sect
ion 14-2:Arithmetic
, Geometric,
andOtherSeque
nces 647
L. n
d. In how many different ways could Debbie go c. After how many months will the balance
up the 91 steps to the top of the pyramid in drop to zero and the mortgage be paid off?
Chichen Itza, Mexico? Do you find this
23. Credit Card Problem: A credit card company
surprising?
charges 18% interest per year (1.5% per month)
on your unpaid balance. Suppose that you have
a balance of $3000 at month 1, and the
minimum payment specified on the monthly
bill is $100. The new balance at month 2 will
be $3000 plus 1.5% interest, minus the
$100 payment. These balances form the
sequence
u(l) = 3000, u(2) = u(l) + 0.015u(l) - 100
lf this pattern of payments continues, how

long will it be until the balance drops below
the $100 minimum payment? How much, total,
will you have paid when the balance is paid
22. Mortgag e Payment Problem: Suppose that a off? Do you find the answers surprising?
family borrows $150,000 to purchase a house.
24. Arithm etic and Geometric Means Problem:
It agrees to pay back this mortgage at $1074.65
Arithmetic means and geometric means
per month. But part of that payment goes to
between two numbers are terms between the
pay the interest for the month on the balance
two numbers that form an arithmetic or
remaining. The interest rate is 6% per year, so
geometric sequence with the two numbers.
the family pays 0.5 % per month. The balance
bn remaining after month n is given by the a. Insert three arithmetic means between 47
recursion formula and 84 so that the sequence 47, -?- , - ?- ,
-?- , 84 is part of an arithmetic sequence.
bn = bn- l + 0.005bn - l - 1074.65
b. Insert three geometric means between 3 and
a. Explain the meaning of each of the three
48 so that the sequence 3, -?-, -?-, -?-,
terms on the right side of the recursion
48 is part of a geometric sequence.
formula.
c. There are two different sets of geometric
b. Find bt 2 , the balance remaining at the end
means in part b, one involving only positive
of the first year of the mortgage. How much
numbers and another involving both
money did the family pay for the year? How
positive and negative numbers. Find the set
much of this amount went to pay interest,
of means you didn't find in part b.
and how much went to reducing the balance
of the mortgage?
14-3 Series and Partial Sums

A population of bact eria grows by subdividing. Suppose that the number of new
ba cteria in any one generation is a term in the sequence
5, 12, 21, 32, 45, .. .
The total number of bacteria present at any time n is the sum of the terms in
the sequence,
5 + 12 + 21 + 32 + 45 + · · · + tn
648 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
The indicated sum of the terms of a sequence is called a series, as defined in
Section 14-1. The total number of bacteria at the fifth generation, for instance, is
the fifth partial sum of the series,
5 + 12 + 21 + 32 + 45 = us
On the fifth day there are 45 new bacteria, for a total of US bacteria.
In this section you will learn ways to calculate partial sums of series . You will
also encounter binomial series that arise from raising a binomial to a power,
such as (a+ b)10 .
OBJECTIVES
• Given a series, find a specified partial sum, or find the number of terms if
the partial sum is given .
• Use sigma notation to write partial sums.
• Given a power of a binomial, expand it as a binomial series.
Numerical Computation of Partial Sums of Series:

Sigma Notation
This example shows you how to calculate a partial sum of a series directly by
summing the terms on your grapher .
IIJl,,EXAMPLE
1 For the series 5 + 12 + 21 + 32 + 45 + · · · , calculate S 100 , the 100th partial sum.
Solution The terms in the given series are products of integers, as shown in this table:
n tn Pattern
1 5 5X 1
2 12 6x2
3 21 7x3
4 32 8x4
n (n + 4)(n)
Write a program to compute partial sums or download the program provided at

www.keymath .com/precalc.
The program should use a formula stored in the y= menu
to calcu late the term values and should allow you to put in the desired number
of terms . Then it should enter a loop that calculates the term values one at a
time and accumulates them by adding each term to a variable such as S (for
sum). At each iteration the program should have your grapher display the
current partial sum. The final output should be the last partial sum. Your
program sho ul d give
S100 = 358,550
Section
14-3:Series
andPartial
Sums 649
A partial sum can be written compact ly using sigma notation. The symbol l:, the
uppercase Greek letter sigma, is often used to indicate a sum.
LOO
S100= L (n + 4)(n)
n= l
The expression on the right side of the equation is read "the sum from n equal s 1
to 100 of (n + 4)(n)." It means to substitute n = 1, 2, 3, ... , 100 into the formula,
perform the computations, and sum the results. The variable n is called the term
index. You may recall sigma notation from your work in Chapter 8.
Finding Partial Sums of Arithmetic Series Algebraically

Suppose that you put $7 in a piggy bank the first day, $10 the second day, $13 the
third day, and so forth . The amounts you put in follow the arithmetic sequence
7, 10, 13, 16, 19, ...
The total in the piggy bank on any one day is a partial sum of the arithmetic
series that results from summing the appropriate number of terms in the
preceding sequence.
Day 1: 7
Day 2: 7 + 10 = 17
Day 3: 7 + 10 + 13 = 30
Day 4: 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 = 46
Suppose you want to find S10 , the tenth partial sum of the series :
S10 = 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 + 19 + 22 + 25 + 28 + 31 + 34 = 205
A pattern shows up if you add the first and last terms, the secon d and
next-to-last terms, and so forth.
S10 = (7 + 34) + (10 + 31) + (13 + 28) + (16 + 25) + (19 + 22)
= 41 + 41 + 41 + 41 + 41
= 5(41)
= 205
So a time-efficient way to find the partial sum algebraically is to add the first
and last terms and th en multiply the result by the number of pairs of terms:
10
S10= (7 + 34) = 5(41) = 205
2
By associating the 2 in the denominator with (7 + 34), you can see that
7 + 34
S10 = 10 · - - = 10 · 20.5 = 205
2
So the nth partial sum is the same as the sum of n terms, each of which is equal
to the average of the first and last terms . This fact allows you to see why the
patt ern works for an odd number of terms as well as for an even number.
650 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
.....EXAMPLE
2 Find algebraically the 100th partia l sum of the arithmetic series
53 + 60 + 67 + · ·· . Check the answer by comp u ting the partial sum
numerically, as in Examp le l.
Solution t 100 = 53 + 99(7) = 746 Add 99 common differ ences to 53 to get the
100th term .
100
S100= --(53 + 746) = 39,950 There are '~0 pair s, each equal to the sum of
2 the first term and the last term.
Check: Enter y 1 = 53 + (x - 1)(7). Then run the grapher program to get
S100= 39,950
whic h agrees with the algebraic solution .
Finding Partial Sums of Geometric Series

Algebraicall y
If you make regular deposits (for examp le, monthly) into a savings acco unt, the
total you hav e in the account at any given time is a partial sum of a geometric
series . It is possible to calculate such partial sums algebraically .
Consid er this sixth partial sum of a geometric series :
S6 = 7 + 21 + 63 + 189 + 56 7 + 1701
The first term is 7, and the common ratio is 3. If you multiply both sides of the
equa tion by -3 and add the result to the origina l sum, you get
S6 = 7 + 21 + 63 + 189 + 56 7 + 1701
-3S 6 = -21 - 63 - 189 - 567 - 1701 - 5103
S6 - 3S6 = 7 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 - 5103 Middle terms
"telescope ."
The middle terms telescop e, or cancel out, leaving only the first term of the top
equat ion minus the last term of the bottom equat ion. So
S5 - 3 S6 = 7 - 7 · 3 6 5103 is 7 · 36 .
S6 (1 - 3) = 7(1 - 36 ) Factor out S6 on the left and 7 on the right.

1- 36
S5= 7·~ Divide both sides by (1 - 3).
Because 7 is the first term, t 1 , 3 is the common ratio, r, and 6 is the number, n,
of ter ms to be added, you can conclude that, in general,
1 - rn
S=t
n 1
· -1 -- r
Verbal ly, you can remember this result by saying "First term times a fraction.
The frac tion is 1 minus rn, divided by 1 minus r."
Section
14-3: Series
andPartial
Sums 6 51
.....EXAMPLE
3 If you deposit $100 a month into an account that pays 6% interest per year,
compounded monthly, then each deposit earns 0.5% interest per month. For
instance, after four deposits, the first deposit has earned three months' interest,
the second has earned two months' interest, the third has earned one month's
interest, and the last has earned no interest. Thus, the total is
S4 = 100 + 100(1.005) + 100(1.005) 2 + 100(1.005) 3
a. How much will be in the account after ten years (120 deposits)? How much
of this is interest?
b. How long will it take until the total in the account first exceeds $50,000?
Solution a. Algebraically: The series is geometric, with first term 100 and common
ratio 1.005.
1 - 1.005 120
S1 20 = 100 · _ l.00 = 16,387.9346 ... ""$16,387 .93
1 5
Numerically : Enter y = 100(1.005Y- 1 into they= menu and run the Series
program.
S120 = 16,387 .9346 ... ""$16,387 .93
The amount of interest is $16,387 .93 minus $12,000, or $4,387 .93 .

b. Algebraically:
1 - 1 005n
50,000 = 100 · . 00
1 - 1. 5
-2.5 = 1 - 1.005n
1.005n = 3.5
n log 1.005 = log 3.5
log 3.5
n= = 251.1784 .. .
log 1.005
It will take 252 months for the amount in the account to exceed $50,000 .
Numerically: Store 100(1.005Y - 1 in they= menu and run the Series
program until the amount first exceeds 50,000 . This will be $50,287.41
at 252 months. ~
Convergent and Divergent Geometric Series

This is an example of a classic problem. Assume that a person who is 200 cm
from another person is allowed to take steps each of which is half the
remaining distance. So the steps will be of lengths
100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, ...
The total distance traveled will be given by the geometric series
100 + 50 + 25 + 12.5 + 6.25 + · · ·
652 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
The person in motion will never go the entire 200 cm, but the partial sums of
the series converge to 200 as a limit.
S5 = 193.75
Sw = 199.8046 ...
S20 = 199.999809 .. .
S30 = 199.9999998 .. .
The algebraic formula for Sn shows you why this happens:
1 - 0.5n
Sn=lOO · _ _
1 05
The value 0.5" approaches zero as n becomes large . So you can write
1- 0
~ s,,= 100 · l _ 0.5 = 100 · 2 = 200
The symbol in front of S,,is read "the limit as n approaches infinity."

A geometric series will converge to a limit if the common ratio r sat isfies the
inequality lrl < 1. If lrl ~ 1, then the terms of the series do not go to zero, and
the series diverges. The partial sums do not approach a limit.
~ EXAMPLE
4 To what limit does the geometric series 50 + 45 + 40.5 + · · · converge? How many
terms must be added in order for the partial sums to be within 1 unit of this limit?
45
Solution r =-= 0.9
50
1 - 0.9"
.".s,,= 50 · = 500(1 - 0.9") 50/(1 - 0 .9) = 50/0. 1 = 500
1 - 0.9
lim Sn= 500(1 - 0) = 500 0.9n approaches zero as n approaches
n- oo
infinity .
499 = 500(1 - 0.9") Substitute (500 - 1) for Sn.
0.998 = 1 - 0.9"
0.9" = 0.002
n log 0.9 = log 0.002 Take the log of both sides.
log 0.002
n= = 58.9842 ... Solve.
1og0.9
To be within 1 unit of the limit, 59 terms must be added.
Row1d to th e next higher term.
0.9 5 = O.S90...
0.9 10 = 0.348 ...
0.9 50 = O.OOS1.
..
\°
0.9 1 = 0.000026 ...
Tn,e,
w3er tne, e,x~~
the, doserthe, muLt is ~
zero.
Section
14-3: Series
andPartial
Sums 653
Binomial Series
If you expand a power of a binomial expressio n, you get a series with a finite
number of terms. For instance,
(a+ b) 5 = a 5 + 5a 4 b + 10a 3 b 2 + 10a 2 b 3 + 5ab 4 + b 5
Such a series is called a binomial series or binomial expansion. You can see
several patterns in the binomial series that results from expan ding (a+ b)n.
• There are (n + 1) terms.
• Each term has degree n bec ause th e exponents sum to n.
• The powers of a start at an and decrease by 1 with each term. The powers
of b start at b 0 and increase by 1 with each term.
• The coefficients are symmetrical with respect to the ends of th e series.
• The coefficients form a row of Pascal's triangle:
(a+ b)O 1
(a+ b) 1 1 1
(a+ b) 2 1 2 1
(a+ b) 3 1 1 3 3
(a+ b)4 1 4 6 4 1
(a+ b) 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
(a+ b) 6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
Each number in the interior of the triangle is the sum of the two numbers
to its left and right in the row directly above . The first and last numbers in
each row are 1.
• The coefficients can be calcu lated recursively using parts of the
preceding term.
Yang Hui, a Chinese (coefficient of term)(exponent of a) ff· . f
math ema tician, discovered = coe 1oent o next term
the relationship between term num b er
the numbers in consecut ive For example, 5a 4 b is the second term in the binomial series given earlier.
rows of this triangl e
approximately 500 years To find the coefficient of the third term, write
earlier than Pascal did.
(5)(4) = 10
2
• The coefficients can also be calculated algebraically. They are equal to

numbers of combinations of n objects taken rat a time, where r is the
exponent of b. From Section 9-5 you may recall, for example, that
5! 5·4 · 3 ·2 · 1
s Cz = 3 ! 2! = (3 · 2 · 1)(2 · 1) = lO
654 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
So the term containing b 2 is
51
--a 3b 2
3! 2!
The factorials in the denominator are the same as the exponents of a and
b. The factorial in the numerator is the sum of these exponents, which is
equal to the original exponent of the binomial. Because they appear as
coefficients of the terms in a binomial series, expressions such as }~, are
sometimes called binomial coefficients . In general, the coefficient of the
term containing br is <n _n~)! r, · Using combination notation, you can write
this expression as nCr. Another common way to write the same expression
is(;), which is read "n choose r ." Recall that O! is defined as 1. So(~)= 1
and (~) = 1. Using this notation, you can write the binomial formula for
finding the terms of a binomial series (or "expanding a binomial") .
Binomial
Formula
(orBinomial
Theorem}
For any positive integer n and any numbers a and b,
(a+ b)n =an+ (~)an- lb+ (;)an -2 b2 + . .. + (,, ~ 2)a2bn -2 + (n ~ 1)abn- 1 + bn
Note: You can also write the binomial formula compactl y with sigma notation:
.... EXAMPLE
5 Use the binomial formula to expand the binomial (x - 2y)4 .
Solution (x - 2y)4 = x4 + (~)x 3{-2y) + (!)x 2

(-2y) 2 + (:)x( -2y) 3 + (-2y) 4
= x 4 + 4x 3 (-2y) + 6x 2 (-2y) 2 + 4x(-2y) 3 + (-2 y)4

= x4 - 8x 3 y + 24x 2 y 2 - 32xy 3 + 16y 4
.... EXAMPLE
6 Find the eighth term of the binomial series that results from expanding
(3 - 2x)12 .
Solution The eighth term contains (-2x)7. Therefore,
8th term=
5
!;!(3) (-2x)7 = 792(243)(-128x
121 5 7
) = -24 ,634,368x 7
Section
14-3: Series
andPartial
Sums 655
L. n
This box summarizes the properties of series introduced in this section .
PROPERTIES:
Formulas
forArithmetic,
Geometric,
andBinomial
Series
Arithme tic Series
The terms of the arithmetic sequence, tn, progress by adding a common
difference d.
Add (n - 1) common differences to the first term.
The nth partial sum of the arithmetic series is
Add f terms, each equal to the sum of the first and last
terms.
Geometric Series
The terms of the geometric sequence, tn, progress by multiplying by a
common ratio r.
Multiply the first term by (n - 1) common ratios.
The nth partial sum of the geometric series is

1 - rn
S=t·--
n 1 1- r Multiply the first term by a fraction .
The sum of the infinite geometric series is

1
lim Sn = t1 • -- (if Ir!< 1)
n~ oo 1- r
Binomial Series
The terms of a binomial series come from expanding a binomial (a+ b)n:
Term with br = n!
(n - r)! r!
an- rbr = (n)
r
an- rbr
The sum of the binomial series, or the binomial formula, is
Problem Set 14-3
Reading Analysis
From what you have read in this section, what do a partial sum of a series? What does it mean to say
you consider to be the main idea? What is the major that a geometric series converges? What is meant by
difference between a sequence and a series ? What is a binomial series?
656 Chapte
r 14: Sequences
andSeries
Quick Review
a. Write out the terms of the partial sum. How
can you tell that the series is geometric?
Q2. Write the next two terms of this geometric b . Evaluate S6 three ways: numerically, by
sequence: 10, 20, ... adding the six terms; algebraically, by
using the pattern (first term) times
Q3. Write the next two terms of this harmonic (fraction involving r); and numerically,
sequence. . 31 , 41 , ~·
1 1
6, .. . by entering the formula for tn into the
Q4. Write the next two terms of this factorial y= menu and using your grapher
sequence: 1, 2, 6, ... program. Are the answers the same?
c. Evaluate S20 for this series. Which method
Q5.Find the 101st term of the arithmetic sequence
did you use ?
with first term 20 and common difference 3.
3. Convergent Geometr ic Series Pile Driver
Q6. Find t 101 for the geometric seque nce with
Problem: A pile driver pounds a piling (a
t 1 = 20 and r= 1.1.
column) into the ground for a new building
Ql. Find the product and simplify: that is being constructed (Figure 14-3a).
(2 + 3i)(2 - 3i). Suppose that on the first impact the piling is
driven 100 cm into the ground. On the second
QB.Find the dot product of these vectors:
impact the piling is driven another 80 cm into
(27 + 3]) · (27 - 3])
the ground. Assume that the distances the
Q9. Which conic section is the grap h of the piling is driven with each impact form a
equation x 2 - y 2 + 3x - Sy= 100? geometric sequence.
QlO. Find the product of these matrices:
[! ~][!~]
Pi.ledriver
1. A rithm et ic Series Problem: A ser ies has a
partial sum
10
S10= L [3 + ( n - 1)(5)]
Piling
n= l
(column)
a. Write out the terms of the partial sum . How
can you tell that the series is arithmetic?
b . Evaluate S10 three ways: numerically, by
adding the 10 terms; algebraically, by ti
LI
averaging the first and last terms and
multiplying by the number of terms; and Figure 14-3a
numerically, by entering the formula for tn
a. How far will the piling be driven on the
into the y= menu and using your grapher
tenth impact? How deep in the ground will
program. Are the answers the same?
it be after ten impacts ?
c. Evaluate S100 for this series. Which method
b . Run the Partial Sums program using
did you use?
n = 100. What do you notice about the
2. Geometric Series Problem: A series has a partial sums as the grapher displays each
partial sum sum? What does it mean to say that the
6 partial sums are "converging to 500"? What
S6= _LS. 3n- 1 is the real-wor ld meaning of this limit to
n= l
which the series converges?
Section
14-3:Series
andPartia
l Sums 657
c. Show how to calculate algebraically that a. The figure indicates that the total overhang
the limit to which the partial sums converge for four cards is greater than the length of
is 500 . the deck. Show numerically that this is true.
4. Harmonic Series Divergence Problem: If you b. How many cards would you have to stack in
stack a deck of cards so that they just barely order for the total overhang to exceed two
balance, the top card overhangs by the decki deck lengths?
length, the second card overhangs by! the c. What would the total overhang be for a
deck length, the third card overhangs by the ! standard 52-card deck? Is this surprising?
deck length, and so on (Figure 14-3b). i
d. Factor out from the terms, then group the
Cards balanc ed terms this way:
![
2
1 + + (!+ !) + (!+ + + !)
2
_!_
3 4 5678
_!_ _!_
+ (next 8 terms)+ (next 16 terms)+··-]

Figure 14-3b Show that each group of terms inside the
brackets is greater than or equal to i· How
The total overhang for n cards is thus a partial does this fact allow you to conclude that the
sum of this harmonic series: partial sums of a harmonic series diverge
1 1 1 1 1 1 and can get larger than any real number?
-+- +-+ -+- + -+· ··
2 4 6 8 10 12
5. Geometric Series for Compound Interest a. Explain why the amount in the IRA at the
Problem: Money in an Individual Retirement fifth month is the fifth partial sum of a
Account (IRA) earns interest at a rate that geometric series. Calculate this amount
usually is higher than for other accounts . using a time-efficient method.
Suppose that you invest $100 in an IRA that b. If you continue the regular $100 monthly
pays 12% interest per year, compounded deposits, how much will be in the IRA at the
monthly. The amount during any one month end of ten years? How much of this will be
is 1.01 times the amount the month before . interest?
The amounts follow this geometric sequence:
c. How many months would it take until the
total first exceeds $100,000?
Month: 1 2 3 4 5 6
Dollars: 100 100(1.01) 100(1.01)2 100(1.01)3 100(1.01) 4
100(1.01)5
If you make regular $100 deposits each month,
each deposit follows a geometric sequence:
Month: 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 4
Dollars: 100 100(1.01) 100(1.01) 100(1.01) 3 100(1.01) 100(1.01)5
100 100(1.01) 100(1.01)2 100(1.01)3 100(1.01)4
100 100(1.01) 100(1.01)2 100(1.01)3
100 100(1.01) 100(1.01)2
100 100(1.01)
100
658 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
6. Present Value Compound Interest Problem: Then use the formula for the partial sum of
Suppose that money is invested in a savings a geometric series to show that
acco unt at 6% annual interest, compounded
1 - (1 + [) 4
monthl y. Because the interest rate is 0.5% per B4 = Bo(l + /) 4 - P ----
month, the amounts in the account each l - (1 + J)
month form a geometric se quen ce with p
common ratio 1.005. = Bo(l + [) 4 + - (1 - (1 + [) 4 ]
I
a. Find the amount you would have to invest
c. The formula in part b can b e generali ze d to
now to have $10,0 00 at the en d of ten years .
This amount is called the present value of find En by replacin g the 4s with n s. Use
this information to calculate the numb er of
$10 ,000.
months it takes to pa y off th e mortgag e;
b. If you invest x doll ars a month in this that is, find the value of n for which En = 0.
account, the total at the en d of eac h month
is a partial sum of a geometric ser ies with d. Plot the gra ph of Bn as a function of n from
x as the first term and common ratio 1.005 . n = 0 to the time th e mortgag e is paid off.
How much would you have to invest each Sketch a smooth curve showing the patt ern
month in order to ha ve $10,000 at the end followed by the points. True or false:
of ten years? "Halfway through the duration of the
mortgag e, half of th e mortgage has been
7. Geom etric Series Mortgage Problem: Suppose paid off." Explain your reasoning .
that someone takes out a $100,000 mortgag e
(loan) to bu y a hous e. The interest rat e, I, is 1% 8. Geom etric Series by Long Divis ion Problem: The
or 0.01 per month (12% per year) , and the limit, S, of the partial sums of a convergent
payments, P, are $1050.00 per month . Most of geometric series is given by
the monthl y payment goes to pa y the int eres t 1
for that month, with the rest going to pa y on S = t1 • - -
1- r
th e p rin cipal, thus redu cing th e balance, B,
owed on the lo an. The table shows paym en t, where t1 is the first term of the se quen ce and r
int eres t, principal, and balance for the first few is the common ratio.
months.
a. Use long division to divide (1 - r) into 1.
a. Show th at you under stan d how the table is Show that th e result is the geometric series
constructed by calculating th e row entries
S= t 1 + t1 r+ t 1 r 2 + t1 r 3 + t 1 r 4 + t 1 r 5 + · · ·
for month 4.
b. The bal ance, Bi, after one month is given by b. The result illustrate s the way you can do
the equ ation B1 = B0 + B0 I - P = B0 (l + I) - P. mathematical probl ems "backward" as well
Show that the bal ance after four month s can as "forward." Give another instance in which
be written you can u se this forward-and-backward
feature.
B4 = Bo(l + [) 4 - P(l + [) 3 - P(l + 1)2
- P(l + I) - P
Month, n Payment , P Interest Principal Balance, Bn

0 100,00 0.00
1 1050.00 1000 .00 50.00 99,950.00
2 1050.00 999 .50 50.50 99,899 .50
3 1050.00 99 8.99 51.01 99,848.49
Section
14-3: Series andPartial
Sums 659
L. n
9. Thumbtack Binomial Series Problem: If you flip In the first iteration, segments 1 unit long are
a thumbtack five times, there are six possible marked on the sides of an equilateral triangle
numbers of "point-ups" you could get, namely, with sides 3 units, and three equilateral
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. If the probability of triangles (shaded) are drawn. In the second
"point-up" on any one flip is 60% (0.6), then iteration, equilateral triangles with sides f unit
the probabilities of each of the six outcomes are constructed on each side of the triangles of
are terms in the binomial series that comes the first iteration. The iterations are carried on
from expanding this way infinitely. The snowflake curve is the
boundary of the resulting figure.
(0.4 + 0.6) 5
a. Find the total perimeter of the first
The probability of exactly three "point-ups" is iteration. Find the total perimeter of the
the term that contains 0.6 3 . second iteration. What type of sequence do
a. Calculate the six terms of the binomial the lengths of the iterations form? How do
series. you conclude that the perimeter of the
b. What is the probability of exactly three completed snowflake curve is infinite?
"point-ups"? b. What is the total area of the shaded
c. Explain why the probability of no more than triangles in the first iteration? What area is
three "point-ups" is a partial sum of this added to this by the shaded triangles in the
binomial series . Calculate this probability. second iteration? What type of series do the
areas of the iterations form? Does this
d. Calculate the probability of no more
series converge? If so, to what number? If
than six "point-ups" in ten flips of the
not, show why not.
thumbtack. Is the answer the same as
the probability of no more than three For Problems 11-14, write out the terms of the
"point-ups" in five flips? partial sum and add them.
10. Snowflake Curve Series Problem: Figure 14-3c s 7
shows Koch's snowflake curve, which you may 11. S5 = 2)n + 7 12. S7 = n2 L
n=l n=l
have encountered in Section 11-5. 6
14. S6 = L n!
n=l
For Problems 15-22, each series is either geometric

or arithmetic. Find the indicated partial sum .
15. For 2 + 10 + 50 + · · · , find Sn.
16. For 97 + 131 + 165 + · · · , find S37 .
17. For 24 + 31.6 + 39.2 + ···,fi nd S54 .
18. For 36 + 54 + 81 + · · · , find S29 •
19. For 1000 + 960 + 920 + · · · , find S78 .
20. For 1000 + 900 + 810 + · · · , find S22 .
21. For 50 - 150 + 450 - · · · , find S10.
22. For 32.5 - 52 + 83.2 - ··· ,find S41 .
Firs t iterat ion
Figure 14-3c
660 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
For Problems 23-28, the series is either arithmetic 49. (3x + 2y) 8 , y 5 -term
or geometric. Find n for the given partial sum.
50. (3x + 2y)7, y 4 -term
23. For 32 + 43 + 54 + · · · , find n if Sn= 4407.
51. (r- q) 15 , 12th term
24. For 13 + 26 + 52 +·· ·, find n if Sn= 425,971.
52. (a - b) 17 , 8th term
25. For 18 + 30 + 50 +· ·· ,find n if Sn~ 443,088 .
;
26. For 97 + 101 + 105 + · · · , find n if Sn= 21,663 .
27 . For 97 + 91 + 85 +·· · ,find n if Sn= 217. 53 . Dynamic Geometr ic Series Problem: Go to
(Is this surprising?) www.keymath .com/precalcand open the Geometric
Series Exploration . Explain in writing how this
28. For 60 + 54 + 48.6 + · · · , find n if Sn~ 462.74. activity results in the derivation of the formula
For Problems 29-36 , state whether the geometric for the sum of an infinite geometric series.
series converges . If it does converge, find the limit What effect does the value of r have on this
to which it converges. result?
29 . 100 + 90 + 81 + · · · 54 . Partial Sum Proof Problem:

a. Prove that for an arithmetic series with first
30. 25 + 20 + 16 + · · · term ti, nth term tm and common difference
31. 40 + 50 + 62.5 + · · · d, the nth partial sum is given by the
formula
32. 200 - 140 + 98 - · · ·
33 . 300 + 90 + 27 + · · ·
34. 20 + 60 + 180 + · · ·
b . Prove that for a geometric series with first
35 . 1000 - 950 + 902.5 - · · · term t 1 , nth term tn, and common ratio r, the
36. 360 + 240 + 160 + · · · nth partial sum is given by
1 - rn
For Problems 37 -42, expand as a binomial series sn = tl · --1 - r
and simplify.
37 . (x-y) 3 38 . (4m - 5n) 2 55. Journal Problem : Update your journal with
things you have learn ed in this chapter.
39. (2x - 3) 5 40. (3a + 2) 4 Include the difference between a sequence and
42. (a 3 - b 2) 5 a series and what makes a sequence or series
arithmetic or geometric. Explain how partial
For Problems 43-52, find the indicated term in the sums of series can be calculated numerically
binomial series. and how calculations for arithmetic, geometric,
43 . (x + y) 8 , y 5-term 44. (p + J)u, J 4 -term and binomial series can be performed
algebraically.
45 . (p- J)15,) 11 -term 46. (c- d) 19 , d 15 -term
47. (x 3 - y 2 ) 13 , x 18 -term 48. (x 3 - y 2 )24, x 30 -term
Section
14·3: Series
andPartial
Sums 661
..
L n

In this chapter you studied sequen ces of numbers. You can consider these
sequenc es to be functions in which the independent variable is a positive
integer (the term number) and the dependent variable is the term itself. You can
find the term values either recursively as a function of the preceding term or
explicitl y as a function of the term numb er. Then you learned about series,
which are indicated sums of the terms of sequences. You can calculate partial
sums of series numerically u sing featur es available on your grapher. For
arithmetic and geometric ser ies, it is possible to calculate partial sums
algebraically, taking advantage of th e add-add prop erty and the add-multiply
The length of each cycle in
property, respec tively.
this French braid is a term
in a series, and the total
lengt h of the braid is a
partial sum .
Review Problems
RO.Update your journal with what you have R2. a. Is the sequence 23, 30, 38, . . . arithmetic,
learned in this chapter. Include things such as geometric, or neither?
• The difference between a sequence and b. Find t200 , the 200th term of the arithmetic
a series sequence 52, 61, 70, ....
• The similarities and differenc es between c. 3 5 71 is a term of the sequence in part b.
arithm etic and geometric series What is its term number?
• The meaning and computation of terms in a d. Find t100 , the 100th term of the geometric
binomial series sequence with t 1 = 200 and r = 1.03.
• Numerical ways to compute term values and e. tn = 5644.6417 ... is a term of the sequence
parti al sums of various kinds of series in part d. What does n equal?
• Algebraic ways to compute terms and partial f. Write a recursion formula and the next
sums of arithmetic and geometric series three terms of the sequence
• An algebraic way to find the sum of an 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, ....
infinit e geometric series with lrl < 1 g. Write an explicit formula of the sequence in
part f and use it to calculate the 100th term.
Rl. a. Find the next two terms of the arithmetic
sequence 5, 8, 11, 14, .... h . Monthly Interest Problem: Suppos e that you
invest $3000 in an account that pays 6%
b. Find the sixth partial sum of th e arithmetic
int eres t per year (0.5%per month),
series 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + · · · .
compounded monthly. At any time during
c. Show that the sixth partial sum in part b the first month, you have $3000 in the
equals 6 times th e average of the first and account. At any time during th e second
last terms. month , you have $3000 plus th e interest for
d. Find the next two terms of th e geometric th e first month, and so on.
sequence 5, 10, 20, 40, .... i. Show that the month number and the
e. Find the sixth partial sum of the geometric amount in the account during that
series 5 + 10 + 20 + 40 + · · · . month have the add-multiply property
of exponenti al functions. Explain why
662 Chapter
14:Sequences
andSeries
a sequence is a more appropriate i. What kind of sequence do Maya's steps
mathematical model than a continuous follow? What kind of sequence do
exponential function. Vincent's steps follow?
ii. In what month will the amount first ii. How long is Maya's last step? How long
excee d $5000? is Vincent's 21st step?
iii. If you leave the money in the account
until you retire 50 years from now, how
much will be in the account ?
R3. a. Write the terms of thi s partial sum:
6
z::[2 + (n -
n- 1
1)(3)1
b. How do you know that the series in part a

is an arithmetic series?
c. Show that the partial sum in part a equals
6 times the average of the first and last
iii. After each has taken 21 steps, who is
terms.
ahead? Show how you reached your
d. 418,435 is a partial sum of the series in conclusion .
part a. Which partial sum is it?
iv. If Vincent keeps walking in the same
e. Find the 200th partial sum of the geometric manner, will he ever get to where Maya
series with t 1 = 4000 and r = 0.95 . Find this stopped? Explain.
numerically by adding the terms using the
k. Vitamin C Dosage Problem: When you take a
appropriate features of your grapher.
dose of medication, the amount of
f. Find the 200th partial sum in part e again, medication in your body jumps up
this time algebraically using the formula immediately to a higher value and then
for Sn. decreases as the medication is used up and
g. 78,377.8762 ... is a partial sum of the series expelled . Suppose you take 500-mg doses of
in part e. Which partial sum is it? vitamin C each 6 h to fight a cold . Assume
h. To what limit do the partial sums of the that by the time of the second dose only
series in part e converge? 60% of the first dose remains. How much
vitamin C will you have just after you take
i. Write the term containing b 7 in the binomial
the second dose? Just after the third dose?
expansion of (a - b) 13 •
Show that the total amount of vitamin C in
j. Vincent and Maya's Walking Problem : Vincent your system is a partial sum of a geometric
and Maya start walking at the same time series. How much vitamin C will you have in
from the same point and in the same your system at the end of the fourth day,
direction. Maya starts with a 12-in. step and when you have just taken the 16th dose ?
increases her stride by! in. each step. She What limit does the amount of vitamin C
goes 21 steps, then stops. Vincent starts with approach as the number of doses
a 36-in. step, and each subse quent step is approaches infinity ?
90% as long as the preceding one.
Concept Problems
Cl. Tree Problem: A treelike figure is drawn in the two branches, each 1 m long, grow at right
plane, as shown in Figure 14-4a. The first year, angles to each other from the top of the trunk,
the tree grows a trunk 2 m long. The next year, symmetrical to the line of the trunk. In
Section
14-4:Chapter
Review
andTest 663
L. n
subsequent years , each branch grows two new a. Describe the pattern followed by the terms.
branches, each half as long as the preceding Use this pattern to find the term for Uranus,
branch. planet 8.
,-\)-, b. Planets 9 and 10, Neptune and Pluto, have
distances corresponding to the numbers 305
and 388, respectively. Are these numbers
terms of the sequence? Justify your answer.
-1
Trunk, 2 m
c. Find a formula for tn, the term value, in
terms of n, the planet number. For what
values of n is the formula valid?
d. The asteroid Ceres was found by looking at
_j a distance from the Sun calculated by Bode's
law. If you were to look beyond Pluto for
Figure 14-4a planet 11, how far from the Sun would
Bode's law suggest that you look? (Earth is
a. Show that the lengths of the branches form 93 million miles from the Sun.)
a geometric sequence.
b. Find the height of the tree after 2 yr, 3 yr,
.-~ --
,..,...,,)
and 4 yr . e. Consult the Internet or some other reference
c. Show that the height of the tree is the source (such as Scientific American
partial sum of two geometric series. What is magazine, July 1977, page 128) to see why
the common ratio of each? Titus's discovery is called Bode's law.
d. Suppose the tree keeps growing like this
C3. Binomial Series with Noninteger Exponent
forever.
Prob lem: If you raise a binomial to a noninteger
i. What limit will the height approach? power, such as (a+ b)1.8 , you can still find the
ii. What limit will the width approach? coefficient of the next term from the pattern
iii. What limit will the length of each branch
(coefficient)(exponent of a)
approac h?
(term number)
iv. What limit will the total length of all
branches approach? a. Write the first five terms of the binomial
expansion of (a+ b)1.8 .
v. How close to the ground will the lowest
branches come? b. The series in part a has an infinite number
of terms. A binomial series for a positive
C2. Bode's Law Problem: In 1766, Johann Titus, a integer exponent may also be considered to
German astronomer, discovered that the have an infinite number of terms. Use the
distances of the planets from the Sun are coefficient pattern in this problem to show
proportional to the terms of a rather simple what happens beyond the b 5-term in the
sequence : expansion of (a+ b) 5 and why such series
Term Term seem to have a finite number of terms .
Number Name Value
C4. Power Series Problem: In these three power
1 Mercury 4 series, each term involves a nonnegative
2 Venus 7 integer power of x. (Such series are also called
3 Earth 10 Maclaurin series or Taylor series.)
4 Mars 16
5 Ceres 28 f(x) = 1 + x + 2_x2 + 2_x 3 + · · ·
2! 3!
6 Jupiter 52
7 Saturn 100 1 3
1 1 7
(Mercury, at 4, does not fit the sequence. Ceres is
g(x) = x - -x + -x 5
- -x +···
3! 5! 7!
one of the asteroids in the asteroid belt.)
664 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
1 1 1 sum of g(x)-and y 2 = sin x. Graph thes e
h(x) = 1 - -x 2 + -x 4 - -x 6 + ...
2! 4! 6! functions on your grapher. Then add th e
next thr ee terms of the series for g(x) to the
a. Evaluate the seventh partial sum of the series equation of y 1 . You'll get a 9th -degree
for f(0.6) (terms through x 6 ) . Show that the function. Plot the two graphs again. Sketch
answer is close to the value of e 0 ·6 , where e is
th e two graphs, and des crib e what you
the base of the natural logarithms.
obs erve.
b . Evalu ate the fourth partial sum of the series
for g(0 .6). Show that the answer is close to
the value of sin 0.6. Show that the fifth
partial sum is even closer to the value of X
sin0 .6.
c. Evalu ate the fourth partial sum of the series
for h (0.6). Which function on your calculator
does h(x) seem to be close to?
Figur e 14-4b
d . Figure 14-4b shows th e graphs of Yi-a
cubic function equal to the second partial
Chapter Test
allowed(T1-T9) T7. Write the term containing b 9 in the binomial
expansion of (a - b) 15 . Leave the answer in
Tl. A geom etric series has first term t1 = 6 and
factorial form.
common ratio r = 2. Write the first five terms
of the series . Find th e fifth partial sum, S5 , TS. Write a recursive formula for t for the
11
numericall y by adding the terms of the arithmetic se quenc e 17, 21, 25, .. ..
series.
T9 . Write an explicit formula for tn for th e
T2 . An arithmetic series has first term t 1 = 7 and geometric sequence 7, 14, 28, ....
common difference d = 3. Write the first six
terms of the series. Find the sixth partial sum,
S6 , numerica lly by adding the terms and PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(Tl0-T24)
algebraically by usin g the sum of the first and no . In Problem Tl, the fifth partial sum is
la st term s in an appropriate way. 6 + 12 + 24 + 48 + 96, which equals 186. Show
T3. Write an algebraic formula for Sn, the nth that the algebraic formula for the sum Sn of a
partial sum of an arithmetic series , in terms of geometric series gives 186 for the fifth partial
n, ti , and tn. sum. Show numericall y that the fifth partial
T4. Is this series arithmetic, geometric, or neither? sum is 186 using the Series program on your
Give numerical evidence to support your grapher .
answer. Tll. The arithmetic series in Problem T2 is
3 + 7 + 12 + 18 + 25 + · · · 7 + 10 + 13 + · · · . Calculate the 20 0th term,
t200 . Use the answer to calculat e the 200th
TS. Evalua te the partial sum numerica lly, by partial sum, S200 , algebraically, with the he lp of
writing out and ad din g the terms. the pattern for partial sums of an arithmetic
4 series . Confirm that your answer is cor rect by
S4 = 2). 3k-1 adding the terms num ericall y using the Series
k=l
program on your graph er.
T6. Is the series in Problem TS arithmetic,
geometric, or neither? Give numerical evidence Bouncing Ball Problem: Ima gine that you 're
to support your answer. bouncing a ball. Each tim e the ball bounc es, it
Section
14-4: Chapter
Review
andTest 665
L. n
comes back up to 80% of its previous height. For sequence would be 101. Calculate this term
Problems Tl2-Tl4, assume that the starting height number algebraically.
of the ball was 5 ft.
Medication Problem: For Problems Tl7-T20, Natalie
takes 50 mg of allergy medicine each day. By the
next day, som e of the medicin e has decomposed,
but the rest is still in her body. Natalie finds that
the amount still in her body after n days is given by
this partial sum, where k is an integer:
n
Sn= L 50(0.8k- l)
k- 1
Tl 7. Demonstrate that you know what sigma

notation means by writing out the first three
terms of this series. What does S3 equal?
Tl8. Run the Series program on your grapher to
find S40 numerically.
Tl9. After how many days does the amount in her
Tl2. What kind of sequence describes the ball's body first exceed 200 mg?
successive heights at each bounce? What is the T20. Does the amount of active medicine in
length of the total vertical path the ball covers Natalie's body seem to be converging to a
in ten bounces? certain number, or does it simply keep getting
Tl3. Find the formula for the ball's height at its nth larger without limit? How can you tell?
bounce. Find the formula for the total length of Loan Problem: For Problems T21 and T22, Leonardo
the path of the ball at n bounces. borrows $200.00 from his parents to buy a new
Tl4. The series in Problem Tl3 converges to a calculator. They require him to pay back 10%of his
certain number . Based on your answers, to unpaid balance at the end of each month.
what number does it converge? Show T21. Find Leonardo's unpaid balanc es at the end
algebraically that this is correct . of 0, 1, 2, and 3 mo. Is the sequence of unpaid
Push-ups Problem: For Problems Tl5 and Tl6, Emma balances arithmetic, geometric, or neither?
starts an exercise program. At the first workout she How do you know?
does five push-ups. The next workout she does T22. Leonardo must pay off the rest of the loan
eight push-ups. She decides to let the number of when his unpaid balance has dropped below
push-ups in each workout be a term in an $5.00. After how many months will this have
arithmetic sequence. happened? Indicate the method you use. (It is
Tl5. Find algebraically the number of push-ups not enough to say, "I used my calculator" or
she does on the tenth workout and the total "guess and check.")
number of push-ups she has done after ten T23. Find the seventh term of the binomial series
workouts. (a - b)1 2_
Tl6. If Emma were able to keep up the arithmetic T24. What did you learn as a result of taking this
sequence of push-ups, one of the terms in the test that you did not know before ?
666 Chapter
14: Sequences
andSeries
Polynomial and Rational
Functions, Limits, and
Derivatives 15
A bee flies back and forth past a flower. Its distance from the
flower is a function of time. Its speed varies, so you can't find its
distance simply by multiplying rate by time. You can use the
concept of limit, which you saw in connection with geometric
series, to find the bee's instantaneous speed by taking the limit
of its average speed over shorter and shorter time intervals.
667
In this chapter you'll learn about polynomial functions. You'll
find the zeros of these functions, a gen~ralization of the concept
of x-intercept. The techniques you learn.will allow you to analyze
rational functions, in which f(x) is a ratio of two polynomials.
These ratios can represent average rates of change. The limit is
an instantaneous rate of change, called a derivative. You will
investigate these concepts in four ways.
Graphically The graph of the polynomial

function f(x) = x4 .~ Bx2 - Bx+ 15
has two x-intercepts.
Algebraically f(x) = x 4 + Ox3 - Bx2 - Bx+ 15

= (x - l)(x - 3)(x + 2 + i)(x + 2 - i)
Numerically f(l) = 0, f(3) = 0/ f(-2 - 0 = 0, and f(-2 + i) = 0

Zeros of the function are x = 1, x = 3, x = -2 - i, and x = -2 + i.
Verbally four zerosifdu, d!Juutitv

A fourtlt,-Mjreefwt.dw~/uu e,xactly ofdu,
Jwtctw~ ~~x ~en.
irtcLudM Ol1iydu, real-~er zerosappear
M x-Wercep,ts011/~3r~ but:zerosCaJ-vauo~ ~~)G
~ers.
668 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivatives
15-1 Review of Polynomial Functions
Figure 15-la shows the graphs of three cubic functions, f, g, and h. In this
problem set you will du plicate these graphs on your grapher and learn some
algebraic properties of cubi c functions.
Figure 15-la
OBJECTIVE
Discover som e prop erties of cubi c func tion s and th eir graphs .
Exploratory Problem Set 1 S-1
l. Let f(x) = x34x2 - 3x + 2. Confirm on your

- g(x) = (x + 2)(-?-). Find the other factor and
grapher that function fhas the graph shown in factor it into two linear factors. What do you
Figure 15-la. notice about these two factors?
2. The graph of {intersects the x-axis at three 7. There are thr ee zeros of g(x), one for each
places. The x-values at these places are called linear factor. Explain why g(x) has a double
zeros of f(x) because f(x) = 0 for these zero. What feature does the graph of g have at
x-values. Find these three zeros graphically. the double zero?
3. Show algebraically that x = -1 is a zero of f(x). 8. Let h (x) = x3 - 4x 2
- 3x + 54. Confirm on your
grapher that the graph of function h in
4. Because f(-1) is equal to 0, you can write
Figure 15-la is correct. How many zeros does
f(x) = (x + 1)(-?-). By making the appro priate
h (x) have?
calculations, find the unknown factor . Then
find the other two zeros of f(x) algebraically . 9. Show algebraically th at h (-3) = 0 and therefore
2 th at h (x) = (x + 3)(-?-). By finding the other
5. Let g(x) = x3 - 4x - 3x + 18. Confirm on your
factor an d sett ing it equal to zero, find the two
grapher that function g has the grap h shown
complex zeros of h (x).
in Figure 15-la . What similarities and
differences do you notice in the graphs of 10. What is true abou t the graph of a cubic
functions f and g? function with comp lex zeros?
6. Show algebraically that -2 is a zero of g(x). 11. Summarize what you have learned as a result
Explain why the equation of g can be writte n of doing this pro blem set.
Section
15-1:Review
ofPolynomial
Functions 669
15-2 Graphs and Zeros of Polynomial Functions
In Section 15-1, you encountered cubic functions, polynomial functions of
degree three. In this section you'll learn how to recognize the degree of a
polynomial function from its graph and how to find zeros, values of x at which
y equals zero. Some zeros are real numbers equal to the x-intercepts, and others
are complex numbers that are not on the graph .
OBJECTIVES
Given a polynomial function,
• Determine from the graph what degree it might be, and vice versa
• Find the zeros from the equation or the graph
Graphs of Polynomial Functions

Recall the general equation of a polynomial function from Chapter 1. Here are
some examples of polynomial functions.
f(x) = 4x2 - 7x + 3 Quadratic function, 2nd degree
f(x) = 2x3 - 5x2 + 4x + 7 Cubic function, 3rd degree
f(x) = x 4 + 6x3 - 3x2 + 5x - 8 Quartic function, 4th degree
f(x) = - 6x5 - x3 + 2x Quintic function, 5th degree
f(x) = 5x9 + 4x 8 - llx 3 + 63 9th-degree function (no special name)
In each case, f(x) is equa l to a polynomial expression. The only operations
performed on the variable in a polynomial are the polynomial operations,
namely, addition, subtraction, and multiplication. The degree of a one-variable
polynomial is the same as the greatest expo nent on the variable. Thus, the
degr ee tells the greatest number of variab les that are multiplied. The coefficient
of th e highest-degree term is called the leading coefficient. Notice that each
y y y
~ Downward
X X X
fupwar d
Quadratic Cubic Quartic

(second degree) (third degree) (fourth degree)
Two zeros Thr ee zeros Four zeros
Figure 15-2a
term has a power of a variable, so you can think of a polynomial function as a

sum of a finite number of power functions. The expon ents of a polynomial
670 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivative
function must be nonnegative integers so that there is no division by a variable
and no root of a variable.
As you can see from Figure 15-2a, a quadratic function has two branch es ,
downward and upward, resulting in at most two zeros and one extreme point
(or vertex or critical point). A cubic function can have three bran ches , resulting
in three zeros and two extreme points, and a quartic function can have four
branches, giving four zeros and thre e extr eme points. In general, the graph of a
polynomial function of degre e n can have up to n increasing and decreasing
branches, resul tin g in up to n zeros where these branche s cross the x-axis and
up to n - 1 extreme points . Notice the end behavior of these polynomial
funct ions -t he behavior of the graph for large positive and negative values of x.
What do you notice about the end behavior for even-degree and odd-degree
polynomials?
Here is the formal definition of a zero of a function, which you'll learn how to
find next.
DEFINITION: Zeroofa Function

A zero of a function f is an x-value, c, for which f(c) = 0.
Finding Zeros of a Polynomial Function:

Synthetic Substitution
Synthetic substi tution is a quick pencil-and-paper method for evaluating a
polynomial function. Suppose that f(x) = x 3 - 9x 2 - x + 105 and that you want to
find f(6) by synthetic substitution.
• Write 6 and the coefficients of f(x) like this:
~ 1 -9 - 1 105
Leave space here .
Leave space here.
• Bring down the leading coefficient, 1, below the lin e and multiply it by
the 6, writing the answer in the next column, und er the -9.
~ 1 -9 -1 105
6
1
• Add the -9 and th e 6, and write the answer, - 3, b elow the line. Multipl y -3
by 6, and write the answer, -18, above th e line. Repeat the steps, adding
and multiplying. The final result is
~ 1 -9 - 1 105
6 - 18 - 114
1 -3 - 19 -9
.'. f(6) =-9 The value of the function ((6) is the last number below the line.
Check:
f(6) = 6 3 - 9(6 2 ) - 1(6) + 105 = -9
Section
15-2: Graph
s andZeros
ofPoly
nomial
Functions 671
To see why synthetic substitution works, factor the polynomial into
nested form:
f(x) = x 3 - 9x 2 - x+ 105
= (lx- 9)x 2 - x+ 105
= [(lx - 9)x - l]x + 105 Nested form .
In this form you can evaluate the polynomial by repeating these steps:
Multiply by X.
Add the next coefficient.

Synthetic substitution is closely related to long division of polynomials. To see
why, divide f(x) by (x - 6), a linear binomial that equals zero when xis 6. First,
divide the x from the term (x - 6) into the x 3 from the polynomial. Write the
answer, x2 , above the x2 -term of the polynomial.
x2 - 3x - 19 Quotient
X - 6 ) X 3 - 9X 2 - X + 105
x3 - 6x2 Multiply x2and (x - 6).
-3X 2 - X Subtract and brin g - x down.
-3x 2 + 18x Multiply - 3x and (x - 6).
- 19x+ 105 Subtr act and bring the next term down.
-19x+ll4 Multiply - 19 and (x - 6).
-9 Remainder.
x3 - 9x 2 - x + 105 -9
------- = x2 - 3x - 19 + -- "Mixed-number" form.
x- 6 x-6
Note: The term "mixed-number" form is used here because of the similarity of
this form to the result of whole-number division when there is a remainder. For
example, when you divide 13 by 4, the quotient is 3 and the remainder is 1,
which you can write as 1; or 3t
Notice that the coefficients of the quotient, 1, -3, and -19, are the values below
the line in the synthetic substitution process . Thus, synthetic substitution gives
you a way to do long division of a polynomial by a linear binomial expression.
Just substitute the value of x for which the linear binomial equals zero.
The fact that the remainder after division by (x - 6) equals the value of f(6) is an
example of the remainder theorem.
672 Chapter
15: Polynomia
l andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivatives
PROPERTY:
TheRemainder
Theorem
If p(x) is a polynomial, then p(c) equals the remainder when p(x) is divided by
the quantity (x - c).
COROLLARY:
TheFactor
Theorem
The quantity (x - c) is a factor of the polynomial p(x) if and only if p(c) = 0.
The corollary is true because if the remainder equals zero, then (x - c) divides
p(x) evenly, which means (x - c) is a factor of p(x) .
EXAMPLE
1iJ11- 1 Let f(x) = x3 - 4x2 - 3x + 2.
Let g(x) = x 3 - 4x2 - 3x + 18.
2
Let h(x) = x3 - 4x - 3x + 54.
The graphs are shown in Figure 15-2b.

a. Show that -1 is a zero of f(x). Find the other two zeros, and check by
graphing .
b . Show that -2 is a zero of g(x). Find the other two zeros, and check by
graphing.
c. Show that -3 is a zero of h (x). Find the other two zeros, and check by
Figure 15-2b
graphing .
Solution For each problem, use synthetic substitution to show that the remainder
is zero .
a. --=_U
1 -4 -3 2 Synthetically substitute -1 for x.
-1 5 -2
1 -5 2 0 The remainder is zero .
Therefo re, -1 is a zero of f(x). f( - 1) = 0 becaus e f( - 1) equals the remainder .

f(x) = (x + l)(x 2 - 5x + 2) (x + l) is a factor of f(x) because it equals
zero when x = - 1; coefficients of the other
factor appear in the bottom row of the
synthetic substitution .
x2 - 5x + 2 = 0 Set the other factor equal to zero .
x = 4.5615 ... and x = 0.4384 ... are also zeros of f(x).

Solve using the quadratic formula.
The graph of fin Figure 15-2b crosses the x-axis at about -1, 0.4, and 4.6,
values that agree with the algebraic solutions.
Section
15·2
: Graphs
andZeros
ofPolynom
ialFunctions 673
b. ~ 1 -4 -3 18 Synthetically substitute -2 for x.
-2 12 -18
1 -6 9 0 The remainder is zero.
Therefore, -2 is a zero of g(x). g(-2) = 0 because it equals the remainder .

g(x) = (x + 2)(x2 - 6x + 9) (x + 2) is a factor of g(x) because it equa ls
zero when x = -2 .
g(x) = (x + 2)(x - 3)(x - 3) The second factor can its elf be factored.
-2, 3, and 3 are zeros of g(x). 3 is called a doubl e zero of g(x).
The graph of gin Figure 15-2b crosses the x-axis at -2 and touches the
x-axis at 3, in agreement with the algebraic solutions.
c. -=.:U1 -4 -3 54 Synthetically substitute - 3 for x.
-3 21 -54
1 -7 18 0 The remainder is zero .
Therefore, -3 is a zero of h(x). h(- 3) = O because it equals the remainder.

2
h(x) = (x + 3)(x - 7x + 18) (x + 3) is a factor of h( x) because it equals zero
when x = - 3.
x2 - 7x + 18 = 0 Set the other factor equal to zero.
7 ± ) 72 - 4(1)(18)
x= Use the quadratic formula.
2(1)
= 3.5 ± 0.5) -23
= 3.5 + 2.3979 ... i or 3.5 - 2.3979 ... i
Complex solutions are a conju gate pair.
The graph of h in Figure 15-2b crosses the x-axis only at - 3, which agrees
with the algebraic solutions.
Notes:
• In part b of Example 1, x = 3 is called a double zero of f(x). It appears
twice, once for each factor (x - 3). As you can see from Figure 15-2b,
the graph of g just touches the x-axis and does not cross it at x = 3. So
there are three zeros, -2, 3, and 3, although ther e are only two distinct
x-intercepts.
• In part c of Example 1, there are thr ee zeros of h(x) but only one
x-intercept, as you can see in Figure 15-2b. The other two zeros are
nonreal complex numbers. The two complex zeros are complex
conjugates of each other.
The results of Example 1 illustrate the fundamental theorem of algebra and its
corollaries.
674 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivative
PROPERTY:
TheFundamental
Theorem
al AlgebraandIts Corollaries
A polynomial function has at least one zero in the set of complex numbers.
Corollary
An nth-degree polynomial function has exactly n zeros in the set of complex
numbers, counting multiple zeros.
Corollary
If a polynomial has only real coefficients, then any nonreal complex zeros
appear in conju gate pairs .
Be sure you understand what the theorem says. The real numbers are a subset
of the complex numbers, so the zeros of the funct ion could be nonreal or real
complex numbers . The x-intercepts correspond to the real-number zeros of the
function. From now on, these real-number zeros will be referred to as real zeros.
.....EXAMPLE
2 Identify the degree and the number of real and f(x)
nonreal complex zeros that the polynomial function
in Figure 15-2c could have. State whether the leading
coefficient is positive or negative. X
Solution The function could be 5th degree because it has five

branches - down, up, down, up, down - resulting in
four extreme points in the domain shown. The
Figure 15-2c
degree of the polynomial must be odd, because for
large negative values of x, f(x) becomes larger in the positive direction, whereas
for large positive values of x, f(x) becomes larger in the negative direction.
There are three real zeros because the graph crosses the x-axis at three places.
There are two nonreal complex zeros because the total number of zeros must
be five.
The leading coefficient is negative because f(x) becomes very large in the
negative direction as x becomes larger in the posit ive direction. <11111
Sums and Products of Zeros

f(x) Figure 15-2d shows the graph of the cubic function
20
f(x) = 5x3 - 33x2 + 58x - 24
X The three zeros are x = z 1 = 0.6, x = z2 = 2, and x = z3 = 4. If you factor out the
5 leading coefficient, 5, the sum and product of these zeros appear in the equation.
- 20 f(x) = 5( x3 -
33
-x 2 58 - -24)
+ -x = 5(x3 - 6.6x 2 + ll.6x - 4.8)
5 5 5
Figure 15-2d
Z1 + Zz + Z3 = 0.6 + 2 + 4 = 6.6 The opposite of the quadratic coefficient.
Z1Z z Z3 = (0.6)(2)(4) = 4.8 The opposite of the constant term.
Section
15-2:Graphs
andZeros
ofPolynomial
Functions 675
The sum of the products of the zeros taken two at a time equals the linear
coefficient.
Z1Z 2 + Z1Z 3 + Zz Z3 = (0.6)(2) + (0.6)(4) + (2)(4) = 11.6
Equal to the linear coefficient.
To see why these properties hold, start with f(x) in factored form, expand it, and
combine like terms without completing the calculations.
f(x) = S(x - 0.6)(x - 2)(x - 4)
= S[x3- 0.6x2 - 2x2 - 4x2 + (0.6)(2)x + (0.6)(4)x + (2)(4)x - (0.6)(2)(4)]
= S[x3 - (0.6 + 2 + 4)x2 + [(0.6)(2) + (0.6)(4) + (2)(4)]x- (0.6)(2)(4)]
Oppo site of sum Sum of pairv.'ise produ cts Opp os ite of product
This property is true, in general, for any cubic function. In Problems 34 and 35,
you will extend this property to quadratic functions and to higher-degree
functions.
PROPERTY:
Sums
andProducts
of theZerosof a Cubic
Function
If the function p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + ex+ d has zeros Zi, z2 , and z3 , then
b
Z1 + Zz + Z3 = - - Sum of the zeros.
a
C
z1 z2 + z 1 z3 + z2 z3 = - Sum of the pairwise products of the zeros.
a
d
Z 1 Z2Z 3 = -- Product of the zeros .
a
This property allows you to determine something about the zeros of the
function without actually calculating them. It also gives you a way to find the
particular equation of a cubic function when you know its zeros .
~ EXAMPLE
3 Find the zeros of the function
f(x) = x3 - 13x2 + 59x - 87
f(x )
Then show that the sum of the zeros, the sum of 50
their pairwise products, and the product of all three X
zeros correspond to the coefficients of the equation

that defines function f - 50
Solution Plot the graph to help you find that x = 3 is a zero

(Figure 15-2e). Figure 15-2e
676 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions
, Limits,
andDerivative
s
Find the other factor by synthetic substitution .
_i_J 1 -13 59 -87
3 - 30 87
1 - 10 29 0
f(x) = (x - 3)(x2 - lOx + 29)
SUHv= _ k_ 10 ± J 100 - 4(1)(29)

a, x2 - lOx + 29 = 0 X=
2(1)
SUHvojpttirwue,fYoductr= £ 10 ± J - 16
= = 5 + 2i
Produd: = -~a, 2 -
Sum: 3+(5+2i)+(5-2i) = l3 The oppos ite of the quadratic coefficient.
Pairwise-product sum : 3(5 + 2i) + 3(5 - 2i) + (5 + 2i)(5 - 2i)

= 15 + 6i + 15 - 6i + 25 + 4
Recall that i 2 = - 1.
= 59 The linear coefficient.

Product : 3(5 + 2i)(5 - 2i) = 3(25 + 4) = 87
The opposit e of the constant term . <111111
.....EXAMPLE
4 Find the particular equation of a cubic function with int eger coeffici ents if the
function's zeros have the given sum, product, and sum of pairwise products.
Confirm thes e properties after finding th e zeros of th e function.
5 . . 58 40
Sum .· - -3 Sum of pauwise products: - Product:
3 3
Solution The particular equation of on e possible function is
5 58 40
y = x3+ -x 2 - -x - -
3 3 3
The particular equation of a function with integer coeffi cients is
f(x) = 3x3 + 5x2 - 58x - 40
By the graph (Figure 15-2f), th e ze ros are x = -5 , x = -t an d x = 4.
Check:
X
Sum: (- 5) + (-f) + 4 = -%(Correct)

Sum of the pairwis e products:
Figure 15-2{
(-5)(-f) + (-5 )(4) + (-D(4) = - 538 (Correct)
Product: (-5)
(-f)(4) = ~o (Correct)
Section
15·2
: Graphs
andZeros
ofPoly
nomial
Functions 677
Problem Set 15-2
Reading Analysis tl!]/ 2. Given the function p(x) = x3 - 3x 2 + 9x + 13,

complete steps a-d .
consider to be the main idea? How can you tell the a. Plot the graph using an appropriate domain.
degree of a polynomial function by looking at its From the graph, find the real zero of p(x).
graph? What are the similarities and differences b. Show by synthetic substitution that (x + 1) is
between zeros of a function and x-intercepts? How is a factor of p(x). Write the other factor .
the factor theorem related to the remainder theorem? c. Find the other two zeros. Substitute one of
How can you find the sum and the product of the the two complex zeros into the equation of
zeros of a cubic function simply by looking at the p(x) to show that it really is a zero.
equation?
d. Explain the relationship between the zeros
of p(x) and the graph of p(x).
Quick Review~ For the polynomial functions in Problems 3-6, give
Ql. Sketch the graph of y = x2 . the degree, the number of real zeros (counting
double zeros as two), and the number of nonreal
Q2. Sketch the graph of y = x 3 .
complex zeros the function could have.
Q3. Sketch the graph of y = x 4 •
3. y
Q4.Sketch the graph of y = 2x.
QS.Multiply the complex numbers and simplify: X
(3 + 2i)(5 + 6i)
Q6. Solve the equation using the quadratic

formula: x2 - 14x + 54 = 0
Ql. Solve the equat ion using the quadratic
4. y
formula: x2 - 14x + 58 = 0
QB.What transformation of the function f(x) = sin x X
is indicated by g(x) = sin 2x?
Q9. What type of function has the add-multiply
property?
Q 10. Because 3 7° and 53 ° sum to 90°, they are 5. y
called-?- angles.
l. Given the function p(x) = x3 - 5x2 + 2x + 8,

complete steps a-d.
X
a. Plot the graph using an appropriate domain.
How many branches (increasing or
decreasing) does the graph have? How is
6. y
this number related to the degree of p(x)?
b. Find graphically the three real zeros of p(x).
X
c. Show by synthetic substitution that (x + 1) is
a factor of p(x). Use the result to write the
other factor, and factor it further if you can.
d. Explain the relationship between the zeros
of p(x) and the factors of p(x).
678 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivative
For Probl ems 7-18, sketch the graph of th e 25 . Sum: 8; sum of the pairwise products: 29 ;
polynomial function describ ed, or explain why no product: 52
such function can exist. The expressio n complex
26 . Sum: -5; sum of the pairwise products: 4;
zero is used to mean a nonreal compl ex numb er.
produ ct: 10
7. Cubic function with two distinct negative
For Problems 27 and 28, complete steps a and b.
zeros, one positive zero, an d a positive
y-intercept a. By synthetic substitution, find p(c).
b . Write f~x) c in mixed-numb er form.
8. Cubic function with a negative double zero, a
positive zero, an d a negative leading 27. p(x) = x3 - 7x2 + 5x+ 4, c= 2 and c= -3
coefficient
28. p(x) = x3 - 9x 2 + 2x - 5, c = 3 and c = -2
9. Cubic function with one real zero, two complex
29. State the remainder th eorem.
zeros, and a po sitive leading coefficient
30. State the factor theor em.
10. Cubic function with no rea l zeros
31. State th e fundamental theorem of algebra.
11. Cubic fun ction with no extre m e points
32 . State th e two corollaries of the fundamental
12. Quartic function with no extreme points
theorem of algebra.
13. Quartic function with no real zeros
33 . Synthetic Substitution Program Problem: Write
14. Quartic function with two distinct positi ve a program for your grapher to perform
zeros, two distinct negative zeros, and a synthetic substitution. Enter the coefficients of
negative y-interce pt the polynomial, includin g thos e that equal
zero, into a list befor e you run the program.
15. Quartic function with two double zeros
The input should b e th e degree of the
16. Quartic function with two distinct real zeros polynomial and the value of x at which you
and two complex zeros want to evaluate the function. Enter the output
of the program, the coefficients of th e quotient
17. Quartic function with five distinct real zeros
polynomial and the remainder (which equals
18. Quintic function with five distinct real zeros the value of the polynomial), into another list.
Test your program with the function p(x) = x3 -
For Problems 19-22, from the coeffic ients find
7x2 + 5x + 4 from Probl em 27, with c = 2. You
quickl y the sum, the product, and the sum of the
should get the four number s 1, -5, -5 , -6,
pairwis e produ cts of the zeros, u sing the prop erties
which impl y that th e qu otient is x 2 - Sx - 5,
in this section . Then find the zeros and confirm
with remainder -6, when p(x) is divid ed by
tha t your answers satisfy the properties.
(x - 2), and that p(2) = -6.
19. f( x) = x3 - x2 - 22x + 40
34 . Quadrati c Function Sum and Product of Zeros
20 . f(x) = x3 + x2- 7x - 15 Probl em: By th e quadr atic formula, th e zeros
of th e general quadrati c function
21. f (x) = -5x3 - 18x2 + 7x + 156
f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c are
22. f (x) = 2x3 - 9x 2 - Bx+ 15
-b + Vb 2 - 4 ac
For Problems 23-26, find a particular equation of the Z1 = and
2a
cubic function, with zeros as described, if the leading
coefficient equals 1. Then find the zeros and confirm Zz =
-b - vb2 - 4ac
that your answers satisfy the given properties. 2a
23 . Sum: 4; sum of th e p airwise products: - 11; By finding z 1 + z2 and z 1 z 2 , show that th ere is
product: -30 a prop erty of the sum and product of zeros of
a quadratic function that is similar to th e
24 . Sum: 9; sum of the pair wise products : 26; corr esponding prop erty for cubic functions.
product: 24
Section
15-2: Graphs
andZeros
afPolynomial
Function
s 679
35. Quartic Function Sum and Product of Zeros and products of the zeros can be extended to
Problem: By repeated synthetic substitution functions of degree higher than 3.
or using your grapher, find the zeros of the
36. Reciprocals of the Zeros Problem: Prove that if
function
the function
f(x) = 2x 4 + 3x3 - 14x2 - 9x + 18
p(x) = ax 3 + bx2 + ex + d
Then find these quantities:
has zeros Zi, z2 , and z3 , th en the function
Sum of the zeros ("products" of the zeros
taken one at a time) q(x) = dx 3 + cx2 + bx+ a
Sum of all possible products of zeros taken 1 1
h as zeros 2i• d 1
22, an ~ -
two at a time
3 7. Horizontal Translation and Zeros Problem:
Sum of all possible products of zeros taken Let f(x) = x3 - 5x2 + 7x - 12. Let g(x) be a
three at a time horizontal translation of f(x) by 1 unit in the
Product of the zeros ("sum" of the products positive direction. Find the equation of g(x) .
taken all four at a time) Show algebraically that each zero of g(x)
is 1 unit larger than the corresponding zero
From the results of your calculations, make a
of f(x).
conjecture about how the property of the sums
15-3 Fitting Polynomial Functions to Data

Figure 15-3a shows four cubic functions that could model th e position of a
moving object as a function of time. From left to right in the figure, the object
• Passes a reference point (y = 0) while slowing down (decreasing slope) and
then speeds up again (increasing slope)
• Stops momentarily (zero slope) and then continues forward
• Reverses direction (negative slope) and then continues forward
• Approaches the reference point (y = 0) going in the negative direction
In all four cases, there is only one x-intercept, indicating that the other two
2002 Olymp ic go ld zeros are nonreal comp lex numbers.
medali st Apolo Anton
Ohno
y y y y Coming toward the

Speeding up_ reference point
Stops
mom entarily Going back
Slowing
down
\ X X X X
Passing the Passing the /

""' reference point reference poin t
Figure 15-3a
In thi s section you will apply curve-fitting techniques to polynomial functions.
680 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limit
s,andDerivative
s
OBJECTIVEGiven a set of points, find the equation of the polynomial function that fits
the data exactly or fits best for a given degree .
... EXAMPLE
1 A cubic function f contains the points (6, 38), (5, 74), (2, 50), and (-1, 80).
a. Find the equation of f algebraically . Check by cubic regression.
b. Verify the answer in part a by plotting and tracing on the graph .
Solution a. f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + ex + d Write th e general equation.
216a+ 36b+ 6c+ d= 38

125a+ 25b+ Sc+ d= 74 Substitut e 6 for x and 38 for f(x ),
and so forth, to get a system of
Ba+ 4b + 2c + d = 50 equation s.
1 -a + b - C + d = 80
[~~~ ~~ ~
8 4 2
~1
-l[~:1
1
[~~1 50 -19
Solve the system using matrices .
-1 1 -1 1 80 44
.'. f(x) = -2 x3 + 15x 2 - 19x + 44 Cubic regr ession gives the same
equation, with R 2 = l.
f{x) b. The graph is shown in Figure 15-3b . Tracing to x = 6, x = 5, x = 2, and x = -1

150 confirms that the given points are on the graph. Note that for large positive
X
values of x the values of f(x) get larger in the negative direction, consistent
with the fact that the leading coefficient is negative. ~
Recall the constant-second-differences property of quadratic functions . For a

cubic function, the third differences between the y-values are constant. The table
Figur e 15-3b shows the result for the function f(x) = -2x 3 + 15x2 - 19x + 44 from Example l.
X f(x)
-1 80 ) -36
0 44 ) -6) 30 ) -12
1 38 ) 12 ) 18 ) -12
2 50 ) 18) 6 ) -12 Use the 6.List feature of your grapher.
3 68 ) 12 ) -6
-18) -12
4 80) -6) -12
5 74 ) -36 ) -30 )
6 38
PROPERTY:
Constant-nth-Differences
Property
For an nth -degree polynomial function, if the x-valu es are equally spaced,
then the f(x)-values have constant nth differences.
You will prove this property in Problem 12.
Section
15-3
: Fitting
Polynomial
Functions
toData 681
~ EXAMPLE
2 An object moving in a straight line passes a reference point at time x = 2 s.
It slows down, stops, reverses direction, and passes the reference point going
backward. Then it stops and reverses direction again, passing the reference
point a third time. The table shows its displacements, f(x), in meters, at various
times.
X (S) f(x) (m) a. Make a scatter plot of the data. Explain why a cubic function would be a
reasonable mathematical model for displacement as a function of time.
2 0
3 27 b. Write the equation of the best-fitting cubic function. Plot the graph of the
4 24 function on the scatter plot in part a.
5 13 c. Use the equation in part b to calculate the approximate time the object
6 -4 passes the reference point going ba ckward.
7 -11
8 6 d. Show that a quartic func tion gives a coefficient of determination closer to 1
9 32 but has the wrong endpoint behavior for the given information.
Solution a. Figure 15-3c shows the scatter plot. A cubic function is a reasonable
mathematical model because it can reverse direction twice (it has two
f(x) extreme points), as shown by the scatter plot.
40
b. By cubic regression, the equation is
X f(x) = l.5782 ...x3 - 25.0119 ...x2 + 117.2669 ...x - 145.4761...
2
R2 = 0.9611 ... , indi cating a reasonably good fit because it is close to 1. The
grap h of fin Figure 15-3d shows that it is a reasonably good fit.
Figure 15-3c c. From the graph or the table, the x-value when the object passes the
reference point going backward is close to 6. Use the zeros, intersect, or
f(x) solver feature on your grapher.
40
X;::, 5.8908 ... ;::,5.9 S

X
d. Quar tic regression gives a coefficient of determination R2 = 0.9861.. ..
2
However, the quartic function would have a third extreme point and would
cross the x-axis a fourth time, which wasn't mentioned in the statement
of the problem. -11111
Figure 15-3d
Problem Set 15-3
Reading Analysis tZ!;,/J Quick Review~ w.,~

From what you have read in this section, what do you 01. Multiply: (x - 3)(x - 5)
consider to be the main idea? How is the constant-
02. Multiply and simplify: (3 + 2i)(5 + 4i)
second-differences property of quadrati c functions
extended to higher-degree functions? How would you 03. Expand : (x - 7)2
go about finding the equation of the quartic funct ion
04. Expand and simplify: (5 + 3i) 2
that best fits a given set of data points algebraically?
Numerically? 05. What is the maximum number of extreme
points a quintic function graph can have?
682 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limit
s,andDerivative
s
Q6. One zero of a par ticular cubic function with 3. The values in the table give the coordinates of
real-numb er coefficients is -7 + 4i. What is points that are on the graph of function f:
another zero? X. f(x)
Ql. Sketch th e graph of a cubic fun ction with
a positive double zero and x3-coefficient -2. 2 25.4
3 13.l
QB.Find the sum of the zeros of the function 4 -3 .8
f(x.) = 2x.3 + 7x.2 - 5x.+ 13 5 -23 .5
6 -44 .2
Q9. If polynomial p(x.) h as remainder 7 when 7 -64.1
divided by (x.- 5), find p(5).
a. Make a scatter plot of the points.
QlO. If polynomial p(x.) has p(·;3
) = 0, then a factor
b. Show that the third differences between the
of p(x.) is
f(x.)-values are constant.
A.x.-3 B. x. + 3 C.x.-2
c. Find algebraically the equation of the cubic
D . x. + 2 E. 2x.+ 3 function that fits th e first four points . Show
that running a cubic regression on all six
l. Given P(x.)= x.3 - 5x.2 + 2x.+ 10, complete points gives the same equation. Plot the
steps a- c. equation of the function on the same screen
as the scatter plot from part a.
a. Plot the graph using an appropriate domain .
Sketch the result. 4. The values in the table give th e coordinates of
points that are on the graph of function g:
b. How many zeros does the function have?
How man y extreme points do es the graph X. g(x.)
have? How are th ese numbers related to the -3
2
degree of p(x.)? -25
3
c. Make a table of values of p(x.)for each 4 -31
integer valu e of x. from 4 to 9. Show that the 5 27
third differences between the p(x)-values 6 221
are constant. 7 647
8 1425
2. Given P(x.) = -x.4 + 6x.3 + 6x.2 - 12x.+ 11,
comp lete steps a- c. a. Make a scatter plot of the points.
a. Plot the graph using an appropriate domain. b. Show that the fourth differences between
Sketch the result. the g(x)-values are constant.
c. Find algebraicall y the equation of the
b. How man y zeros does the function have?
quartic function that fits the first five
How man y extreme points does the graph
points . Show that running a quartic
have? How are these numbers related to the
regr ess ion on all seven points gives the
degree of p(x)?
same equation . Plot the equation of the
c. Make a table of values of p( x) for each function on the same screen as the scatt er
integer valu e of x. from - 2 to 4. Show plot of part a.
that th e fourt h differences between the
p(x.)-valu es are constant.
Section
15-3
: Fitting
Polynomial
Functions
toData 68 3
5. Diving Board Problem: Figure 15-3e shows a that is in the x-range determined by the
diving board deflected by a person standing on 10-ft-long diving board.
it. Theoretical results on strength of materials
6. Two-Stage Rocket Problem: A two-stage rocket
indicate that the deflection of such a canti lever
is fired straig ht up. After the first stage
beam below its horizontal rest position at any
finishes firing, the rocket slows down until the
point x from the built-in end of the beam is
second stage starts firing. Its altitudes, h(x), in
a cubic function of x. Suppose that these
feet above the ground, at each 10 s after firing
deflections, f(x), are measured, in thousandths
are given in the table.
of an inch, where x is measured in feet.
X (S) h(x) (ft)
10 1750
•----x ---- , 20 3060
f(x), deflection 30 3510
I
Diving board
40
50
3700
4230
60 5700
Figure 15-3e
a. Show that the h(x)-values have constant
X (ft) f(x) (0.001 in.) third differences .
b. What type of function will fit the data
0 0 exactly? Write its equation.
1 116
2 448 c. Plot the graph of h. Based on the graph,
3 972 does the rocket start coming back down
before the second stage fires? How can
you tell?
d. The first stage of the rocket was fired at
(
time x = 0. How do you explain the fact
that the function in part b has a zero at
X = 3 s?
7. Television Set Pricing: A retail store has various
\ sizes of television sets made by the same

manufacturer. The price for a set is a function
of the screen size, measured in inches along
the diagonal. The prices are listed here.
X (in.) p (x) (dollars)
2 160
5 100
7 120
a. Write the equation of the cubic function 12 250
that fits the data. Show that the linear and 17 220
constant coefficients are zero. 21 200
b. How far does the diving board deflect when 27 340
the person is stan din g at its end, x = 10 ft? 32 680
35 1100
c. Show that the function has another zero but
that it is out of the x-range of the function. a. Make a scatter plot of the data. Based on the
d. Sketch the graph of the function, showing sca tt er plot, explain why a quartic function
both vertices. Darken the part of the graph is a more appropriate mathematical model
than a cubic function.
684 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Function
s,Limits,
andDerivatives
b. Write the equation of the best-fitting b . According to the cubic model, what is th e
quartic function, p(x). Plot function p on maximum number of bean plants they had
the same screen as the scatte r plot. in the first year? After how man y weeks
c. Based on the quartic model, whi ch size did the number of b ean plants reach this
television set is most overprice d? maximum ? Did an y plants survive through
th e next winter? If so, what is th e smallest
d. What rea l-world reason can you think of number of plants, and when did the number
to explain why the 17-in. an d 21-in. sets reach this minimum ? If not , when did the
are less expensive than th e smaller , last plant die, and when did the first pl ant
12-in. set? em erge the next spring?
8. Pilgrim's Bea n Crop Problem: When the c. Show that if B(8) had be en 273 instead of
Pilgrims arrived in America, they brought 272, the concl u sions of part b would be
along se eds from which to grow cro ps . If the y much different. (This phenomenon is
had planted b eans, the num ber of b ean plants called sensitive d epe ndenc e on initial
would have increased rapidly, leveled off, and condition s.)
th en decr ease d with the approac h of winter. d. In what year did th e first Pilgrims arriv e in
The next spring, a n ew crop would have come America ? What did they name the plac e
up . Suppose that the number of bean plants, where the y lan ded?
B(x), as a function of x weeks since the
planting is given by this table: 9. R iver Bend Prob lem: A river meand ers ba ck
and forth across Rout e 66 . Three cross ings
X B(x) are 1.7 mi, 3.8 mi, and 5.5 mi east of the
inters ection of Route 66 and Farm Road 13,
3 59 or FM 13 (Figure 15-3f).
4 113
5 160 FM 13
6 203 North
7 240 +
8 272
Interse ction
Route 66
-u ~ 'I
3.8 ---+-l
i- -- s.s-- -1
Figur e 15-3f
a. Use the sum and produ ct of zeros prop erties

to find quickly an equation of the cubic
function y = x" + bx.2+ ex+ d that has
1.7, 3.8, and 5.5 as zeros . What is the
y-intercept ?
b . Let f(x) be the numb er of miles north of
Route 66 for a point on th e riv er that is
distance x, in miles, east of FM 13. Suppose
that the river crosses FM 13 at a point 4.1
Squanto Teaching Pilgrims
by Charl es W Jefferys mi north of th e intersection. What n ega tive
(The Granger Collection, New York) vertical dilation of th e equation in part a
would give a cubic function with the
a. Write the equation of the best -fitting cubi c correct f(x)-intercept as well as th e correct
function. Plot the equation and the data on x-interce pts ? Write the parti cular equation
th e same screen . Sketch the result. of f(x) .
Section
15-3: Fitting
Polynomial
Function
stoDoto 685
c. Plot function f Sketch the result. What is P(L), th e payload the plane can carry in
the graphical significance of the fact that kilograms.
the leading coefficient is negative? c. Make a table of values of P(L) for each 10 m
d. Based on the cubic model, what is the from O m to 50 m.
farthest south of Route 66 that the river d. Function Pis cubic and thus has three
goes between the 1. 7-mi crossing and the zeros . Find these three zeros, and explain
3.8-mi crossing? What is the farthest north what each represents in the rea l world.
of Route 66 that the river goes between the
3.8-mi crossing and the 5.5-mi crossing? 11. Behavior of Polynomial Functions for Large
How far east of the 5.5-mi crossing would Values of x: Figure 15-3g shows
you have to go for the river to be 10 mi f (x) = x3 7x2 + lOx + 2 (solid)
- and
south of Route 66? 3
g(x) = x (dashed)
10. Airplane Payload Problem: The number of
The graph on the right is zoomed out by a
kilograms of "payload" an airplane can carry
factor of 4 in the x-direction and by a factor
equals the number of kilograms the wings can
of 64 (equal to 4 3 ) in they-direction.
lift minus the mass of the airplane, minus the
mass of the crew and th eir equipment . Use y I
these facts to write an equation of th e payload 500
g
I
f
f I
as a function of the airplane's length: X
I
X
• The plane's mass is directly proportional to -5 -2 0 20

the cub e of the plane's length.
• The plane's lift is dir ectly proportional to
the square of the plane's length.
Figure 15-3g
a. Plot the two graphs on your grapher with

a window as shown in the graph on th e left.
Set the zoom factors on your grapher to 4 in
the x-direction and 64 in the y-direction .
Then zoom out by these factors. Does the
result resemble the graph on the right in
Figure 15-3g?
b . Zoom out again by the same factors. Sketch
the resu ltin g graphs.
c. What do you notice about the shapes of the
two graphs as you zoom out farth er and
farther? Can you still see the intercepts and
vertices of the f graph? What do you think
is the reason for saying that the highest-
degree term dominates the function for
a. Assume that a plane of a particular design
large values of x?
and length L = 20 m can lift 2000 kg and
has mass 800 kg. Write an equation of 12. Constant-nth-Differences Proof Project:
the lift and an equation of the mass as Let f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + ex + d.
functions of L. a. Find algebraically four consecut ive valu es of
b. Assume that the crew and their equipment f(x) for which the x-values are k units apart.
have mass 400 kg. Write the equation of That is, find f(x), f(x + k), f(x + 2k), and
f(x + 3k). Expand the powers.
686 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDer
ivatives
b. Show that the third differe n ces between th e c. Find the mean of th e given f(x)-values . Find
values in part a are indepe ndent of x and SSctev, the sum of the square s of th e
are equal to 6ak 3 • deviations of each data point from this
c. Let g(x) = 5x3 - llx 2 + 13x - 19. Find g(3), mean valu e.
g(lO), g(17), g(24), and g(31). By findin g the d. Recall that the coefficient of determination
third differences betw een consec uti ve is defined to be the fraction of SSctev th at is
values , show numericall y that the removed by the regression. That is,
conclusion in part b is correct .
Rz = _SS-'ct=
e-'-
v _-_S_S-'-re=s
13. Coefficient of Determination Review SSctev
Problem:
Confirm that this formula gives 0.9611.. .,
a. Enter the data from Examp le 2 into your the value found by regression.
grapher and run the cubic regress ion.
Confirm that the coeffic ient of 14. Journal Problem: Enter into your journal what
determination is 0.9611 .. ., as shown in the you have learne d so far about higher-degree
exam pl e. po lynomial functions . Include things such as
b. Using the appropriate list features on your th e shap es of the graphs and constant
gra pher , find SSres, the sum of the squar es differe nce s and their relationship to the degree
of the residual deviati ons of each data point of the polynomial.
fro m the regression curve.
15-4 Rational Functions: Discontinuities, Limits,

and Partial Fractions
The function
x+2
y=
x2 - x- 6
is calle d a rational functi on because y equals a ratio of two polynomials . In thi s
section you will learn what happ ens to graphs of rational func tion s at value s of
x at which the denominator equals zero .
OBJECTIV
E Find discontinuities in the graphs of rational functions, and identify the type
of disco ntinuities the y are.
Discontin uities and Limits

In Figure 15-4a, rational functions f and g have equations that look almost alike.
Both f(3) and g( 3) are undefin ed becaus e division by zero is undefined, making
their graphs discontinu ous at x = 3, as shown. However, the effect of the
disco ntinuity on each graph is quit e different.
Section
15-4: Rational
Function
s:Discontinu
ities,Limits,
andPartial
Fractions 687
f(x) g(x)
10 Removable 10
I
discontinuity
: Vertical
\ , asymptote
V
I
I
I
X X
x3 - 5x 2 + Bx - 6 x3 - 5x 2 + Bx - 5
f(x) = g(x) = 3
x- 3 x-
Figure 15-4a
This table sho ws num ericall y what happens when xis close to 3.
X f(x) g(x)
2.9 4.61 -5.39

2.99 4.9 60 1 -55 .0399
2.999 4.996001 - 995.003999
3 Undefined Undefin ed Each function has a discontinuity
3.001 5.004001 1005.004001 at X = 3.
3.01 5.0401 105.0401
3.1 5.41 15.41
Function f has a removable discontinuity at x = 3. A point is missing from
the graph. Because f(x) get s clos er and closer to 5 as x approaches 3, th e
dis continuity could b e "removed" by defining f( 3) = 5. If you define f( 3) = 5, the
result is a continuous function. The discontinuit y in function g at x = 3 means
that there is a vertical asymptote. As x approaches 3, g(x) approaches positive
or negative infinity.
You can see algebraically what happ ens to these functions at x = 3 by
substituting 3 for x in each equation. The answers ha ve th ese forms.
f( 3): z Indeterminate form

M. C. Escher 's wood
engraving , Smaller and 1
Smaller, demonstrat es g(3): 0 Infinit e form
limit - the areas of these
geckos' bodies get closer The form § is called an indeterminate form. You can't "determin e" that f(x) is
and closer to ze ro as they close to 5 just by looking at th e form§. The form bis called an infinite form
approach the center. (M. C. because the quotient of g(x) keeps getting larger and larger in abso lut e value as
Escher's Smaller and
Small er © 2006 Cordon 3
x gets clos er and closer to 3. The form is always infinite.
Art B.V.-Baarn-Holla nd. The numb er 5 is called the limit of f(x) as x approaches 3, written
A ll rights reserved.)
lim f(x) = 5 Pronounced "The limit as x approaches 3 of f(x) is 5."
x- 3
688 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivativ
es
DEFINITION:
Limit
L = lim f(x) if and only if you can keep f(x) arbitrarily close to L by keeping x
x-c
sufficiently close to c (but not equal to c).
Fortunately, there is an algebraic way to find the limit of a rational function at a

removable discontinuity. Example 1 shows you how .
.....EXAMPLE
1 Find lim f(x) for
x- 3
x3 - 5x 2 + 8x - 6
R~=--x---3-~
Solution First use synthetic substitution with x = 3 (which makes the denominator equal
zero) and the polynomial in the numerator.
_iJ 1 -5 8 -6
3 -6 6
1 -2 2 0 The remainder is 0, so (x - 3) is a
factor of the numerator.
(x - 3)(x2 - 2x + 2)
f (x) = ------- x - 3 Write the nume r ator in factored form.
f(x) = x 2 - 2x + 2 provid ed x ~ 3 Simplify to "remove" the

discontinuity algebraically.
lim f(x) = 32 - 2(3) + 2 =5
x- 3
Substitute 3 for x in the quoti ent
polynomial . ~
When you remove the common factor (x- 3) in the third-to-last line of Example
1, you remove the discontinuity algebraically, and that is why it is called
"removable." Although f(x) is undefined at x = 3, after you've simplified it, you
can evaluate the quotient polynomial at x = 3. Substituting 3 into the
polynomial gives the exact value of the limit .
.....EXAMPLE
2 Find lim g(x) for
x- 3
x3 - 5x 2 + Bx - 5
g(x) = ---x--- 3--
Solution ~ 1 -5 8 -6
3 -6 6
1 -2 2 0 The remainder is 1, so (x - 3) is not a factor.
1
g(x) = x 2 - 2x + 2 + -- Write g(x) in mixed-numb er form.
x- 3
lim g(x) is infinite The discontinuity cannot be removed .
x- 3
Section
15-4: Rational
Functions
: Discontinuities
, Limits,
andPartial
Fract
ions 689
The symbo l "oo" stands for infinity. Note that oo is not a number. It is u sed to
indicate that the value of the limit is greater in abso lut e valu e than any real
number.
For a function f(x), if you evaluat e the limits lim f(x) and lim f(x), you are
X-+ CO X-+-00
determining the end behavior of f(x)- the behavior of f(x) for increasingly large
positive and negative values of x.
PROPERTIES:
Discontinuities
andIndeterminate
Forms
For the rational algebraic function f(x) = p((x),
q x)
• f has a discontinuity atx = c if q(c) = 0.
• f has a vertical asymptote at x = c if f(c) has the infinite form
(nonzero number)
0
• fmay have a removable discontinuity at x = c if f(c) has the
indeterminate form §. Cancel the common factor to see if the
discontinuity is removed.
• The y-value of a removable discontinuity at x = c is the limit of f(x) as x
approaches c.
• The limit can be found graphically, numerically, or algebra ically.
Partial Fractions
The rational function
9x - 7 9x - 7
f(x) =
X
2
- x- 6 (x + 2)(x - 3)
((x) has a quadratic denominator. From the factored form you can tell th at there
are two discontinuities, one at x = -2 and the other at x = 3. There are vertical
il_ , asymptotes at both discontinuities because neither factor in the denominator
cance ls. The graph is shown in Figure 15-4b.
-: :s Rational functions such as this can come from adding two rational expressions
,- 5 :
I I with linear denominators. For instance,
\ I
I
I
I
Figure 15-4b 5 4 S(x - 3) 4(x + 2) 9x- 7

--+--= +-----
x+2 x- 3 (x + 2)(x - 3) (x - 3)(x + 2) (x + 2)(x - 3)
It is possible to start with th e expression on the far right and reverse the
process of addition to find the two partial fractions that were added to
form f(x). Example 3 shows you how .
.... EXAMPLE
3 Resolve the rational function
f(x) = 9x - 7
x2 - x - 6
into partial fractions.
690 Chapter
15: Poly
nomial
andRational
Functio
ns,Limits,
andDerivatives
Solution f(x) = 9x - 7 Factor the denominator.
(x+2)(x-3)
A B A and B sta nd for

=--+--
x+2 x-3 unknown constants.
A(x - 3) + B(x + 2)
Find a common
(x + 2)(x - 3) denominator and add the
fractions.
(A+ B)x + (-3A + 2B)

Arrange the nwnerator as
(x + 2)(x - 3) an x-term and a constant
term.
.'. (A + B)x = 9x and (-3A + 2B) = - 7 Equate the x-terms and the
constant terms.
A+ B= 9
{-3A+2 B=-7
Solve by using matric es .
5 4
.'. f(x)=--+-- Write the answer.
x+ 2 x-3
A quicker way to find the partial fractions in Example 3 is attributed to British

mathematician Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925). Consider the fun ctio n
9x- 7
f(x)=----
(x+ 2)(x- 3)
Look at the factored form of the denominator and find the values of x at which
the factors equal zero. If x = -2 , then (x + 2) is zero . Then cover up the factor
(x + 2) with your finger and substitute -2 for x in what remains.
f(x) C (8 9x - 7
)(x - 3)
Calculate:
9(-2) - 7
-2 - 3
=5
The value you get is 5, the numerator of the factor covered up. Similarly, you
can find the numerator of the other factor by covering up the factor (x - 3) and
subst ituting 3 into what is left. The value x = 3 makes that factor equal zero.
9x - 7 9(3) - 7
Calculate : 3Y =4
f(x) c (x+2)(~)
The value you get is 4; that is the numerator of the second covered-up factor.
5 4
.'. f(x) =--+--
x+ 2 x-3
Section
15·4: Rational
Functions:
Discontinuitie
s,Limits,
andPartial
Fractions 691
Problem Set 15-4
Reading Analysis Ll!;/J For Problems 1 and 2, plot the graphs of the two
functions on the same screen. Use a window with
an x-range that includes the integers as grid points.
consider to be the main idea? What causes a function
Sketch the results, showing any vertical asymptotes
to have a discontinuity at a particular value of x?
or removable discontinuities.
What makes a discontinuity "removable"? What is
the difference between an infinite form and an x3 - 10x 2 + 24x-16
1. f(x) = ------- and
indeterminate form? What is meant by the limit of a x- 2
function as x approaches a value at which there is a 2
discontinuity? How is the operation of resolving a g(x)
x 3 - l0x x___
= ___ + 224x-17
__ _
rational algebraic expression into partial fractions
related to the operation of adding two rational x2 -x-12
2. r(x) = ---- h(x) = x2 - x - ll
expressions? and
x- 4 x-4
Quick Review 3. For functions f and gin Problem 1, make a

table of values for f(x) and g(x) for values of
x that get closer and closer to 2 from both
Q2. Sketch the graph of a cubic function with directions. How do the values in the table
three real zeros. relate to the graphs in Problem 1?
Q3. Sketch the graph of a cubic function with 4. For functions rand h in Problem 2, make a
two nomeal complex zeros. table of values for r(x) and h(x) for values of x
that get closer and closer to 4 from both
Q4. Sketch the graph of a quartic function with directions. How do the values in the table
four real zeros. relate to the graphs in Problem 2?
Q5. How many vertices can the graph of a 5. For both functions in Problem 1, use synthetic
7th-degree function have? substitution either to remove the removable
Q6. Write the zeros of the function discontinuity or to write the equation in
y = (3x - 5)(2x + 7)(x - 4). mixed-number form.
Ql. How many times does the graph of the 6. For both functions in Problem 2, use synthetic
function g(x) = (x - 4)(x2 + 5x + 2) cross the substitution either to remove the removable
x-axis7 discontinuity or to write the equation in
mixed-number form.
QB.What transformation of f gives g, if
7. For functions f and gin Problem l, find
g(x) = f(tx)?
algebraically lim f(x) and lim g(x).
x- 2 x-2
Q9. If you multiply a 3 x 2 matrix by a 2 x 4
matrix, what dimension matrix results? 8. For functions rand h in Problem 2, find
algebraically lim r(x) and lim h(x).
x-4 x-+4
Q10. The exact value of sin 1 is 9. Function gin Problem 1 is the sum of a
quadratic function and a transformation of the
A. 0 B. 0.5 C ./3
. 2 reciprocal function y = ~- What transformation
was applied to the reciprocal function?
D. )3 E.
J2
3 2 10. Function h in Problem 2 is the sum of a linear
function and a transformation of the
reciprocal function y = ;. What transformation
was applied to the reciprocal function?
692 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivatives
For Problems 11 and 12, plot the function using a numb er as x approaches 2 from th e left than it
friendly window with an x-range that includes do es as x approaches 2 from the right. The
int egers as grid points. Sketch the results, showing function g(x) in Figure 15-4d has step
any vertical asymptotes. discontinuiti es at each inte ger valu e of x. It
could represent the cost of po stage for a
2x- 22
11. f(x) = - 2--- first-class letter as a function of th e numb er
x + 2x - 8 of ounces the letter weighs.
7x- 2
12. g(x) = x2 - x - 2 f(x )
13. Resolve f(x) in Problem 11 into partial

fractions.
10
14. Reso lve g(x) in Problem 12 into partial
fractions .
15. The partial fractions in Prob lem 13 are X
transformations of th e reciproca l function 2
y = ±-Identif y the transformations that were

applied to get each partial fract ion.
Figure 15-4c
16. The partial fract ion s in Probl em 14 are g(x)
transformations of the reciproca l function
200
y = ±-Identif y the transformations that were
o--0
o--0
applied to get each partial fraction . o--0
o--0
For Problems 17-22, resolve the rational express ion 100 o--0
into partia l fractions.

Bx- 2 X
17. 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
X - 2X - 8
llx - 17_ Figur e 15-4d

18. _ ?___
x- - 5x - 6 a. The equation of th e function graph ed in
Figure 15-4c is
7x- 1
19 2 2 2lx - 21
· x + 6x + 5 f (X)=X - ---
x-2
-2 x - 18
20 Plot thi s function u sing dot style and a
· x2 - lOx + 21
friend ly window with an x-range including
9x 2 - 24x- 57 th e x-value 2. What number does f(x)
21.------- approach as x approaches 2 from the left?
(x + l)(x + 3)(x - 5)
From th e right?
5x2 + 7x + 6 b. The equation of the function graph ed in
22.-------
(x - l)(x + l)(x + 2) Figure 15-4d is g(x) = 34 + 23 int(x), wh ere
23. What is the difference in meaning betwee n an int(x) is th e great est int eger less than or
ind eterm inat e form and an infinit e form? equal to x. Plot the graph u sing dot style.
What is g(2.99)? g(3)?
24. What is meant by a removable discontinuity?
What process can you use to remove a
remova ble discon tinui ty?
26. Research Project: Look up Oliver Heaviside on
25. Step Discontinuity Problem: The function in
th e Internet or in anoth er reference source .
Figure 15-4c has a step discontinuity at x = 2.
Using these sources, tr y to find why th e "cover
The value of f(x) approa ches a different
up" method for findin g partial fractions is valid.
Section
15-4: Rational
Function
s:Discontinuities
, Limits
, andPartial
Fractions 693
15-5 Instantaneous Rate of Change
of a Function: The Derivative
f(x) (ft)
Suppose that a bird takes off
How fast ? from the ground at time x = 1
20
\ s. It climbs for a while, th en
dives for a while, and then
swoops back up again.
Figure 15-Sa shows what its
X (S) height might be as a function
2 5 7 of time.
Figur e 15-Sa From the graph you can tell
that the bird is still climbing
at x = 2 s. The ques tion is "At
what rate is the bird climbing
at the instant x = 2 s?" In this section you'll learn how to calculate the derivative
of certain kinds of functions, which tells you the instantaneous rate.
OBJECTIVE
Given the particu lar equ ation of a polynomia l function, find the
instantaneous rate of change (the derivative) at a given point, and interpret
the answer graphically.
Instantaneous Rate (Derivative) Numericall y

Rate equals distance divided by time . An "instant" is O s long. In O s, the bird
mentioned before would travel O ft. So the instantaneous rate takes on the
indeterminate form
0
Instantaneo u s rate =
0
About 300 years ago, Isaac Newton (164 2- 1727) in England and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 - 1716) in Germany solved this problem with the help of
the limit concept , which you have seen in connection with asymptotes and
removable discontinuities in the previous section and with fixed points and
geometric series earlier .
Suppose that the bird's height, depicted in Figure 15-Sa, is given by the function
f(x) = x 3 - 13x2 + 52x - 40
where xis in seconds and f(x) is in feet. To find an approximation of the
Gottfri ed Wilhelm Leibniz
(1646-1716), a German
ins tantaneous rate at which the bird is climbing at x = 2 s, first find the averag e
math emati cian, made rate over a small time interval. Using your grapher, you will find
significant contributions
f(2) = 20 and f(2.l) = 21.131
to the development of
th e calculu s, including So the bird climbed 1.131 ft in 0.1 s, for an average rat e of
th e power rul e for
derivatives. (The Granger 1.1 31
Aver age rate= -- = 11.31 ft / s
Collection, New York) .0.1
694 Chapter
15: Polynomialand Rat
ional Functions,Limits,andDerivat
ives
To get a better estimate of the instantaneous rate, use smaller time interva ls.
0.119301
{(2.01) = 20.119301 Average rate= = 11.9301 ft / s
0.01
0.011993001
{(2.001) = 20.011993001 Average rate= O.OOl = 11.993001 ft/s
The average rates seem to be approaching a limit of 12 ft / s as the length of

the time interval gets closer and closer to zero. This limit, 12 ft / s, is th e
instantaneous rat e, or instantan eous velocity . This instantan eous rate is called
the derivative of th e time-height function describing the bird' s flight.
Instantaneous Rate (Deriv ativ e) Algeb raically

In the bird flight examp le, th e distance the bird rose betwee n 2 s and
x s was given by
Distance= f(x) - f(2) = (x3 - 13x2 + 52x- 40) - 20 = x3 - 13x2 + 52x- 60
The time it took was
Length of time= x - 2
So the average rate, r(x), is given by the rational function
x3 - 13x 2 + 52x - 60
r(x) = -- - ---- Average rate= distan ce/ time
x- 2
By graphing or by synthetic substitution, you can find that 2 is a zero of the
numerator and that the expression for r(x) can be simplified.
(x - 2)(x2 - l lx + 30)
r(x) = -------
x- 2
r(x) = x2 - llx + 30 provid ed x * 2
The graph of the average rate, r(x), has a removable discontinuity at x = 2, as
shown in Figur e 15-Sb. The discontinuity is removable becau se the factor (x - 2),
which makes the deno minator zero wh en x = 2, is canceled by the factor (x - 2)
in the numerator.
r (x)
30
V)
s
E:!
E Removable discontinuity
/
<l)
ell
E 12
"
>
<(
Figur e 15-Sb
Section
15·5
: Instantaneous
Rate
ofChange
ofa Function:
TheDerivative 695
The instantan eous rate at x = 2 is th e y-value at this dis con tinuit y. It is the limit
of the average rate as x approaches 2. This instantaneou s rate is the derivativ e
of the tim e-height function at x = 2 as you've seen it defined pr eviously.
Instantaneous ratex =2 = der ivativex=2 = lim (average rat e)
x- 2
= 2 2 - 11(2) + 30 = 12
So th e bird was climbing at th e rate of 12 ft/s at the instant x = 2 s.
Instantaneous Rate (Derivative) Graphically

The derivative of a function ha s a remarkable geometric relationship to
th e graph of the function. Figure 15-Sc shows th e height of th e bird, as gra phed
in Figur e 15-Sa. A line with slope 12 (the derivati ve at x = 2) is drawn at the
point on the graph where x = 2. As you can see from th e figure, th e lin e is
tangent to th e graph at x = 2.
f'(x) (ft)
Tangent
line
20
X (S)
2 5
Figure 15-Sc
Here is a summary of what you' ve learn ed so far .
DEFINITIONS:
AverageandInstantaneous
Ratesof Change
• The average rate of change, r(x) , of function f(x) over an interval starting
at x = c is the change in the y-value of the function divided by the
corresponding change in the x-value. It is given by the rational function
r(x) = f(x) - f(c) (Average rate)

x- C
• The instantaneous rate of change of f(x) at x = c is called the derivative

and is denoted f'(c), pronounced "fprime of c." It is equal to the limit of
the average rate as x approach es c.
f'(c) = lim f(x) - f(c) (Instantaneous rate)

x-c X - C
• The value of the derivativ e of f(x) at x = c equals th e slope of the

tangent line to the graph of fat x = c.
696 Chapt
er 15: Poly
nomialandRational
Functions
, Limit
s,andDerivative
s
Equation of a Tangent Line
Using the techniques you learn ed in algebra, you can find the equation of the
line tangent to a graph at a given point and plot it on your grapher .
.... EXAMPLE
1 Find the particular equation of the line tangent to the graph of
f(x) = x 3 -
2
+ 52x - 40 at the point where x = 2. Plot the graph and the
l3x
tangent line on the same screen.
Solution y= mx + b In the genera l equation of a line, m is the slop e, and b is the

y-intercept.
y=I2x+b From the previous work, th e derivativ e (slope) is 12.
20=12(2)+b From the pr evious work, th e point (2, 20) is on the gra ph.
-4 = b
.·.y=l2x-4
Figure 15-Sd shows that the line is tangent to the graph at x = 2.
f(x)
Figur e 15-Sd
Problem Set 1S-S
Reading Analysis Ll!J/ 03. The discontinuity at x = 4 yields a vertical

From what you have read in this section, what do asymptote.
you consider to be the main idea ? What is meant by
Q4. r(S) =0
the derivative of a function ? How are the concepts
average rate, instantaneous rate, and limit related QS.What is the form § called?
to one another? How is an instantaneous rate of Q6. What is th e form ! called?
change of a function related to a line tangent to the
graph of the function? Ql. What is the slope of th e linear function
y = 3x+ 5?
Quick Review
v\_)s"1/..:.
., QB.What is the slope of th e linear function for
,, which f(2) = 7 and f(S) = 197
For Problems Ql -Q4, a rational algebraic function
has the equation r(x) =:):(.What do you know Q9. Write a linear factor of the polynomial function
about p(x) and q(x) for each given condition? fif f(3) = 0.
Ql. There is a discontinuity at x = 4. QJO.If (3 - 5 i) is a zero of a polynomial with

real-number coefficients, what is another
Q2.The discontinuity at x = 4 is removable . comp lex zero?
Section
15-5: Instantaneous
RateofChange
ofa Function:
TheDerivative 697
l. Consider the function f(x) = x3 6x 2 +Bx+ 5.
- c. Is the object speeding up or slowing down at
a. Estimate numerically the instantaneous rate these times? At what rate?
of change of f(x) at x = 2 and at x = 4. 4. Figure 15-Sf shows the position of a moving
b. Find algebraically the instantaneous rate of object as a function of time.
change of f(x) at x = 2 and at x = 4. Do the
numerical answers in part a agre e with
these values?
c. Write an equation of the line through the
point on the graph at x = 4 with slope equa l
to the derivative at that point. Plot the line <l)
and f(x) on the same screen. Sketch the § 511-~~~~-l-~..L-~~---+-

result. ls the line really tangent to the graph 0"'
at this point?
2. Consider the function g(x) = x 3 - 2x 2 - x + 6.
a. Estimate numerically the instantaneous rate
of change of g(x) at x = l and at x = 3. 4
Time(s)
b. Find algebraica lly the instantaneous rate of
change of g(x) at x = 1 and at x = 3. Do the Figur e 15-5(
numerical answers in part a agree with
th ese values? a. On a copy of the figure, draw lin es tangent
to the grap h at times 1 s and 4 s.
c. Write an equation of the line through the
b. Estimate graphically the derivative of the
point on the graph at x = l with slope equal
to the derivative at that point. Plot the line function at these two times .
and g(x) on the same screen. Sketch the c. Is the object spe eding up or slowing down
result. Is the lin e really tangent to the graph at these times? At what rate?
at this point? 5. Tim and Lum's Board Pricing Problem: Tim
3. Figure 15-Se shows the position of a moving Burr and his broth er Lum own a lumber
object as a function of time . company. Figure 15-Sg shows th e price, in
cents, they char ge for boards of varying length,
in feet. For shorter boards, the price per foot
decreases. For longer boards, the price per
foot increases, because tall trees are harder
to find.
§
<l)
§ 51- ~ --1~~-+-----.~----'----~-+-
0"'
3
Time (min)
Figure 15-Se
a. On a copy of the figure, draw lin es tangent

to the graph at times 3 min and 7 min.
b. Estimate graphically the deriv ative of the
function at th ese two times.
698 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Function
s,Limits,
andDerivati
ves
f(x) (cent s) where tis time, in seconds. Figure 15-Sh shows
the graph of this fun ction .
d(t) (ft)
20
10
t (s)
1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9
Figur e 15-Sh
s 10 15 20
Figure 15-Sg
a. The particular equation of this function is

the cubic polynomial
f(x) = x 3 - 17x2 + 105x- 89
where x is the length of the board, in feet,
and f(x) is the pric e of the board, in cents .
Show by synthetic substitutio n that x = 1
is a zero of this function. What is the
real-world meaning of this fact? Show
algebraically that the other two zeros of
this function are nonreal complex
numbers.
b. The graph goes off scale. If the vertical scale a. What is the bee's average velocity from
were exten ded far enough, what price would t = 6 s to t = 6.01 s? (Average velocity is the
you pay for a 20-ft bo ard? How long woul d a average rate for the time-displacement
board be that costs $10.00? function.)
c. Write a rational algebraic function to describe b . Write an expression for the bee's average
the average rate of change from 8 ft to x ft. velocity from 6 s to ts . By simplifying the
By simplifying the fraction, remove the resulting fraction, calculate algebraically its
removable discontinuity. Use the result to instantaneous velocity at time t = 6 s.
show that the instantaneous rate of change c. On a copy of Figure 15-Sh, plot a line
at x = 8 ft is exactly 25 cents per foot . through the point at t = 6 with slope equal
d. On a copy of Figure 15-Sg, plot a line to the instantaneous velocity at time t = 6 s.
through the point on the graph at x = 8 with How does the line relate to the graph?
slope equal to the instantaneous rate of d. Figure 15-Sh indicates graphically that there
change you calculated in part c. How is this are no positive values of t for which the bee
line related to the graph? is at the flower. Show algebraically that this
6. Bumblebee Problem: A bumblebee flies past a is true.
flower . It decides to go back for another look. e. At what negative value of twas the bee at
Just before it reaches the flower, it turns and the flower ? At what positive time was it
flies off. Its displacement from the flower, d(t), closest to the flower ? How close?
in feet, is given by the function
2
d(t) = 0.2t 3 - l.8t + 3t+ 5.6
Section
15·5:Instantaneous
Rate
ofChange
ofoFunction
: TheDerivative 699
7. Door Closer Problem: Figure 15-5i shows a top set 6.t down to the smallest value shown,
view of a door. Suppose that the door is 0.00001 s. Describe what happens to the
equipped with an automatic closer so that values of the average rat e and the line
when you give the door a push it swings open, through the points t 1 and t2 as M
slows down, starts swinging back, and slows approaches zero.
down again as it reaches the closed position. e. Reset 6.t to 0.5 s. Then click on the Open
Assume that while the door is in motion, the Door button. Describe what happ ens to the
number of degrees, d, from the closed position line connecting the two points on the
as a function of time t, in seconds, since you graph. Click on the Open Door button again
pushed it is given by the function and describe what happens numerically to
d(t) = 200t · 2- t the rate (d 2 - d 1 )/ (t 2 - t 1 ). How do you
interpret the negative rates for larger values
Door oft?
f. What do you understand better about
instantaneous rates of change as a result of
do
working this probl em?
~ == "iiJ7(---
--- --------
----
= == d (angle)
Figure 15-Si
150
a. How wide open is the door at t = l s? At
t = 1.5 s? By how many degrees did d(t)
change from t= ls tot= 1.5 s? What was
100
the average rate of change of the door's
position (degrees per second) over this 0.5-s
interval?
50
b. Find th e average rate of change for the time
interval from 1 s to 1.1 s, from 1 s to 1.01 s,
and from 1 s to 1.001 s. Do these average
rates seem to be approaching a limit as the
length of the time interval approaches zero?
-5-
- .::::m:: -
Figur e 15-Sj
8. Derivative Shortcut for Power Function Problem:

c. Open the Instantaneous Rate Exploration at
www .keymath .com/precalc . Figure 15-5j shows the In this problem you will learn how to. find a
graph of d(t) as it appears in this Dynamic function that gives the instantaneous rate of
Precalculus Exploration. Set t 1 equal to 1 s chang e of a polynomial function.
by dragging point t1 or using the t-> 1 a. Let f(x) = x3 - llx 2 + 36x - 26. Show
button, and then click on the Show t2 and algebraically that the instantaneous rate of
Show Rate buttons. Set M equal to 0.5 s by change of fis 4 at x= 2 and-3 at x= 3.
dragging the M slider or using the 0.5 b. Let g(x) = 3x2 - 22x + 36. Show that g(2) and
button, thus setting t2 equal to 1.5. Does g(3) equal the instantaneous rates of change
th e rate (d 2 - d 1 )/ (t 2 - t 1 ) equal th e value off in part a.
you calculated in part a? What is the c. What operations could you perform on the
graphical interpretation of this average terms of the polynomial f(x) to derive the
rate? terms of g(x) ? Explain how these operations
d. Click on the buttons that set 6.t equal to 0.1 s, apply to the constant term, -26.
0.01 s, and 0.001 s. How do the average d. Figure 15-5k shows the graph off. Estimate
rates compare to the values you calculated from the graph the x-coordinates of the two
in part b? Click on successive buttons to extreme points .
700 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivatives
f(x)
Property: Derivative Function of a
10 Polynomial Function
If f(x) = anx " + · · · + a 1x + a 0 , where the
coefficients are real numb ers and the exponents
are nonnegative integers, then
X
3
f'(x) = an(nx" - 1 ) + · · · + a 1 .
Figure 15-Sk Verbally: To find the derivative of a polynomial
function, take the derivative of each term,
e. At the extreme points in part d, the multiplying by the coefficient of that term.
tangent line will be horizontal, and thus
the instantaneous rate of change will equa l For Problems 9-16, use the pattern described in the
zero . Find algebraically the values of x at box to find the equation of the derivative function,
which g(x) = 0. Show that the values you f'(x). Remember that you can write a constant, c, as
estimated graphically agree with these exact C' x0.
values.
9. f(x) = x 7 10. f(x) = x9
f. Calculate quickly the rate at which f(x) is
changing at x = 5. How does your answer 11. f(x) = 8x 6 12. f(x) = 12x 10
agree with the graph? 13. f(x) = 9x 3 - Sx2 + 2x - 16
g. Make a conjecture: "If f(x) = x1776 , then the 14. f(x) = llx3- 3x 2 -13x + 37
instantaneous rate of cha nge of f(x) at any
particular point is given by g(x) = -?- ." 15. f(x) = x 6 - 36 16. f(x) = x 5 + 4 5
(Is this a revolutionary idea?) For Problems 17-22, find the derivative function,
h . Use the pattern in part c to find quickly f'(x). Use th e fact that the deriva tive is zero at an
the instantaneous rate of change of extreme point to find the x-coordinates of all
f(x) = 5x2 - 5lx + 17 at x = 3. Is f(x) extreme point s. Confirm your answer graphicall y.
increasing or decreasin g at this valu e of x? Save the graphs of Problems 17 and 18 for
How can you tell? Problems 23 and 24.
The Derivative Function: The derivative function 17. f(x) = x3 - 12x2 + 36x + 17
is the function that gives the instantaneo us rat e 18. f(x) = x 3 - 3x 2 - 9x + 7
of change of a given function at any x-value . The
19. f(x) = x 3
- 4x
2 +x +6
name "derivative" is used because its equation
can be "derived" from the given equa tion. In 20. f(x) = x 3 - 5x + 6
Problem 8, g is th e derivative functio n of function f
For polynomial functions, the derivative function 21. f(x) = x 3 + x - 2
can be found as descr ibed in the box. When you 22. f(x) = 2x 3 - 4x 2 + 3x + 5
study calculus, you'll learn how to prove this
property. For Problems 23 and 24, find the particular
equa tion of the lin e tangent to the graph of
Property: Derivative Function of a function fat the given value x = c. Plot th e function
Power Function and the line on the same screen. Sketch the result,
If f(x) = x", where n stands for a nonnegative showing that the line reall y is tangent to the
integer, then f'(x) = nxn -1. graph .
Verbally: To find the deri vative of a power 23. f(x) = x3 - 12x2 + 36x + 17 (Problem 17),
function, multiply by the original exponent and at C = 3
decrease the exponent by 1.
24 . f(x) = x3 - 3x 2 - 9x + 7 (Prob lem 18), at c = 5
Section
15-5
: Instantaneous
RateofChange
ofa Function:
TheDerivative 701
25. Derivative of an Exponential Function Problem: this number could not possibly be the
Figure 15-51 shows the graph of the derivative of the function f(x) = 2x at x = 0.
exponential function f(x) = 2x. c. Explain why the counterexample in part b
((x) constitut es a proof th at the deri vative of an
5 exponential function cannot be found using
the same shortcut used for th e derivative of
a power function.
X -~
~
--
Figure 15-51 26. Historical Research Probl em: On the Internet or
in another reference source, look up Sir Isaac
a. If the "multiply by the original exponent Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Write a
and decrease the exponent by l" pattern paragraph or two about each person. Include,
worked for exponential functions, what if possible, their contributions to the subject
would f'(x) equal for this fun ction? of calculus, the branch of mathematics that
b. Find f'(O) using the results of part a. Based concerns derivatives and instantaneous rates
on the graph in Figure 15-51, explain why of change of functions.

In this chapter you have extended your knowledge of high er-degr ee polynomial
functions. You have refreshed your memory about regression by using it to
find particular equations of cubic and quartic functions. You can us e these
equations as mathematical models of moving objects that speed up and slow
down, perhaps reversing directions more than once. You learned how to write
a rational function to repr esent the average rate of change of a pol ynomial
function . You found th e instantan eous rat e of change by removing the
removabl e discontinuity in the average-value function so that you could take
the limit as the length of the time interval approached zero.
Review Problems
RO. Update your journal with what you ha ve

• Significant features of polynomial function
learned in this chapter. Include things
graphs
such as
• The type of real-world situations polynomial
• The one most important thing you have
functions can model
learned as a result of studying Chapter 15
• How rational functions can be used to find
• The new terms you have learn ed and what
instantaneous rates of change
they mean
702 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivative
Rl. Figure 15-6a shows thr ee cubic functions : cubic function in part a fits all six data
f(x) = -x 3 + 2x 2 + Sx - 6 points.
g(x) = -x 3 + 2x2 + 4x - 8
h(x) = -x 3 + 2x2 + 3x - 10
r
g
h
Figure 15-6a
a. Show algebraically that -2 is a zero of each

function. That is, show that f(-2), g(-2), and
h(-2) all equal zero. d. Plot the graph of the cubic function in
b. Transform the equation for each function part a. Sketch the result.
into the form (x + 2)(other factor). e. If you use this math ematical model to
c. By setting eac h "other" factor equal to zero, extrapolate a few months into the future,
find algebraically th e other zeros of each what does it predict will eventually happen
function. Explain ho w the answers agree to the price of the stock? Think of a real-
with the graphs. world reason why this behavior might occur .
d. What is the meaning of a double zero of a R3. a. Train Prob lem 1: The locomotive of a train
function? What is meant by a comp lex zero? heading north stops to do some switching
operations. The locomotive goes back and
R2. Stock Market Probl em: The stock for a new
forth across a railroad crossing.
biotechnology company goes on the market. It
is an imm ediate success, and the price of the
stock rises dramatically. The price per share of
stock is liste d in th e table.
Dollars
Weeks per Share
1 14.00
2 26.00
3 60.00
4 110.00
5 170.00
6 234.00
a. Find algebraically th e particular equation of
the cubic function that fits the first four
data points. Show the ste ps leading to your As it does so, the front end of the
answer. locomotive's disp lacement, d(x), in feet,
b. Show that the fifth and sixth data points north of the crossing at time x, in minutes,
agree with the cubic function in part a. is given by
c. Run a cubic regression on the data . Explain d(x) = 120x 3 - 1200x 2 + 34 80x - 2400
how th e result confirms the fact that the
Section
15·6:Chapter
Review
andTest 703
By synthetic substitution, show that 5 is a c. Function g in part a has a vertical asymptote
zero of this function. Find the other zeros . at x = 3. Write the equation of g(x) in mixed-
Explain how the number of zeros agrees number form, and explain why the
with the fundamental theorem of algebra discontinuity at x = 3 cannot be removed .
and its corollary. If the train is 700 ft long, d. What is the form § called? What is the form
will the locomotive ever be far enough north nonJ ero called?
of the crossing to prevent the other end of
e. Partia l Fractions Problem: Given the rational
the train from blocking the crossing? How
function
do you arrive at your answer?
b. Use long division to divide x3 - 4x2 + 7x + 11 h(x) = 18
9x -
by x - 2. Write the answer in mixed-number x2
Sx + 4 -
form. Explain how the answer agrees with resolve h(x) into partial fractions. Identify
the remainder theorem. what transformation each fraction is of the
c. Let f(x) = x 3 - 10x2 + 5 7x - 82. By synthetic i-
reciprocal function y = Show that the
substitution, show that 2 is a zero of the graphs of h in partial-fraction form and in
function f Find the other two zeros. Plot the the origina l form are identical. Sketch the
graph and sketch the result . result. Find algebraically the zero of h(x).
d. Figure 15-6b shows the graph of a RS. Train Problem 2: Figure 15-6c shows the graph
polynomial function. Give the degree of the of the position of the locomotiv e in Review
function, the number of real zeros, and the Problem R3. The particular equation is
number of nomeal complex zeros.
d(x) = 120x3 - 1200x 2 + 3480x - 2400
y
d(x) (ft)
1000
X
Figure 15-6b
x(min)
R4. a. Given the rational functions

x3 - 13x 2 + 5 7x - 81
f(x) = and
x- 3 Figure 15-6c
x3 -13x 2 + 57x- 80
g(x) = 3 a. What is the average velocity of the
x- locomotive from x = 2 min to x = 2.1 min?
plot both graphs on the same screen. Use a b . Write the particular equation of the rationa l
friendly window that includes x = 3 as a grid function that gives the average velocity for
point. Sketch the result, identifying which the time interval [2, x]. Include the units.
function is which. c. Plot the graph of the average velocity
b. Function fin part a has a removable function in part b using a friendly window
discontinuity at x = 3. Remove the with x = 2 as a grid point. Sketch the result .
discontinuity by simplifying . Find the limit Identify the featur e that occurs in the graph
of f(x) as x approaches 3. Explain the at X = 2.
graphical significance of the answer. d. Simplify the equation in part b by removing
the removable discontinuity at x = 2.
704 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limits,
andDerivative
s
e. Find the instantaneous velocity at x = 2 by g. At x = 2 min, is the train going north or
taking the limit of th e average velocity south ? How can you tell?
as x approaches 2 min. What is this h . Let f '(x) = 360x2 - 2400x + 3480. Show that
instantaneous velocity called ? f'(2) is equal to th e instantaneous velocity
f. On a copy of Figur e 15-6c, graph a lin e with that you calculated in part e. What algebraic
slop e equal to the in sta ntaneous velocity at operations could you perform on th e
x = 2 that contains th e point on the graph equation of f(x) to get the equation of
wher e x = 2. How is th e line related to the f'(x) ?
graph ?
Concept Problems
Cl. Grap hs of Comp lex Zeros Problem: Figure 15-6d equals the x-coordinat e of the point of
shows the graph of the cubic function tangenc y and that the coefficient of th e
imaginar y part, b, equals the square root of
f(x) = x3 - 18x2 + 105x - 146 the slope of the tan gent line.
In this problem you will find out that you can d. Use the r esults of part c to find th e
find the complex zeros of the function complex zeros of the cubic function in
from the graph . Figure 15-6e.
f(x) f (x)
100
10
50
X
X
5 10
2 4
Figure 15-6d
Figur e 15-6e
a. Confirm that the graph agree s with the

e. For integer values of x, the values of f(x ) in
equation by making a tab le of values of f(x)
Figure 15-6e are also integers. Use four of
for each integer valu e of x that is on the
these points to write th e equation of f(x).
graph.
Then calculate the three zeros and thus
b . Confirm that 2 is a real zero of f (x) . Find th e show algebraicall y th at your graphical
two nonreal complex zeros, x = a ± bi. answers to part d are correct.
c. Through the point (2, 0), draw a line that f. Find Paul J. Nahin's book An Imaginary
is tan gent to the graph at a point to th e Tale: The Story of Fi , published by
right of the low point at x = 7. Write th e Princeton University Press in 1998. Consult
x-coordinate of the point of tan gency. pages 27-30 for an in-depth anal ysis of
Write the slop e of the tange nt line. Show the property you have learned in this
that th e real part of th e complex zeros, a, problem.
Section
15-6
: Chapter
Review
andTest 705
C2. The Rational Root Theorem:
Property: The Rational Root Theorem
a. By syn thetic substitution show that - 1 is a If the rational number ;l is a zero of the
zero of the function polynomial function p (or a root of the
f(x) = 6x 3 + 17x2 - 24x - 35 polynomial equation P(x) = 0), then n
is a factor of th e constant term of the
Use the results to show that f(x) factors into polynomial and dis a factor of the
three linear factors : leading coefficient.
f(x) = (x + 1)(2x + 7)(3x - 5)
c. Show that thes e two p olynomial functions
What rational numbers are the other two agree with the ration al root th eore m.
zeros of f(x)? g(x) = 3x 3 - 19x2 + 13x + 35
b . This bo x contains a statement of the
rational root theorem from algebra. Show h(x) = 6x 3 - 35x 2 - 3lx + 280
that the zeros of f(x) in part a agree with
the conclusion of thi s theorem.
Chapter Test
PART
1: Nocalculators
allowed(Tl-T9) T7. From the graph in Problem T6, x = 3 seems to
be a zero of g(x). Use synthetic substitution to
Tl. Find the product: (x - S)(x - 2) show algebraically that thi s is true.
T2 . Use the answe r to Problem Tl to calculate the T8. Write g(x) in Problem T6 as a product of a
product (x - S)(x - 2)(x + 1). linear factor and another factor.
T3. Write the zeros of the function T9. Show th at the other factor in Problem T8 has
f(x) = (x - S)(x - 2)(x + 1). no real zeros .
T4. Sketch the graph of function fin Problem T3.
Show where the zeros are and what the shape
PART
2: Graphing
calculators
allowed(T10-T21)
of the graph is. TlO. A cubi c function contain s the points listed in
the table. Use th e first four points to find
TS. Sketch the graph of a quartic (4th -degree)
algebrai cally th e particular equation of the
function that has four real zeros .
cubi c function. Confirm that th e equation is
T6. Figure 15-6f shows the graph of the fun ction correc t by showing that the equa tion fits all six
g(x) = x3 + x2 - 7x - 15. How can you tell data points.
from the graph that th ere are two zeros that
X f(x)
are nonrea l complex numbers ?
2 19.4
3 40.1
4 74.2
5 123.5
X 6 189.8
7 274.9
Driving Problem: For Probl em s Tll-T20, Hezzy Tate
- 50
drives through an intersection. At time t = 2 s
she crosses the stripe at th e b eginnin g of the
Figure 15-6 ( inters ection. She slows down a bit, but does not
706 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Function
s,Limits
, andDerivative
s
stop, and then speeds up again. Hezzy is goo d at Tl8 . By appropriate simplification of the fraction in
mathematics, and she figures that her disp lacement, Problem Tl5, calcu late Hezzy 's instantaneous
d(t), in feet , from the first stripe is given by the velocity at time t = 3 s.
function Tl9. Figure 15-6g sh ows d (t) as a fun ction of tim e.
d(t) = t3 - 12r 2 + 54t- 68 Plot a line through the point on the graph at
t = 3 with slope equ al to the instantaneous
Tll. Use synt hetic substitution to show that t = 2 is
velocity. Consider the different scales on the
a zero of d(t).
two axes .
TlZ. Use the resu lts of the synthetic subst itution in d(I)
Problem Tll and the qu adra tic formula to find
th e oth er tvvo zeros of d(t) .
30
T13. How do the zeros of d(t) confirm the fact that
Hezzy does not stop and go back across the
stripe? 20
Tl 4. What is Hezzy's average velocity from t = 3 s to

t =3.0ls? 10
Tl5. Write the equat ion of the ra tional algebraic

function equ al to Hezzy' s average velocity
-I
from 3 s to ts.
Tl6. Plot the graph of the rational function in Figure 15-6g
Problem Tl5. Use a friendly window with a
t-range that includes t = 3 as a gri d point. T20. How is th e line in Problem Tl9 related to the
graph?
Tl?. What feature does the graph in Problem Tl6
have at time t = 3 s? TZl. What did you learn as a result of taking this
test that you did not know befor e?

This problem set is a final exam on these topics:
• Three- dim ensional vectors
• Matrix tr an sform atio ns
• Conic section s and quarti c surfa ces
• Polar coordinates
• Parametric functions
• Complex numbers
• Sequ ences and series
• Polynomial and rationa l func tions
• Linlits and derivatives
If you are thorou ghly fanliliar with th ese topics, you should b e able to finis h the
problem set in about thr ee hours .
Sectio
n 15-7
: Cumu
lativ
e Review,
Chapter
s l 0-15 707
Cumulative Review Problems
Air Show Problem: (Problems 1-8) A pilot is doing 5. What is the measure of the angle betwee n
stunts with her plane at an air show. vectors a and b?
6. Find th e scalar projection of a on b.
7. The cross product of a and b is
a x 6 = -4o7- 5] + 10of
Show that a b is perpendicular
X to a.
8. Find the area of th e triangle formed by a
and b.
Doug's Iterative Transformation Problem:
(Problems 9-17) Doug is an archaeologist. He
unearths a set of paving stones that follow a spiral
pattern generated by this matrix:
0.45 -0.78 20]
At times t = 0 s and t = 10 s, her position vectors [A] = 0.78 0.45 10
from the control tower are [
0 0 1
a= 17+ 4] + 3f at t = 0 9. Given that the dilation is 0.9, what is the angle
b = 10/ + 20] + 5k at t = 10 of rotation?
where 7 and ] are unit vectors in the horizontal 10. The pre-image matrix is
xy-plane and k is a vertical unit vector in the
direction of the z-axis . The magnitude of the unit
vector is 100 m.
[DJ= [~ -~
1 1
=~-~]
1 1
1. Sketch vectors a and b tail-to-tail. Show the
displacement vector from the head of a to the Use your !tran s program to apply [A] for
40 iterations. A window with an x-range of
head of b.
[-50, 50] and a y-range of [-20, 50] will be
reasonable. Find numerically to one decimal
~£ltd plac e the coordinates of the fixed point to which
D
th e images are attracted .
7Q;.'j~-+ C
11. Show that you und erstan d how matrix
multiplicat ion is done by finding this product:
:~l[~l
C,
Di/fa'mu,
=
where-you, eJ1.d,-
where-you,bi!jiH,
[~I:
-~o::
2. Calculate the displacement vector in 12. At the fixed point, the image of (x, y) must
Problem 1. equal (x, y). Thus,
3. At 10 s, how far was the pilot from her
0.45 -0.78 20][X] [X]
position at O s7 0.78 0.45 10 y = y
[
4. Was the plane higher up or lower down at 10 s 0 0 1 1 1
than it was at O s? By how many meters? Use this information to calculate algebraically
the coordinates of the fixed point.
708 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Function
s,Limits
, andDerivative
s
13. Doug finds a pattern on a wall that resembles 1000 points. Use probabilities oft, t, t, and 0
th e fractal image in Figure 15-7a. for the four transformations the program is
y expecting. The window shown has an x-range
of [-9.4, 9.4l and a y-range of [O, 12.4l.
Fractional Dimension Problem: (Problems 18-22)
Figure 15-?b shows a 9 x 9 square pre-image and
the first iterati on of four transformations
X performed on the pre-image. Each transformation
dilates the pre-image to f its original length but
Figure 15-7a trans lates by different amounts.
Circle two parts of different size, each of y
which is similar to the entire figure .
14. One of the three transformations that
generated Figure 15-7a is
0.4 cos 20° 0.4 cos 110° 5]

[Al= 0.4 sin 20° 0.4 sin 110° 3 9 >-- -~-~
[
0 0 1
Find numerically the fixed point for this Pre-image
transformation and explain how it relates to
X
the image in Figure 15-?a.
9
15. Write another transformation matrix [Bl to do Figure 15-7b
all of these things:
• Rotate 20° clockwise 18. How many images, N, will there be in the
• Dilate by a factor of 0.4 second iteration and in the third iteration?
What is the total perimeter of the images in
• Trans lat e by -5 in the x-directi on the first iteration? The second iteration? The
• Translate by 4 in the y-direction third iteration?
16. Write a third transformation matrix [Cl to Perimeter Total
dilate by a factor of 0.4 withou t rotating or Iteration N of Each Perimeter
translating.
0 1 36 36
17. Check your answers to Problems 15 and 16 1 4 12
by running your Barnsley program with 2
3
19. Following the pattern in the table, what will be
the total perimeter of the 50th iteration?
20. What is the total area of the first iteration? The
second iteration? The third iteration?
21. If the transformations of this problem are
performed usin g Barnsley's method, what will
be the dimension of the resulting fractal image?
22 . What limit does the total area approach as the
number of iterations approaches infini ty?
What limit does the total perimeter approach?
The Great Wave by Katsushika Hokusai. The waves in Explain why these answers are consistent with
this painting hav e a fractal pattern. the dimension you calculated in Problem 21.
Section
15-7:Cumulative
Review,
Chapters
10-15 709
Annie's Conic Section Problems : (Problems 23-27) x-axis. A cylinder is inscribed in this ellipsoid,
Annie takes a test on conic sections. with its axis along the x-axis. Find the volume
of the cylinder in terms of the sample point
23. How can she tell without plotting that the
(x, y) where the cylinder touches the ellipse.
graph of this conic section will be a hyperbola?
Use th e result to find the radius and altitude
Plot the graph and sketch th e result.
(length) of the cylinder with maximum volume.
25x2 - 9y 2 - 200x + 18y = -391
y
24. Figure 15-7c shows the ellipse 9x 2 + 25y 2 = 225.
Find the focal radius, eccentricity, and directrix
radius.
X
X
Figure 15-7d
Polar Coordinate Problems (Problems 28-32)

28. Figure 15-7e shows the graph of the circle
Figure 15-7c with equation r = 3960 in polar coordinates,
representing Earth with radius 3960 mi. It also
shows part of the elliptical path of a spaceship
with polar equation
5600
r=-- -- -
1 + o.scos e
If the spaceship continues on its present path,
will it hit Earth's surface? If so, what are the
polar coordinates of the point where it will hit?
If not, explain how you know it will not.
25. On a copy of Figure 15-7c, pick a point on the Orbit

ellipse. Measure the distances from the point
to the two foci. How do these distances
compare to the length of the major axis? Plot
the directrix on the right side of the ellipse .
Measure the distance from the point on the
graph to the directrix. How is this distance
related to the eccentricity and to the distance
from the point to the focus on the right side? Figure 15-7e
26. Write parametric equations of the ellipse in

29. Multiply the complex numbers 5 cis 70° and
Figure 15-7c. Then write parametric equations of
8 cis 40°. Write the answer as a complex
the ellipse after it is translated 2 units in the
positive x-direction and 1 unit in the positive
e
number in the form r(cos + i sin 8).
Transform the answer into a + bi form.
y-direction. Confirm that your equations are
correct by plotting on your grapher. 30. Write the three cube roots of 64 as complex
numbers in polar form.
27. Figure 15-7d shows the ellipsoid formed by
rotating the ellipse of Figure 15-7c about the
710 Chapter
15: Polynomia
l andRationa
l Functio
ns,Lim
its,andDeriva
tives
31. Plot th e cardioid r = 24 - 24 cos e. Use a How much will you put in the tenth week?
window with an x-range of (-50, 50] and a How mu ch, total, will b e in the bank after the
y-range that gives equal scales on both axes . tenth depo sit ?
Sketch the result. Why do you think the figur e
36 . After a lon g time, you br eak open the piggy
is called a cardioid ?
bank in Problem 35 and invest $500 of th e
32. Figure 15-7f shows a quarter (radius 12 mm) money in a bank account that pa ys 9% interest
centered at the origin. Anot h er quart er rolls per year, compound ed monthly. How much,
aroun d it (without slipping). A point on th e total, do you hav e in th e bank during the
moving quart er traces an epicycloid of one 36th month ? How mu ch of this amount is
cusp. Write parametric equations of th e path . interest ? How much m ore do you have in the
It will h elp if you sketch the rolling quarter in account than you would ha ve had if the bank
another position, draw a vector from the origin compound ed interest only once a year? Why is
to the center of the rolling quarter, and then a sequence a more rea sonable mathematical
draw another vect or from there to the point on model than a continuous function for this
the graph . Confirm that your equations are problem ?
correct by plotting th em on your grapher . How
37. Wildlife conservationists find that the number
does the grap h relate to the cardioid in
of catfish in a particular lake is dropping by
Problem 31?
10% each year, so the numb er of catfish after
y any 1 year is 0.9 times what it was at the
beginning of that year . Assume that at pres ent,
Epicycloid tim e t = 0 yr , there are 100 fish in the lake. The
conservationists decid e to add 30 more catfish
at the end of each year. Write a recursion
Roll in g
formula and us e it to pr edict the numb er of
catfish at the end of l , 2, 3, 4, and 5 yr. If the
same recursive formula holds for many years,
will th e catfis h population level off and
approach a limit , or will it continu e to increas e
without limit ? Explain how you can decide .
38. For th e sequence 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50, . .. ,
th ere is a relatively simple patt ern relating th e
term valu es to the term numb ers . By finding
this pattern, write an explicit formula for tn as
a function of n. Use th e formu la to find t100 .
39. One of the terms in th e sequence of
Problem 38 is 5042. Use the formula
to calculate algebra ically th e term number
Figur e 15-7(
of this term .
Sequences and Series Problem s (Problems 33-40) 40 . This series is called a p-series because the term
33. Give the first four terms of the arithmetic index in the denominator is raised to a "power ."
sequence with first term 7 an d common
Write out th e first four terms of the series. Find
S100 , the 100th partial sum.
differe nce 5.
34. Give the fourt h partial sum of the geometric
series with first term 8 and common ratio 3.
35. You put $12 into a pi ggy bank one week, $15
th e next week, $18 th e next week , and so on.
Section
15-7:Cumulative
Review,
Chapters
10-15 7 11
Tree Problem: (Problems 41-46) Ann R. Burr has Show by syn thetic substitution that x = 1 is a
a tree nurs er y in which she stocks various sizes zero of this function. What is the real-world
of live oak tre es. Figure 15-7g shows th e price, f(x), meanin g of this fact?
in dollars, she char ges for a tree of height x, in ft,
42. Show algebraically that th e other two zeros of
planted on the customer's property. For short trees,
this function are nonreal complex numbers.
the price per foot decreases as th e h eight increases.
For taller trees, the price per foot increases becaus e 43. What is the sum of the zeros of this function?
the trees are harder to move an d plant.
44. The graph goes off the scale. If th e vertical
f(x) (do llars) scale were extend ed far enough, how much
would a 20-ft tr ee cost?
45. Write a rational algebraic function for the
average rate of change in price from a tree
of height 10 ft to one of height x ft. By
simplifying thi s fraction, remove th e
remov able discontinuit y. Use the result to
show that the instantaneous rate of change at
x = 10 ft is exactly 49 dollars p er foot.
46. On a copy of Figure 15-7g, plot a line through
the p oint on the graph at x = 10 with slope equal
to th e instantaneous rate of change in Problem
X (ft)
45. How is this line related to the graph?
5 10 15 20
Figur e 15-lg
47. What is the most important thin g you learned
as a resu lt of completing this cumulative
41. The particular equation of this fun ction is the review?
cubic polynomial
f(x) = x 3 - 25x2 + 249x - 225
712 Chapter
15: Polynomial
andRational
Functions,
Limit
s,andDerivatives
Types of Numbers, Axioms,
and Other Properties A
1n algebra you learned names for various types of numbers, such as real numbers,
imaginary numbers, and rational numbers. You also learn ed commutative axioms,
closure axioms, transitive axioms, and so on, as well as other properties such as
the multiplication property of zero that can be proved from these axioms. 1n
this appendix you will refresh your memory about the names of these numbers ,
axioms, and other prop erties, and some definitions. You'll also see, in the
examples, how to use axioms to prove properties.
Types of Numbers
Complex numbers are numb ers of the form a + bi, where a and b are real
numbers and i = H . The real numbers form a subset of the complex numbers,
for which the numb er b equals 0. You can group real numbers several ways: as
positive or negativ e, rational or irrational, algebraic or transcendental, and so
forth . Figure A· la on the next pag e shows the set of complex numbers and
some of its subsets.
An important thing to realize is that a rational number is a number that can be
expressed as a ratio of two integers. It does not have to be written that way. For
insta nce,
23 is rational because it can be writt en ¥, ~6 , and so on .
V9is rational becaus e it can be written as 3, which equals f.
2%is rational because it can be written 1;.
3.87 is rational becaus e it can be written f~~-
5.3333 ... (repeating) is rational becaus e it can be written st.
which equals 1 t
Irrational numbers, on the other hand, cannot be expressed as the ratio of two
integers. Irrational numbers include the nth root of any integer that is not an exact
nth power. For instance, you can prove by contra diction that .f3is irrational. To
do this, assume that .f3is a rational number, so it could be written as
713
where a and bare rel atively prime integ ers. But then
which is impossibl e b ecause a and b have no common factors to cancel. So

you've arrived at a contradi ction, which could b e caused only by the faulty
assumption that /3 is a rational numb er.
An algebraic number is a number that is a solution to a polynomial equation
with rational-number coeffi cients . You can think of it as a number that can
be expr essed usin g a finit e number of algebraic operations, including takin g
the roots.
Transcendental numbers are numbers that are not algebraic . They "transcend,"
or go beyond, th e algebraic operations. The most notable exampl es you may
know of are rr and e. Most tri gonom etric and circular function values, as well as
most logarithm values, are also trans cendental.
Complex numbers
a + bi, where a and b
are real numbers
I
t
Real numbers Nonreal numbers
Corr es pond to points a + bi, where b "' 0 (includ es pure
on th e number line imaginary numbers where a = 0)
t t
Negative numbers Zero I Number
Positive numbers I
I umb ers less tha n 0
I I s great er than 0
I I
t
Rational numb ers Irrational numbers
Can be expres se d Cannot be expre ssed
as a ratio of as a rati o of
two in teger s two in teger s
t t
Integers Non-integers
Whole numb ers Number s between
and their opposites the inte gers
I
t t t
Negative Zero Natural numbers
integers (Countin g numbers)
Posit ive integ ers
I I
t
Even numbers Odd numbers
Num bers divisible Number s not
by 2 divisible by 2
Figure A -la
714 Appendix
A: Types
ofNumbers,
Axioms,
andOther
Properties
Axioms for Addition and Multiplication
There are 11 basic axioms for real numb ers th at apply to th e operations of
ad dition and multipli cation . These axioms are called th e field axioms. An axiom
is a prop erty that is ass um ed to be tru e so th at it can b e used as the basis for a
mathematical syst em. Generally spe akin g, mathematicians pr efer to have as few
axioms as possible and to prove other properti es usin g these axioms. The box
lists the field axioms and wha t the y stat e.
PROPERTIES:
TheFieldAxioms
If x, y, and z are real numbers, th en the following statements are true.
1. Closure Under Addition

x + y is a uniqu e real number.
"You can't get out of the set of real numb ers when you add two real
numbers ."
2. Closure Under Multiplication

xy is a unique real numb er.
"You can't get out of the set of real numbers when you multiply two real
numbers."
3. Additive Identity
O+x=x+O=x
"Adding zero does not change a numb er."
4. Multiplicative Identity
l · x=x · l=x
"Multiplying by 1 does not change a number."
5. Additive Inverses
Every real numb er x h as a uniqu e additi ve inverse -x such that
X + (-x) = 0.
"You can undo the addition of a number by adding its opposite."
6. Multiplicative Inverses
Every real number x (except 0) has a unique multiplicative inverse i such
that X • i = l.
"You can undo multiplication by a number if you multiply by its
reciprocal."
(continued )
Appendix
A: Types
ofNumbers
, Axioms
, ondOth
erPropertie
s 715
Properties: The Field Axioms, continued
7. Commutative Axiom for Addition

x+y=y+x
"You can commute two terms in a sum without changing the answer."
8. Commutative Axiom for Multiplication

xy= yx
"You can commute two factors in a product without changing the
answer."
9. Associative Axiom for Addition

(x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
"You can associate terms in a sum differently without changing the
answer."
10. Associative Axiom for Multiplication

(xy)z = x(yz)
"You can associate factors in a product differently without changing the
answer."
11. Distributive Axiom for Multiplication Over Addition

x(y+ z) = xy+ xz
"You can distribute multiplication over addition without changing the
answer."
Subtraction and division can be defined in terms of addition and multiplication

with the aid of the inverse axioms.
DEFINITIONS:
Subtraction
andDivision
X- y = X + (-y)
"Subtracting a number means adding its opposite."
1
x7y=x·-
Y
"Dividing by a number means multiplying by its reciprocal."
716 Appendix
A: Types
ofNumbers,
Axioms,
andOther
Properties
Axioms for Equality and Order
There are three axioms for equ ality and three axioms for order (inequality) , all
of which state facts related to the = sign, the < sign , and the > sign. The term
order pertains to the order in which numbers appear on the number line .
PROPERTIES:
Axioms
lorEquality
andlorOrder
If x, y, and z stand for real numb ers, th en th e following statements are tru e.
Reflexive Axiom for Equality

x=x
"A real number is equal to itse lf, so a variable stands for the same number
wherever it appears in an expression ."
Symmetric Axiom for Equality

If X = Y, then y = X.
"You can reverse the sides of an equation withou t affecting the equ ality."
Transitive Axioms for Equality and Order

If x = y and y = z, then x = z.
If x < y and y < z, the n x < z.
If x > y and y > z, then x > z.
"If the first numb er equals the second num ber and the second number equals
the third number, then the first num ber equals the third number." (And so on.)
"Equality goes th roug h (hence th e name 'transit ...') from first to last number."
Trichotomy Axiom (or Comparison Axiom)

For any two given numbers x and y, exactly one of these is true :
x <y
x=y
x>y
"A number y cuts the num b er line int o three pieces (hence the name
trichotomy) : numbers less than it, nu mbers equal to it, and numbers greater
than it."
Properties That Can Be Proved from the Axioms

The other familiar properties of rea l numbers can be proved from the axioms.
Four examples are shown here . Other provab le properties are listed after
Example 4.
Appendix
A: Types
ofNumbers
, Axioms
, andOtherPropertie
s 717
~ EXAMPLE
1 Substitution into Sums and Products
x + y and z + y stand for the same number, provided x = z.
xy and zy stand for the same number, provided x = z.
"You can substitute equal quantities for equal quantities in a sum or a product."
Proof By the closure axioms, x + y and xy each stand for a unique real number. Thus,
it does not matter what symbol is used for x if x = z; both have the same value.
Given that y = y, from the reflexive axiom, x + y = z + y and xy = zy. Q.E.D. <1111
~ EXAMPLE
2 Addition Property of Equality
If x = y, then x + z = y + z.
"You can add the same number to both sides of an equation without affecting
the equality."
Proof x+z=x+z Reflexive axiom: A number equals it se lf.
x= Y Given.
X + Z = y + Z, Q.E.D. Substitution into a sum.
The converse of a property is the statement you get by interchanging the

hypothesis (the "if" part) and the conclusion (the "then" part). The converse of a
property may or may not be true. For instance, "If you run marathons, then you
are in good shape" is true. But the converse, "If you are in good shape, then you
run marathons," is false. So converses must also be proved.
~ EXAMPLE
3 Converse of the Addition Property of Equality
If x + z = y + z, then x = y.
"You can cancel equal terms on both sides of the equal sign."
Proof x+z=y+z Given.
(x + z) + (-z) = (y + z) + (-z) Addition property of equality: Add the opposite

of z to both sides.
x + [z + (-z) ] = y + [z + (-z)] Assoc iative axiom for addition .
x+0=y +0 Additive inverse axiom .
.". X = Y, Q.E .D. Additive identity axiom.
Note that the proof may seem to involve an excessive number of steps,
especially because you are so familiar with "adding the opposite to both sides."
However, to constitute a proof, each step must be justified by an axiom or by a
previously proved property.
718 Appendix
A: Types
ofNumbers,
Axioms,
andOther
Properties
.... EXAMPLE
4 Combining Like Terms
Prove that 2x + 3x = 5x.
Proof 2x + 3x = (2 + 3)x Writ e on e side of th e desired equa tion . Use th e dis trib u tive
axiom (rea d in reverse).
= 5x Arithm etic.
2x + 3x = 5x, Q.E.o. Trans itive axiom for equ ali ty.
The box sh ows th ese four prop erti es as well as oth ers. Each one can b e pro ved
from th e axioms and from tho se prop erti es that app ear b efore it in th e box.
Properties
of RealNumbers
ProvablefromtheAxioms
If x, y, and z are real num b ers, then the following statem ents are true .
1. Sub stitution into Sums and Products

x + y and z + y stand for the same number, provi ded x = z.
x y and zy stan d for the same number, provi ded x = z.
"You can sub stitute equal quantities for equal quantities in a sum or a
produ ct."
2. Addition Propert y of Equality

If X = y, then X + z = y + z.
"You can add th e same number to both sides of an equation without
affecting the equalit y."
3. Conv erse of the Addition Propert y of Equalit y

If X + z = y + z, then X= y.
"You can cancel equal terms on both sides of the equal sign ."
4. Combining Like Terms

Example: 2x + 3x = 5x
"You can combine like terms by adding their coeffici ents."
5. Multiplication Property of Equality

If x = y, th en x z = yz .
"You can multipl y both sides of an equa tion by the same numb er without
affecting the equality ."
(continued)
Appe
ndixA: Types
of Num
bers,Axioms,andOtherProperties 7 19
Properties of Real Numbers Provable from the Axioms, continued
6. Cancellation Property of Equality for Multiplication

If xz = yz and z * 0, th en x = y.
"You can divide both sides of an equation by the same nonzero number."
7. Opposite of an Opposite
-(-X) =X
"The opposite of the opposite of a number is the original number."
8. Reciprocal of a Reciprocal
1
If x * 0, then = x.
1
X
"The reciprocal of the reciprocal of a non zero number is the original

number."
9. Reciprocal of a Product
1 1 1
If x * 0 and y * 0, then - = - · -.
XY X y
"The reciprocal of a product can be split into the product of the two
reciprocals."
10. Multiplication Property of Fractions

ab a b
If x * 0 and y * 0, then - = - · -.
xy X y
"A quotient of two products can be split into a product of two fractions."
11. Multiplication Property of Zero

For any real number x, x · 0 = 0.
"Zero times any real number is zero ."
12. Converse of the Multiplication Property of Zero

If xy = 0, then x = 0 or y = 0.
"The only way a product can equal zero is for one of the factors to equal
zero."
13. Multiplication Property of -1

-1 • X= -x
"-1 times a number equa ls the opposite of that number."
(continued)
720 Appendi
x A: Type
sofNumbers
, Axioms
, andOther
Properties
Properties of Real Numbers Provable from the Axioms, continued
14. Product of Two Opposites

For two positive numbers, x and y,
(-x)(-y) = xy
"Negative times negative is po sitive."
15. Opposites of Equal Numbers

If x = y, then -x = -y.
"If two real numbers are equal, then their opposites are equal. Therefore,
you can take the opposite of both sides of an equation without affecting
the equality."
16. Reciprocals of Equal Numbers

1 1
lf x = y * 0, then - = - .
X y
"If two nonzero numbers are equal , then their reciprocals are equal.
Therefore, you can take the reciprocal of both sides of an equation,
unless it involves taking the reciprocal of zero, without affecting the
equality."
17. The Square of a Real Number

x2 ;:;.: 0 for any real number x.
"The square of a real number is never negative."
18. Distributive Property for Subtraction

x(y- z) = xy- xz
"Multiplicatio n distributes over subt raction."
19. Distributive Property for Division

X+ y X y
--=-+- Z*O
z z z
"Division distributes over addition."
(Reading this property from right to left explains why you can add
fractions that have a common denominator .)
x-y -~ - ~ Z*O
z z z
"Division distributes over subtraction."
(continued)
Appendix
A: Types
ofNumbers
, Axioms
, andOther
Properties 721
Properties of Real Numbers Provable from the Ax ioms, continued
20. Division of a Number by Itself

n
-=l nacO
n
"A nonzero number divided by itself equals l."
21. Reciprocal of 1
1
-=l
1
"l is it s own reciprocal."
22. Dividing by 1
n
-=n
1
"Any number divided by 1 equals that number."
23. Dividing Numbers with Opposite Signs

-X X
y y
"A negative number divided by a positive number is negative."
X X
-y y
"A positive number divided by a negative number is negative."
24. Opposite of Sum and Difference

-(x + y) = - x + (-y)
"The opposite of a sum equals the sum of the opposites."
-(X - y) = y- X
"x - y and y- x are opposites of each other."
722 Appendix
A: Types
ofNumbers
, Axiom
s,andOther
Properties
Mathematical Induction B
You recall that the distributive axiom states that
a(x 1 + x 2 ) = ax 1 + ax2
In words, "Multiplication distributes over a sum of two terms." It seems
reasonable that multiplication distributes over sums of three terms, four terms,
and so forth. In general,
In this appendix you will learn about mathematical induction, a technique by

which you can prove that this extended distributive property is tru e for any
number of terms, no matter how large.
Unfortunately, the field axioms are not sufficient to prove this extended distributive
property. Another axiom, the well-ordering axiom, allows the proof to be done.
PROPERTY:
TheWe/I-Ordering
Axiom
Any nonempty set of positive integers has a least element.
The truth of this axiom, like that of most axioms, should be obvious to you. The
name comes from the fact that a set is said to be "well-ordered" if its elements
can b e arranged in order, starting with a least element. The set of positive real
numbers and the set of all integers do not have this prop erty. There is a
restriction to nonempty sets be cause the empty set has no elements at all and
thus cannot have a least element.
You can prove the extended distributive property by contradiction. You assume
that it is false and then show that this assumption leads to a contradiction .
Example 1 shows how to do this .
..,_EXAMPLE
1 Extended Distributive Property
Prove that a(x 1 + x2 + x3 + · · · + Xn)= ax 1 + ax2 + ax3 + · · · + axn is true for any
integer n ::".2.
723
Proof (by contradiction)
Assume that the property is false. Then there is a positive integer n = p for
which
a(x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + Xp) * ax 1 + ax 2 + ax 3 + · · · + axP
By the distributive axiom, the property is true for n = 2. That is,
a(x 1 + x 2) = ax 1 + ax 2
Draw Venn diagrams for two sets of positive integers (Figure B-1a),
T = {positive integers n for which the property is true}
F = {positive integers n for which the property is false}
T F
~~
Figure B-la
The integer 2 is an element of T, and (by assumption) pis an element of F. Write

these integers in the Venn diagram of Figure B-la .
Because Fis a nonempty set of positive integers, the well-ordering axiom allows
you to conclude that it has a least element,-€. Becau se-€ is the least element of
F,,€ - 1 is not an element of F. Because 2 is in T,-€ ~ 3, and thus both-€ and
-€ - 1 are positive integers. Because-€ - 1 is a positive integer and is not in F, it
must be an element of T. Write .f!.- 1 and .f!.in the Venn diagram (Figure B-lb) .
T F
E0 ~
Figure B-lb
Because -e- 1 is in T, the property is true for n = -e- 1. Because .f!.is in F, the
property is false for n = -e.Write the (true) statement of the property if n = -e- 1.
a(x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + X.e- 1) = ax 1 + ax 2 + ax 3 + · · · + ax.e- 1
The distributive property if n = .f, - l.
Now, start with n = -e.

a(x 1 + X2 + X3 + · · · + X.e- 1 + X.e)
= a((X1 + X2 + X3 + · · · + X.e - 1) + X.e) Associate the first .f, - 1 terms.
= a(X1 + X2 + X3 + · · · + X.e - 1) + ax .e Multiplication distributes over a

sum of two terms .
= ax 1 + ax 2 + ax 3 + · · · + ax.e- 1 + ax .e Substitute from th e statem ent

of th e distributive property if
n = -f-- 1.
Therefore, the property is true for n =-€ terms. But this statement contradicts
the statement that the property is false for n =-€ terms. The only place this
contradiction could have arisen is the assumption that there is a positive
integer n = p for which the property is false. Thus, there is no positive integer n
for which the property is false, and it is true for all integers n :2: 2. Q.E .D . <11111
724 Appendix
B: Mathematical
Induction
Once you understand the process, the proof may be shortened. All you need
to do is (1) prove that assuming the property is true for one value of n implies
that it is true for the n ext value of n, and (2) prove that there is one value
of n for which it actually is true. These two ideas combine to form th e
induction principle.
PROPERTY:
TheInduction
Principle
.
If
(1) there is a positi ve integer n0 for which a property is true, and
(2) for any integer k ~ n0 , assuming the property is true for n = k allows you to
conclude it is also true for n = k + 1,
then the property is true for an y integer n :2'.n 0.
Note that the step where you demonstrate that the prop erty is true for one
value of n is called the anchor . This step "anchors" the induction . The step in
which you assume that the pro perty is true for n = k is called th e induction
hypothesis .
Example 2 show s how the proof of th e extend ed distributi ve property can b e
shortened with the help of the induction principle . Proofs don e this way are
said to be done by mathematical induction, which is the topic of this appendix.
~ EXAMPLE
2 Extended Distributive Property, Again
Prove that a(x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + Xn) = ax 1 + ax 2 + ax 3 + · · · + axn is tru e for any
int eger n :2'.2.
Proof (by induction on n)

Anchor : a(x 1 + x2 ) = ax 1 + ax 2 by the distributive axiom. Therefo re, the property
is true for n = 2.
Induction Assume th e property is true for some positive integer
Hypothesis :
n = k, where k :2: 2. That is, ass um e that
a(x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + xk) = ax 1 + ax 2 + ax 3 + · · · + axk
D emon stration for n =k + 1:
For n = k + 1,
= a((x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + xk) + Xk+ 1 ) Associat e the first k terms .
= a(x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + xk) + axk +l By the anchor (distribute over two

terms).
= ax 1 + ax 2 + ax 3 + · · · + axk + axk+I Substitute, using the induction

hypothesi s.
Appendix
B:Mathematical
Induction 72 5
Conclusion: Because (1) the property is true for one value of n, namely, n = 2,
and because (2) assuming it is true for n = k implies that it is true for n = k + 1,
you can conclude that
a(x 1 + x 2 + x3 + · · · + Xn) = ax 1 + ax 2 + ax 3 + · · · + axn
is true for any integer n 2 2. Q.E.D.
You may have detected one weakness in the proof of the extended distributive
property. Without ever stating it, you have assumed an extended associative
prop erty and an extended transitive property. The proof of the extended
associative property is a bit trick y; it is presented as Example 3.
~ EXAMPLE
3 Extended Ass ociative Property for Addition
Prove that
for any int eger n 2 3.
Proof The associative property, (x 1 + x 2) + x 3 = x 1 + (x2 + x 3), guarantees a unique sum

of three numbers. So you can write x 1 + x 2 + x 3 = (x1 + x2) + x 3. This alternative
form of the associative property is the starting point you'll u se.
Anchor: For n = 3,
Agreed-upon order of op eratio ns.
Induction Hypotheses : Assume that for n = k, where k 2 3:
Xi+ X2 + X3 + ... + Xk- l + xk = (xl + X2 + X3 + ... + xk- l) + xk

Demonstration for n = k + 1: If there are k + 1 terms, then
= (( ... ((X1 + X2) + X3) + . .. + Xk-l) + Xk) + Xk+l

Order of operations, sum of k + 1 terms.
= ((Xi+ Xz + X3 + .. . + Xk- 1) + xk) + Xk+l

Order of operations, sum of k - 1 terms .
= (Xi + Xz + X3 + ... + Xk- l + xk) + Xk+l

Induction hypothesis.
Therefore, the property is true for a sum of k + 1 terms.

Conclusion:
for any integer n ~ 3. Q.E.D.
Induction is useful for proving that the formulas for series work for any finite
numb er of terms . Example 4 shows you how to prove that the formula for the
partial sum Sn of a geometric series is true for any valu e of n, no matter how
large.
726 Appendix
B: Mat
hematical
Induction
EXAMPLE
1iJ11,- 4 Partial Sum of a Geometric Series Proper ty
a(l - rn)
Prove that Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + · · · + ar 11- 1
= for all int egers n ;,::l.
1- r
(Note that a is u sed for t1 for simplicity of writing and that it is writte n in the
num erator of th e partial sum formul a instead of ou t in front of the fraction.)
Proof (by induction on n)

a (l - r 1)
A nchor : If n = 1, th en S1 = a. The formul a gives = a, which anc hors
the induction . 1- r
Induction Hypo thesis: Assume that the formula works for n = k. That is ,
ass ume that
a(l - rk)
Sk= a + ar + ar 2+ ar 3 + . .. + ark - i =----
1- r
D emonstration for n = k + 1:
Sk+1
= a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + · · · + ar k- l + ar k Defini tion of geome tric ser ies .
=( a + ar+ ar 2 + ar 3 + · · · + ar k- 1 ) + ar k Extended assoc iative property.

a(l - rk) k
= + ar Indu ction hypot hes is.
1- r
a(l - rk) + ar k( l - r)
Find a common denominator
1- r
and add fractions.
a - ark + ar k - ar k+i
Distribute.
1- r
a(l - rk +l)
Combin e like terms, then factor
1- r out a.
which is the formul a with k + 1 sub stituted for n.

Conclusion:
:. S,, = a+ ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + · · · + ar 11- 1 = a(l - rn)

1- r
for all inte ger s n ;,::l. Q.E.o .
You should b e careful not to read too much into the conclusion of an induction
proof . The proof is goo d only for any fi nit e number of terms. If ther e is an
infinite number of term s, the sum may or ma y not converge to a real numb er,
dep ending on the valu e of r.
Appendi
x B: Mathematical
Induction 72 7
~ EXAMPLE
5 Partial Sum for the Series of Squares
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Prove that Sn= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + · · · + n 2 = for all integers n ~ 1.
6
3
Proof Anchor: If n = 1, then S1 = 1. The formula gives 1(2ci( l = 1 as well, which anchors
the induction.
Induction Hypothesis: Assume that the formula is correct for n = k. That is,
assume that
sk= 1 + 4 + g + 16 + ... + k2 = _k_(k

_+_1_)(_2_k_+_1_)
6
Demonstration for n = k + 1:
= 1 + 4 + 9 + ... + k 2 + (k + 1) 2 Definition of the sum of squar e series.

= (1 + 4 + 9 + . . . + k 2) + (k + 1)2 Extended assoc iati ve property .
k(k+1)(2k + l) k 2
= 6 + ( + 1) Induction hypothesis .
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1) 2

Write th e quotient as one fraction
6 with common denominator .
(k + l)(k(Z k + 1) + 6(k + 1))
Factor out (k + 1) from the two terms
6 in the num era tor .
(k+ 1)(2k 2 + k + 6k+ 6)
Multip ly th e factors in the seco nd
6 parentheses .
(k + 1)(2k 2 + 7k + 6)
Combine like terms in the second
6 par entheses.
(k + l)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
Factor th e second factor in the
6 numerator.
(k + l)((k + 1) + l)(Z(k + 1) + 1)
Set apart the (k + 1) terms inside
6 the parenth eses.
which is the formula with (k + 1) substit uted for n.

Conclusion:
n(n + l)( Zn + 1)
Sn= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + · · · + n 2 = ------
6
is true for all integers n ~ 1. Q.E.D.
You can use mathematical indu ction to prove other extended field, equality, and
order axioms, properties of exponentiation and logarithms, formulas for
sequences and series, an d some interesting properties of numbers.
728 Appendix
B: Mathematical
Induction
Answers to Selected Problems
CHAPTER
1 C. B
Problem
Set 1-1 100000
1. a. 20 m; -17.5 m; it is below the top of th e cliff.

n
.3 s, 3.8 s; s:::5
b. s:::0 .3 s
100 200
C. 5 ill
d. False
d. There is only one altitud e for any given time;
some altitud es correspond to mor e than one time. y
e. Domain: Os x s 5.4; rang e: -3 0 sys 25.1
3. a. n B
0 150,000 X
12 145,995 JOO 200

24 141,744 e. Domain: 0 s x s 241, x an integer; range:
36 137,230 0 s y s 50,000. The values are calculated only at
48 132,438 whole-month intervals.
60 127,350
72 121,948 5. This grap h assumes th at the element heats from a
84 116,213 room temperatur e of 72°F to nearly a maximum
96 110,125 temperature of 3 50°F in one minute.
108 103,661 T
120 96 ,789
--------~-
-~~~
200
b . Changing t. Tb! to l, you see that the balanc e
becomes negative at th e end of month 241, so
the balan ce will become O during month 24 1. 10
n B Domain: x ~ 0 s; range: 72°F s y < 350°F
235 5296.5
236 4248.3 Problem
Set 1-2
237 3194.9 l. a. Y
238 2136.3 20
239 1072.3
240 3.0438 JO
241 - 1072 X
4 8
Set1-1 729
Problem
b . 3 ~ f(x) ~ 23 b. y-inter cept at y = 4; x-intercept at x = 5~; no
c. Linear asymptotes
d. Answers may vary; e.g., the cos t (in thou sand s C. - 3 ~ y ~ 6 .1
of dollars) of manufacturing x items if eac h item
13. a. y
costs $2000 to man u facture and ther e is a $3000
start -up cost 8
3. a. y
X
40 4
b. y-int ercept at y = 3; no x-intercepts; no vertical

20
asymptot es
X
c. 0.8079 .. . ~ y ~ 11.1387 ...
4 8
15. a. y
b . g(x) 2: 1.2
c. Inver se variation 20
d . Answers m ay vary; e.g., the time it takes to go
12 mi at X mi/ h 10
5. a. y (2 , 16)
X
16 4
b. No y-int erce pt; no x-interce pt; vertical asymptote

x = 0 (the y-axis)
X C. y> 0
4
b. y-inter cept at y = 12; no x-int erce pts; 17. a. y

no asymptot es
C. 7 ~ y ~ 16
X
7. a. y
20
4
X
l- 4
!;
b. y-int erce pt at y = x-intercept at x = 2; vertical
- 20 asymptotes x = -1 and x = 4
(4.36 , - 20.74)
c. All real numbers
b . y-intercept at y = 12; x-intercepts at x = - l, x = 2,
19. Expon ential
and x = 6; no asymptotes
C. -2 0.745 3 ... ~ y ~ 40 21. Linear
9. a. y 23. Quadratic (polynomial)

12
25. Power
8
27 . Rational
4
X 29. a.
4 8
b. y-inter cept at y = O; x-intercept at x = O; no
as ymptot es
C. 0 ~ y ~ 12
Length
11. a. y
b. Power (cubic)
730 Problem
Set 1-2 Ans
werstoSelected
Problem
s
31. a. b. y
;;,
0
u
Area
b. Linear c. x-dil atio n of 2, y-tr ans lation of 1
33. Function; no x-value has more than one 7. a. y-translation of 7
corresponding y-vaJue.
b . g( x) = 7 + f(x )
35. Not a function; there is at least one x-valu e with 9. a. x-dilation of 3
more than one corresponding y-valu e.
3 7. Not a functio n ; there is at least one x-value with
b. g(x) = rm
11. a. x-tran slation of 6, y-dilation of 3
more than one corresponding y-valu e.
b . g(x) = 3 · f(x - 6)
39. a. A vertical line through a given x-value crosses
13. No. The dom ain of f (x) is x ~ 1, but the dom ain of
the gra ph at the y-values that cor respo nd to that
th e graph is -3 ~ x ~ 1. Tha t res tri ction must be
x-value. So, if a vertica l line crosses th e graph
add ed to th e definition of f (x).
more than once, it means that that x-valu e h as
15. a. y
more than one corresponding y-value.
b . (Sketch not shown .) In Prob lem 33, any ver tical
lin e crosses the graph at most once, but in
Prob lem 35, any vertical line between the two g f
2
endpoints crosses the graph twice. X
4
41. x - 2, that is, the num b er (or th e var iable
representing it) tha t is being subst itute d
into f
Problem
Set 1-3 b . x-trans lation of -6
1. a. g(x) = 2) 9 - x 2 17. a. y
b. y
X X
c. y-dilat ion of 2
3. a. g(x) = .Jg - (x - 4) 2
b. y b . y-dilation of 5
19. a. Y
f
2
X
4
c. x-trans lation of 4
5. a. g(x) = 1 + Jg- (~) 2
b . y-dil ation of 5, x-tran slation of -6

21. Answers will vary .
An
swers toSelec
ted Probl
ems Set1-3 73 1
Problem
Problem
Set 1-4 c. Answers will vary, but should be the composite
of the graphs in part a. Again, shoe size is a
1. a. r(4) = 33 cm; r(7) = 54 cm;
discrete graph. Sample answer:
b. a(4) = 3421.1943 ... cm 2 ;
S(L(x)) (size )
A(lO) = 9160.8841 ... cm 2
c. The area depends on the radius, which in turn
depends on the time. Area is the outs ide
function and radius is the inside function.
d. A(t) = A(r(t)) or rr(49t 2 + 70t + 25)
a(4) = rr(49 · 4 2 + 70 · 4 + 25) = 1089 rr
= 3421.194 3 .. .
a(7) = rr(49 · 72 + 70 · 7 + 25) = 2916rr x(yr)
= 9160.8841... 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
3. a. Answers will vary. Note that shoe size is a
discrete graph, since shoe sizes only com e in half 5. a. h(3) = 5
units. Sampl e answer:
h(x): : : : : : :
S(x) (siz e) 7 ---r---1- · --,----,----,----,---- ,--
' I f I I I i
I I I I I t I
6 . ·-+---{··· j· - - - . ·:- .. -:· .. ·; .

h(3J: : : ' ' : :
5 ... ~-. -:-•. -~ . . -~.
lO 4 .. - ; ... ~.
I I
' - - - - -,- - - -r ' -

- - • -,-
I I
' ' '

'
--- -,- ''
' ---,----,----,--
'
'
3 ···, ··- --·
' I I I
____', ____,' ____',____.__
'
2 - - - +- - - ~ - - - l I I I
l I I I
l I I I
' X
x(in. )
2 3 4 5 6 7
10 15
b. p(h(3)) = 3.5
L(x) (in .)
p (x) ' ' , , ' ,

7 - - - ; - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - -:- - - -:- - - -:- - - - ~ -
I I I ' I
I I I I I
6 - . · ; ···{· · ,----:·- --:- --:·-··,.

I I I I I
I I I I
2 - - -+
' ---~' -. -~ ----:--------:-
' ---;--
x(yr) I I I I I I
___ .. ___ J ___ ..,I ___ ..,t __ __ ____ I, ____ 1
.. _
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 I I I ' 1
' ' ' ' ' X
2 3 4 5 6 7
b. In S(x), x represents foot length (in inches, for the
graph above). In L(x), x represents age (in years, c. p(h(2)) = p( 3) = 4.5; p(h(5)) = p(4) = 4
above). The composite function S(L(x)) gives shoe d. h(p(2)) = h(5) = 4, which is different from
size as a function of age (x repr esents age). L(S(x)) p(h(2)) = 4.5, found in part c.
would be m eaningless with the given functions L
and S. Since xis substituted into S, x must p(x) ' , ' ' ' '
7 - - • ; . - - ~ - - - -:. - - -:-- - -:- . - -:- - - -~ -
represent foot length. S then gives shoe size. But t
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
t
I
I
I
6 . - - ; . - . ;- . - , . - - -:- - . -:- . - -:- - . -,

this is substituted into L, which expects to have I I I I I I
I I < I I I
an age, not a shoe size, substituted into it. Of we

had two comp letely different functions, S giving 4 ··· ; ··· ----.---
' ' ----,----.----.-- '
' ! I I '
shoe size as a function of age, and L giving foot 3 •. ,--- '

----,----,----,---
, I I '
·---,-- I
length as a function of shoe size, then L(S(x))

would give us foot length as a function of age.)
2 ---}--- - --~ -- -
l
-:-- - - - - - -:-- - -:--
I I I
- --.,' __- ..,_- - _,_- -_,_- - ....

' -
' X
2 3 4 5 6 7
732 Problem
Set1-4 An
swers
toSelected
Problem
s
h (x ), f. f(f(5)) = 5; g(5) = 7, and 7 is not in the domain of g.
' ' '
7 ---!--- --- ----:-
I
---:----:----
- I I 1
11. a. f(g( 3)) = 3; f(g(7)) = 7; g(f(5)) = 5; g(f(8)) = 8.
6 - - ·;-·· - -- --- ---:----:--- - - Conjecture: For all values of x, f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x.
' ' '
' --- -
' - -:-- - -~
5 - - - '' - - - - - - ' - - - ~- b. f(g(-9)) is undefined; g(f(-9)) = 9 ""-9 . No.
h (S): : : ' :
4 C. y
3 ---~ ---
'
>--~--
--:-
-------:--
'
-- -
'
r'.,
4
f og
' ' ' '
2 - - - f- - - ~' - - - -:-- - -:-- - - - - - -:-- -- -
2
'
- --~
'
I
'
.
'
1
'
'
I
'
'
'
- - - - - ..- - - ..,- - - - - - - _,_- - - -
I
.
'
I
'
,
-g- -
X
X
-2 2
2 3 4 5 6 7
f(g(x)) = x, but g is defined only for nonn ega tive
e. h(p(O)) = h(6) , which is undefined, since 6 is not x, so f O g is defined only for nonnegative x.
in the domain of h.
d. y
7. a. g(l) = 2; f(g(l)) = f(2) = 5 '
\f 4 ''
b. g(2) = 3; f(g(2)) = f(3) = 4 go( go(
2
c. g(3) = 7; f(g( 3)) = ((7), which is undefined
X
d. ((4) = 2; g(f(4)) = g(2) = 3 -2
e. g(f(3)) = g(4) = 5
f. /tf(S)) = f(l) = 3 e. g(f(x)) = g(x 2 ) = v x2 = {X
-x u if X~ 0 = lxl
if X <0
g. g(g{3)) = g(7), which is undefined
13. If the dott ed graph is f(x), 1 !, x !> 5, then the
h . f(f(f(l))) = f(f( 3)) = ((4) = 2
so lid graph is g(x) = f( - x), -5 !> x !> -1. In terms
9. a. X g(x) f(g(x)) of composition of functions , the solid graph is
g(x) = f( h (x)), where h(x) = -x .
1 3 none 2
15. a. f(g(6)) = f(l.5(6) + 3) = f(12) = 2 = 6;
2 4 5 3 (12) -
3 5 4 f(g( - 15)) = f(l.5(-15) + 3)
4 6 3 2
= f(-19.5) = 3 (-19.5) - 2 = - 15;
5 7 2
b . Domain of f g: 4 !> g(x) !> 8 =} 4 !> x + 2 !> 8 =}

O
2 !> x !> 6; the intersection of this with the domain

g(f(lO)) = g(i 2) g( 4i) (10) - =
of g, 1 !> x !> 5, gives 2 !> x !> 5. The domain of

f g appears to b e 2 !> x !> 5.
O
= 1.5( 4f) +3 = 10;
c. 6 is not in the domain of g, so g(6) is undefined .
g(l) = 3, but 3 is not in the domain off
g(f( - 8)) = g(f 2) g(-7i)
(-8) - =
d. x f(x) g(f(x)) = 1.5(-1i) + 3 = -8 . f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x
1 5 7
b. y ,'
2 4 6 / f og = g o(
3 3 5
4 2 4 X
5 1 3 -4 , ' 4
,
,, ' ____ - -4 -
__
Domain of g o f: 1 !, f(x) !, 5 =} 1 !, 9 - x !> 5 =} ,
4 !> x !> 8; the intersection of this with the domain

of f, coincidentally also 4 !> x !> 8, gives 4 !> x !> 8. f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) coincide with each other , and
The domain of g o f appears to be 4 !> x !, 8. with the line y = x. f(x) and g(x) are each other's
refl ections across that line.
e. Y
2
c. f(g(x)) = f(l.Sx + 3) =
2 3 2
3 (1.5x + 3) - 2
= - • -x + - · 3 - 2 = X + 2 - 2 = x·
3 2 3 '
X
4 8
Answers
toSelected
Problems lemSet 1-4 733
Prob
g(f(x)) = g(~x
- 2) 1.5(~x - 2)+ 3
=
3.
20 y
3 2 3
= - • - x + - (-2) + 3 = X - 3 + 3 = X
2 3 2
d. We want to find j(x) such that
h(j(x)) = x=} 5 · j(x) = x+ 7=} j(x) X

= --
+7 1
5
= -x
5
7
+- .
5
Check: X
h(J(x)) = h(ix+ f)= 5(ix + f)- 7 = x+ 7 - 7 = x, 10 20
and Throughout most of its domain, the invers e relation

has two y-values for every x-value.
1 7 7 7 5. Function
j(h(x)) = j(5x - 7) = - (5x - 7) + - = x - - + - = X.
5 5 5 5
Problem
Set 1-5
1. a. ((5) = 24 psi; f(lO) = 16 psi; ((15) = 10.7 psi ·x
b. The air leaks out of the tire as time passes, so
the pressur e is constantly getting lower. Thus f is
a decreasing function, and hence is invertibl e.
c. Somewhere b etwee n x = 25 min and x = 30 min ,
all the air goes out of the tire, and the pressur e 7. Not a function
remains 0. So it is not possible to give a uniqu e
time corresponding to a pressure of O psi ; f - 1 (0)
cannot be defined.
d. The graph of f - 1 (x) is shown in gray. The two
graphs are reflections of each other over th e line
y = x. (They coincidentally happen to be very
close over most of their length.)
y
40
9. Funct ion
y
y=x
X
20
10
11. Not a function
X
y
10 20 30 .JO
e. As an input for f, x represents time in minutes . X
As an input for f- 1 , it represents pressure in psi.
734 Problem
Set1-5 Answers
toSelected
Problem
s
13. Function 27. a. c(lOOO) = 900. If you driv e 1000 mi in a month,
y '
your monthl y cost is $900.
b. C 1 (x) = 2.5x - 1250 . C 1 (x) is a function becaus e
no input produces more than one output.
c- 1 (758) = 2.5(75 8) - 1250 = 645. You would have
a monthly cos t of $758 if you drove 645 mi in
a month .
c. y
1000
15. Function 800
600
400
200
X
17. Function 200 400 600 800 1000
29. a. d- 1 (x) = ) _; ; becau se the domain of di s x;,: O,

0 57
+ < the rang e of d- 1 is d - L(x) ;,: 0.

4
b. d- 1 (200) = 59.234 ... ; a 200-ft skid mark is caused
'' by a car moving at a speed of about 59 mi/h.
' C. d(x)
19. Function 50
+
X
d. Becaus e th e domain of d now contains negative

numb ers, the range of d - 1 contains negativ e
21. y= r- (x) = -x+
1
1
2 3 numb ers . Because th e range of d - 1 contains
y negati ve numbers , d- 1 = ±V x_7, which is not

a fun ction . O.O:i
X
Problem
Set 1-6
1. a. y
5
The inverse relation is a fun ction . . . ;..- - ..-

23. y= ± J -2x - 4 .-5
y b. y
. .i
r' ·S
X X
...
. ~s
The invers e relation is not a funct ion .

1 1
25. f(f(x))=- = -- =X , X*O
f(x) (1/x)
Answers
toSelected
Problems Problem
Set1-6 7 3 5
C. y This transformat ion refl ects f(x), for positive
.. : : : : : : 5
values of x, across th e y-axis .
c. lf(3)l = 4; f(l-31) = -4; The domain of f(lxl)
. . X
includes -3 be caus e the transform ation off
reflects all the point s containing positive values
: ~5 : : . of x across the y-axis.
d. y
d. y y
:. 5
.. ~5 : : : : : : : ~5
9. a. 8 y
3. a.
4
X
-4 4
-8
b.
A negative number rais ed to an even power is
equal to the absolute value of that number raised
to th e same power. So for ±x, the same
correspo nding y-value occur s, and therefore
f(x) = f(-x).
C. b.
-4 4
d.
A negative number raised to an odd power is

equal to the opposite of th e absolut e value of that
numb er raised to the sam e power. Because each
term in g(x) has x raised to an odd power, g(-x )
transforms gin the same way as -g(x) does.
5. The grap hs mat ch .
c. Fun ction h is odd; fun ction j is even.
7. a. d. y
5
X
X
-5 -5
-5 '- -5
This transformation reflects all the points on th e The fun ction e(x) is neither odd nor even.
graph below the x-axis across the x-axis. e(-x) etc -e(x)
b. y
5
11. a. The gra phs agree.
Ix- 11
X b . g(x) = 2 - - +3
x-l
736 Problem
Set1-6 Answers
toSelected
Problem
c. f(x) = (x- 3)2 2·~
-
quadratic); l -8d : power
x- 5
The graphs agree. j. Figure l-8e passes the vertical line test. ,,
vertica l line intersects the graph more than onL~.
13. a. a = 0.0375; b = 2,400,000,000
so no y-value corresponds to more than one
b. y 1 = 0.0375x/ (0 s x and x s 4000); x-value. Figure l-8f fails the vertical line test:
y2 = 2,400 ,000,000 / x2 / (x ~ 4000) There is at least one vertical line that intersects
y the graph more than once, so more than one
150
y-value correspo nd s to the same x-value.
100
R3. a. Horizontal dilation by a factor of 3, vertical
X
transl at ion by -5; g(x) =)4- (~)2
-5
c. y (3000 ) = 112.5 lb; y( 5000) = 96 lb b. Hori zontal translation by +4, vertical dilation
d . x = 1333.3 mi and x = 692 8.2032 .. mi by a factor of 3.
y
Problem
Set 1-8
.5 ..
Rl. a. 17.15 psi
·f X
b. X y .... 5 ..
0 35 -5
1 24. 5
2 17.15
3 12.005
R4. a. h(t) = 3t + 20
4 8.40 35
b. h(5) = 3(5) + 20 = 35 in.;
c. Domain: Os x s "' 5.5; range: 5 s y s 35
W(h( 5)) = 0.004(35) 2 5 s:::29 lb
d. Asymptote
C. w
e. Answers will vary.
40
Time d. No; the graph is curved.

e. Answers will vary . Possible answer: O ~ t ~ 13
R2. a. Linear
f. f(g(3)) = {(4) = 6; f(g(4)) = {(5) = 3; f(g(5)) = {(8),
b. Polynomial (cubic )
which is undefined; f(g(6)) = {(3) = 2; g(f(6)) =
c. Exponential g(5) = 8; {({(3))= {(2), which is undefined;
d. Power g(g(3)) = g(4) = 5.
e. Rational g. y
f. Answers will var y; for example, number of items
manufactured and total manufacturing cost gy, / fog
_,'
g. 13 s f(x) s 37
/ ,--(
,' ,,'
h. Answers will vary. X
y
h. f(g(4)) = 3
i. f(g(3)) = {(2(3) - 3) = {(3), which is undefined,
since 3 is not in th e domain of f
j. ~ s x s \ , whic h agrees with the graph
1
Quadrati c
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set1-8 7 3 7
Problem
.............. .L..L .L O .... ... ........ ...... ..... _ ...... .L.L._.. L ,.... .... ............. .._ ..... - - L.L_ ...,.._ _..__ L--L •
y
? ::
• X
. ·- 5· ..
. . -5
b. y
R6. a. y y
X
.. ·- 5·
X · X
-5
The domain off corresponds to th e range of 1 . r-

The rang e off corres pond s to the domain of 1 . r-
c. x = y 2 + 1 =} y = ±~ . The ± rev eals that there
are two different y-values for some x-values .
X
d. y -5 \,' · 5
---,'
' . '
- -- - - , - - - - •.. :-5
X b. The graph agrees with Figur e l -8k; each of the

-5 graphs agrees with those in part a.
- - - _1 _ - - - - c. Because pow er functions with odd pow ers
'' satisfy the property f( - x) = - f(x) and power
-5 ''
functions with even powers satisfy th e property
It passes the vertical line test; asymptotes. f( - x) = f(x)
e. y d. y
4
6
X
-4
Discontinuity
X
R7 . Answers will vary.
2 3 4
The curve is invertib le because it is incr eas ing. CHAPTER

2
As the input to v, x represents radius in m eters.
As the input to v- 1 , it represe nt s volum e in Problem
Set2-1
cubic meters. If x0 is a particular input to v,
1. The graph sho uld match Figure 2- 1c.
then (Xo,v(XQ))is a point on the graph of v(x).
Plugging the output, v(Xo),into v- 1 gives the 3. y 2 = 11 + 9 sin x, shown with the original grap h
point (v(Xo),v- 1 (v(Xo)))on the graph of v- 1 (x).
But the graph of v- 1 (x) is just the graph of
v(x) with all the x- and y-values exchan ged, so
this point is actually (v(Xo),XQ) . That is,
v - 1 (V(XQ))
= x0 . ()
f. Because no y corresponds to more th an one x in

the original function, no x cor respond s to more
than one yin the inverse relation, so the inverse
is a function.
738 Problem
Set2-1 Answe
rs toSelected
Prob
lem
s
Problem
Set2-2 21. e ref = 34°23' 23. e..er= 33°16'
1. e.-er= 50° 3. er ef = 79° V V
V \I
D rcf
u u
Dref
(},cf
u u
(}ref
25. e.-cl'
= 51°45'9" 27.
<:.J
5. er ef = 18° 7. er cr = 54° \I u
C:
V V
"'
~
0
u
er ef
Time
u u er ef
29. g(x) = 4 + f(x - 1)

9. e,er= 20° 11. er er = 65 °
Problem
Set2-3
V \I
1. e rer= 70°
\I
Orcf
u u
o r('f LI
13. 8, er = 81.4° 15. e,er= 25 .9°

V V
sin 250° = -0 .9396 .. , sin 70° = 0.9396 ... ,
sin 250° = - sin 70°
'
er ef
u u
3. e,er= 40 ° /
(},cf \I
Drcr u
17. e, er = 81° 19. e,er= 46°
\I V
(}ref e,cr cos 140 ° = -0 .7660 .. , cos40° = 0.7660 ... ,

u u
cos 140° = -c os 40 °
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s Set2-3 739
Problem
5. eref = 60° 19. e-dilation of y = cos e by!, y-translation by +3
V
y
Brer -------- e
360 °
cos 300° = 0.5, cos 60° = 0.5,

cos 300° = cos 60°
11 7 21. V
7. r = v 170; sine = .Juo ; cos e = .Juo

+
5 -2
9. r = ./29; sine = .Jig ; cos e = .Jig u
-2 1
'5·sin
11. r = 4 V:J, e = -·Js' cos e = -Js +
-7 -24
13 r=2 5·sin8 = - · cos8 =-
. ' 25' 25 23. Examples will vary.
15. e-translation of y = sine by +60°
Problem
Set2-4
y
1. cot 38° "' 1.2 799
3. sec 238°"' - 1.8871
5. csc (-179°)"" -57 .2987
e 7. sine=-~ cos e= i )
360 °
tan e = -i cote= -i
sec e = i csc e = -i
-7 -5
9. sine= ...ff4 cose= m
17. y-dilation of y= cos e by 3 tan e= i cote= ~
y
sece=--
ff4 csce =--
ff4
5 7
11. sine = i cos e = -i
-------- e tan e = -! cote= -43
360 °
sec e = -i csc e= !
ill
13. sine= - - 4 cos e = t
-1
tan e = - fil cote= v'lS
-4
sec e= 4 csc e= m
15. sin 60° = ,f3
2 cos 60° = t
1
tan60° = F3
0
cot 60 = ./3
0 2
sec 60° = 2 csc 60 = ./3
740 Prob
lemSet 2-4 Answers
toSelected
Problems
17 sin(-315°) = ~
1 19. a. ::::11.5° b. ::::7ft
· v2
cos(-315
0
)= ..f2
C. ::::74ft
tan (-315°) = 1 cot(-3 15°) = 1 21. a. ::::1ft 5 in . b. ::::8ft 3 in.
sec (-315°) = F2 csc (-3 15°) = )2 c. ::::6ft 10 in .
19. sin 180° = O cos 180° = -1 23. Answers will vary.
tan 180° = O cot 180° is und efine d
sec 180° = -1 csc 180° is undefined Problem
Set2-6
21. sin 180° = O 23. cos 240° = -! Rl. a. The graphs match .
25. tan315°=-l 27. cot 0° is undefined b. y-dilation by 0. 7, y-translation by +2;
y = 2 + 0. 7 sine; the result agrees with the graph .
0 2
29. sec 150 = - -/3 31. csc 45° = )2 c. Sinusoid
33. a. sine=0 at e = 0°, 180°, 360° R2. a. 8rer = 70° b. er cf = 79°

b. cos e = 0 at e = 90°, 270° V V
C. tan e = 0 at e = 0°, 180°, 360°

d. cot e = 0 at e = 90°, 270°
e. sec e * 0 for all e u u
f. csc e * 0 for all e

35. sin 30° + cos 60° = 1 37. sec 2 45° = 2
39. sin 240° csc 240° = 1 41. tan 2 60° - sec 2 60° = -1
0
43. a. 67° C. er ef = 76_
b. cos 23° = 0.9205 .. , sin 67° = 0.9205 ... ; they are V
equa l.
c. "Complement"
45. Answers will vary. u
(Jeer
Problem
Set2-5
1. sin - 1 0.3 = 17.4567 ... because sin 17.4567 ... = 0.3.
0 0
3. tan - I 7 = 81.8658 ... b ecause tan 81.8658 ... = 7.

0 0
7 5
5. COS(Sin- I 0.8) = 0.6 R3. a. sine = -- · cos e = --
e = sin - 1 0.8 represents an ang le of a right triangle
.fi4 ' m
with sides 3, 4, and 5. b . sin 160° = 0.3420 ..
cos 160° = - 0.9396 ...
7. a. They are not one-to-one functions.
b. Sine: -90 ° ::;e :,; 90°; cosine: 0° ::; e :,;
180°; they e ref = 20°
V
are one-to-one functions.
c. sin - 1 (-0.9) = -64 .1580 ... 0 • On the principal
branch only negative angles correspond to
negative values of the sine . u
9. a. ::::2.4m b. ::::74.4°
11. a. ::::4.5°
b. Assume that the slope of the road is constant.
13. ::::25.4°
160° terminates in Quadrant II, above the x-axis
15. a. ::::34.4° b. ::::10.
1 cm (so sin 160° > 0) and to the left of the y-axis (so
17. a. ::::33.5 m b. ::::17.5 m cos 160° < 0).
Answers
toSelected
Problems Problem
Set2-6 7 41
C. y CHAPTER
3
Problem
Set3-1
f) 1. Amplitude = 1
y
d. Qu adrants III and IV

e. y-trans lation of +4, x-dilation of 1
y
3. Period= 360° for both func tions
5. y
f)
360 °
f) Horizontal translation of +60°

180 °
7.
R4. a. csc 256° = - 1.0306 ...
b. sin 150 ° = ! 0
cos 150 = - -
Ji f)
2 -l 180" 360 "
0
tan 150 = - Ji1 cot 150° = -Ji
Vertica l trans lation of +6

sec 150° = _ _3_ csc 150° = 2
Ji 9. Amplitude = 5
C. sec e = --Ji Period = 120°
3 Phase disp lacement = 60°
d. case=- - Sinu soida l axis = 6
../34
y
e. sec (-120°) = -2
f. tan 2 30° - csc 2 30° = -3l
g. The endpo int (u, v) is (0, 1), so tan 90° = ~ = 3,
which is undefined . f)
180° 360 °
RS. a. cos - 1 0.6 = 53.1301.. .0 • This means that -1
0
cos(53 .1301.. . = 0.6. )
b . i. ::::321m Problem
Set3-2
ii. ::::603m
1. Amplitude = 4
iii. ::::75°
Perio d = 120°
iv. Answers will vary . Phase disp laceme n t = -10°
Sinuso idal axis = 7
f)
-1 180 ° 360 °
74 2 Probl
emSet3-1 Answe
rs toSelected
Probl
ems
3. Amplitude= 20 d. y = 6 - 4 sin 3(8 - 20°)
Period = 720°
y
Phase displacem ent= 120° 10
Sinusoidal axis = -10
y
__Ei_ _
2
(}
- 400 - JOO 20° 50° 80° 110° 140°
25. a. 60 cycles/deg.
b. Period = 1.2°/c ycle
5. a. y = 9 + 6 cos 2(8 - 20°)
b. Amplitude = 6
Frequency= i
cycle/ deg
The frequency is 300 divided by 360°.
Period = 180°
Frequen cy= 180 1
cycle/ deg 27. a. Subtract 3 from both sides, then divide both
sides by 4. Also,
Phase displacement = 20°
8 - 5°
Sinusoidal axis = 9 2(8 - 5°) = 1/2
C. y = 10.0418 ... at 8 = 60°
y= 8.7906 .. . at 8 = 1234° b. Now all numbers are the opposites for

translations and reciprocals for dilations of the
7. a. y= -3 + 5 cos 3(8 - 10°)
actual valu e of th e transformations.
b. Amplitude = 5
c. It isolates y as a function of 8, makin g it easier
Period = 120°
to ca lculate y, given 8.
Frequ ency = 1~0 cycle/ deg
Phase displac ement = 10° Problem
Set3-3
Sinusoidal axis = -3
1. a.
:Y Ve
C. y = - 8 at 8 = 70°
y = 1.9931... at 8 = 491 °
9. y = 1.45 + 1.11 sin 10(8 + 16°)
11. y = 1.7 cos(8 - 30°)
13. r = 7cos30<
-] nn
~cs::
360 ° 720°
15. y= 35 + 15 sin908 b . Asymptotes occur where cos 8 = 0, at

8 = 90° ± 180n°.
17. y = 4 - 9 sin 193 ( 8 + 60°)
c. Yes, where cos 8 = ±1, at 8 = ±l80n °.
19. y = 12.4151.. . at 8 = 300° d. No, the concavity changes at the asymptotes, not
y = 2.05 79 ... , 1.9420 ... below the sinusoidal axis, at points on the graph.
at 8 = 5678°
3.
21. y = 4 + 3 cos 5(8 - 6°)
y
The graph of y3 is the same as the graph of tan 8.

5. See Figure 3-3a.
23. a. y = 6 + 4 cos 3(8 + 10°)
b. y = 6 - 4 cos 3(8 - 50°)
C. y = 6 + 4 Sin 3(8 + 40 °)
Answers
toSelected
Problems lemSet3-3 74 3
Prob
7. sin (8 ± 180 °n) = - sin 8 and cos (8 ± 180 °n) = -co s 8, b.
-- - 3
where n is an odd inte ger. (If n were even, then you
would have sin (8 ± 180 ° n) = -sin 8 .) Therefore, /
/
0 sin (8 ± 180 °n) I

I -- 2
tan(B ± 180 n) = ( ) I
cos 8 ± 180 0n
/
I I
I I
I V
- sin 8
=--= tan8
-cos 8
9. The domain is 8 * 90° ± 180n °. The range is IYI:?:l. u
11. e-translation of +5°, e-dilation of !; y-dilation of 5,

y-translation of +2
c. The arc length on the unit circle equals th e

radian measur e.
TT TT
3. 3 5. -
6
2 5
7 . -3 TT 9. --TT
13. 8-translation of -5 0°, 8-dilation of 2, y-dilation of 6, 4
y-translation of +4 37 123
11. TT = 0.6457 ... 13. TT = 2.1467 ...
180 180
15. 18° 17. 30°
e
- 180° -5
19. 15° 21. 135°
-IO L~ 23 . 270° 25. 19.48 05 ... 0
- 15
\ 0 0
27. 72. 1926 ... 29. 57.295 7 ...
15. a. 31. -0.9 589 .. 33. 1.1192 .. .
3 5. 0.3046 ... 37 . 0. 32 17 .. .
39 ,J3 1
. 2 41. ,J3
43. 1 4 5. 4
47. 1
b. D"" 714 m to the right of the lighthous e;
D"" 28,645 m to the left of the lighthouse 49. y = 5 + 7 cos 30(8 - 2°)
c. 8"" 76.0 °; 8 "" 116.6° 51. x= 13.9 255 ... cm
d. The beam of light is parall el to the shor e. 53. 8 = 64.6230 ...0
ProblemSet 3-4 ProblemSet 3-5

1. a. TT TT
3.
1. units
2 units
-- - 3
/
6
/
/
/
5. 60° 7. 45 °
I
I - - 2
I TT
9.
2 units 11. 2 units
13. 1.5574 ... 15. - 1.0101...

u 17. 1.2661... 19. 0.2013 ...
TT ,J3 TT 1
21 . sin-=3 -2 23. tan 6 = ,J3
7 44 Problem
Set3-5 Answers
toSelected
Problems
25 . Period= 10 b . The graph would coincide with itself and appear
Amplitude = 2 unchanged.
Phase displacement = +4 c. +2 rr or -2rr or any multiple of ±2rr
Sinusoidal axis = +3 d. 2 rr is the period of th e sine function. A
y horizontal translation by a multiple of 2 rr will
result in a graph that coincides with its elf.
4 7. a. This lets u, v, x, and y all be repr esented on the
same dia gram-xis now an arc, and y is now
eit her u or v, dep ending on whether you are
talking about y = cos x or y = sin x.
27. Period= 8 b. A radian measure corresponds to an angle
1T
Amplitude = 6 measure, using mR(8) = m 0(8) • , but
1800
Phase displacement = -1
Sinusoidal axis= +2 because a radian measure is a pure number, it
can represent something other than an angle in
an application probl em.
49. Answers will vary.
Problem
Set3-6
1. 0.4510. .. , 5.832 1. ., 6.734 2 ... , 12.1153 .. ., 13.0173 .. .
3. 1.7721..., 4.5110 .. ., 8.055 3 ... , 10.7942 ... , 14.3385 .. .
29. Period = 4
Asymptotes at ±4n 5. a. x::::, l, 5, 21, 25
Points of inflection at 2 ± 4n b. y = 2 + 5 cos 1~ (x - 3)
y C. X = 0.9516 ... , 5.0483 ... , 20.9516 ... , 25.0483 .. .
1
d. x= 3 ± : (cos - 1 ~+ 2rrn)
e. X = 100.9516 ...
7. a. X"" -2 .9, -0.5, 1.1, 3.5, 5.1
b . y= -2 + 4 cos ?(x- 0.3)
31. Period = 2rr
C. X = -2 .8608 .. ., -0.5391..., 1.1391..., 3.4608 ... ,
1T
Asymptotes at
2 ± nrr 5.1391.. .
Critical points at (±2nrr, 3) and (±[2n + l]rr, 1)
d. x = 0.3 ±;. ( cos- 1
i + 2 rrn)
e. X = 101.1391...
9. a. X"' -10.6, -3.4, 5.4, 12.6, 21.4
X
b . y= 1- 3 cosf(x-1)
C. X = -10.5735 ... , -3 .4264 ... , 5.4264 ... , 12.5735 ... ,
21.4264 ...
33. y= 5 + 2 cos f(x-
35. y = -2 + 5 cos
1)
+ 5)
d. x= 1 ±;[cos -
1
(-i)+ 2rrn]
1~ (x
37. y=csc 6 x
TT e. X = 101.4264 ..
39 . y= 3 tanx 11. a. e"' 130°, 170°, 310°

b . y=6+4cos2(e-60°)
41. z = - 8 + 2 sin 5rr(t - 0.17)
c. e"' 129.2951.. .0, 170.7048 ... 0, 309 .2951.. .0
43. z(0.4) = -8.9079 .. .
z(50) is 0.907 9 ... below the sinusoi dal axis . d. e = 60° ± i (cos - 1
i + 360 n°)
1T
45. a. Hori zontal translation of +
2; 13. a. = 2.6905 ... , 3.5926 .. ., 8.9737 ... , 9.8758 ... ,
X
15.2569 ..., 16.1589 .. .
Sin X = COS ( X - f) b. X = 203 .7524 ..
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set3-6 74 5
Problem
Problem
Set 3-7 TT 50 y - 12
c. y = 12 + 15 cos-x => x = -cos - 1 --
50 TT 15
1. a. d
y Length
Om 39.7 583. .m
2m 36.6139 .. m
4m 33.953 0 .. m
6m 31.5494 .. rn
8m 29.296 1 .. m
b . -2 ft; this number must be n egat ive because par t
10m 27.1284 .. rn
of the wheel is und erwater.
12 rn 25 m
C. d = 7 + 9 COS ~(t- 4) 14 m 22.8715. . rn
d . d = 4.2188. '' ft 16 rn 20.7038 .. m
e. t = 0.0817 ... s; the wheel must h ave been com ing 18 m 18.4505 ... m
out of the wate r. 20m 16.0469 .. m
f. "Mark Twain" was riverboat terminology 22 m 13.3860 ... m
indicating that the water was 2 fathoms deep . 24m 10.2416 .. m
26 m 5.8442. .m
3. a. d
d. The sum of vertica l timbers is about 324 m, and
th e sum of horizontal timbers is about 331 m.
30
20
7. a. 11 yr
10
10 15
b. S= 60 + 50 cos i~(t-
1948)
c. S(2020) "" 12 suns pot s
d. t = 2028 .666 ... ; maximum in 2025
b. d = 50 + 10 cos t;U- 0.3) e. Answers will vary.
c. d = 43 .3086 .. cm
d . d= 58.0901.. cm 9. a. d (m )
e. t= 0.0846 ... s 50
5. a. y= 12 + 15 COS ~x
5
b. X Length t (min)
50
Om 27m
2 rn 26 .8817 ... m
4 rn 26 .5287 . . m - 50
6m 25 .9466 ... m
8m 25.1446 .. m b . t = 40 .5 min
10m 24.1352 .. m c. d = -50 sin 2'; t
12 m 22.9345 .. . m d . d = -32.1393 .. . m
14 m 21.5613 ... m
e. t= 7.1597 ... min, 19.8402 ... min, 61.1597 ... min
16m 20.0374 . . m
18 m 18.3866 .. rn 11. a. y
24
20m 16.6352 .. rn
22 m 14.8107 .. . m
24m 12.9418 ... m
26 m 11.0581 .. m X
28m 9.1892 ... m 120
30 m 7.3647 .. m
32 m 5.6133 ... m b. y = 12 - 12 cos i"2
34m 3.9625 ... m C. y= 8.2161... in .
36m 2.4386 ... m d. x= 17.8483 .. in. and 57 .5498 ... in .

38m 1.0654 ... m 13. a. Frequency = 60 cycles / s; period = los
b . Wavelength= 220 in.
C. 34 ft 4.5 in .
7 46 Prob
lemSet3-7 Answers
to Selec
tedProblem
s
Problem
Set3-8 d. w = 6.2831 rad / s
v= ll 3.0973 ... emf s
1. a. w = 15 rad / s
e. v= 0 emf s
b. w = 143.2394 ... rev/ min
w = 6.2831... rad /s
3. a. w = 150 ra d/ s = 1432.3944 .. rev/ min
f. w = 60 rev/ min
b. v = 142 5 in./ s
15 cm 18 cm
C. V = 80.9659 ... ml/h g. ratio = 45 =-- · --
2 cm 3 cm
2 rr
5. a. 120° = radi ans
3 Problem
Set3-9
b. 4 cm = 8.3775 ... cm
Rl. a. Phase di splacem ent
c. w = 4.1887 ... rad / s y
(horizontal tran slation)
v = 16.7551 .. cm/ s
2
7.a.w = -rev / s
3
b . w = 4.1887 . . rad / s
c. v = 293 .2153 cm/ s
d. Points of Ima's body along the axis have v = 0,
·-r·
Sinuso idal axis
but w = 4.1887 rad / s. /)
e. v = 150 cm/ s, so lina's fingert ip s are moving
slower b . Argument
9. a. w = 10.4719 ... ra d/ s R2. a. y
b. v= 52.3598 .. cm/ s
c. v= 52.3598 .. cm/ s
d. v=52. 3598 .. cm/ s
e. w = 3.4906 .. . rad / s
f. w = 3.4906 ... rad / s
v = 0 emf s Amplitude = 4
11. a. v = 4.1887 .. ft/s Period = 72°
V = 2.85 59 .. ml/ h Sinusoidal axis = 3
b. v = 4.1887 .. ft/s; linear velocity Phase disp lacement = 10°
36
c. w = 44.4444 ... rev/ min; angular velocity b . y= -7 + 3 cos 2 8°(8 -10 °)
13. a. w = 31.419 ... rad / s y= -7 + 3 sin 32580
(8 - 30)
b. w = 31.4159 ... rad / s
C. V = 62.8 318 .. in ./ S C. Y =50 + 70 Sin 3468° (8 - 8°)
d. V = 62.8318 .. in ./ S d. Point of infl ection at 8 = 8°, criti cal point at
8 = 20°
e. w = 3.4906 rad / s
f. V = 0 in./ S
w = 3.4906 ... rad / s
e. Frequency = *°·fs
or of a cycle per degree
R3. a .
15. a. w = 0.2 rad / s
b. w = 1.9098 ... rev/ min /)
c. The linear velocities are the same - members all

march at the same speed .
d. w = 0.5 rad / s
e. W smalJ = 2.5 · WJarge (2.5 times as fast) b. sin (8 ± 180°n) = -s in 8 and cos (8 ± 180°n) =
radius of large circle -cos 8, where n is an odd integer. (If n is even, then
Note: 2.5 = ----~---
rad ius of small cir cle sin (8 ± 180° n) = sin 8 and cos (8 ± 180°n) =
17. a. w = 282.7433 .. rad / s -c os 8.J
b. v = 565.4866 ... cm/ s sin(8 ± 180°n)
Therefore, tan (8 ± 180°n) = )
w = 37.6991... rad / s cos( 8 ± 180 0n
c. w = 37.6991... rad / s -sin 8
=--= tan8
v = 113.097 3 emf s -cos 8
An
swe
rstoSelected
Problem
s Problem
Set3-9 7 4 7
u
C. rr
g. Period= 2rr-;. = 20
10
e y
6
X
2 7 27
1
y= sece = -- -2
cos e
1 h. y= -10 -35 sin 2~ (x - 13)
d. sin e = 0 at e = 0°, 180°, 360°, so csc e = -:--e
Sill
is
R6. a. arccos 0.8 = ±cos - 1 0.8 + 2rrn
undefined at these points. b. 0.64 35 ... , 5.6396 ... , 6.9266 ...
e. The cosecant graph changes concavity only at the c. 102.0015 ...
asymptotes, not at any points that are actually on
the graph, so it has no points of inflection. The d. X"' -7 .6, -4.4, 8.4, 11.6;
cotan gent graph is always decreasing, so it has y = 6 + 5 cos ~; (x - 2), so
no critica l points. It is concave up to the left of X = - 7.6386 .. , - 4.3613 .. , 8.3613 .. , 11.6386 ...;
90° + 180°n and concave down to the right . So X = - 7.6386 .. , - 4.36 13 ... , 8.3613 ... , 11.6386 .. .
90° + 180°n are the points of inflection. e. X = 24.3613 ...

f. 8-translation of +40°, 8-dilation of 3, y-dilation R7. a. y
of 0.4, y-translatio n of +2
10 20 30
-2
b. y = - 600 + 400 cos f (t- 9)
Period = 540° c. y= -276.39 32 ... m
The valu e of y is unbounded, so the "amplitude" Submarine could communicate.
is infinit e. d. 0.1502 .. min < t < 7.8497 .. min
rr rr rr RS. a. w = 6°/s
R4. a. 30° = - radians, 45° = - radians, 60° = - radians
6 4 3 b. w = 0.1047 ... rad / s
720 ° c. 23.0383 ... cm
b. 2 radians= -- = 114.5915 ... 0
2rr d. v = 750 cm/s

C. cos 3 = - 0.9899 ... , cos 3° = 0.9986 ...
rr e. v = 750 cm/ s
d. cos - 1 0.8 = 0.6435 ..., csc - 1 2 =
6 f. v= 0 cm/s
e. Arc length = 17 units g. w = 250 rad /s
RS. a. See Figure 3-4a on pag e 111. h. w = 250 rad /s
rr i. w = 6250 cm/s
b. 60° -+ units
3 j . V = 225 km / h
2.3 radians-+ 2.3 units
c. sin 2° = 0.0348 ..., sin 2 = 0.9092 ... CHAPTER
4
d. cos- 1 0.6 = 53.1301... 0
rr .Ji Problem
Set4-1
e. cos =
6 2 , sec rr = -/2,tan rr is und efined
4 2 1. The sum is 1.
f. y 3.
Y, Y,
-1
748 Problem
Set4-1 Answers
toSelected
Problems
y 1 and y 2 are symmetrica l with respect to the y = i 3. sec A cot A sin A= cot A sin A --
1
line, so the amount that one grap h is above is th e i cos A
same as the amount the other graph is below i- =cotA--
sin A
cosA
When added,
= cot A tan A = l
sec A cot A sin A= l, Q.E.o.
5. Because r = 1, sin 50° = ~ = v and cos 50° = ~ = u. 5. sin 2 e sec e csc e = sin 2 e _____!___e
~e
COS Sill
sine
Problem
Set4-2
cos e
1. sec x=--
1
= tan e
cos X
.'. sin 2 8 sec 8 CSC8 = tan 8, Q.E.D .
Sin X
3. tanx = -- cos R sinR
cos X 7. cotR + tanR = -- + --
sinR cosR
5. Cosine and sine are the lengths of the legs of a
right triangle whose hypotenus e is a radius of a cosR cosR sinR sinR
= --·-- +-- ·--
unit circle. The Pythagorean theore m then says sinR cos R sinR cos R
(cos x) 2 + (sin x) 2 = 12 . cos 2 R sin 2 R
----+----
7. y sin R cos R sinR cos R
cos 2 R + sin 2 R
X
sinR cos R
1
sin R cos R
1 1
Asymptotes at 8 = 0°, 180°, 360°, .. . sinR cos R
= cscR sec R
9. cos 2 x + sin 2 x = l
=} cos
2 x + sin 2 x - cos 2 x = l - cos 2 x cot R + tan R = csc R sec R, Q.E.D.
2
=} sin x = l - cos 2 x l sinx .
9. cscx- sinx = -- - -- · Sill X
11. cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1 cos x · sec x = 1 sinx sinx
2 2
csc x- cot x = l sin x · csc x = l 1 Sin2 X
sec 2 x - tan 2 x = l tanx·cotx = l sin x sin x
1 1
1 - sin 2 X
13. sec x = -- = csc x = -- sinx
cos x sinx
1 1 cos 2 x
cotx=--= tanx= -- sinx
tanx cotx
COSX
sin x sec x cos x csc x =-- . cosx
tanx = --=--= cotx=--=-- sin x
cos x csc x sin x sec x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x = l = sin 2 x + cos 2 x = l = cot x cos x
1 + tan 2 x = sec 2 x = 1 + cot 2 x = csc 2 x ... csc X - sin X = cot X cos X, Q.E.D .
11. tan x (cot x cos x + sin x)

Problem
Set4-3 sin x (cos
= -- -. - x COSX + Sin X)
sinx COSX Sill X
1. COSX tan X = COSX • -- 1
COSX = - - (sin x · cos x · cos x + sin 2 x)
1 COSX Sill X
= (cosx · - -) · sinx = sec x (cos x + sin 2 x)
2
COSX
= sinx = secx
... cos X tan X = sin X, Q.E.D. .'. tan x (cot x cos x + sin x) = sec x, Q.E.D .
13. (1 + sin B)(l - sin B) = 1 - sin 2 B = cos 2 B
.·. (1 + sin B)(l - sin B) = cos X, Q.E.D.
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s Problem
Set4-3 7 49
15. (cos cf>- sin cp
)2= cos 2 cf>- 2 cos cf>sin cf>+ sin 2 cf> 1 + cos x + 1 - cos x
= cos 2 cf>+ sin 2 cf>- 2 cos cf>sin cf> 1 - cos 2 x
2
= 1 - 2 cos cf>sin cf>
e-
.".(COS Sin e) 2 = 1 - 2cos Sine, Q.E.D . e sin 2 x
= 2 csc 2 x
17. (tan n + cot n) 2 = tan 2 n + 2 tan n cot n + cot 2 n
1 1 2
= tan 2 n + 2 + cot 2 n --- + = 2 CSCX, Q.E.D.
} - COSX l + COSX
= (tan 2 n + 1) + (1 + cot 2 n)
27. sec x (sec x - cos x) = sec 2 x - sec x cos x
= sec 2 n + csc 2 n = sec 2 x - l
.·. (tan n + cot n) 2 = sec 2 n + csc 2 n, Q.E.D . = tan 2 x
csc 2 x - l cot 2 x .'. sec x (sec x - cos x) = tan 2 x, Q.E.D.
19. ----
COSX COSX 29. sin x (csc x - sin x) = sin x csc x - sin 2 x
1 = 1 - sin 2 x
= cot 2 x--
cos x = cos 2 x
COSX 1
= cotx· -- · -- :. sin x (csc x - sinx) = cos 2 x, Q.E.D .
sinx cos x
1 31. csc 2 e - cos e csc e = csc en - cos
2 2 2 2
8)
= cotx · -- 2
= csc e(sin e) 2
sinx
= cot x csc x =1
csc 2 x - l .". csc 2 e- 2 8 csc 2 8 = 1, Q.E.D.
COS
---- ;:::::
cot X csc X, Q.E.D .
cosx e
33. (sec + l)(sec e-
1) = sec 2 e-
1 = tan 2 e
21.
sec 2 e- 1 tan 2 e 2
.". (sec 8 + l)(sec 8 - 1) = tan 8, Q.E.D.
sin e = sin e 35. (2 cosx+ 3 sinx) 2 + (3 cosx- 2 sinx) 2
= 4 cos 2 x + 12 cos x sin x + 9 sin 2 x
= tan 2 e-sin1-e + 9 cos 2 x - 12 cos x sin x + 4 sin 2 x
sine l = 4 cos 2 x + 4 sin 2 x + 9 sin 2 x + 9 cos 2 x
= tane----
cos sine e =4+9=13
1 :. (2 cos x + 3 sin x) 2 + (3 cos x - 2 sin x)2 = 13, Q.E.D.
=ta ne --
cos e 37.
= tan e sec e
sec 2 e - l
Sill
.e= tan e sec e,Q.E.D.
secA sin A 1 sinA
23. -----=----
sin A cos A cos A sin A cos A
1 sin 2 A
39. X (2 cos x + 3 sin x) 2 + (3 cos x - 2 sin x) 2
cos A sinA cosA sinA
1 - sin 2 A 0 13
cos A sin A 1 13
cos 2 A 2 13
cos A sin A 3 13
cos A 4 13
sin A 5 13
= cot A 7T 1
sec A sin A
41. For examp le, cos 4 = ./2= 0.7071..., but
... -- - -- = cot A, Q.E.D.
sinA cosA . 1T 1
1 - Sill 4 = 1 - -J2= 0.2928 .. .
1 1
25.---+---
l - COSX l + COSX 43. sec 2 A+ tan 2 A sec 2 A= sec 2 A(l + tan 2 A)
1 + cos x 1 - cos x = sec 2 A (sec 2 A) = sec 4 A
-------- + -- - -----
(1 + cos x)(l - cos x) (1 - cos x)(l + cos x) : . sec A + tan A sec A = sec 4 A, Q.E.D .
2 2 2
1 + COSX 1 - COSX
= 1 - cos 2 x + l - cos 2 x
750 Problem
Set4-3 Answers
toSelectedProblems
45.
1 COSX
-------
1
- --
COSX COSX
-· -- 1 - 3 cos x - 4 cos 2 x (1 - 4 cos x)(l + cos x)
53
sin X cos X sin X sin X cos X sin X cos X · sin 2 x (1 - cos 2 x)
2
1 - cos x (1 - 4 cos x)(l + cos x)
Sin X COSX (1 - cos x)(l + cos x)
Sin2 X 1 - 4 COSX
Sin X COSX 1 - COSX
sinx 1 - 3 cos x - 4 cos 2 x 1 - 4 cos x
COSX = , Q.E.O.
Sin2 X 1 - COSX
= tanx
.
1 cosx
- -.- = tan X, Q .E.O.
Problem
Set4-4
Sill X COSX SIDX 1. a. e = 44 .4270 ... 0
+ 360n ° or 135.5729 ... 0 + 360 n°
1 1 - cos p b. 8 = 44.4 270 ... , 135. 5729 ... 0 , 404 .42 70 .. .0 ,
0
47.
1 + cos p - (l + cos p)(l - cos p) 495 .5729 ... 0
1 - cos p
3. a. x = -0.201 3 ... + 2rrn or 3.34 29 ... + 2rrn
1 - cos 2 p
b. X = 3.3429 .. ., 6.0818 ... , 9.6261.. ., 12.365 0 ...
1 - cos p
sin 2 p 5. a. e = - 75.96 37 ... 0
+ 180n °
1 cos p b . 8 = 104.0362 ... 0
, 284.0 362 .. .°, 464.0362 .. .°,
- -- 2 - - -2 644.0362 ... 0
sin p sin p
1 cos p 7. a. x = 1.4711... + rrn
= csc 2 p - - .- · -.-
sm p smp b. x= 1.4711.. ., 4.6127 ... , 7.754 3 .. ., 10.8959 ...
= csc 2 p - csc p cot p 9. a. 8 = ±78.46 30 .. .0 + 360 n°
..
1
= csc 2 p - csc p cot p, Q.E.o .
b. e = 78.4630 .. : , 281.5 369 .. .°, 438.4630 .. : ,
1 + cos p 64 1.5369 .. .°
1 + sinx (1 + sinx)(l + sinx) 11. y
49
· 1 - sinx - (1 - sinx)(l + sin x)
1 + 2 sin x + sin 2 x
1 - Sin 2 X
1 + 2 sin x + sin 2 x
cos 2 x
1 2sinx sin 2x
= cos x + cos x + cos 2 x
2 2 13. No angle ha s a cosine of 2 (- 1 $; cos x $; 1 for all x),
but there ar e infinit ely man y angles whose tan gent
1 sin x
= sec 2 x + 2 · -- · -- + tan 2 x is 2; the oppo site side can b e twice the adjacent
COSX COS X sid e, an d tan (1.1071... + nrr) = 2.
= 2 sec 2 x + 2 sec x tan x - 1
15. arctan A= 37° ± 360 n°; 217°
1 + sinx
--- = 2 sec 2 x + 2 sec x tan x - l, Q.E.o. 5rr 5rr rr
1 - sinx 17. arcsin A= - ± 2nrr, rr - - ± 2nrr ·-
6 6 '6
51. sec 2 e + csc e = --cos21 8 +-.--
2 1
sm 2 8 19. arccos A= ±2 ± 2nrr ; 2 rr - 2
sin 2 e cos 2 e 21. e = 120°, 300 °, 430°, 660°
= cos e sin e + cos 2 8 sin 2 8
2 2
23. e = -25 7°, -17°, 103°, 343°
sin 2 8 + cos 2 8
25. X = 0.3918 .. , 1.6081. .. , 2.3918 ... , 3.608 1.. ., 4. 3918 ... ,
cos 2 8 sin 2 8 5.608 1...
1
cos 2 8 sin 2 8 27 .
= sec 2 8 csc 2 8
.". sec 8 + csc 8 = sec 2 8 CSC
2 2 2 8, Q.E.O.
Answe
rs toSelected
Probl
ems Set4·4 7 51
Problem
29. e = 0°, 120°, 24 0°, 350°, 480°, 500°, 720 ° b. y
31. e = 210°, 330° , s 70°, 59 0°

X
33 . e = 48 .189 ... 90°, 270°, 311.810..
0
,
0
-5
y -4
e c. The graphs agr ee.

3. a. y
3rr 7rr ll rr 19rr X

35 X=-- - ---
. 10' 10' 10 ' 10
y
X
b. (ir (fr =
+ 1
c. The equation in part bis an ellipse centere d at

th e origin with x-radius 3 and y-radiu s 5.
37 . a. y= 500 tane 5. a. y
b. e = St
y = 500 tan St
c. t = 10.0388 .. s, 46.0388 ... s,
82.0388 .. s, 118.0388 . s
39 . a. X = 0, X"" 1.3, 2.4
b. X = 0, 1.2901. .. , 2.373 0 ...
b . (x; 5r + (y ;2r =l
c. x appears both algebraically (as x) and
tr ansc end entall y (in the argument of tangent). c. The equation in part bis an ellip se cent ered at
41. a. Graph should mat ch Figur e 4-40. (5, 2) with x-radius 7 and y-radius 3.
b. y 7. a. x = 6 + 5 cost, y = 9 + sin t
0° s t s 360°
3 b. Th e graphs should match the figure.
X 9. a. x = l +0.4cos0.5 t,y=4+2s in0 .5t
12
x = 14 + 0.4 cost, y = 4 + 2 sin t
180° s t s 540°
C. 7.606 3 .. S XS 16.3936 ...
TT
b. Th e graphs shou ld match th e figur e.
4 3. The equation is an identity for all x * - ± rrn. Th e
. 'd e. 2 11. a. x= 8 + 5 cos0 .5t, y = 2 + sin0 .5t
two grap h s come1
x = 8 + 3 cos t, y = 9 + 0.6 sin t
360° s t s 720 °
ProblemSet 4-5 b. The graph s should match th e figure.
1. a. t X y
13. a. x = 5 + 0.8 cos(t + 180°),
-2 .0 -5 -5 y = 6 + 4 sin (t + 180°)
- 1.5 - 3.5 -4 X = 5 + 4 COS t, y = 6 + 4 Sin t
-1. 0 -2 -3 - 90 ° s t s 90°
-0.5 - 0.5 -2 b. The graphs should match th e figur e.
0 1 -1 15. a. (60 m, 75.9 m)
0.5 2.5 0
b. t = 5 s
1.0 4 1
y(S) = 77.5 m
1.5 5.5 2
2.0 7 3
7 52 Problem
Set4-5 Answers
toSelected
Problem
s
c. ti = 0.8355 ... s, t2 = 7.3277 ... s 13. Undefined
X(t1) = 16.7103 ... ill 15. 3 cannot equal a cosine of any angle. In other
x(t 2 ) = 146.5549 ... m words, 3 is not in the domain of arccosine.
d. x = 160 m =} t = 8 s =} y = 6.4 m
17. cos (sin- 1 x) = ,,/1 - x2, -1 ~ x ~ 1. The graph s match .
y(8 s) > 2 m, so the ball will go over the fence.
X
4.9 2 19. sin(tan - 1x) = ~· all real x. The graphs match.
e. y= 2x - -x v x- + 1
400
17. y 21. sin(sin - 1x) = x, -1 ~ x ~ 1. The graphs match.
23. a. Y = f(X) <=>X = r - l(y), SOX= r - L(y) = r - L[f(X)]
X b. Y= f - 1 (X) <=>X= f(y) , SOX= f(y) = f[ f - 1(X)]
25. a. y= 100 + 150 sin( ; (x-162.5 956 ..))

7 0
b. The tunn el is about 1025.2 m long. The bridg e is
19. 3 74.8 m long.
c. Now the tunnel is about 950 .7 m long, and the
X bridge is 449.3 m long.
Problem
Set4-7
Rl. a. u and v are the legs of a right triangle with
hypotenus e 1.
21. a. The graph should resemble Figur e 4-5f.
b. Answers will vary. When the graph is plotted b. cos e = hori zont al coordinate
= !!.= u
slowly, we can see that the x2 -values proceed radius 1
along the x-axis as th e x1 -valu es proceed along sin 8 = vertical coord inate = ~ = v
the circle, and that th e y 1- and Yr values are radius 1
always the same . 2 2
C. u + v = 1 and U = COS 8 and V = Sin 8
c. Change the secon d graph to x2 = t, y2 = cos t. =} (cos 8)2 + (sin 8) 2 = 1

1 ,J?,
Problem
Set4-6 e
d. For = 30°, sine = and cos 8 =
2 2
1. Graphs should match the darker portion of the 1 3
corresponding graphs in Figure 4-6d. =} sin 2 8 = - and cos 2 8 = -
4 4
3. 1 3
=} sin 2 8 + cos 2 8 = - + - = 1
4 4
" X e. y
You can make a tabl e of values and show that the

- I
(x, y) pairs of one graph are the same as the (y, x)
values of the oth er. Exchanging x and y is equivalent
to reflecting across the line y = x. The grap hs are symm etr ical across y = one !;
5. Quadrant!: tan( cos - 1 ~ ) = f !
graph is above by the same amount as the
other is under it.
sinx cos x
7. Quadrant I: sin(tan - 1 2-) = 2- R2. a. tan x =--,cot x = -.-
12 13 cos x sm x
9. Quadrant IV: cos( sin - 1 (-

8
17
)) = ~! b. tanx =--
sec x
csc x
csc x
, cotx= --
sec x
11. Quadrant I: sec ( cos - 1 i)= f c. sinx · csc x = 1, cosx · secx = l, tanx · cotx = 1
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s lemSet4·7 7 5 3
Prob
d. X cos 2 x sin 2 X cos 2 x + sin 2 x f. )'
0 1 0 1
l 0. 29 19 .. 0 .7080 .. 1 X
2 0.1731 0.8268 ... 1
-l
3 0.9800 .. 0.0199 . 1
4 0.4 272 0 .5727 .. l
5 0.0804 .. 0.9195 .. 1 g. x (3 cos E + 5 sin £)2 + (5 cos E - 3 sin £)2
e. i.sin 2 x= 1- x cos 2 0 34
ii. tan 2 x = sec 2 x - l 1 34
iii. csc 2 x = cot 2 x + l 2 34
f. )' ' ' 3 34
' Secant :'
1
4 34
: Cosine :
: .. ~ ~- / I X
5 34
[r\ [ R4. a. 8 = 17.4576 .. 0 + 360n ° or 162.5423 ...0 + 360 n°

b . X = 0.275, 0.775, 1.27 5, 1.77 5
sin A cos A
R3. a. tan As in A+cosA=--s in A +--c osA
cos A cos A X
sin 2 A + cos 2 A l
cos A cos A
= sec A
TT
.'. ~an A sin A + cos A = sec A for A *
2 + nTT , c. e = 60°. 240 °, 300 °. 420°
Q.E.D.
b . (cos B + sin B)2 = cos 2 B + 2 cos B sin B + sin 2 B
= (cos 2 B + sin 2 B) + 2 cos B sin B
= l + 2 cos B sin B
(cos B + sin 8)2 = 1 + 2 cos B sin B for all real B,
Q. E.D.
1 1
C. + RS. a. )'
1 + sin C 1 - sin C
1 - s in C 1 + sin C
------- -+ X
(l + sin C) (1 - sin C) (1 - sin C) (1 + sin C)
4
1 - sin C 1 + sin C 1 - sin C 1 + sin C
= 1 - sin 2 C + 1 - sin 2 C cos 2 C + cos 2 C
2
= -- 2. - = 2 sec 2 C
cos C
1 1 TT
b. (X; 2r + (y;1r = 1
- -- + = 2 sec 2 C for C * - + nTT, c. The equ ation in part b is an ellips e center ed at
1 + sin C 1 - sin C 2
Q.E.D .
(-2 , 1) with x-radiu s 5 and y-radius 3.
d. x = 7 + 5 cos t, y = 2 + 0.8 sin t,
d. csc D(csc D - sin D)
180° 5: t 5: 360°
= csc 2 D - csc D s in D = csc 2 D - l
= cot 2 D R6. a. Use x = cost, y = t, - 7 5: t 5: 7 (or whatever
.'. csc D(csc D - sin D) = cot 2 D for D * n TT, Q.E.D. y-limits you us e for your graphin g window) .
c. (3 cos£+ S sin£ )" + (5 cos E - 3 s in £)2 b.
= 9 cos 2 E + 30 cosEsin E+ 25 s in 2 £
+ 25 cos 2 £ - 30 cos £s in£ + 9 sin 2 £ X
= 9 cos 2 £ + 9 s in 2 £ + 25 sin 2 £ + 25 cos 2 £

= 9 + 25 = 34
.'. (3 cos£+ 5 s in£) 2 + (5 cos£ - 3 sin£ )2 = 34,
Q.E.D .
754 Problem
Set4-7 Answers
toSelected
Problems
c. It is the inverse. 5. y= fil5 cos(8 - 233.9726 .. 0
)
2 7. y = 6,J2 cos(B + 45°)

d. sin(tan - 1 2) = ./5
9. y = 2 cos( 8 - 30°)
e. y = tan (cos - 1 x) = --
.JI - x-2
x
11. y = 5 cos(x - 2.2142 .. )
y 13. y
X e
450
- 15
f . In Quadrants I and n, where cos - 1 xis defined, 15. y = ,J2 cos (3x - f)
you have COS- lX = 8 <=>COS 8 = X, SO Horizo ntal dilation by 1
= COS 8 = X.
g.
COS(COS - l X)
V
17. Cons ider A= IT and B = !J.
Then co s(A - B) = cos !J= 0,
but cos A - cos B = cos rr - cos !J= - 1.
19. y = 5)3 cos 8 + 5 sin 8
y
15
e
450
h. Arccos x means the ang le (or arc) whose cosine
is X . - 15
CHAPTER
5 21. y = -2.5)3 cos 38 + 2.5 sin 38
0
23. 8 = 124.0518 . . or 15.1272 ...
0
ProblemSet 5-1
1. The graph s agree.
25. x=4.4460 .. or 2.5547 ...
3. Amplitude = 5
Phas e displacement = 53.1301.. 0 27. cos 28 = cos(58 - 38)
Answers are reasonably clos e to estimates. = cos 58 cos 38 + sin58 sin 38;
5. y3(8) = yi8) for all 8 0.3 = cos 58 cos 38 + sin 58 sin 38 = cos 28
8 Y3 = Y4 => 28 = ±cos - 1 0.3 + 360 n° => 8 = 36.2711 ... 0
,
143.7288 ... 0, 216.2711... 0, 323.7288 ... 0

oo 3
60° 4.9641... 29. a. cos 70° = 0.3420 ... = sin 20°
120° 1.964 1.. . b. cos(90° - 8) = cos 90° cos 8 + sin 90° sin 8
180° -3 = 0 · cos 8 + 1 · sin 8 = sin 8
240° - 4.9641.. c. Co- means comp lementary.
300° - 1.9641..
31. See the derivat ion in th e text.
360° 3
7. Let 8 = IT and D = ¥,Then cos(8 - D) = cos f = 0, Problem

Set5-3
but cos 8 - cos D = cos IT - cos = - l . f l. Let A = B = 90°. Then sin(A + B) = sin 180° = 0 ~
2 = sin 90° + sin 90° = sin A + sin B.
ProblemSet 5-2 l tan 60° - tan 30° 1
1. y= 13 cos(8 - 22.6198 ... 0) 3. tan(60 ° - 30°) = J3 and 1
+ tan 600 tan 300 = J3
3. y= 25 cos(8-106.2602 ..0)
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s emSet5-3 7 5 5
Probl
5. X cos(-x) cosx 33 . sinl5° = sin(45 °- 30°)
= sin 45 ° cos 30° - cos 45 ° sin 30°
oo 1 1 J2 ./3 )2 1
30° 0.8660 ... 0.8660 ...
2 2 2 2
60° 0.5 0.5
goo /6-12
0 0
4
120° -0 .5 -0. 5
150° - 0.8660 .. - 0.8 660 ... /6+)2
3 5. sin 75° = cos(90° - 75°) = cos 15° =
180° -1 -1 4
7. The graphs are the same. /6 - 12 )

sinl5° ( 4 /6-)2
9. a. The v-coordinates are opposite for and
b. The u-coordin ates are th e same for and
e
e
-e.
-e.
37 . tanl5° = cos 150 = (/6: l2)
= /6 + l2
c. The slopes of the rays for and are e -e _ J6 - J2 . /6 - 12 = 8 - 4./3 = 2 _ ./3
opposites.
- 16 + 12 J6-J2 4
d . For any function f(x), if f( - x) = f(x), then
1 39 . a. e = 90 ° -
Sin- I X~ Sill- IX = 90 ° - e
_l _ = - - when defined. If f( -x) = -f(x), then ~ X
= Sin (90° - 0) = COS0
f(-x) f(x)
1 1 . b . - 90° S Sin- J XS 90 ° ~ -9 0° S 90° - 8 S 90°
--
f( - x)
= - -
f(x)
when defm ed . ~ - 180° s -e e
s 0° ~ 0° s s 180°
c. e is the uniqu e valu e of arccos x such that
11. cos (8 - 90°) = cos e cos 90° + sine sin 90 °
o s e s 180°.
= cos e · 0 + sin O · l = sin 0
41. cos(A + B + C)
13. cos (x - f) = cos x cos f + sin x sin f = cos A cos B cos C - cos A sin B sin C
= cos x · 0 + sin x · 1 = sin x - sin A cos B sin C - sin A sin B cos C
15. sin(8 + 60°) - cos( e + 30°)
= (sin e cos 60° + cos e sin 60°) Problem Set 5-4
- (cos e cos 30° - sine sin 30°) 1. a. y 1 is th e tall sing le arch and trough, y 2 th e short
1 J3 J3
= - sin 8 + - COS8 - - COSO + - Sill O = Sill 0
1 . . wiggly lin e.
2 2 2 2
b, C. y
17
.
Jz cos(x - !!.)
4
= J2 cos x cos!!. + J2 sin x sin!!.
4 4
1 1
= )2 cos x · )2 + J2 sin x · )2
= cos x + sinx
19. sin 3x cos 4x + cos 3x sin 4x = sin (3x + 4x) = sin 7x
21. a. X = 2 7T - Q.6 ± 0.4510 ...
b. x= 5.2321.. . or 6.1342 ..
23. a. e = 22.5° + 180n ° or 67.5° + l80n ° d . Periodic fun ctio n with variabl e amplitude 6 sine
b. e = 22.5°, 67.5°, 202.5 ° or 247.5° 3. y= 3 cose + 2 sinl30
25. a. x =
7T 5. y= 5 sine cos ne
3 + rrn 7. y= 2 cos fx + 4 sin4rrx
rr 4rr
b. x =
3
or
3 9. y= 4 sin f x sin 3 rrx
11. y = 2 sin 2x sin 28x
297
27. cos (A - B) = 13. a. y = 3 cos 120 rrx + cos 800rrx
425
1 . 1
304 b. 60 s, 400 S
29. tan (A - B) =
297 c. 60 cycles/s ; 400 cycles/s
416 d. Yes
31. sin(A + B) =
425
756 Problem
Set5-4 Answers
toSelected
Problems
Problem
Set5-5 b. k = 0.5: p eriodi c fun ctio n with a vari able
1. 2 sin 41 ° cos 24 ° = sin 65° + sin 17° sinu soid al axis; k = 5: p eriodi c function with a
var iabl e amplitud e; k = 6: sinu soid (with
3. 2 cos 53° cos49° = cos 102° + cos4°
amplitud e ,J2 and p eriod 2:1:
)
5. 2 cos 3.8 sin 4.1 = sin 7.9 + sin 0.3 3
7. 2 sin 3x sin 7.2 = cos(3x - 7.2) - cos(3x + 7.2) c. Answers will vary.
9. cos 46° + cos 12° = 2 cos 29° cos 17° 35. sin 2 x = sin x sin x = _ _!.[cos(x + x) - cos (x - x)]
2
11. sin 2 + sin 6 = 2 sin 4 cos 4
1 1
13. cos 2.4 - cos 4.4 = 2 sin 3.4 sin 1 = -- cos 2x + - cos 0
2 2
15. sin 3x - sin 8x = -2 cos S.Sx sin 2.Sx 1 1 1 - cos 2x
= - - cos 2x + - · 1 = ·
17. y = 2 cos e cos ge= cos 1oe + cos 8e 2 2 2 '
2 1 .
19. y = cos x + cos lSx = 2 cos 8x cos 7x cos x = cos x cos x = - [cos(x + x) cos(x - x)]
2
21. sin 3x- sinx = 2 cos 2x sinx = 0 =} sin x = O or 1 1 1 1
= - cos 2x + - cos O = -c os 2x + - · 1
TT 3TT STT 7 TT 2 2 2 2
cos 2x = 0 =} x = 0, TT, 2TT, , , ,
44 4 4 1 + cos 2x
2 3. cos 5 e + cos 3 e = 2 cos 4 e cos e = 0 cos 4 e = 0 or
=}
2
cos e = 0 =}8 = 22.5°, 67 .5°, 112.5°, 157.5°, 202.5°, Th e formul as redu ce th e squ are of a tr ig fun ction to
247.5°, 292.5 °, 337.5° , 90°, 270° th e fir st p ower of a tri g func tion .
36. Answe r s will var y.
25 . cos x - cos Sx = 2 sin 3x sin 2x
= 2 sin3x(2 sinxcosx) Problem
Set5-6
= 4 sin 3x sin x cos x
1. cos 2x ha s p eriod TT and amp litud e 1, bu t 2 cosx h as
27. cos x + cos 2x + cos 3x = cos 2x + (cos x + cos 3x) p eriod 2 TT and amplitud e 2.
= cos 2x + (2 cos 2x cos x)
3. X sin2x 2 sinx cos x
= (1 + 2 cos x)cos 2x
29. cos (x + y) cos (x - y) 0 0 0
=!cos [(x + y) + (x - y)] + ! cos [(x + y) - (x - y)] 0.5 0.8414 ... 0.84 14...
1 l
1 0.9092 .. 0.9092 ...
= 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 2y 1.5 0.1411... 0.14 11...
=!( cos 2x + 1) +!(cos 2y - 1) 2 -0.756 8 .. -0. 7568 ..
2.5 - 0.9589 ... -0.9589 ...
= 21 [COS (X + X) + COS (X - x)] 3 -0 .2794 .. - 0.279 4 ...
+ %[cos (y + y) - cos (y- y)] 5. X cos 2x 2 cos 2 x - I
= %(2cos x cos x) + !<-2 siny sin y) 0 1 1

2 2 0.5 0.5403 ... 0.5403 ...
= cos x - sin y
1 - 0.4 161.. - 0.4161 ...
31. a. f(t) = cos442 rrt + cos438rrt LS -0.9899 .. - 0.9899 .. .
b . f(t) = 2 cos 440rrt cos 2 rrt 2 -0.6536 .. -0.6536 ...
2.5 0.2 836 .. 0.2836 .. .
c. Combined note will sound like A220 gettin g
3 0.9601.. 0.9601...
lou der and softer twice per secon d.
33 . a. k = 0.5 : pe riodic function with a var iabl e 7. X sin 0.5x vo.sn - cos xl
amp litud e; k = S: p eriodic funct ion with a 0 0 0
varia ble sinuso idal axis; k = 6: sinu soid (with 30 0.25 882 ... 0.2588 ...
. 1 TT 60 0.5 0.5
amp litu de - and perio d -) 90 0.70 71.. . 0.7071.. .
2 6
120 0.8660 0.8660 ...
150 0.9659 0.9659 ...
180 1 1
Answ
erstoSelected
Prob
lems lemSet5-6 7 5 7
Prob
9. X cos0.5x - v 0.5(1 + cos x) 25. a. sin2A= -~ ;;cos!A=v'G.8
360 -1 -1 b. A= 666.8698 ... 0
390 -0.9659 ... - 0.9659 ...

27. sin 2x = sin (x + x) = sinx cos x + cos x sin x
420 - 0.8660 ... -0.8660 ...
= 2 sinx cos x
450 - 0.7071.. -0 .7071.. .
480 - 0.5 -0 .5 29. sin x cos x = i sin 2x
510 -0 .2588 - 0.2588 ... 31. a. The gra ph s ar e the same for b oth expres sion s.
540 0 0 tanA + tan A
b. tan 2A = tan (A+ A) = --- --
11. a. y 1 - tan A tan A
2 tanA
1 - tan 2 A
2 tan A
.·. tan 2A = , Q .E.D.
1 - tan 2 A
b. y= 6 sin xcosx= 3 sin2x

c. tan 2A =
sin 2A
-- - =
2 sin A cos A
.
(~ )
c. Th e doubl e argum ent property is used. cos 2A cos 2 A - sm 2 A
13. a. y (co: 2 A)
2 sin
( cos A
A)
2 tan A
sin 2A 1 - tan 2 A
l ---
cos 2A
2 tan A
... tan 2A = 2 ' Q.E .D.
2
b. y = 10 sin x = 5 - 5 cos 2x 1 - tan A
c. The double argum ent property is u sed. TT TT 7 TT 4 TT
33 x = ----
. 6' 3' 6 ' 3
15. a. y
35 . e = 45 °, 135°, 225 °, 315°
TT 5TT 7TT 11 TT
\ rr ,' ', / 2rr , 37 · X=3'3 '3' _3_
- 1 '-'
sec 2 x 2 sin x sec x
39. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x · -- = -- -,---
sec 2 x sec 2 x
b. y = cos 2 3x = + !cos 6x i 2-
sin x
c. The double argum ent property is used. COSX 2 tanx
17. Not a sin usoid : The graph is not symme trical across sec 2 x 1 + tan 2 x
any hori zont al cen tr al axis . sin cf> cos q>
41. sin 2¢ = 2sin cf>cos cf>• -:--;i:: = 2 sin 2 cf>-;--;;:
19. a. Th e dotted curv e repr esen ts y 1 , an d the solid sm '+' sm '+'
cur ve repr ese nt s y2 . = 2 cot cf>sin 2 cf>
b. The + should be u se d on
[720 n° - 180 °, 720n ° + 180°] and the - on
i
43. sin 2 58 = [l - cos (2 · 58 )] = cos 108) tn-
[720 n° + 180°, 720n ° + 540 °].
Problem Set 5-7
C. IY1(8)I = Y2(8)
Rl. a. Amplitude = 13
d. By definition, /x2me an s the positive valu e, so
Phase displa cement = cos - 1 i5 = 67.380 1... 0
R = { x, x ~ O = lxl. The derivatio n of the ha lf 3

- x, X <0 y = 13 cos(8 - 67 .3801... 0
)
argu m ent prop ertie s takes th e squar e root of the b. The graphs agree.
squ ares of sine and cos ine.
R2. a. y 1 is the solid gra ph, y 2 the dash ed one . You can
21. a. sin 2A = ~~; cos 1A= vcfB tell that cosine do es not distribute becaus e the
b. A = 53.1301 ... 0
graph s are diff ere nt.
23. a. sin 2A = ~~; cos

0
iA= -../o.2 1 -13
b. cos (8 - 60°) = 2 cos e + 2 sine
b. A= 233 .1301.. .
758 Problem
Set 5-7 Answer
s toSelected
Problems
y TT
X*- - + nTT
2
i. X = 0.5796 .. , 2.5619 ... , 3.7212 ..., 5.7035 ...
These are the x-coordinates of the int ersect ion of
the two graphs.
R4. a. y
c. 8 cos 8 + 15 sin 8 = 17 cos (8 - 61.9275 .. )
''' _6_- ,' 9
b. y
The two grap hs are the same. 5
d. -9 cos x + 7 sin x = v'l30cos (x - 2.4805 ..)
x -9cosx+7sinx v'l30cos(x-2.4805 ... )
X
0 -9 -9 9
TT
-1.4142 .. - 1.4142 ..
4
TT
7 7 . grap h : y = X + cos TTX
2 c. Frrst 2 2
3TT
- 11.3137... 11.3137 ... Second graph: y = cos ~ i
4 d. Wave with variable sinusoidal axis Yo = f
TT 9 9
5TT wave with variab le amplitude A = 1
1.4142 .. 1.4142 ... e. y= 3 cos3 8 sin368
4
3TT f. y= 3 cos 25x+ 2 sin2x
- -7 -7
2 RS. a. cos 13° cos 28° =!cos 41 °+ !cos 15°
e. x= 1.8027 ... , 5.7674 ... ·s - sm
b . sm ·3 = - 2 cos 213 sm
· 3
2
These are the x-coordi.nates of the intersection of c. 4 sin x sin llx = -2 cos 12x + 2 cos lOx
the two graphs. d. 8 = 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, 360°
R3. a. sin (-x) = -s in x, cos (-x) = cos x, tan (-x) = -ta n x
b. sin (x + y) = sin x cosy + cos x sin y
e. cos( x + f) cos( x - f)
c. cos (x + y) = cos x cos y - sin x sin y
tan x - tan y
= i cos[ ( x + f) -f)]
+ (x
d. tan (x - y) = -----'--
1 + tanx tany
e. cos (90° - 8) = sin 8
+ f cos[ ( x +f)-( f)] x-
1 1 2rr
f. cot ff- x) = tan x, x * ¥+ nrr = - cos 2x + - cos-
2 2 3
g. csc (¥- x) = sec x, x * + nTT f = 1 (2cos .2 x - 1) + 1 ( - 1) = cos 2 x - 1 - 1
h. The graph is symmetrical about the origin. 2 2 2 2 4
)'
2
3
= cos x - -
4
R6. a. y = 21 - 2I cos 6x
X b. For x = 0, cos 2x = 1 and 2 cos x = 2
c. cos 2x = 2 cos 2 x - 1
2 tan x TT nTT TT
d. tan2X = , ,X*- ,f+z ,X*- 2 +nrr
1 - tan- x
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s Set5-7 759
Problem
527
e. cos 2A = 625 = -0.8432; cos 21A = 54 = 0.8 b. s = !(5 + 6 + 13) = 12 cm
0
A = 73.7397 ... Area = -J- 504. According to Hero's formula, the
cos A triangle would have to have an impossible area.
f. sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A · --
cos A c. In L:l.ABC,with A = 30°, B = 60°, C = 90°, and
sin A . c = 2, we have a = l and b = .Ji.
= 2 - - · cos A= 2 tan A cos 2 A
2
cos A 1 1 1 .Ji
sin (2 · II)= sin rr = 0 but 2 tan I! cos 2 I! is
Area = -be sin A = - • .Ji · 2 · - = - . (The
2 ' 2 2 2 2 2 2
undefined because tan f is undefined . 1 1
*
7T formulas
2ac sin B and 2ab sin C give the same
Domain: A
2 + rrn 1+ .fi+ 2 3+.fi
e = 60 °, 300 °, 420 °, 660 °. This is an algebraic result.) Hero's formula: s = = - -. so
g. t 2 2
solu tion. The graphical method gives the same A = -J
s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c)
solution.
- )¥ ( 3 +2.fi -1)( 3 +2.fi -13 )(3 +213 - 2)
CHAPTER
6
= /3+.fi . .fi +l. 3-.fi _ .fi- l
Problem
Set6-1 V 2 2 2 2
1. All m easurements seem correct.
- 13+{1. 3 - F3. ,,/3+ 1 - /~9-- -3-. -3-- -1
V 2 2 2 V 4 4
3. a (c m )
= ~=~ .
11. a. A = i · 4 · 3 sin 8 = 6 sin 8

A b. 8 A
60° 120° 180°
oo 0.0000
5. -2 · 3 · 4 cos A 15° 1.5 529
30° 3.0000
Problem
Set6-2 45 ° 4.2426
60 ° 5.1962
1. r"' 3.98 cm 75° 5.7956
3. y,,: 4.68 ft goo 6.0000
105° 5.7956
5. LJ,,: 28 .96 °
120° 5.1962
7. y ,,, 134.6 2° 135° 4.2426
9. This is not a possible triangl e. 150° 3.0000
165° 1.5 529
11. 0 = 90°
180° 0.0000
13. Measurements are equiva lent.
c. False. The function increases from 0° to 90 °, then
15. 132.2 ° decreases from 90 ° to 180°.
17. Answers will vary . d. 0° s; e s; 180 °; the sine function becomes
negative outside this domain.
Problem
Set6-3 13. The figure is only a triangle with positive area for
e
0° < < 180°, so that is the domain. (We can say
1. 5.44 ft 2 e
0° s; s; 180° if we consider the figure for = 0° or e
3. 6.06 cm 2 e = 180° to be a "flattened" triangle with area 0.)
5. 26.98 14 ... cm 2
7. 4.3906 .. in. 2 Problem
Set6-4
9. a. 5 + 6 < 13, so the triang le inequality shows that 1. b "' 5.23 cm
no triangle can have th ese three sides. C"' 10.08 cm
760 Problem
Set6-4 Answers
toSelected
Problems
0
3. h "' 249.92 yd 5. a. Lucy's bearing is 150.9453 ... •
s"' 183.61 yd b. The starting point's bearing from Lucy

5. a"' 9.32 m is 330.9453 ... 0
•
P "" 4.91 m C. 205.9126 ... m
7. a"' 214.74 ft 7. 6.0376 ... 7 - 5.24 84 ..j

/ s:s 215.26 ft
9. -6.1344 ...7 + 14.4519 .. ,J
9. a. Z = 180° - (42° + 58°) = 80° 11. a. - 12.817 5 ...7 + 54.3745 . .]
X = 679 .4530 ... m
y = 861.1306 . m
b. 171
= 55.8648 . . units
b. $6 7,220.70 .
e = 103.264 0 .. 0
c. A savings of $105,4 21.05 over y and $38,200 .3) 13. 171

= 70 mi
over x 8 = 41.7867 ... 0
11. a. A = 33 .1229 ... 0 1s. lrl= 161.8484 ... mi/ h

b . C = 51.3178 ... 0 ,. e = 304.6074 °
C. C= 128.682 1 .
0
17. r = 6.8478 ... 7 + s 1.21 24 .. J
d. This is th e comp lement of 51.3178 ... and is one
0
171
= 51.6682 ... newton s
of the genera l values of arcs in 10 ~in A_ e = 82. 3838 ... 0
e. The prin cipal values of arccos x go from 0° to

19. 7
180°; a negative argument will give an obtuse
angle, and a po sitive argument will give an acute
angle, always the actual angle in the trian gle. But
the prin cipal values of arcs in x go from -90° to
90°; a negative argument will never happ en in a
triangle problem, bu t a positive argument will
only give an acut e angle, while th e actua l angle in
the triangle may be the obtuse complement of -7
the acute angle.
Problem
Set6-5
l. c= 5.3153 ... cm or 1.3169 ... cm -7
3. cs:s 7.79 cm
7
5. There is no soluti on. Side bi s too short.
7. s"' 5.52 in.
9. a. X"' 38.65 mi
b. The other answer is approxima tely - 12.94 mi.
This means 12.94 mi to the west of Ocean City.
c. K "" 99 .29°
-7
11. 5,,, 141.18°
13. G "" 57.75°
Problem
Set6-6
l. la+ Fi""14.66 cm -7
0( ""45 .84 °
3. la+i:il"'11.59 in.
0( "" 150.00°
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set6-6 761
Problem
21. If a7+ b] and c7 + d] are any two vec tor s, then a, b, R2. a. 77.9295 ... ft
c, and d are real numb er s. So a + c and b + dare b. "' 113.5781.. . 0
also real numbers becaus e th e rea l numb ers are c. 3 + 5 < 10. Also, whi ch ever angle you try to
close d und er addition. Th erefor e, the sum calcul ate, you get an impossibl e cosin e:
(a + c)i + (b + d)] exists and is a vector, so the set of 32 + 52 - 102
vectors is closed under adclition . The ze ro vector is 22
2·3 · 5 =- ·
n ecessa r y so that the sum of an y vector a7+ b] and
52 + 102 - 32
it s oppo site, - a7- b],will exist. - - - --= 1.16
2 · 5 · 10
Problem
Set6-7 102 + 32 - 52
-- ---= 1.4
1. "'4 4 5.1 m 2 · 10 · 3
d. V
3. a. "'8 .7 km
b. "'6 07. 5 krn 2 F
5. "' 1380.6 yd or 608 .4 yd e d

7. Let A be the ob server, B the lmmchin g pad , C th e
u
mi ss ile wh en at 21 °, and D th e mis sile when at 35°.
D (0, 0) f E (f ; 0)
a. CD = 0.632 7 ... km
E = ({, 0)
b . 0.1265 .. krn/ s F = (e cos e, e sin B)
C. 53.1210 ...
0
d 2 = (e cos 0)2
e - { )2 + (e sine -
9. a. lrl "' 537.0 km / h = e2 cos 2 e - 2ef cos e + {
+ e 2 sin 2 2
e
2 2 2
= e (cos e + sin e)+ f - 2ef cos e
2
b. 1;1"' 463.4 km/ h =e 2 + f 2 -2e f cose
11. "'66. l lb; "' 110.8 lb R3. a. 340.4 928 ... ft 2
13. r "'186 .47 + 223 .1] b. e = 103.1365587 .. . 0
15. 35 7.5381 .. km A = 4 2.848 5705 7 ... mi 2 using b oth method s.

0 C. e = 4 1.8° or 138.2°
17. a. 133.35 76 ...
b. 6838.2143 ... JJ:2 d. Base = d, altitude = e sin F
1 1
19. a, b. Answers will var y. A = - bh = - de sinf
2 2
c. Lab el the 95 ° angl e A , and label th e res t of the
R4. a. 7.0852 ... in.
verti ces clockwise as B throu gh F.
b. 9.2718 .. m
AF = ) AE 2 + 17 2 - 2 · AE · 17 cos L.A EF 0 0
= 30.6817 ... m c. 46.14 15 ... or 133 .858 4 ..

d . For a noncon vex pol ygon , you mi ght not be abl e f
d . de sin F = df sin E f
to divid e it into trian gles th at fan out radiall y e sinF = { sin £
from a sin gle vert ex. -
e- - -
f-
sin£ sinF
Problem
Set6-8 and similarly .
Rl. a. Answers ma y vary slightly. Th ey should be RS. a. x "' 11.4 cm or 3.4 cm
850
approximately 2.5, 4.6, 6.4, 7.8, 8.7. b . sine/>= 8 si~ "' 1.6, whi ch is not th e sine of
b. 9 ; 1 any an gle.
c. B se38.7°
c. v41"' 6.4; yes
d. )' d. x "' 10.5 cm
9 R6. a. lrl = 4.08 13 ...
6 cp= 165 .2°
b. a+6 = 127 - 3J
0
lrl "' 12.4
1
60 ° 120 ° 180°
Th e data seem to fit th e law of cosin es . Th e e"' 346.0°
shap e might b e a sinu soid. C. lr l "' 132.8 mi
e"' 16s. s 0
762 Problem
Set6-8 Answer
s toSelected
Problem
s
d. ; = (-2 55.1104. i7+ (-13 8.4578 ... JJ 11. V
lrl "' 290 .3 km / h

180 °
e"' 208 .5°
(- 1, 0) u
R7. a. 137.7798 ... km,soitisoutofrange .
b . x = 177.170054 ... km or 32 5.111375 ... km
C. (-520 COS 40 °)2 - 4(57,600) = -71 .722.76 .. , SOX is
undefin ed.
d. e"' 22 .6° cos 180° = the u-coor dinate on the x-axis = - 1
x = 240 km
12. 8 (degrees)
e. 240 2 = 57,600 = (177.17 .. )(325. 11.. .).
y
The th eorem stat es that if Pi s a point exterior to
circle C, PR cuts Cat Q and R , and PS is tang en t
to Cat S, then PQ · PR = PS 2 . ()
f. agoya Airport is clos er by 35.2 km. 90 ° LS O
27 0° 3 0°
0
g. 7.5946 .. .
h. 302 6.5491... lb -1
i. The h elicopter can tilt so that the thrust vector 13. Sinuso idal
exactly can cels the wind vector .
TT TT
Problem
Set6-9
14. 2TT;TT;
2 ;4
1. f(x ) = ax 2 + bx + c, where a *0 180°
1S. 2 · ~- = 114 .S91S ... 0
TT
2. Hori zontal dilation by!, vertical dilation by 5
16. V X 17. y
3. Hori zontal translation by 3, ver tical translation by
-2; h (x) = f(x - 3) - 2
4. y ()
f(x) 9 ° 180° 2 0° 360°
r'(x)
X u
-1 ""'
:1
5. Odd
18. a. 51 b. 4 c. - 6 d. 3
6. g(x) = 3f[i(x-4)]+ 5 19. a. 2TTtim es horizonta l dilation is th e period
b. Amplitud e
7. Distance 8. V
c. Phase disp lacement
d . Sinusoidal axis
20. y = 2+3cosf(x - 1)
u
21. y = 3.4452 ..
22 . X = 2.3386 ... , 9.6613 .. , 12.3386
23 .
.
9 . Sll1 e = - 13s , COS e = 1213 , 4 1----'t- ----+---'t-----+
3
tan e = _2_ cot e = - g 2
I2' 5'
sec e = 12, csc 8 = - 5L3
13
X
20
0fj
1.0 sin 24 0 =--
2
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set 6-9 763
Problem
24. d = 5000 - 4000 cos 5~t 32. A = 5
0
D = 53.1301..
120 cm 1 rad .-. 3 cos e + 4 sine= 5 cos (e - 53.1301... 0
25. a. --- · -- = 24 rad /s; )
s 5 cm
33. 6sin2e=6sin(e+ e)
24 rad.~.
s
60 s = 720rev / min
2TTrad min TT
e
= 6 (sine cos + cos sin ei e
= 6 · 2 sine cos e = 12 sin e cos e
= 229 .1831... rev/min 2
34. cos 2x = 1 - 2 sin x, so
b. 120 cm/s sin 2 x = !-!
cos 2x which is a sinusoid.
c. 120 cm . 1 rev . 60 s = 300 rev/min 35. y= 3 cos6e+ 2 sin30e
s 2 TT• 12 cm min TT 36. y=5sinecos12e
= 95.4929 ... rev/min 37. y=cos2le+co sl9e
1 rev . 2 TTrad = _.!!:_
rad / min 38. In th e prob lem, th e period of cos 2oe is 18°; the
26. a.
100 min rev 50 e
period of cos is 360°. These are much differe nt. In
= 0.0628 .. rad/min the answer, the period of cos 21e is 17.1428 ... the 0
;
0
period of cos 19e is 18.9473 ... These are nearly
•
b. TTrad . 5000 mi . 60 min equal.
50 min rad h
= 60,000TT mi/h"' 188,496 mi/h
39. e = 78.6900 ... 0
c. The angular velocity is th e coefficient, B, of the 40. y= 0.4115 .. . + 2nTTrad

argument. or 2.7300 ... + 2nTTrad
41. See Figure 6-9f .
27. Reciprocal properties :
1 42. Domain is -1 s; x s; 1
For examp le, sec e = --e
cos Range is 0° s; y s; 180°
Quotient prop erties: 43 . e"' 63.4 °, 243.4°,
423.4°, 503.4°
sine 44 . In .6.ABC, c = a + b 2 - 2ab cos C (and similarly for
2
For exam ple, tan = e --e
cos
2
a 2 and b 2). The square of one side of a triangl e is

Pythagorean properties: th e sum of the squares of the other two sides minus
e
For examp le, sin 2 + cos 2 e= 1 twice their product times the cosine of the angle
. sin X sin 4 X
2 betwe en them.
28. sec 2x sin 2 x + tan 4 x = -- + - -,-
cos 2 x cos 4 x 45 . In .6.ABC,
sin 2 x cos 2 x sin 4 x sin 2 x cos 2 x + sin 4 x a
--=--=--
b C
cos 4 x + cos 4 x = cos 4 x sinA sinB sin C

2 2 2
sin x(cos x + sin x) sin x 2 The lengt h of one side of a triangle is to the sine of
cos 4 x = cos 4 x the ang le opposite it as the length of any other side
is to the sine of the angle opposit e that side.
sin 2 X
.". sec 2x sin 2 x + tan 4 x = -- 46 . For .6.ABC, Area= ! ab sin C = ! be sin A= !ca sinB.
cos 4 x
for COS X a=0 (X a=90° + n • 180°), Q.E.D. i
The area of a triangle is the product of any two
29. cos (x - y) = cos x cosy+ sin x sin y sides and the sine of th e angle betwe en them.
Cosine of first, cosine of second, plus sine of first, 47. 134.6183 ... 0
sine of second
48. Area = 14.9478 .. ft 2
30. cos 34° = 0.8290 ... = sin 56°
49. a. r = 27 + 16]
31. cos (90° - ei = cos 90° cos e + sin 90° sine b. lrl"' 16.1
= 0 · cos e + 1 · sin e = sin e;
cos (34°) = sin (90° - 34°) = sin 56°
e"' s2 .9°
764 ProblemSet6-9 Answers

toSelected
Problems
c. a,"E,a+ "E Problem
Set7-2
y 1. In power functions, the exponent is constant
and the independent variable is in the base . In
exponential functions, the base is constant and
the independent var iable is in the exponent.
3. Answers will vary. The term concaveis from the
Latin cavus, meaning "hollow." The concave side of
a curved portion of a graph is the "inside" of that
curve.
5. i = x- 1
7. (-64) 112 is undefined, but (- 64) 1/3 = -4. The
restriction allows the function to be defined for all
u values of x.
-4 -2 2 .J 9. a. y = 56 + 0.6(x - 20) = 0.6x + 44
b. Page 44
d . False. This is true only if a and b are at the same
angle. c. 0 .6x + 44 = 63 => x = 31f min = ll f min from
50. In units of 1000 miles: now.

a. y = v'41 - 40cosx b. y= V41 - 40cosfcit
11. a. Linear
C. y( lOOO m i)
10 b . Increasing for all real number values of x, not
v'.Jl - .JO cos silr concave
c. Answers will vary.
d. y = 2x - 7
s - 4 cos IBt 13. a. Quadratic

b. Decreasing for x < 2.2 5 and increasing for
r( min )
50 100
x > 2.25, concave up
d. y = 2x2 - 9x + 13
CHAPTER
7 15. a. Exponential
b. Increasing for all real number values of x,
Problem
Set7-1 concave up
1. /(x)
d . )'= 5 · (1.3)"'
17. a. Power
b. Increasing for x 2'. 0, con cave down
X
I 2 3 .J 5
d. y = Sxlog2l.6
Th e "ho llow" section is upward . The bacteria are
19. a. Power
growing faster and faster.
b. Increasing for all real number values of x,
3. ql,x) concave up
60
40
20 d. y = 3xlog,8= 3x 3/2
X
5 10 15 20 25 30 21. y y
-20 10
,' z
Th e graph is concave down ward. This graph 5

poss esses a maximum (high point) at x = 13t-
X
5 10 15
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set7-2 765
Problem
Both graphs are concave up and do not change their d. t= 1.4079 ... s (going up) or 4.2170 ... s (coming
concavity, and each becomes infinite on one side of down)
the vertical axis. But the graph proportional to th e e. The vertex is at t = 2.8125 s;
square of x passes through the origin and becom es H(22.8125 s) = 131.5625 ft
infinite on both sides of the vertica l axis, whereas f. t = 5.6800 ... s
the exponential function does not pass through th e
origin and becomes infinit e only on the positive sid e 31. [y(6) - y(5)] - [y(5) - y(4)] = 2
of the vertical axis. [y(7) - y(6)] - [y(6) - y(S)] = 2
[y(8) - y(7)] - [y(7) - y(6)] = 4
23. A direct-variation function can be written in the If y(8) were 25, then a quadratic function would fit.
linear form y = ax + b with b = 0. But you cannot
write a linear function y = ax+ b with b * 0 as a 33 . If f(x) =ax+ b, then f(x 1 + c) = a(x 1 + c) + b
direct-variation function y = ax. = ax 1 + ac + b = (ax 1 + b) + ac = f(x 1) + ac
25 . 3e 08 x = 3(e 08 )X = 3bx => e0 ·8 = 2.2255 .. . 35 . If f(X) = abX, th en f'(c + X1)= abc+x, = a(b C' b x•)
= b e ' abx, = b e ' f'(x1)
The grap hs are equiv ale nt.
ProblemSet 7-3 ProblemSet 7-4

1. 10- 0.1549.. = 0 .7
1. Add-add property: linear
3. lOa=b
3. Multiply-multiply property: power; and
constant-second-differences property: quadratic 5. X= 1.574; 10 157 4 = 37.4973 ... , ]og 37.4973 .. = 1.574
5. Add-add property: linear; and 7. X = - 0.981; 10- o.9 si = 0.1044 ... , log 0 .1044 ...
multiply-multiply property: power = -0.981
7. Multiply-multiply property: power 9. X = log 57 = 1.7558 ... ; 101.7 558 = 57
11. X = ]og 0.85 = -0.0705 ... ; 10- 0.0 7 o5 · · = 0.85
9. Add-multiply property: exponential
11. Constant-second-differences property: quadratic 13. 3.0277 ... ; 1030277 = 1066
13. a. 65 b. 80 C. 1280 15. -1.2247 ... ; 10-1.2247 = 0.0596
15. a . 70 b . 81 C. 72.9 17. 0.001995 ... ; log 0.001995 .. = -2.7
17. f(8) = 13, f(ll) = 19, {(14) = 25 19. 1.5848 ... X 10 1 5; log(l. 5848 ... X 10 15 ) = 15.2
19. f(lO) = 324, f(20) = 81 21. log (5 · 4) = log 20 = 1.3010 .. . = 0.6989 ... + 0.6020 ...
= log 5 + log 20; log xy = log x+ logy; /:r' • b>'= bxy
21. Multiply y by 4
23. Divide yby 2 23 . log (3;)=log 5=0.6989 ... = 1.5440 .. - 0.8450 ...
25. a. V(r) has the form V = ar 3 , where a = ~ TT. X b"
= Jog 35 - log 7; logy - log x- log y; b >'= b x- y
Th e volleyball would have volume 800 cm 3 .
b. His volum e would be 1000 times that of a normal 25 . log (2 5 )=log 32 = 1.5051... = 5(0.3010 .. ) = 5 log 2;
gorilla. 500 lb · (10)3 = 500,000 lb log bx = X ]og b; (b")>'= b'Y
C. 250,000 lb
27 . log 0.21 = - 0 .6777 ... = -0.5228 ... + (- 0.1549 ... )
d. 0 .2 lb, or 3.2 oz
29. ln 6 = 1.7917 ... = 3.4011.. -1.6094.
27. a. 16 times more wing area
31. log 32 = 1.5051... = 5(0.3010 .. )
b. 64 times h eavier
33 . -1.9459 ... = - (l.9459 .. )
c. The full-sized plane had four times as much
weig ht per unit of wing area as th e model. 35 . 21 37 . 4
29. a. [H(3) - H(2)] - [H(2) - H(l)] = -32 ft 39. 56 41. 128
[H(4) - H(3)] - [H(3) - H(2)] = -32 ft 4 3. 3
[H(5) - H(4)] - [H(4) - H(3)] = -32 ft
45 . Let c = log x, so x = we.Then xn = (lOe)n = lQCI',
b. H(t) = - 16t 2 + 90t+ 5; H(4) = 109; H(S) = 55
so lo g xn = en = nc = n log x.
c. H(2 .3) = 127.36 ft, going up. The height seems to
peak at 3 s.
766 Problem
Set7-4 Ans
werstoSelected
Problems
47. a. 27 5
45. ln
x35 8
X =
3 + 4 = 4.5108 ..
9666 Ch eck: 3 e1n 513 + 5 = 3 · ~ + 5 = 10
x43 1 3
415,638 47 . x = In - = - 0.693 1..
2
x59 1 Check: 2e 2 1nn12 > + 5e1n<112 > - 3 = 2(i ) + 5(i ) - 3 = 0
245,652,058
49 . a. x M
b. 1019
c. 8.3904; 108 ·3904 "' 245,700,000, whi ch agr ees 0 10,000
(to four significa nt digits) with th e an swer from 1 10,700
par t a. 2 11,449
3 12,250
4 13,108
Problem
Set7-5 14,026
5
1. logb x = y if and onl y if b>' = x 6 15,007
3. zc= p b. f (x + c) = 10,000 - 1.or +c
5. logk 9 = 5 = 10,000 •(1.0/" • l.07 C)
29 = (10,000 · 1.07") · 1.07 c = 1.07 c · f (x)
7. log = 1.7304 ... · check: 7 17 3 04 ·· = 29
log 7 '
Exp on enti al fun ction s always have th e
.6 log 729
9. 6, beca u se 3 = 729; also - -- add -mu ltipl y prop er ty.
1og 3
32 c. 177 m o, or 14 yr 9 m o
11. 5, because 2 5 = 32 ; also log
log 2
03 Problem
Set7-6
13. log · = -0.6719 . .; ch eck: 5· 0·6719 · = 0.3
log 6 14 .4 57.6 230.4 92 1.6
15. 8 • 7 = 56 1. a. -- =--=--=--=4 .
3.6 14.4 57.6 230.4
17. 5
19. 4, beca u se 36 .;. 4 = 9
b . Y = log4(1 X)
9
°
1 c. Equati on fit s da t a.
21. -2' bec au se v'x 1 2
x=x 1
3. a. Th e in vers e of an expon ential fun ction is a
23. 0, beca u se e0 = 1
logarithmi c fun ction.
25. 1, because 10 1 = 10 b. y= 38,203 .6483 ... - 8,295.8 190 .. . ln p ;
27. log 7 r = -0.9999 .. ., which is very close to - 1.
29. 3 J c. y( 73.9) = 38 ,203.6483 ... - 8,295 .8190 ... In 73.9
31. log (or log 10 )

33. 3, beca u se k3 = k3
J = 2509. 1214 "' 25 09 year s old
d . y(2 0) = 13,351.595 4 ... "' 13,35 0 year s old
5. a. g(x) = 6 log 10 x; g(x) = logi. 4677 . x
35. X= -2 b. For g, x = e· 3 = 0.0497 ... ;
Check: log (3(-2) . + 7) = log 1 = O for h, x = e = 2.7182 ...
37. X =5 7. Domain: x > -3 9. Domain: x * 0
Check: log 2 8 + log 2 1 = 3 + 0 = 3
39. X =9 + e 2 = 16.3890 ...
Check: .ln(e 2 ) 4 = ln e 8 = 8
log 786
4 1. X = log = 1.38 08 ... -3
3 5
Check : 5 3 <u 3 o3 ... > = 786
log 2001
43. X = = -85.1626 ...
0.4 log 0.8
Check: 0.8°.4<-85 · 1626 .. > = 2001
An
swers toSelectedProblems Set7-6 76 7
Problem
11. Domain: x > 0 C. y
1200
800
400
-3 X
60 120 180
-3
d. y(60) = 536 .20 73 ..

13. a. X y
5. a. Concave down
- 0.00100 2.7196 ... y
0.00100 2.7169 ... 400
-0.00010 2.7184 ...
0.00010 2.7181... 200
-0 .00001 2.7182 ..
X
0.00001 2.7182 .. so
b. The two properties balance out so that as
x approaches 0, y approaches 2. 7182 b = 396
· Y 1 + (2.752 .. )(1.0888) - x
c. e = 2.7182 ... ; they are the same.
C. y
400
ProblemSet 7-7
1. a. y
X
{(x),, ' 50
,
,
...., g(x)
X d. The point of inflection occur s at (11.90 37 .. , 198) .
-s Before approximate ly 12 da ys passed, the rate of
new infe ction was increasing; after that, th e rat e
b. The graphs are almost the same for large was decreasing .
negativ e values of x but widel y differ ent for lar ge e. y= 362.7742 .. .; after40 da ys, approximate ly
positive values of x. 363 people were inf ected.
c. Point of inflection is at x = O; g is co ncave up for f. Answers will vary .
x < 0 and concave down for x > 0.
7. a. True : c is a ver tical dilation factor.
d. As x grows very larg e, the 1 in the denominator
/(x)
is less significant than the l. 2X,so c= 3
l. 2x 1.2x
g( x)- - -- 1 C= 2
1.2" + 1 1.2"
1
e. g(x) = , whi ch is equivalent to the X
1 + 1.2- x -s
original.
3. a. Concave up b. Changing a trans lat es th e graph horizonta lly
Ina
b y o.4·
y
150 [\x)
100
50
X
60 120 180 X
122 0
b . y = 1 + (121 8)(1.1 2 11... )- ·'
768 Prob
lemSet7-7 An
swe
rs toSelecte
d Problem
s
c. Horizontal translation by 3 d. Answers will vary. Sample answers:
y i. log(lOO · 10) = log 1000 = 3
log 100 + log 10 = 2 + 1 = 3
ii log io,ooo= log 10 = 1
· 1000
log 10,000 - log 1000 = 4 - 3 = 1
X
iii . log 103 = log 1000 = 3
3 log 10 = 3 · 1 = 3
d. a= e1.2 e. 60
RS. a. cP= m
ProblemSet 7-8 b. log 7 30 = 1.7478
Rl. a. fl.x)
c. 63
d. X= 4
20
Check: log 5 + log 2 = log 10 = 1
IO
1
X e. X= = 4.3714 ...
2 4 6 8 IO
_ log 7
2
log 3
b. Increasing; concave up Check: 3 2 <4 . 3 714 .>-1 = 4946.7129 ...
c. Quadratic power function; answers will vary. 74 ·37 14. = 4946.7129 ...
2 ]3
R2. a. y = 3 x + 3 R6. a. y 1 and y 2 are reflections of each other across the
b. y line y = x.
Both are decreasing. Both have the x-intercept as

an asymptote . But the expo nential function
\ b. f(.x)= 5 ' 0.6703 .. X
g(x) = 4 .3 e 2 .0014 .x
crosses the y-axis, whereas the inverse function c. Multiply-add property

has no y-intercept.
c. The y-intercept is nonzero. d. y
y= (3.1201.. .)(1.3867 .. Y 60
d. y = - l.2x 2 + 9x + 2; a= - 1.2. If a is n ega tive, th e 40

graph is concave down. 20
e. Vertex (5, 3); y-intercept at y = 53 X
25 50 75 100
R3. a. Expon entia l; f(x) = 48(~/o.sr
b. Power (inverse variation); e. x = 86.3 701 .. ft deep
g(x) = nx - 1
R7. a.
c. Linear; h(x) = 2x + 18
d. Quadratic; q(x) = x 2 - 13x + 54
-- fl.x)
e. i. ((12) = 2131
ii . ((12) = 160 X
iii . {(12) = 180

f. f(x + c) = 53 x 1.3x+c= 53 x 1.3" x 1,3c = 1,3c · f(x)
R4. a. An exponen t
b. p= [o glO Z C. 101.477 1.. = 30
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set7-8 769
Problem
b. Wh en xis a large negativ e numb er, the d. y-y (y-y)2 y-y
A
(y - y)2
denomin ato r of f(x) is esse ntially equal to 10, so
- 18.7 349 .69 0.2 0.04
10 · 2x 10· 2x
f(x) = -- "' -- = 2x = g(x) -13.7 187.69 1.0 1.00
2x+ 10 10
- 10.7 114.49 - 0.2 0.04
But for large positive x, th e 10 in the -2 .7 7.29 3.6 12.96
denomin ator of f(x) is negligibl e compared - 4.7 22.09 - 2.6 6.76
to the 2", so - 0.7 0.4 9 - 2.8 7.84
10 ' 2x 10 · 2x 3.3 10.89 - 3.0 9.00
f( X) =- -a:,-- = 10
2x+ l0 2x 12.3 151.29 1.8 3.24
10 14.3 204 .49 -0.4 0.16
C. f(x) = 1 + 10 . 2- x 21.3 453 .69 2.4 5.76
d. g(x) = eOn 2)x 1502 .10 46.80
e. The size of th e popul a tion would be limit ed by
the capacity of th e island . SSdev = 150 2.10, SSres = 46.8,
460 r = SSdev - SS,.c, = v 0.9688 .. = 0.9842 ... ,

f(X) = 1 + (13.2906 .. )(1.1718 .. )- X SSc1
ev
which agrees with part a.
((12) = 154.2 33 ...
e. Y
((18) = 260 .507 ... 50
Y ____________ _ 30
.JOO l .4x+3 .B
10
X
200
15 25 35
X
It is hard to tell which line fits b etter.
20 40
x = 34 .8878 .. . months
y = 1.Sx + 1.95 y-y
A
(y- y )2
9.45 1.5 5 2.4025
13.9 5 2.05 4.2025
CHAPT
ER8 18.45 0.55 0.302 5
22.95 4 .05 16.4 025
ProblemSet 8-1 27 .45 - 2.45 6.0025
l. Yes, y = 2. l x + 3.4 31.95 - 2.95 8.7025
36.45 -3.4 5 11.9025
3. y(14) = 2.1(14) + 3.4 = 32 .8 sit -ups . Explanations 40.95 1.05 1.1025
ma y vary. Fourteen day s is an extrapolation from 45.45 - 1.45 2.1025
th e given data, and extrapo lating fr equ entl y gives 49.95 1.05 1.1025
incorre ct pr edi ctions.
SS,es = 54.2250, wh ich is lar ger than SS,.05 for the
5. SSres = 17.60 regression line.
ProblemSet 8-2 3. a.y = -0.05x + 17, r 2 = 1, r = - 1, which m eans a

perfe ct fit.
1. a. A graphing calcu lator gives y = l.4x + 3.8,
b. y = 15.18 gal
vvith r = 0.9842 .... A
y-y (y-y) 2 y- y (y - y )2
b. y
50
1.52 2.3104 0 0
30 0.72 0.5184 0 0
- 0.38 0.1444 0 0
10
X - 0.68 0.4 624 0 0
5 J5 25 35 - 1.18 1.3924 0 0
c. x = 18.5, y = 29.7; y(x ) = 1.4(18.5) + 3.8 = 29.7 = y SSc1ev = 4 .828, SS,.es = 0
r 2 = 1,r =-l
770 Prob
lemSet 8-2 Answer
s toSelectedProblems
C. y b. y = 346.929 1 .. · 1.497 2 .. .X,with r = 0.9818 ..
y
10 10,000
X
10 20 30 40 50 60
X
Data point s are all on th e line.
d. At x = 0 mi, th e tank hold s y = 17 gal. The car c. y(O) = 346 .9291 ... "' 34 7 bacteria
gets 20 mi/ga l. y(24) = 5,584,729.33 15 .. . "' 5.6 million bacteria
e. y(340) = -0.05 · 340 + 17 = 0 gal d. X = 14.0331.."' 14.0 h
5. a. y Check: y( 14.0331 .) = 100,000 bacteria
3. a. )'
20
10
r = 0.95 X
X 2000
b.
Concave down. The graph decreases more st eeply
)'
(presumab ly to -oo ) as x gets sma ller and
increases less s teepl y as x gets larger.
b. y = - 138.1230 ... + 19.9956 .. . ln x;
r = 0.99999999799 .. , whic h is nearly l
C. )'
r = 0 .8
X 20
10
C. )'
X
2000
d. y (2500) = 18.323 6 .. "' 18.32 yr

13.86 + 2 1.97
' "' = 17.915yr
,I' 2
r = -0 .7
X e. y (SOOO)= 32.1835 ... "'32 .18 yr
Extrapolation, because 5000 > 3000. The bank
d. y probabl y uses a simple formula to calculate
interest. This would make the regression
equation app ly for all values of x.
5. a. Growth is basicall y exponential, but p hysical
limit s eventually mak e the popu lation level off. A
logistic function fits data that have asymp totes at
r = 0 ---------- , both endpoint s but ar e expon ential in the middl e.
A 32 7.5140 ..
y = l + 10.0703 .. e- 0 ·40 29 ... X
Problem
Set8-3 y
1. a. Both a power function and an exponentia l

300
fu nction have th e prop er right endpoint
behavior: increas ing to infinity. Only an 200
expon ential function has the correct left 100
endpoint beha vior: being non ze ro. X
10 l5
Answers
toSelected
Problems ProblemSet 8-3 7 71
b. y(20) ss 326 roadrunners 3. a. X y
9-- 327.5140 ... ss 328 roadrunners as x-- oo 1 700 .. .
The inflection point appears to be at x ""5.5 yr. 5 86.3847 .. .
c. y= 158 .5 roadrunners 10 35.08 31..
y-y (y - y)2 y- y (y - y )2
~
30 8.4108 .. .
100 1.7583 .. .
- 128.5 16,512.25 0.4153 ... 0.1725 ...
- 114.5 13,110.25 1.6330 .. 2.6669 ... b., C.
- 100.5 10,100 .25 - 1.5676 .. 2.4574 ...
- 77.5 6,006 .25 - 0.7496 . 0.5619 .. y
- 48.5 2,352 .25 1.1633 .. 1.3533 ... !000 1------+-----+- ---.,.- --+
-20.5 420.25 - 1.7936 .. 3.2171... ''
16.5 272.25 2.3942 ... 5.7325 ... ''
-1.7203 ...
''
44. 5 1,980.25 2.9596 ... ''
75.5 5,700.25 0.2077 ... 0.0431 ... !00 >---- ' ' -,- +--- - - - -- --+-
101.5 10,302 .25 1.6919 ... 2.8628 ... ''
117.5 13,806.25 -1.7752 ... 3.1515 ... ''
134.5 18,090 .25 0.4914 .. . 0.2414 ... ''
''
SSctev = 98,653 .00 SSres = 25.4205 ... 10 >--------+--- ' ' ....------~~-
•'
r 2 = 0.9997 .. "" 1 ''
''
''
Problem
Set8-4 '
'' X
1. a. X y 10 JOO 1000
1 3 d. Slop e= - 1.3
3 12
5 48 5. a. X y
7 192
1 2
9 768
4 6.1588 ..
b., c. y 10 8.9077 ..
!000 200 17.894 9 .. .
I
I • 1000 22.72 32 .. .
I
I
I
I
b., C.
I
l
100 ~- - - +-.,:..'---1-----+ y
I
I
I
I
I
I
l.
10 t---,~-----t------,-- :::'-:::==t-
I 20 ~-----+-----+--- ,-+-
L-r'- - +-
I
I
I
I
.,,., ..
.,.
I •
I ''
I
'
X ''
lO 15 '
LO1------+-..,....__---+----.....-
0
X
o-+-------..J 10
....._
___ ....
,o.._
0____ 1.....
o.._
oo+-
772 Problem
Set8·4 Answers
toSelected Problems
7. y(km)
6000
y
1000 ,__ ____ ...._____ _,______ .....
4000
2000
..
x(km 2)
1001------+--- ----+--- -----+- 2000 4000 6000
c. log (Drainage Area) log (Length)
3.8397 .. 3.79 90 ...

101------...._- ~---1---------+ 3.4 116 .. . 3.64 71. .
3.5658 .. . 3.6405 .. .
3.2528 .. . 3.6274 .. .
3.4742 .. . 3. 5772 ..
X 2.1398 .. 3.5666 ..
10 LOO 1000 3.0128 .. . 3.4854 ...
2.7558 .. . 3.4820 ..
9. a. Approximate ly (3, 8), (6, 15), (20, 44), (40, 82), 2.1903 .. . 2.9867 .. .
and (90, 170) 1.9000 .. . 2.8129 .. .
0. 2909 .. . 1.9542 .. .
b. y(x) "' 3x0 9
c. y(2)"' 5.6, and (2, 5.6) is on the graph
logy
11. a. Approxim ate ly (2, 3300) , (5, 1200), (7, 5 70),
(12, 99), and (14, 48)
b. y(x) "' 6813(0. 7)"
c. y(9)"' 274.9, and (9, 274.9) is on the graph
Jog X
13. a. Approximate ly (2, 2), (5, 3.8), (30, 7.4), (400, 12.6),
2 3 -I
and (800, 14)
b. y(x) "' 2 ln x + 0.6
c. y(9 0)"' 9.6 , and (90, 9.6) is on the graph d. log y(x) = 1.8469 ... + 0 .5274 ... log x; r 2 = 0.9760 ... ;
the grapher does logarithmic regression b y doin g
15. logy linear regr ess ion on the linear ized data, th en
changing back into power form.
21. a. A power function would have 0°( at O km, that
is, at Earth's surface. A logarithmic function
correct ly gives a positiv e temperatur e at th e
surface.
b. y(x) = -8.5733 .. . + 2.7431.. In x; r 2 = 0.9958 ...;
the graph fits the data reaso nably well.
17.
y(km)
Jog X 8
2
19. a. If the drainage area is 0, the length should be 0 X (°C)
also. A power function contains the point (0, O);a 100 200 300 400 500
logarithmic function does not.
b. y(x) = 70.2930 ... x0 · 5274 · ; r2 = 0.9760 ..
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set8·4 773
Problem
C. y(k m ) y(m iJli bars)
101-- -- ----- 1-- -- - ----++
800~
8 >--- -- - --->---- -----,< ---+ 400
x(m)
J0,000
6 >--- - --- - ->-- - ..,..._
--- - -+
The point s seem to lie very near or on th e line.
b. Res idual
20 ....
x(m)
10,000
- 20
2 >------r---->-------
• --+
- 40
Th e residuals have a very definite patt ern.

0 x( °C)
IO 50 100 200 500 1000
c. No, the residuals are as grea t as ""- 52. 7
20
millib ars.
Answers will vary. The st raigh t line shown here
3. a. Expon ential: y = 91.7362 .. · 0 .9996 .. .X,
connects th e two endpoints (30, 1.0) and (500,
r = - 0.9646 ..
8 .6), and pr edicts that th e temp er atur e will be
30 0°( when the depth is about 7.2 km . The
regression equation from part b pr edicts
y(300) = 7.0712 ... km .
::"
mv
,,~
d . It has th e form y = (a + b) (In x) , so it is linear in
th e "variable" In x.
x(lb)
e. In X y 2000 4000
1.4771.. 1.0 Power: y = 338,947 .01 56 ...x.- 1.17 2 1 ,
1.7781.. 2.4 r= -0.9672 .. .
2.0 000 ...
2.3010 ...
2.698 9 ..
4.0
5.9
8.6
::y(m
Vg
al~
y (ln x) = -8.5753 .. + 6.3164 ... ln x;
r 2 = 0.9958 ... ; this indi cates that the grap her
does logarithmi c regr ess ion by doing lin ear x( lb)
regression on the lineari ze d data, then 2000 4000

transformin g b ack into logarithmic form . Th e fun ctio ns appear to fit about equa lly well,
23. a. y= 5 . 3x =} logy= log (5 · 3"'")= log 5 + (log 3)x both graphi cally and by their r-values.
b. Exp onentia l:
b. y= ab x =}logy= log (ab x) = log a+ (log b)x
Residual
c. y= 2x 3 =} logy= log (2x 3 ) = log 2 + 3 log x
d. y= ab x =} logy= log (abb) = log a + b log x
,.• x(lb )
log X C
1000 ·: .
e. y = a + c logb x = a + c • -- = a + -- · log x
log b log b
-2
Problem
Set8-5
Power:
1. a. Th e scatter plot is decreas ing, is concave up, has Residu al
a finite value for x = 0, and see ms to appro ach 0
as x-+oo.
y = 10 76.9102 .. · 0.9998 .. x, r = - 0.9985 ... ••• .-"(lb)
1000
-2
7 74 Problem
Set8·5 Answers
toSelected
Problem
s
Both res idu al plots are fair ly random. It is y(k g)
uncl ear which fits b etter.
200
c. Exp onen tial: y (500) = 75. 7486 ... mi/ gal
Power: y (500) = 232.56 53 ... mi/ gal 100
The exp onen tial model is much mor e reas on able .
Aical/ kg)
The righ t endpoint beh avior is not signifi cantl y
2000 4000
diff erent.
C. y (0.00 2) = 676. 9192 ... cal/ kg
5. a. Both would give a po p ulation of O at som e finit e d. y (150,000) = 4.4 244 ... cal/ kg, approximat ely
tim e in th e p as t. Th e expo nenti al fun ction would 160% lar ger than or 260% of th e actual value.
have even m or e rap id grow th as years go by. You ar e extrapo latin g to an x-value quit e far out
A 497.13 17... of th e data range. Th e fun ction is alr eady not a
Y = 1 + 3 .4l31... e - 0.0 2 10 ... good pr edictor for very small valu es of x (th e
y (milli o n peop le)
residual s are very lar ge as shown mor e clearl y in
th e lineari ze d version ), and it is not good for
400 very lar ge values eith er.
9. a. Yno whcy=- l. 7lx +57.64
300
Ywhei• = - 1.1942 .. .X + 56.04
200
y( %)
X (yr )
- 50 50 100 150 200 20

X ( min )
y (80) = 304. 3767 .. = 304.4 million;
4 8 12 16
y -+ 497 .1317 ... =497. l million as x-+ c.o
c. y(70) = 268 .7380 ... "' 268 .7 million b . Ywhe/ 8) = 46 .4847 .. .%; int erpolation
y -+ 3 51.8082 .. million as x -+ oo c. If whey is us ed: x = 21.8038 ..
A 516.868 7 ... If no whey is us ed: x = 16.1637 ...
d . Y = l + 3.5 754 .. e - 0 ·0 20 5 · ' Extrapolation in both cases
y -+ 516.8687 ... = 516.9 million as x-+ oo

d. Yno whey{O)"' 57.6%, Ywhey (0) "' 56.0%.
Th ey ar e close .
7. a. log(mass) log (cal/ kg)
ProblemSet 8-6
- 0.1549 .. . 2.348 3 .. .
0.3010 .. . 1.7634 .. . Rl. a. A graphin g calculator confirm s that
1.845 0 .. . 1.5185 .. . y = l. 6x + 0.9.
2.7781. . 1.3424 .. . b. y y - y (y - y)2
3.6020 ... 1.1139 .. .
5.7 0.3 0.09
logy = - 0.2774 ... log x + 2.08 17 ..
8.9 1.1 1.21
r2 = 0.877 3 ... 12.1 -3 .1 9.61
log (y) 15.3 1.7 2.89
c. I (y - y)2 = 13.80
d . For y = l. 5x + 1.0:
A A
log (x)
y y- y (y - y)2
5.5 0.5 0.25

The p att ern is rou ghly lin ear. 8.5 2.25
1.5
b. y = 120.725 1.. .x- 0 ·2774 , which is th e sam e 11.5 -2 .5 6.25
equ ation as found by power regressi on , with 14.5 2.5 6.25
r 2 = 0.8773 ..., as in pa r t a.
I( y - y) 2 = 15.oo
An
swer
s toSele
ctedProblem
s Set8-6 775
Problem
R2. a. y = 10.5 b. The logarithmic function pr edicts that th e pric e
b . x = 6; y(6) = 10.5 of a pair eventually reaches $0.00 an d then even
C. y
becom es negat ive. The power function n ever
predi cts a pri ce of $0.00 or lower.
20 res
c. x = 57 14.7585 ... -+ 5714 pairs
This is found by extrapo la tion .
15
d. y (l) = 488.0261... "' $488 .03 p er pair
y
10 ---------- ---- -- 2
e. y(,... x) - O.7323 . .. - 73%· · 1y-mu 1np
o, m ul tip · 1y
y(x)
R4. a. ln y = ln (7x5) = 5 ln (7x) = 5 (ln 7 + 1n x) =
5 1n 7 + 5 ln x = (5 1n 7) + 5 (ln x), that is,
(In y) = a + b(ln x).
10
b . y(x) = 0.8955 ... x0 · 50 11 , with r 2 = 0.9999 ..
d. y- y (y - y) 2 y (gal/ min )
8
- 4.5 20.25
6
- 0.5 0.25
4
- 1.5 2.25
6.5 42 .25 2
X (p si)
SSctev = 65 .00. The deviation s y - y don 't take into 20 40 60 80
account the variation y(x) .
e. r 2 = 0.7876 .. . logy
f. r = 0.8875 .. .
The regress ion line ha s positive slope, so you
choos e th e po sitive br an ch of the square root.
g. 8-6c: positiv e, closer to 1
8-6d: nega tive, very close to - 1 Jog X
8-6e : n egative, closer to 0
8-6f: ver y close to O (neither very positiv e nor
very negative) c. y(x)= 3.7372 ... (1.0984 .. )-', with
r 2 = 0.8084 ... ;
R3. a. Logarithmi c:
y = 136.6412 ... - 16.8782 ... ln X,
log y(x) = 0.5725 ... +0.0407 ... x, with
r = - 0.9979 .. . r 2 = 0.8084 ...; the coefficients of deter mination
are the same; log y(x) = log [3.7372 ..
y ($/ pair )
(1.0984 ... )"] = log 3.7372 ... +x log 1.0984 ... =
0.5725 ... + Q.0407 ... X
d. Answers will vary; usin g (2, 12.8), (7, 10.6),
(30, 8.1), and (400 , 3.6), you get y(x) =
14.0796 ... - 1.7220 ... ln x, which pr edicts
x (pairs) X y (x)
1000 3000 1 14.0796 ..
10 10.1146 ...
Power : y = 488.0261.. .x- 044
9
4
,
100 6.1495 .. .
r= -0.9970 ...
1000 2.1844 ...
y($ / pa ir )
wh ich match the graph fairly well.
RS. a. A power function wou ld have y (O) = 0, and a
logarithmic function would have y(O)-+ -oo , bu t
both th e exponential fun ction and lin ear function
would have y(O)"' 300.
x (pai rs)
1000 3000
776 Problem
Set8-6 Answer
s toSelec
tedProblems
b. Linear: y =l.7115 ... x + 320.5 101..., Problem
Set 9-3
r = 0.9974 ... 1. a. 91 b. 20
y( ppm)
3. a. 16 b. 55 c. 20
400
300 1:..-------------~ 5. 693
200 7. a. 9 b. 18 c. 504
100
x (month s) 9. 20
11. 1018
Exponentia l: y = 320.9749 ... · 1.0050 ...X, 13. a . 10 b. 9 C. 90
r= 0.9977 ... d. 8 e. 720 f. 3,628,800
y(ppm)
15. a. The second plan gives 10,799,10 0 more plates.
400
300 1:..------------- ~ b. 24,317,748
200 c. No, there would not b e enough plates.
100
x( month s)
Problem
Set 9-4
1. a. 132 b. 11,880 C. 479,001,600
Linear: y(l3) = 342.5542 ... "' 342.6 ppm
3. 15,600
Exponential: y(l3) = 342.7599 ... "' 342 .8 ppm
Actual: 343.5 ppm 5. 210
1
Linear: y(20 · 12) = 731.2753 .. . "'731.3 ppm 7. a. 720 b. 120 C. 6
Exponential: 2 1
d. 16 3% e. 720
y(20 · 12) = 1066.9906 ... "' 1067.0 ppm 9. a. 362,880 b. 40, 320
l 1
y C. 9 d. Ilg %
1 1
11. a. 31 b. 12 C. 84
X
'10 l
13. a. 40,320 b. 10,080 C. 4
-1
15. a. 360 b. 840 C. 20
d. 415,800 e. 5040 f. 3360
There is a definite sinusoidal pattern, with a
period of about one year and a maximum in the 17. a. 24 b. 120 C. 40,320
winter and a minimum in the summer. 1
19. a. 144 b. 35
CHAPTER
9 Problem
Set 9-5
Problem
Set 9-1 1. 10 3. 2,220 ,07 5
1 s 5. 1 7. 1
1. 12 3. 6
1 s 9. 360 11. 7.2710818848902 X lQ 44
5. 6 7. 9
13. 792; "group" 15. 1,344,904; no
1
9. 1 ll. 18 17. a. 20 b. 15 C. 35 d. 1
19. a. 2,598,960 b. 635,013,559 ,600
c. The order of the cards in a hand is not
Problem
Set 9-2 important.
1. a. A random experiment 21. a. 45 b. 252
3 1
b. 52 c. 12 d. TI e. 2 c. 45. Choosing 8 elements to include is the same
f. TI
1 5
g. TI
1
i. 1 as choosin g 2 elements not to include.
h. 52
j. 0 23 . a. 120 b. 2,598,960 C. 311,875,200
d . Permutation : parts a and c; combination : part b

3. Answ ers will vary.
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s Set9·5 7 7 7
Problem
25 · a. 140 _
4 29 -
33%
0 b. !;~"' 41% b. X P(x)
10 5 _ 73%
0 d. l53 "' 38% 0 0.000005 ..
C. 143 -
1 0.0001 ...
27. a. j "' 57% b. ~"' 71% c. }"' 29% 2 0.0014 ..
d. P(b) = 1 - P(c). This is because part bis the 3 0.0090.
opposite (comp lem ent) of part c. 4 0.0367 ...
29. a. 75,287,520 b . 7,376,656 c. :: 0 "'9 .8% 5 0.1029 ...
6 0.2001...
d. No, becaus e it is not like ly that the defective
7 0.2668 ..
bu lbs wiJl be found.
8 0.2 334 ..
Problem
Set 9-6 9 0.1210 ..
10 0.0282 ..
1. a. 56% b. 30% c. 20%
P(x)
d . 6% e. 94%
0. 3
3. a. 28% b . 18% c. 12%
0 .2
d . 42% e. 54%
O.J
5. 99.9 6% X
5 10
7. a. 33.6% b . 2.4% C. 97.6 % d. 5.6%
c. P(more than 5) = 0.8497 ..
9. a. "'3 6.77 %
11. a. i. 12%
b. ss99.99%
) P(at most 5) = 0.1502 ...
"More than 5" is mor e likely.
ii. 28% 5. a. P(x) = 20 Cxa 20 - xb x
iii. 48 %
P(x)
iv. 12%
b. 100%. These are all th e possibilities .
0.2
13. a. 0.09 % b. 20%
c. They are not indep end ent . An engine is X
more like ly to fail if the other one has alr ead y 4 8 12
failed. b. X P(x)
;-i9-7
Pro:/•: I ,,------- ..,...____
0
1
0.18869 ..
0.32816 .. .
0.27109 .. .
b . P(O) = l4 "' 1.6%; P(l) i4 "' 14%\('
=
'-.. 2
3 0.14143 ..
27
P(2) = 27 "'42 %·' P(3) = 64 "' 4 2%
64 c. 1 - [P(O) + P(l) + P(2) + P(3)] = 0.0706 3 .
c. 100%. Thes e are all the possibilities.
7. a. i. 0.5471... ii. 0. 3316...
d. P(x)
iii. 0.0988 ... iv. 0.1212 ...
0.4 V. 0.02 24 ..
0 .2
b. 0.9991... "' 99.91%
>
X 9. a. 0.1296 b. 0.0256
l 2 3 c. 0.2073 .. d. 0.0614 ..
e. Binomial e. i. 0.207 3 .. ii. 0.0921...
3. a. P(3) = 10C3(0.7)3(0.3)7 = 0.090 ... iii. 0.1658 .. iv. 0.1105 ...
f . 0.710 2 ... "' 71%
g. A six-gam e series is most likely, followed by
seven, five, and th en four games.
778 Problem
Set9-7 Answers
toSelec
tedProblems
11. a. n PDs of n X Using th e se qu enti al func tion mode on th e TI-83,
en ter in th e y= m enu :
1 0 nMin = 1
2 1 1 u(n ) = 1 - (1 - u(n - 1))(366 - n)/ 365
3 1 1 u(n Min)= {O}
4 1, 2 2
5 1 1
g. A:x)
....
6 1, 2, 3 3 0.8
7 1 1
0.4
8 1, 2,4 3
X
9 l, 3 2
20 40 60 80
10 1, 2, 5 3
h . i. Th ere must b e at least 23 peo ple.
b. Nos. That Have No. of Nos. ii . There must b e at leas t 57 p eo ple.
X x PDs That Have x PDs
0 1 1
Problem
Set 9-8
1 2, 3, 5, 7 4 1. a. Number · P(number)
2 4, 9 2
3 6, 8, 10 3 0.0
0.2
C. X P(x) 0.5
L 1.2
0 To 0.4
-I
1 To
2 Total: 2.3 neutrons p er fission
2 To b . Math emati cal exp ec tation is a m ath em atical
3
3 10 abstract ion, m eanin g, for exampl e, that you
would exp ect 10 fis sion s to produce 23 neutrons,
d. fl'.x)
100 to produce 230, and so on.
0.-1 3 . a. No. of Cars P(A) a P(A) · a
0.2
4 Minivans 0.5 $400 $200
X 2 Station 0.7 $200 $ 140
J 2 3
Wagons
No patt ern is evident. 1 Hybrid 0.8 $100 $8 0
13. a. 0.9972 ... b. 0.9945 1 Sedan 0.9 $100 $90
364 · 363 __ The math ema tical expecta tion of Option A is $510.
C. = 0.9918 ...
3652 b. P(se llin g all requir ed cars)= 0.25 2
3GsP10 C. a = $2 000
d. 355 10 = 0.88 30 ... ) £(se llin g all requir ed cars) =
36sP10 P(se llin g all requir ed cars) · a =
e. 1 - = 0.1169 ... (0.252)($2000) = $5 04
36 510
f. Here ar e a few se lected values: d. He should choose Opti on A.
X P(x) 5. a, b. Let x = no . of hits. Th en

P (x) = sC(0.3)"(0 .7)5- x
10 0.1169 ...
X P(x) X • P(x)
20 0.4114 ...
30 0.7063 .. 0 0.16807 0.00000
40 0.8912 .. 1 0.36 015 0.36 015
50 0.9703 2 0.30870 0.61740
60 0.9941.. 3 0.132 30 0.39690
4 0.028 35 0.11340
5 0.0024 3 0.01215
E(x) = 1.5
An
swers toSelected
Problem
s emSet9-8 779
Probl
l 4 1 1 3 R4. a. i. 35,904 ii. 341 ::::2.9523 X lQ 3S
7. a. 5; 5 b. 0 C. 16 d. 6; 8
e. If you can eliminate at least one answer, it is b. 120 C. w d. 32,432,400
worthwhile . 7!
RS. a. -- =3 5
c. D(16):::: 15 3! • 4!
9. a. D(lS):::: 15 b. A(16) = 9985
b. In a permutation, order is important. In a
d. X P(x) A(x) D(x) combination, it is not. That is, rearrangements
of the same choice of objects are considered
15 0.00146 10,000 15
different permutations but the same
16 0.00154 9,985 15
combination .
17 0.00162 9,970 16
9,954 17 C. i. 3,921,225
18 0.00169
19 0.00174 9,937 17 ii. 94,109,400
20 0.00179 9,920 18 iii. 4,178,378,490
e. I(x) = 40 · A(x) O(x) = 20,000 · D(x) d. 0.2610 ... ::::26.1%
R6. a. i. 6% ii. 56%
$400,000 $300,00 0
$399,400 $300,0 00 iii. 62% iv. 38%
$398,800 $320 ,000 b. i. 51% ii. 9%
$398,160 $340,000 iii. 18% iv. 22%
$39 7,480 $340,000 V. 51% + 9% + 18% + 22% = 100%
$396,800 $360, 000
R7. a. P(4) = 6 C4 (0.6) 4 (0.4) 2 = 0.31104
f. NI(x) = I(x) - O(x)
b. x P(x)
$100,000
0 0.004096
$99,400
1 0.036864
$78,800
2 0.138240
$58,160
3 0.276480
$57,480
4 0.311040
$36,800
s 0.186624
The company has less income each year because 6 0.046656
(1) ther e are fewer people still alive to pay and
(2) it has more outgo becaus e there are more C. P(x)
teople dying. 0.4

20
g. L NI(x) = $430,640 for six years, which 0.2
x-15
averages to $71,773 per year. This is definitely X
123456
enough to pay a full-time employee.
d. 0.54432
Probl~et 9-9 e. The probabilities are the terms in the expansion
Rl. a. 8 3 3 1 (0.6 + 0.4) 6 of the binomial 0.6 + 0.4.
b. 8 c. 8
d. 0
1 7 RS. a. P(21) = 2 1 C21 (0.9) 21 (0.1) 0 = 0.1094 .. .
e. 2 f. 8
1 . 3 P(20 or fewer)= 1 - P(21) = 0.8905 .. .
g. 1 h. 4 1. 4
P(Zl) · a(21) + P(20 or fewer) · a(20 or fewer)
R2. a. 25 b. 13
= 0.1094 .. . · $1800 + 0.8905 .. · $2100
c. An outcome is one of the equally likely results
::::$2067 .17
of a random experiment. An event is a set of
outcomes. b. P(Z2) = 0.0984 .. .
. 13 .. 8 P(21) = 0.2407 .. .
d · 1. 25 IL 25
. . . 16 P(20 or fewer)= 0.6608 ...
lll. 25 iv. 1
£(booking 22 passeng ers):::: $2068.53
v. 0
c. P( Z3) = 0.0886 .. .
R3. a. i. 220 ii . 31
P(22) = 0.2264
b. i. 15 ii. 20
P(21) = 0.2768 ..
780 Probl
emSet9-9 Answers
toSelected
Problem
s
P(20 or fewer) = 0.4080 ... 100 - 36
10. r 2 = = 0.64
0.0886 ... · $1400 + 0.2264 ... · $1700 100
+ 0.2768 .. . · $2000 + 0.4080 ... · $2300 11. The power function fits the data fairly well, but
"" $2001.29 there is still some unexplained pattern in the data.
This is about $1.29 mor e than th ey would make (The negative r indicates that there is a downward
without overbooking. trend to the data .)
d. Answers will vary. Customer dissatisfaction and 12. Add-multiply semilog. Takin g the logarithm of the
fede ral regulation are two possible reasons. y-values com presses them into a narrower range.
e. (0.1)(72) + (0.2)(86) + (0.2)(93) + (0.2)(77)
+ (0.3)(98) = 87.8. She will get at least a B. 13. 361.1020 ... ; 12.5878 ...
f. The probability of an outcome may b e thought 14. logy = log 5000 + (log 0. 72)x, which shows that
of as weighing the value assoc iat ed with that log y is linear in x.
outcome proportionately to its chance of 20!
occurring. 15. Number of se lect ions is 20C7 = l3!
71
201
Problem
Set 9-10 Number of orders is 20 P1 = 7! · 20 C 1 = l3!
l. a. y= mx + b 16. P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
b. y = ax 2 + bx+ c = 0.6 + 0.8 - (0.6)(0.8) = 0.92
c. y = a + b In x or y= a+ blog x
17. a. P(C and D) = 0 (The events are mutually
d. y= ab " exclusiv e.)
e. y = ax b b. P(not D) = 1 - P(D) = 1 - 0.2 = 0.8
2. y c. E = (0.1)(6.00) + (0.2)(-2.00) + (0. 7)(1.00)
= $0 .90
18. a. Add-multip ly (add 3 to x, multiply y by 0 .5);
h
X Exponen tial function
b. y= 100(0.7937 ...)"
3. a. Multipl y- add X yGiven y Calculated

b. Multiply-multiply 8 16 15.7490 Clos e
c. Constant second differen ces 11 8 7.8745 Close
4. a. Logarithmic 17 2 1.9686 Close
b. Exponential C. y = 99.9085 ...(0.7946 .Y
c. Logist ic r = -0.999993537 ... , indi cat in g a good fit becau se
d. Quadratic it is close to - 1.
e. Power d . y = 3.9989 . ""4.0 unit s
Interpolation, because 14 m is within the
f. Linear
given data.
5. )'
Regres sion line A 263 .8737 .. .
1 19. a. y = l + 3 14 .7597 ... e - 1 2056 ... x
Residual • +
- • Dev
!'_=-~--- . ___: ___±_ b. Actual point of inflection is
•• t (4.7707 .. , 131.9318. ).
Average-
average point x
y (0 il we II)s
.JOO
6. y = 0.8766 .. x + 0.6290 ... 300
The residual is smaller than the deviation.
7. The average-average point is (x, y) = (4.5, 4.5738 .. ). 200
/
I/
8. y = 3(4) + 5 = 17 100
/1<-Point ol' inflectio n
Residual= 15 - 17 = -2
_/ x( month s)
9. SSres is a minimum. 5 IO 15
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set9-10 7 81
Problem
c. The hori zontal asymptote is at y = 263.8737 ..., P( x)
meanin g that about 264 wells were ultimatel y 0.4
drilled . 0.3
0 .2
d. An exponential model pr edicts that the numb er
0 .l
of oil wells would grow without bound. The • X
logistic model shows that th e number of wells 2 3 4 5
will level off because of overcrow din g.
c. P(2) = 6 C2 • 0.4 2 • 0.64 = 0.31104
20. a. y = 3.6472 ...x - 145.1272 ... 6!
r = 0.9997 17 ... , indi ca ting a good fit. d. rC 2 = -- = 15
' 2! 4!
b. Extrapo lating to lower values of x indi cate s This is the number of different ways th ere could
that th e number of chip s per minute becomes be 2 ups and 4 downs , each of which has th e
negative, which is unr eas onabl e. Solving for probability 0.4 2 · 0.64.
y = 0 gives x = 39.79 06 ..., indi catin g the dom ain 61
should be about x :?.40. e. 5 P 2 = - = 30
4!
c. Extrapolation to higher values of x indi cates that 23. a. P(H and A) = (0.7)(0.8) = 0.5 6
th e chirp rat e keeps in creasing. Actually, the b . P(not A) = 1 - 0.8 = 0.2
crickets will die if the temperature gets too high. P(H, not A) = (0.7)(0.2) = 0.14
d. x Residual c. P(A, not H) = (0.8)(0.3) = 0.24
50 -2 .23 d . P(Neith er) = (0.3)(0.2) = 0.0 6
55 - 0.47 e. ME = (0.56)(8000) + (0.14)(3000)
60 0.29 + (0.24)(4000) + (0.06)(0)
65 1.05 = $5680
70 1.81 24 . Answers will var y.
75 1.58
80 0.34
85 0.10
CHAPTER
10
90 - 1.12
95 - 1.36 Problem
Set 10-1
The gra ph shows a definite patt ern, so th ere is 1. //
~~j
something in th e data that is not account ed for
by th e lin ear fun ction .
Res idual
2
3. y
X
lOO
3 1------
p
log 53
21. a. y = -- = 1.8069 4
Jog9
b. X = 1.0314 .. . 5. y
c. log 5 47 = 2.3922 ... (6, 8)

8
d. /(x) = In x
2
X v
-2
f(l) = 0 becaus e 1n 1 = 0, becaus e 1n 1 = loge 1,

and e 0 = 1. X
6
22 . a. P(point down) = 1 - 0.4 = 0.6
b. 0.4, 0.24, 0.144, 0.08 64 , 0.05184
782 Problem
Set10-1 Answers
toSelected
Prob
lems
..)5 2 + 8 2 = 10; b. y
tan - 1
(i)= 53.130 1.. . 0
:::: 53.1 °
7. y
c X
X
-9 -b
tan - 1 ( _\ ) = -23 .9624 .. on th e calculator. This is
0
not equal to e.
The displacement vector shown here and th e
Problem
Set 10-2 vector a-
ii found in part a are opposite sides
of a parallelogram that has a
as a diagonal, so
1. a. a =57 + 3], 6 = 27 + 4] the y are equivalent.
b. )' c. ; - 6 = 37 - ;
8 5. a. 477 + 45]
.... 5 .... 3 .... .... 50 .... 30 ....
b. u = ./34i + ./34 ); !Ou = ./34i + ./34 )
C. 8"' -116.57 °
7. Aff = -7 + 3]
9. Blf = 27 + 4]
11. a. A= 207 + 73], ff =457 + 10]
X
b. Aif = 257 - 63]
-; = 77 + 7] c. Alt =107 - 25.2]
c. Translate a
so that its tail is at the head of 6, d. R.= 307 + 47.8]
and then draw the resultant vector 6 + a . The e. IRI"'56.43 km; e""57.9 °
answer is equivalent b eca use either way, is the r f. IXR I""27.l km to Artesia
dia gonal of the same parall elogram.
.... .... 1 - .... 19 ....
13. P = A +
d. \a\=..;34,\6[ = 2./s, [a+ 6[ = 7.fi.. It is a shorter 3 AB = 6 i + 3 j
di st an ce to travel dire ctly from (0, 0) to (7, 7)
along r than it is to trav el along a and then
/l5:7F= 4i - 6)
along 6. ( 1- -+ -+
2 ff = 2i - 3)
3. a. y
---+ --+ 1- -+-+
M =E+ = Si - j
2 ff
But this is just
1( ....- 2)""')= 1 (""'
£ +F""')
2 16i 2
X
The position vector of the midpoint of two points is
just the average of their position vec tor s.
-b 17. a.
Subtraction of vectors is def ined as adding the

opposite.
( a +E=E+a
b . Use the definition of vector addition and the
associativity of addition for scalars.
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set10-2 783
Problem
c.bb b "
-+
, - b
-+
b '
--+
b-,
-+
d . i1 =
7
-!37 - -/3 ; + -J?,
15 3 15
k
= (0.8082 .. )7 - (0.5773 . .)] + (0.1154 .. .)k.
~ 28-/3 ~
20 u =--
3 _
20-/3 ~ 4-/3 -
i - --j
3
+-k
3
a - bctcb-a = (16.1658 ... )i - (11.5470 ...)J + (2.3094 ...)k
d. Use the definition of vector addition, th e 7. "ifs= 37 + 7] - 6k
definition of scalar multiplic ation, and the
l"ffsl = v'94
distr ibut ive prop erty of scalars.
e. Use the definition of vector addition and the 9. BX=67 + 7] + 6 f
property that th e real numbers are close under IBXI= 11
addition . 11. a. z
If there were no zero vector, a su m of the form 17,. ,.':
(a7 + b]) + [(- a)i + (- b)]] =[ a + (-a)7 + [b + (- b)] J ,t
,'
; I
'
= o7 + oJwould not yield a vector. /~ _________
__F__
(3.?,55. 17),/ ' y
,'55
Problem
Set 10-3
X
1. z
6, ------------- --- ------~;

b . h = 307 + 55] + 17k; 17 ft; 64.9153 ... ft
,.,.":
,,' : c. a- Fi=- 207 - ssJ - 9k
:--------------------;;-1 d. ) 35 06 ft"" 59.2 ft
p e. 0. 3(d - h)= -6 7 - 16.5] - 2.7k;
y J3 1s .s4 ft "" 17 .8 ft
,'9 f. h + 0.3(d - h) = 247 + 38 .5] + 14.3k; 14.3 ft
13. 257 + 24] + 13k
15. 4.67 - 6.6] - 0.8k
3. z 17.
-2
~... -------- ---- -------,-,,"':
' y
p
y
,'8
X
By th e Pythagorean theorem, the length of 2 x-units
5. a. a+b=ll7 -3 ] - 2k. is equal to.fi.y- or z-uni ts. So each x-unit is equal to
a - "i5= - 37 + 7] - 4k .fi., or about 70%, of a y- or z-unit.
"E- a=37 - 7] + 4k 2
b. 3a = 127 + 6] - 9k 19. a. lal= m = 9.32 73 ... ; i"E I = 14
6a - Sb= - 117 :t.-3[ - 23k b. a+ E= (8, 16, 9, 8J
I c. la + bl =7134= 11.s7s8 ... c. a - b = (- 2, -6, -s, 6)
lal + IEI= m + m = 14.o4s4 .. d. AiJ= b - a= (2, 6, s, - 6l
No - e. a+0.4(b - a)=(3.8, 7.4, 4, 4.6)
Problem
1.
3.
Set 10-4
a. E= 30.
a. b = 29.
2s . cos 37° = -598 .9766 ...
so . cos 127° = - 872.6317 ...
j
78 4 Prob
lemSetl 0-4 An
swers toSelected
Problems
5. a· b = 51 · 27 · cos 90 ° = 0 7. Sx- 3y- z= 37
21
7. e = COS - 1 100
20·30=
80 09
.4 5 ..
0 =
9. Z1 10; Z2 ; =5
-5 4
12 d = 7.9145 ... ; y = 7
9. e = COS- I ; . : = 131.1288 .. . 0
1 7 11. a. 30x - 17y + ll z = 900

4800 '- b . It intersects th e x-axis first, at x = 30 m.
11. e = cos - l -- = cos - 1(1) = 0°
60 · 80 c. About 31.8 m de ep
B.a·h = 21 11
lal= nB ; IEI= JiIB; d. e = cos - 1 .Jl310 "' 72.3°
e = 6 5.2077 ... 0
13. ii, = 27 - s] + 3k.; ii2 = 77 + 4] + 2k;
1s. a. 6 = -31 ri, · 112 = 2 · 7 - 5 · 4 + 3 · 2 = 0
'lal= J38;!hi= v'46; 15. Let P0 (><o,Yo, z 0 ) be a fixed point in the plane, and let
e = 137 .8564 ... 0
P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary different point in the plan e
17. a · b = O; e = 90 ° so that th e displ acement vector from P0 to Pis
d = (X - Xo)1 + (y - Yo)) + (z - Zo)k. Then n · d = 0
l{:_a. Fres= 457 + 120] + 15k <=} A(x - ><o)+ B(y - y 0 ) + C(z - z 0 ) = 0
b. 120 lb <=} Ax + By+ Cz - A><o - By 0 - Cz0 = 0
c. 45 lb <=} Ax+ By + Cz - D = 0, where D = A><o + By0 + Cz0
d . 15 lb
e. ~ lb a::129 1 blem:et '!·6 _ _ _ _
.-8 i +7J - 2k 3. - 4i - 6 :_+2k
f. IFi l = s 22s lb "' 72 .3 Ib
IF2I = .J342s lb"' s8.s lb . 34 7. Studenf program -~
IF1I+ IF2I "' 130.8 lb * 129 lb"' Fres; no 9. l 9x + 24y - 17z = 41 11. 12x '+- J4y- 3z = -63
g. F1 · F2= 4000; e"' 19.0 ° L~ -- - \
(_ ~
21. Answers will vary. ( 15 . A= %..Jl8 2 = 33.7268 ... 1
23. p = 100 cos 145° = - 81.9152 ... 17. a. a1 2 ,x = lOi- - 5-k; a-:12 .y = 15J- - Sk
-
6 1 b. n = 757 +s o] + 1501< or, dividin g by 25 ,
J
-+ -+ -+ -+
u =lb!=.Jr/Si - 6J + 4k )
37 + 2] + 6k
- - 81.9152 ... - - - 2
p = pu = - ~ (5i -6 J+4k) C. ~ 7.~ ft - \
v 77
d. ltiz,xl= ),/5 ft - 11.2 ft
= (- 46.6755 ...)7 + (56.0106 ...)] - (37.34 04 ...)k
la'z YI = 5.Jio ft "' 15.8 ft /
25. Dot pro du ct, sca lar product, inner produ ct 1a;y1= 5v'13 ft "' 18.04 '
27 . Use the projection technique described in Prob lem 24.
4
. r ·s 18 e x = COS- I J6s 6Q.3J a,
a. p = ~ = ,J38
9
- ; .s s- = -i4s _ - -J18 _ -- 27 k_ e = COS-l --Juo
y
a, 37.9°
b. p = ~
lsl2 19 19 19 1
29. Use the projection techniqu e described in Problem 24.
ez= cos - 1
5VZ"' 81.9 °
r ·s 10 e. 3x + 2y + 6z = 78; 3(5) + 2(6) + 6z = 78 =} z = 8.5

, a. p = -nT = - 5s So (5, 6, 9) is abov e th e plane.
1
_ ; .s _ 2 _ 10 _ 6 _ 19. a.a x b =-9 i +42 ] +43k /
b. p = --- 2 s = - - i +- J - - k b. a . (a x bl = o; b . (a x Ei= o
Is 1 7 7 7
c. a · E= - 12; e = 101.1687 .. 0
lemSet 10-5
C -+ -+ -+
3i + SJ - 7k, -3 i - SJ + 7k
J. 3x - Sy + 4z = :~ \
-+ -+ -+
d. la X bl = 60.778 2 ...
!al · lbl ·sine = 60.7782 ...
5. Bx - 6y- 8z = ~
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set10·6 7 8 5
Problem
21. a. h = 57 - 10] + 20k
5 ..... .....
=-3 (- 3i +6 j - l 2k) =- 3 g
--+ 5-
b. <X = cos- 1 k = 69 .0190. 0
a -I 11 o
b. I?x h[ = [o7+ o] + Ok[= o ,_,= cos v'l95 = 38.0264 ..
c. [g x h[ = [g[ · [h[ sin 0° = [g[ [h[ 0 = 0 - 1 7 0
;y= cos v'l95 = 59.9152 ...
23. z = 2,x = 5
c. The angle of elevation is th e same as
Problem
Set 10-7 90° - ;y = 30 .0847 ... 0
1. z
d. p = 57 + nJ
5
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,.-1
e. A= cos - 1 JI46 = 65.5560 ... 0
,.'____________________ ...,":
: y V : : f. The two dir ection angles would change. Because
I I I y
cos 2 <X + cos 2 /3+ cos 2 ;y = 1, any change in ;y has
X to affect at lea st one of lX and /3.The azimuth
angle would also change.
- 4. - l
5. C1= 2!' (X = COS C1 = 100.9805 ..
0
8 . /3 -I
21, = cos c 2 = I . I ..
Cz = 5- 6Q- 3 °
ProblemSet I0-8
19_ - 1 0 1. a. (5,-3,4)
C3 = 21' ;y= cos Ci= 25 .2087 ...
9 _, 12 -,\ 8 _,
b. - i +-j +-k
7 -3 1 17 17 17 •
7. C1= ../59;
Cz = ../59;
3
(i97r+ (~~r
C3 = ..jsg
9 -8 12 + (i7)2
9. = 17
C1 = 17 ; C2 = 17; C3
} _, 8 _, 16 .... 7 _, 81 144 64 289

I 11. u = 3v'41, + 3v'4lj - 3v'4lk
=-+
289
-+-=-
289 289 289
=l
L C1
8
= 3 /IT; c2 =
16
3 /IT ; c
3 =
-7
3 /IT
3. (23, 21, 20)
5. (i,-9, 0)
13. (?_)
2+ (±)2+ (± )2= 49 + 16 + ~ = ~ = l
7 _ (~)2+ (~) z+ (-i)z
9 9 9 81 81 81 81
7
= _i_+ 36 + ~ = 49 = 1
C1= 9;(X = cos - I C1 = 38.9424 ... 0
7 7 7 49 49 49 49
4 1
_,
r = (5 + 2)
d ....
i + (- 1 + 6)
d j....
+ (4 - -:;d
3)_,k
9; /3= cos - C
C, = 2 = 63.6122 ... 0
7 7
-4
c-,' = -;9 v
d
= cos - 1 Ci
•
= 116.3877. 0
6
15. Ci = ±
23 0 0
}' = COS- I C3 = 74.8783 ... Or 105.1216 ..
17. c3 = ±VO.S;;y = cos - 1 c3 = 45 ° or 135°
19. Not a possible vector
21. a. v'l9 5 ft/s"' 14.0 ft/s
I
786 Problem
Set10-8 j Answers
toSelected
Problems
_, 3 .Jz_, 2.Jz_, .Jz_, R3. a. z
15. a. u =-- i + -J +-k
10 5 2
b. Po+du 4.. ,' ':
= ( 10 - 3-J2 d )->
i + (14 + -2-J2
- d )->
j + (3 + J2 )->
10 5 2 d k y
c. 8 ft, b ecaus e the floor is at z = 0 and you know a .·9
point on th e ceiling at z = 8.
5' _______________________ :··
' .
d. The roof is p erpendi cular to the xz-plan e, so th e X
norma l to th e roof is parallel to the xz-plane and
therefore ha s O]as its y-compon ent. Becau se the
b. 3l7 - 2b = 127 - 23] + 20k
triangular p ar t of the wall is a 45°-45° right
triang le, simp le geometry sho ws that the vector c. lal =v'65
through (6, 0, 8) and (0, 0, 14) is a normal. This _. a 5_, s_. 2-
vector is d. u = lal = -/65; - -15sJ + -15sk
(0 - 6)7 + (0 - O)]+ (14 - 8)k = -6 7 + O]+ 6k e. a=- 37 + 9] - 9k
(6, 0, 1-l) (0, 0, 14) f. p = 3.97 + 1.3]- 4.3k
a. a ' b = 1a I . lbl . cos e, where e is the angl e
/[?( (6, 0, 8) (0, 0, 8)

R4.
betwee n a and b pla ced tail-to-tail . Scalar
product and inner product are two other names .
b. a. b = -so.7s32 ...
e. -6x + 6z = 48 C. 8 = 100.0786 ... 0
f. (4.375, 21.5, 12.375) d. la l = v'65; lbl = m
g. Fore nsic means "belonging to, used in, or suitable Q·b= - 16
to publi c discussion and debate." The evidence e. e = 103.3382 ... 0
about the bu llet an d its pat h could b e us ed in _, 3_, 4_, 7 _,

a trial. r. u =m i + m J - m k
Problem
Set 10-9 g. p =
- 16
v 74
=(The n egative valu e indi cates that
Rl. a. They start at th e origin an d go to a point. th e proj ect ion point s in the opposite dir ection
b. y from b.)
_, 24 --, 32 --, 55_,
h. p =-37 i - 3 7) +37k
RS. a. Let P0 = (Xo, Yo, z0 ) be a fixed point on the plane ,

and let P = (x, y, z) be an arbitr ary point on the
plane . Then Pr} = (x - x 0 )i + (y - y 0 )] + (z - z 0 )k
X is contained within th e plane and so is normal to
n.
Thus:
C. J = -47 + 2] PoP· n=O
A(x - x 0 ) + B(y - y 0 ) + C(z - z0 ) = 0
d. lrl = 1a + bl = 2'134
t
e. e = tan - 1 = 53.1301.. . 0 Ax + By + Cz = Ax 0 + By 0 + Cz0
Ax+ By+ Cz =D, where D = AXo + By 0 + Cz0
R2. a. J = 47 - 2]
b. J = 1.67 - 0.8] b. n= 37 - 1] + r.n= -37 + 1J- r
-l2 1
C. p = 4.67 + 3.2] c. 2x-7y-3z= l ;z=- -
3
d. (4.6, 3.2) d. 3x + 6y + 9z = 45
R6. a. Q X b iS a VeCtOr p erp endicular tO both Q and b,
with magni tud e la X bl= lal ' lbl Where Sine, e
is the angle betwee n a and ii pla ced tail-to-t ail
and with dir ection given by th e right-hand rul e.
Three nam es for a x b are cross produ ct, vector
produ ct, and outer pr oduct.
An
swers toSelected
Probl
ems Set 10-9 78 7
Problem
b. la X bl= 23.6666 ... CHAPTER
11
C. a x b=l37 - 11]+17k.
b X a = -13 7 + llj - 17 k. Problem
Set 11-1
d. a. b = - 11 1. Iteration Side Total Total
b·a =-11 Number Length Perimeter Area
e . A= .!_ 0 10 cm 40 cm 100 cm 2
2 y'579
1 4cm 64 cm 64 cm 2
f. 6x+7y+5z=87 2 1.6 cm 102.4 cm 40 .96 cm 2
R7. a. z
3. P(3) = 163.84 cm; A(3) = 26.2144 cm 2
P(4) = 262.144 cm; A(4) = 16.777216 cm 2
y 5. The perimeter approaches infinity, while the area
X
approaches 0.
6 Problem
Set 11-2
b. C1 = ./5 = 0.5366 .. .;
~~i
5
-8 1. [-~
C2 =
5
.Js = - 0.7155 ...; 0 11
1 3. [-22 22 - 2]
C3 = js = 0.4472 ... ;
5. [14 -42]
()(= 57.5436 ... /3=135.6876 ...
0
;
0
;
7. Undef ined
)' = 63 .4349 ...0
or 158.8657 ...
1
C. C3 = ±V0.87; y = COS - C3 = 21.1342 ...
0
0
9. [: !]
d. c3 = ±Vl - cos 2 30° - cos 2 40° = ±v'- 0.3368 ... , 11. a. [Y][M] = [4.81 4.70 4.96 1.70]
which is ima ginary. The company's total annua l income from Texas is
$4.96 million. Of thi s, $1.53 million is earne d
-+ -t -t -- 7-t 4-t 4- annually from mortgag es in Texas.
RB. a. P.0 = 61 + 3J + 2 k · u = - 1 + - J - - k ·
' 9 9 9 '
b . As the matrices are set up, there would be no
(ir (ir (-ir
+ + =1
way to match up the bonds with the bond
interest rat es, mortgages with mortgage interest
b . (-8, -5, 10); ff = r(-18) rates, and loans with loan interest rates. However,
real-world ana lysts can simp ly write [Ml as a
=[6+i(-18)]7 +[3+i(-18)]J +[2-~(-18)] k. 4 x 3 matrix and [Y] as a 3 x 1 matrix.
c. Th e number of rows of the first matrix does not
= -s7 - 5] + 1o"f.
equal the number of columns of the second.
The point lies in the opposite direction from
(6, 3, 2) than the direction of u. 0.7 -2.9 2.1]
13. a. [MJ- 1 = -0 .1 1.7 -1.3
c. (1t5, o) [
~i
-0 .3 0.1 0.1
d (24 ~ 46)
. 11' 11' 11 [MJ-l[M] = [Ml[MJ-1 = [~ ~ = [J]
e. r(d) = (2 + 9d)7 + (8 + 5d)] + (4 + 3d)k 0 0 1
b. det [Ml = 10
adj [M]• [MJ-' · det[M] • H -29

17
1
21]
-13
1
15. Finding the inverse requires dividing by the
determinant, but det [: !]= 0.
788 Problem
Set11-2 Answers
toSelectedProblems
17. [1~
15 1 -8
-! -;i-1[:i
-2
= [1/92:;
3.4
7. [3
0
y
0][1
3 1
3 4] = [3
1 5 3
9
3
12]
15
ii
X = 1.22, y = 6.9, Z = 3.4
12
19. y = 0.5x2 + 3x - 7; y(20) = 253
8
21. [! :J[:~]= [!! ;~] 4

, ' X
[: ~][! :J [!~!!] =
4 8 1.2 16
9 _ [cos(-50 °) cos40° ][1 3 4]

23 _ [ l l ][ 1 -l J = [O OJ sin (-50 °) sin 40° 1 1 5
1 1 -1 1 0 0
= [ 1.4088 ... 2.6944... 6.4013 ... ]
Problem
Set 11-3 -0.1232 .. . -1.6553 ... 0.1497 .. .
y
1. y
8 12
4 ,',
, '
.
, '
,_. X
8 16
X
2 4 6 8
ll . [cos (-50 °) cos 40°][3 o][l3 4]
[~~][~ 3 6
2 ~] = [~ 4 !] sin( -5 0°) sin40° 0
= [ 4.2264.. . 8.0832. ..
3 1 1 5
19.2041.. .]
Dilation by 2
-0 .3697 .. . -4 .9660.. . 0.4492 ...
3. y
..- - - - - -- . y
4 12
X 8
-6 4 6
-4 X
-6
2 -4 1 -2 13. [A] will dilate th e image by 0.8 and rotate it

[i !][! -3 -3
-64] = [~
- 1.5 - 1.5
-32]
counterclockwise by 20°. The pre-image matrix is
1
Dilation b y
2 [~; : :J
5.
; ! :J
y
6
[Ai[~
= [3 .2115.. 4.7150.. . 5.7613... 5.1240 ... ]
4
(? - - - - - -,
2.8715... 3.4188... 5.4695... 6.9730 .. .
2
:J
~
i- - - - - - .!
X [A]2[~ ; :
2 4 6
[1.6285 ...
= 2.6091.. . 2.7668 ... 1.9441.. ]
3.0374 ... 3.8602 .. . 5.66 35 ... 6.6440 ...
[0.8 - 0.6][3 3 6 1.2 3.6 4.2]
6] = [1.8 7 9
0.6 0.8 1 2 2 1
Rotation by cos - 1 0.8 = 36.8698 ... count erclockwise.
2.6
0
3.4 5.2 4.4 [A]3[~ 2 4 :J
= [0. 393 1.. . 0.9051... 0.5303 ... - 0.3564 ... ]
2.7290 ... 3.6158 .. . 5.0146 ... 5.5266 ..
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set11·3 789
Problem
[A)4
.
[5 7
2 2
9
4
9]
6
0.9 cos 20° 0.9 cos 110° 6 ][X] [X]
d . 0.9 s~n 20° 0.9 si~ 110° -1 ~ = ~
[
= [-0.4511 .. -0 .3088 .. - 0.9733.. - 1. 7801.. ·] 1
2.1591... 2.9658 ... 3.9149. .. 4.0 571... -+ {0. 9X cos 20° + 0.9Y cos 110 ° + 6 = X
0.9X sin 20° + 0.9Y sin 110° - 1 = Y
-+ {(0.9 cos 20° - l)X + (0.9 cos 110°) Y = - 6
(0.9 sin 20°)X + (0.9 sin 110° - 1) Y = 1
X
-+ [o.9 cos 20° - 1 o.9 cos 110 °
0.9 sin 20° 0.9 sin 110° - 1 Y
= [-6 ]
1
][x]
1
-+ [X] = [0 .9 cos 20° - 1 0.9 cos 110° ]- [- 6]
Y 0.9 sin 20° 0.9 sin 110° - 1 1
15. Student program = [ 10.4044 ... ] ~ [ 10.4045 ... ] f rom part c
14.2773... 14.2778 ...
17_ [M ) = [cos 90° cos 180 °] = [O - 1] 3. a. The figure will b e rotated 20° clockwise an d
sin 90 ° sin 180 ° 1 0
shrunk by a factor of 0.8, th en translated 2 units
19. [M ] = [~ ~] horizontally and 6 units vertically .
25 23 23 25]
ProblemSet 11-4 b . [Mi]= [ \5 \5 \2 \2
0.8457 ... -0 .3078 .. . y
1. a. [A] = 0.30;8 .. 0.8457 .. . 15 !---+---+--+--+-~+
[
0
[M] • [!: ; ;]
7.9215 ... 11.3044 ... 10.6887 ... 7.3058 ... ]
[AJ[M]= 1.61 49 ... 2.8461... 4.5 376. .. 3.306 3 .. . X
[ -5
1 1 1 1
y
Th e rectangles converge to ~ (16, 7).

C.
5 . :_·__
'
·.:c
.
D X
b. y
X
2-5
The images see m to be attracted to the same

fixed point.
0.7 cos35 ° 0.7cosl25 ° 7]
The ima ges seem to be attracted to (10, 14). d. [T 2 ] = 0.7 sin 35° 0.7 sin 125° - 3
l
[
c. [AJ100 [M] 0 0 1
0.0000.. . 0.0000 ... 10.4045 ... -[0.5734... -0.40 15... : ]

= 0.0000 ... 0.0000 ... 14.2778 ... ; - 0.4015... 0.57 34... 3
[ 0 0 1
0 0 1
(10.4045 ... , 14.2778 ..) ~ (10, 14) from part b.
790 Problem
Set11-4 Answe
rs toSelected
Problems
-_3/t~:·ii
App lyin g [T 2 ] iteratively to [Mil:
y [B][A][Ml= [- ~O
15 1---1---+---,q..>,---+-~-t-
1 1 1
-7 .5 -11.25 -15]
[B][B][M] = -10 -2 .5 -10
[
1 1 1
-3.75 -7.5 - 11.251
[B][C][M] = -2.5 5 -2 .5
[
-5 1 1 1
3.75 OJ
7.5
[CJ[AJ[MJ= 5
12.5 5
[
1 1 1
The rectangles converge to ;::;(12,4.5).
o -3.75
e. The transformation matrix determines the fixed
point attractor. To demonstrate this, note that
app lying [Ti] iterative ly to either [Mil or [M2 ]
gives the same fixed point attractor; but applying
[C][B][M]= 5 12.5
[1 1
3.75 0 -3.75]
Tl
[Til iteratively to [Mil gives a differ ent fixed
point attractor from the one yielded by applying
[CJ[Cl[M] = l~.5
[
22
12.5
1
[T2 ] iteratively to [Mi]. App lying [T 2 ] iteratively to
[M2 ] supports this: c. y
X
20 25 d . 3rd iteration: 33 = 27 images
20th iteration: 320 = 3,486,784,401 images
The rectangles still converge to"' (12, 4.5). e. Pre-image area: 450 = 450 · 1 = 450 · (!)°
ProblemSet 11· 5 1st iteration area: 450 · !
= 33 7.5 = 450 · (!r
[o5 0
, 5] [o5 0
-7:5] (fr
1. a. [A]= ~ 0.5
0
-t; [BJ= ~ 0.5
0
-:i
1
; nth iteration area: 450 ·
f. As n-+ oo, th e area approaches zero. Sierpinski's
[Cl=
[05
~
0
0.5
0
1:0 l triangle has zero area!
3. Student program
5. The results should resemble the figure.
b . [AJ[AJ[M]= [ -15
11.25
75] [05 0
~O -2.5
1
-10
1 7. [A]= ~ 0.5 10]
10
3.75 0 1
['5
[A][B][M]= - ~O -2.5
[11.
25
1
7.5
+l
375]
[B] =
[o5
~
0
0.5
0
l
1:0
[o5
~]
[AJ[CJ[M]= -~.5 5 - 2.5 0
1 1 [Cl= ~ 0.5
0
Answers
toSelected
Problems Set11-5 791
Problem
0.5 y
[DJ= [ ~
0
The combin ed imag e spac e of all four
tran sfor m ations now covers th e entir e squ are.
9 a [DI- [~ 1:0 l X
- [ 0.5196 ... - 0.3 0~] -3

b. [A ] - 0.3 0.5196 ...
d. 5000 iteration s:
0 0
[B] = 0.6 0 00
0 0.6 1]
[
0 0
0.5 196... 0.3 40
11
[Cl = - 0.3 0.5196 ..
[
0 0
X
c. [A]IA][D] • [-~: -9?

] e. Strange attra ctor
f. Pre-ima ge: 10 units
[A]IB]ID]• [: -,?] 1st iteration: 18 units
2nd iteration: 32.4 units
3rd iteration: 58.32 units
100th iteration: 3.36 70 ... x 1026 unit s
[A]IC][D]{,:;' ~~:]
If th e iterations were done forever, the length
would becom e infinit e.
g. (XA , YA)= (- 4.6762 .. ., 7.4880 .. .)
lm[A]ID]• [: -6:;"J
This point app ears to b e in the "foliage" of th e
left "branch" of the tree.
(XB, YB) = (0, 0)
[B][Bl[D]-[ ; 3:6] This is the "root" of the tr ee, i.e., th e bas e of the
"trunk."
0 1.81 (Xe, Ye)= (3.7410 ... , 5.9904 .. .)
[B][C][D]"' [ \4 \5 J Thi s is in the "foliage" of th e right "branch" of
the tree .
[XA]
1.5 1.5 ] [-2 .9769 ... ]
[C][A][D] "' \6 l~.2 ll. a. YA = 14.2984 .. .
[
This is the topmost point of th e "fern ."
o 1.8] b. (XB, YB) is th e tip of the lower left "frond,"
[C][B][D]"' ~ 7/ (Xe , Ye) is th e tip of th e lower right "frond, " and
[
(X 0 , Yo) is th e bas e of the "stem."
1.2 4.3] c. (XB, YB)= (-0 .656 1.. ., 2.2628 ... )
(Xe, Ye)= (0.96 16... , 3.5276 ... )
[C][C)[D] "' 6/
[ 7~9 (X 0 , Y0 ) = (0, 0)
These results confirm the conj ectur e.
792 Problem
Set11-5 Answers
toSelectedProblems
Problem
Set 11-6 R2. a. [
27 - 30]
2
33 - 33
1. a. r=i,N =25=5
D = log N = log 2 5 = 2 log 5 =
2
b. [ _~J
1 log 5 log 5
log- c. -28
r
d. X = 2, y = l , Z = -4
1
b. r=0.01=- N=l0000= 100 2 R3. a. Dilation by 0.6 and rotation about the origin by
100' '
30° count erclockwise .
D= logN log 10,000 _2_lo~g~l_O_O = b.
2 y
1 log 100 log 100 8
log-
r 6
c. The smaller squar es ar e identi cal and
self-similar , and you can carry out the 4
division pro cess infinitel y. 2

1 X
3. a. r= 0.4 = 2 _5 , N= 4 2 4 6 8
D = log N = log 4 = 1.5129 ___ 8 7] = [-0.216 - 0.432 -0 .648 ]
C. [T]3[~
1 log 2.5 2 3 1.08 1.728 1.512
1og -
r y
b. As n grows infinite, An= A 0 • (4 · 0.4 2 )" = 8
A 0 • 0.64 n approa ches zero . This is consist ent
6
with the dimension bein g less than 2.
c. As n grows infinit e, Pn = P0 • (4 · 0.4)n = P0 • 1.6" 4
,r·;-,
also grows infinit e. This is consist ent with the 2 "i,' ,,"
dimension being greater than l. ,;, ' _,;......'
X
d. D= 2 2 4 6 8
The dimension is a whole number, not a fraction . d. The graph has been rotated 90°.
e. D = 2.7138 ... e. Distance of pr e-imag e vert ex:
As n grows infinit e, the sum of the areas of the d= ~=m
sma ller squares A = A o • (4 · 0.6 2 )n = A 0 • 1.44n Distance of imag e vert ex:
also grows infinit e. This is consistent with the d= v'(-0.216) 2 + 1.08 2 = .J~l-.2-1-30_5_6
= v'26 · 0.6 6
dimension being greater than 2. However, th e
actual total area of the figure is the same as the = 0.6 3 • J26
area of the original squar e because the smaller R4. a. Dilation by 0.6, rotation by 30° counterclo ckwise
squ ares overlap each other. about the origin, hori zo ntal translation by 5,
5. If the fractal dim ension is less than l, then the vertical translation by 2
length will be zero; if th e dimension is exactly 1, b. y
then the lengt h will be finite; if the dimension is 10
greater than 1, th en th e length may be infinit e (if 8
you count overlapping sections). If the fractal 6
dim ension is less than 2, then the area will be zero; 4
if th e dim ension is exactly 2, then th e area will be
2
finite; if the dim ens ion is greater than 2, th en th e X
area may be infinite (if you count overlappin g 2 4 6 8 10
sections) .
C. y
10
Problem
Set 11-7 8
Rl. 1024 segment s; 0.0173 ... unit; 6
(ir--+0 unit s as n--+ 00 4 \ ....
2 ~...... :
'' X
2 4 6 8 10
Answer
s toSelected
Problem
s Set11-7 793
Problem
d. Approximately (5.62, 7.67). To est im ate th e point on that point. Then the procedur e is rep eated on
numerically, raise [Al to a high exponent. th e resulting poi nt. As many iter ations as des ired
are performe d .
[A] 1 oo"" [~ ~ ~::~:. so the attracting fixed

d. Answers will vary.
y
0 0 1
point is (5.62, 7.67) .
e. [X] = [0.6 cos 30° - 1 0.6 cos 120° ]- l[- 5] X
Y 0.6 sin 30° 0.6 sin 120° - 1 -2

= [5 .6 175. " ]
7.6714 ...
f. The third row in [M l adds the appropria te
translation factor to each row of th e image, e. The fixed point, (5.6175 .. , 7.6714 ... ), attracts th e
and the third row of [A ] ens ur es that the third upp er-right end of the fractal ima ge.
row of the imag e will b e th e same as the third f. Perimeter of Total
row of th e pre-image . n N One Rectangle Perimeter
0.6 cos 30° 0.6 cos 120° -Si 0 1 16 16
RS. a. [Bl= 0.6 sin 30° 0.6 sin 120 ° -2 1 2 9.6 19.2
[
0 0 1 2 4 5.76 23.04
b . [A)[AJ[M] 3 8 3.456 27 .648
-[6. 7698 ... 7.8498 ... 7.2263 .. 6.1463...: 50 1.1258 ... · 10 15 1.29 32 ... · 10- 10 145,607.0104
- 3.4239 ... 5.2945 5.65 45 ... 3.7839 .. .
1 1 1 1 As the number of iterations approaches infinity,
[Al[B][Ml the to tal perimeter also approaches infinit y.
3.85 36 ... 3.2301.. R6. a. If an object is cut into Ni denti cal self-s imil ar
- [- 2.7736 .. . 2 1501]
- 1.6545 .. . 0.2160 ... 0.5760 ... - 1.2945 ... p ieces, the ratio of the length of each piece to
1 1 1 1 the length of the origina l object is r, and the
su bdivision s can b e carried on infinite ly, then th e
[B)[A][ M]
dimension D of th e object is
-2 .1501... - 2.7736 ... -3 .8536 . ·] logN
-[ =3.23 01... D=--
- 0.5760 .. . 1.2945 ... 1.6545 ... - 0.2160 .. . 1
1 1 1 1 log-
r
-
[B)[B][M]
-[= 7.2263 .
5.6545 ...
- 6.146 3 ... -6.7698 ... -7.8498
-3 .7839 ... -3.4239 .. -5. 2945 .. .
l b. r = 0.6 = i, N = 2
logN log2
D = --
1
= - -= 1.3569 ..
log - log -
5
1 1 1 1 r 3
y
c. As n grows infinite, th e total perin1eter beco mes
infinite . This is consiste nt with the dim ension
I} b ein g greater than 1.
X
d. Area of Total
n N One Rectangle Area
I} -5 0 1 12 12
1 2 4.32 8.64
2 4 1.5552 6.2 208
c. Th e attr actor is correct. Probabilities are 3 8 0.559872 4.478976
assigned to th e transformations (in this case, As n grows infinite, th e total area, A = 12 · 0.72n,
equ al probabilities of 0.5 each). An initial point is approaches ze ro. This is con sistent with th e
chosen . Th en a random value betwe en O and dim ension b eing less than 2.
1 det ermines whic h transfo rmati on is performed
794 Prob
lemSet 11-7 Answer
s toSelected
Problem
s
e. The attra ctor is still quit e similar but with more 5.
blank space:
y X
6
--
-- ----
4
-- 2 X
-- --
-- 6
---- - .j
-6
The asymptotes are y =¥a nd y =-¥,w hich have
s lop es +2
_ 3.
f. r = 0 .5 = !, N = 2
7. y = ±JI"""=x.The graph is th e parabola in
D = log N = log 2 = 1 Figure 12-ld .
log~ log 2
Pn = 2n(0.5)n · 16 = 16, so th e perimet er Problem
Set 12-2
remains 16 as n approaches infinity. Thi s is
consist ent with the dim ens ion being equal 1. The unit circle shown in Figur e 12-2c
to 1. 3. The unit hyperbola shown in Figure 12-2c
g. r = 0.4 = 2\ , N=2 5. a. Ellipse
log N log 2 b.
D = - - 1 =- --=0 .7564 ...
1og , 1og 2.5
Pn = 2n(0.4)M· 16 = (O.S)n · 16
X
As n grows infinite, the total perimeter
approaches zero. This is cons iste nt with the
-3
dimension being less than 1.
c. 4x 2 + y2
- 24x - 2y + 21 = 0
CHAPTER
12 The graphs agree.
7. a. Hyperbola that opens in 7-dir e tion
Problem
Set 12-1 b. . y
l. y ·-.. 5
3
X
-5 • ;. : 5 •
X
3
C. - 9x2 + 25y 2 + 36x + soy- 236 = 0

' .-
-3 d. The graphs agree.
9 . a. Circle
y= ±~
b. y
The graph cons ists of all points whose distanc e to
the origin is 1:
.J(x- 0) 2 + (y- 0) 2 = .Jx2 + y 2 = 1 X
4 9
3 . - x2 + - y 2 = 1
36 36
x.2 y 2
-+-=l
9 4 c. x2 + y 2 + 2x - 4y - 31 = 0
d. The graphs agree.
The dilation s 3 and 2 appear as the denominators of

x an d y, respective ly.
Answers
toSelected
Pro
blems Set12-2 79 5
Problem
11. a. Parabola opening vertically 25. a. X=4-0.25(y+2) 2
b. ?' b. X=4-0.25(t+2) 2 ,y=t
c. The graphs agree.
X
27 . a. y
c. 0.2x 2 - 0.4x + y- 5.8 = 0

d. The graphs agree.
13. a. Circle b. The closest the spaceship is to the Sun is
b. y 1 million miles away. The farthest the
spaceship is from the Sun is 2 5 million miles
away.
X
c. y = ±fj"Jios = ±3 .9411... million miles
5
d . The distance of ( 20, _!105) from the .sun is
13
c. The graphs agree. 20 .3846 ... million miles.
15. a. Hyperbola opening in they-direction x-4
29. a. sect= --
b. y 5
y- 3
tant=--
r
2
4
b. sec 2 t=(x;

tan 2 t = (y;
3
r
17. a. Hyperbola opening in the x-direction
b. y
C. sec 2 t - tan 2 t = (X;
4
r-(Y;r 3
d. sec 2 t- tan 2 t = 1, so the equation in part c is

equivalent to
4
(X;
r -
3
(y; f
= l, which is the
X
equation of a hyperbola .
-1 4 9
31. a. 16x2 - 25y 2 - 128x - lOOy + 556 = 0
16x2 - 128x - 25y 2 - lOOy = -556
19. a. Circle 16x2 -16 · Bx- 25y 2 + (-25) · 4y= -556
b. y
16(x2 - Bx) - 25(y 2 + 4y) = -556
X b. 16(x - 8x) + 256 - 25(y 2 + 4y) - 100
2
= -556 + 256 - 100

16(x2 - 8x) + 16 · 16 - 25(y 2 + 4y) + (-25) · 4
r~
;·::(:~
;),0
= -400
16(x2 - Bx+ 16) - 25(y 2 + 4y + 4) = -400
16(x2 - Bx+ 16) 25(y 2 + 4y + 4) -400
21 : a
C. - =--= 1
- 400 - 400 - 400
b . X = -4 + 6 COS t, y = 3 + 4 Sin
x 2 - Bx+ 16 y 2 + 4y + 4
----+ =l
c. The graphs match. 25 16
(x - 4) 2 (y + 2) 2
- ---+-- - =1
23. a. - (x;4r +(y;2r =l 25 16
b . x = 4 + 5 tan t, y = -2 + 3 sect -(x;4r +(y:2r =l

c. The graphs match.
796 Problem
Set12·2 Answers
toSelected
Problems
d. y 11. Ans wers will vary .
13. A = 9x- x3
X
A
(1.73, 10.39)
10
33 . a. See Figure 12-2j .

X
b. The type of figur e remains the same, but the figur e
may be rotated and the shape may be distort ed.
Maximum area at x= 1.7320 ...
Problem
Set 12-3 A= 10.3923 ...
15. V= 2rrx 2 ,./25 - x2
1. y
V
(4.08, 302.29 )
200
X
Maximum volum e at x = 4.0824 ...
3. V= 302.2998 ..
17. a. A= 4rrx ,./25 - x2
V
(3.53, 157.07)
X
2 100
X
4
5. Maximum area at x = 3.5355 ...

A= 157.0796 ...
r = 3.5355 ... ; h = 7.0710 . .
b. A = 2 rrx (x + 2,./25 - x2 )
X
A (4.25 , 254 .16)
200
/
7. y
s X
4
Maximum area at x = 4.2532 ...
X A= 254 .1601. ..
~ r = 4.2532 ... ; h = 5.2573 ...
c. No
-5 d. No
19. Maximum volume at x = 17.320 5 .. ft;
9. y
A(Xmaxl = 1332.8648 ... ft 2
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s ProblemSet 12-3 79 7
Problem
Set 12-4 9. a. The major axis is 283 million miles long. The
major radius, a, is 141.5 million miles long.
l. a. y = t .J640 = 8.4327 ... . This agrees with the
graph . b . c = 13.5 million miles
b = v'l9,840 = 140.8545 ... million miles
26 44
b. d1 = 5.2 d2 = 3 d3 = 3 xz y2
26 5 C. +- - -= 1
C. d2 = 3 = 3 ' 5.2 = ed1 20,022.25 19,840
d. x = c = 13.5 million miles
d. ldz - d3I = 1235- :4 1= 1-~81 = 6 Distance to Sun is
y = 140.2120 ... million miles.
e. x-dilation is 3 = a, the transverse radius;
e. e = 0.0954 ...
y-dilation is 4 = b, the conjugate radius .
f. c2 = 52 = 32 + 42 = a2 + b2 f. 1469.6296 million miles
g. a = 3 = i · 1.8 = ed g. X = 141.5 COS t

y = 140.8545 ... sin t
c = 5 = i3 · 3 = ea The graph looks similar to Figure 12-4u.
3. a. The vertex is equ idistant from the focus and the h. The major and minor radii are nearly equal, and
directrix. The eccentricity is the ratio of the the eccentricity is close to zero.
distances from a point on the curve to the focus 11. a. Ellipse
and to the directrix, so e = 1. b . a=5,b =3 ,c=4,d=
25 1 4
4 =6 4,e= 5
1 36
b. Y = (62) = = 4 .5 agrees with the graph . C. y
8 8
C. d1 = 14.5 - (-2 )1= 6.5
d 2 = .J(6 - 0)2 + (4.5 - 2)2 = v'36 + 6.25 = 6.5
d. d 1 = 6.5 = d2
. . . d2 6.5
Th e eccentricity is e = - = - = 1.
d1 6.5 X
5. Hyperbola
' 10 y
~- - ------ -----
'
'
: 8
I- - - - - - - - -
13. a. Hyperbola opening vertically

b. a= 3, b = 6, C = ~ = 6.7082 ..
d =ill= 1.3416 ... , e = Js = 2.2360 ...
C. y
X
- - - - - - ~: > .: -_, __~- - - - --
15. a. Ellipse
16
b. a= 4, b = 3, C = Vl = 2.6457 ... , d = fi = 6.0474 ... ,
fi
e= = 0.6614 ...
4
C. y
X
7. The graph looks th e same as in Problems 5 and 6.
798 Problem
Set12-4 Answe
rs toSelec
tedProblems
17. a. Hyperbola op ening verti cally 2 5. a. Ellip se
b . a = v'lO= 3.1622 ... , b = J5 = 2.4494 ... , y
X
2v'l0
C= 4, d = 2.5, e = - - = 1.2649 ...
5
c. \ y
''
\
\
\
\ '
'
-----,.--\
\
', 1 / /
\
'
--,----
'
X
b. (\7/r + (y;4r= 1
c. The graph s agree.
____ ....,'____ ..,____ _ \ 27. a. Ellipse
' \
' y
' \
' \
4
'
X
19. a. Parabola opening left
12 12
b . p = - 1, C = - 1, d = 1, e = 1
-4
c. y
b . ( 13
x +r (yr
5 =1
c. The grap hs agree .
X
29. a. Hyperbol a opening h oriz ontall y
y
21. a. Hyperbola op ening verti cally

y (x - 2) 2 (y- 3)2
b. -----=l
3 2
c. The graphs agree .
------ -- - 3 ---- -- - -- -
31. a. Parabola opening verti cally
y
b.-(2~)\ (y; 4r= 1 '

---~-----
'
-----
c. The graphs agr ee.

23. a. Parabola opening verticall y X
l :
y
2
b . y=-ix +x+ 3
c. The graph s agree.
X
33. For Problem 9, LR= 280.4240 ... million mil es.
For the ellip se of Probl em 11, LR= \ 8 = 3.6.
----- -----~ -- ---- -- -- For the hyp erbola of Problem 17,
b. y = ix 2
- 2 LR= --
6v'l0 = 3.7947 ..
5
c. The graphs agre e.
An
swers
toSelected
Probl
ems Set 12-4 799
Problem
Problem
Set 12-5 17. B2 - 4AC = 6 2 - 4(1)(9) = O; parabola
1. X = -4 + 3 COS20° COSt + 5 COSll0° Sin t y
y = 2 + 3 sin 20° cos t + 5 sin ll0 ° sin t 4
3. x = -2 + 7 cos (-10°) tan t + 3 cos 80 ° sect X
y = - 1 + 7 sin (- 10°) tan t + 3 sin 80° sec t

l2
5. X = 2 + t 2 COS25° + tCOS ll5 ° -4
y=-1 +l t 2
2 sin25° + tsinll5°
19. If B = 0, then B2 - 4AC = -4AC. A and C have the
7. x = 8 + 25 cos (-30°) cost+ 7 cos 60° sin t same sign (ellipse) ~ -4AC < 0. A and C have
y = 5 + 25 sin (-30°) cost+ 7 sin 60° sin t opposite signs (hyperbola) ~ -4AC > 0. Either A= 0
y or C = 0 (parabola) ~ -4AC = 0.
X
21. a.
cos ()( cos(()( + f)1[a cost]
r sin oc sin oc+ ( 2IT) b Slll

t
9. x= 4 cos 15° sect+ 3 cos 105° tan t J(a corn) cost+ ( b cos(a + !l) '1
sin
y = 4 sin 15° sect+ 3 sin 105° tan t
8
y l (a sin oc) cos t + ( b sin( oc+
2 )) sin t
b. a = '-84 = 5.8309 ...
2v'34
b = -5- = 2.3323 ...
-8
i
oc= tan - 1 = 59.0362 ... 0
11. X = -8 + t 2 COS(-30°) + t COS60° y

y = 5 + t 2 sin (-30°) + t sin 60°
X
y -6 6
2 3. Answers will vary.
13. B2 - 4AC = (-5 )2 - 4(3)(9) = -83; ellipse Problem

Set 12-6
y
1. Assume the major (52-in.) and minor (26-in.) axes
4 are already drawn, perpendicularly bisecting each
X other. Drive a nail at one end of th e minor axis. Tie
10 one end of a string to the nail and the other end of
the string to a pencil so that the pencil is 26 (half of
52) in. from the nail. Use this as a compass to draw
an arc of a circle with radius 26 in., intersecting the
15. B2 - 4AC = (-10) 2 - 4(3)(6) = 28; hyperbola major axis in two points, which will be the foci. Now
y drive nails at the two foci and tie a 52-in. string
between them. Use a pencil to pull the string taut,
8
X and slide the pencil back and forth, always keeping
-8 8 the string taut, to draw the ellipse. (Actually, this
-8 will draw half the ellipse; the string and p encil will
7 have to be flipped to the other side of the nails to
draw the other half .)
e =
v3 = 0.8660 ...
2
800 Pro~em
Set12·6 Answers
toSelected
Problems
-
3. a. Y = - 10100 x2 d. The asteroi d st rikes at (-2000 km, 6000 km) or
b . The columns divide the bridge into 20 equal (2000 km, 6000 km) , depending on which way it
~g
sections, so they are 10 n = 50 ft apar t. is tr aveling .
y = x2 / 1000 + 20 (the positive value) was used in 7. a. (x - 8)2 + (y- 0) 2 = 4 2 , a circle with cent er (8, 0)
a grapher to get the following table: and radius 4.
b. y
X y
- 500 270 2 X
-450 222.5
-400 180
-350 142.5
-300 llO c. (15, 0) is clos er to Supplier 2 but outside the
-250 82.5 shaded re gion, so Supplier 1 is cheaper .
-2 00 60
9. On your graph er, set window with -9 0 ::;;t::;; 270 .
X y Hyperbol a: x 1 = 10 + 4 sec t I ((-4 7 ::;;t an d t ::;;3 7)
or (133 ::;;tand t ::;;217))
- 150 42.5 23 26
-100 y1 = + tant
30 2 3
-50 22.5
Top Ellipse: x 2 = 10 + 5 cos t
0 20
Y2 = 18 + sin t
50 22.5
100 30 Bottom Ellipse (Visible): x3 = 10 + 6 cos t I (t ::;;0 or
150 42 .5 t ~ 180)
200 60 6 .
y3 = 2 + - sm t
250 82.5 5
300 llO Bottom Ellips e (Hidden): "'4 = 10 + 6 cost I (t ~ 0
350 142.5 and t ::;;180)
400 180 6
Y4= 2 + - sin t
450 222.5 5
500 270 Use da shed style for th e hidden ellips e.
C. 4690 ft.
5. a. Parabola. The meteor's path doesn't intersect
Problem
Set 12-7
Earth's surface. Rl. a. Circle
y b. Ellipse
c. Hyperb ola
d. Hyperbola
e. Parabola
R2. a. i. x2 + y 2 = 1
ii. X = COS t, y = Sin t
b . x2 + y 2 = 40 => x2 = 40 - y 2 iii. x = sec t, y = tan t
x2 - 18y = 144 => (40 - y 2 ) - 18y = 144 iv. -x 2 + y 2 = 1
=> y 2 + 18y + 104 = O; the discriminant is V. X = y 2
(18)2 - 4(1)(104) = -92; no real soluti on. vi. y = x2
c. Hyperbola; the bran ch with the positive squar e b. i. y
root does not intersect, but the branch with the X
negative square root does : -5
y --+--------
(-2, 6) (2, 6) -5 '
'
'
X
ii. 16x2 + 49y 2 - 64x + 294y- 279 = 0
iii . The graph agrees with the sketch.
iv. x = 2 + 7 cost, y = -3 + 4 sin t
Answers
toSelected
Probl
ems Set12-7 801
Problem
b. C= 6.4
C. i. -(x;4r +(y;lr =l
C 6.4
a= -= - = 8
U. x = - 4 + 2 tan t, y = 1 + 3 sec t e 0.8
iii. The graph agrees. b = .Ja 2 - c 2 = .J23.04 = 4.8
d. i. X= 8- 3(y + 2)2
ii. x =8- 3(t + 2)2, y = t. The graph agree s . (ir + (:8r =l
2 2 When x = 3, y = ) 19.8. The measurements
R3. a. i. 4x + y = 16 =}Gr+ (ir =1
agree .
c. c = 81 cm
y
4
C 81
a =-= -= 90 cm
e 0.9
b = .Ja2 - c2 = ) 1539 = 39.2300 .. cm
X X = 39.2300 .. COS t, y = 90 Sin t
2
y
90
(3x)z- (y)
z X
ii. x 2 9y 2 = 9 =>
-
1 =1 50
- 90
X
The ball wi.11pass through th e other
focus.
d. Hyperbola opening horizontally
y
iii. 4x 2 -
'
y 2 = 4 => (x)
z (y)z
1 - 2 =1
3
X
a = 4, b = 3, c = 5, d = 3.2, e = 1.25
X e. y
b. V= rr (4y 2 - y 4 ),0 < y < 2

V (1.4 L, 12 .56)
=2
X -ky2
10 f. x = 2 + 1.8 tan t, y = 4 + 2.4 sec t
y
2
X
h = y = 1.4142 .. ; r = X = 4 - y 2 = 2.0000 ...;
V = 12.566 3 .. .
R4. a. d 1 = 7, d 2 = 5.6, d3 = 10.4
802 Problem
Set12-7 Answers
toSelected
Problem
s
RS. a. X = 10 + 9 cos 20° cost+ 3 cos ll0 ° sin t, b. y
y = 7 + 9 sin 20 ° cost+ 3 sin ll0 ° sin t,
0° s; t s; 36 0°. The gr aph is corr ec t.
b. x = 3 + 6 cos 35° sect+ 6'13 cos 125° tan t,
y = -4 + 6 sin 35 ° sec t + 6./3 sin 125° tan t,
0° s; t ::.360°
c. Yes, as discovere d in part a and s hown in the

..Jit 2 cos45 grap h of part b, th e focus is a t x = 25 , while th e
c. x= 1 +- ° + tcos 135° , dis h on ly exte nd s to x = 16.
24
y = 2 + J'2.t 2 sin45 ° + t sin 135° , -2 4 s; t s; 24

24 CHAPTER
13
y
ProblemSet 13-1
2
1. 90 °
120°. -
(7, 30°)
20 ; 30°
d. i. B2 - 4AC = (2)2 - 4(4)(9) = - 140 < O; ellip se

y
oo
-I 3(i QO
X
2 330°
ii. B2 - 4AC = (12)2 - 4(4 )(9) = O; parabo la

240 ° ---1- 300 °
270 0
y
3. 90 °
X 60 °
2 --i-
L50°
iii. B 2
- 4AC = (22) 2
- 4(4)(9) = 340 > O; hyperbola
oo
360 °
X
210°·
\ 2-10° 300 °
"
e. Th ey all have th e same x- an d y-int ercepts . 270°
R6. a. x = iboy 2
; domain: 0 in . ::.x s; 16 in .
An
swe
rs toSelected
Problem
s Set13-1 803
Problem
5. 9. r = 6 sine
r 2 = 6r sine
x2 + y 2 = 6y
y 2 - 6y + 9 + x 2 = 9
(y - 3)2 + x2 = 32
A circle with center (0, 3) and radius 3
(- 4.928, 150°)
The coordinates agree .

11. r < 0 for 180° < e < 540 °
Problem
Set 13-2
1. goo
13.
r = 4 , 8, 12
270°
3.
The graph is the original spiral with its mirror
imag e across the y-axis.
15. a. r= cos e
b. r = sine
C. r = - cos e
The graph is being retraced between 180° and 360° .
The figure has two ("bi·") "leaves" ('1folium") . d. r = -sine
5. 17. a.
10 sin 3e = 0 ¢c? 3e = 0° + l80n ° ~

e
r < 0 for 60° < < 120°
e = 0° + 60n ° X-
b . - 3-
(
2
t) (y- 0)
2
- -
2
-
2
=1
I
60° to 120° Hyperbola with cent er( !, o),horizontal
~
transverse radius l
and vertical conjugate
radius 2
c. One focus is at th e pol e. In the polar equation
, a = 3 and b = 5, so e = l!?_I= ~ > 1,

8
7. r=
3 + 5 cos e a 3
confirming that th e graph is a hyp erbola .
19. a.
When sine is negative, i.e., 180° < e < 360°, the

points are plott ed in the opposite direction.
804 Problem
Set 13·2 Answers
toSelected
Problem
b. X = - /2y2 + 3 Problem
Set 13-3
Parabola opening left, with ver tex (0, 3) 1. (1.9230 .. , 78.4630 ... 0)
c. The focus is at the pole. In the polar equation (1.9230 ... , -78.4630. " 0)
6
r= , a= b= 1, so e = J!!.J= 1, confirmin g
1 + cos 8 a
that the gra ph is a parabola.
21. Let the p olar axis b e where the two bran ches of th e
loop cross.
3 . r1 = r 2 ==>cos e = 1;no solution
() = 270 °
Starting at 8 = 0° and movin g to 8 = 90° brings you

to the bottom p oint of the inner loop, as shown. At
this point, r =- LL= -60, its most negative . 5. (
8+ Jig, sm. - 1 1+ Jig)= (4.1196 .. ., 63.2717 ... )
0
3 6
Continuin g on to 8 = 270°, r = D - SI = 210. From
these points you can sketch a sinusoid in Cartesian
(
8 + Jig O
, 180 - sm
• - 1 1+ Jf§)
coordinates, where the lower bound is y = -6 0, th e 3 6
upper bound is y = 210, and the sin usoidal axis is = {4.1196 ... , 116.7282 . .0)
y=
210 + (-60)
= 75 (
8- Jig, sm. - 1 1- Jig)= (1.2 137 ... , -3 4.0431... 0
)
2 3 6
y
(
8 - Jig 1800 - . -1 1 -
3 , sm 6
Jf§
)
= (1.2137 .. , 2 14.04 31... 0)
From this you find the amplitude, which is

210 - 75 = 135. Because the grap h is on th e
sinuso idal axis going down at e = 0°, the function
is r = 75-135 sin 8 . 7. (0.3739 .. , 0.7479 .. )
(1.2407 ... , 2.481 5 ... )
23. a. (x, y) = (0°, 2), (90°, 6), (180 °, 2), (270°, -2), (1.8677 .. ., 3.7355 ...)
(360°, 2) (2.9038 ... , 5.8076 ... )
b . Answers may vary because th ere is mor e than (3.3506 ... , 6.7013 ... )
one way to represent a point in polar coor dinates. (4.6134 ... , 9.2268 .. )
Sample answer: (r, 8) = (2, 0°), (6, 90°), (2, 180°), (4.7858 .. ., 9.5716 . .)
(2, 90°).
c. (x, y) = (0°, 2) and (x, y) = (360°, 2) both correspond
to (r, 8) = (2, 0°); (x, y) = (90°, 6) corres ponds to
(r, 8) = (6, 90°); (x, y) = (180 °, 2) correspond s
to (r, 8) = (2, 180°); (x, y) = (270°, -2) corresponds
to (r, 8) = (2, 90°).
d. The inner loop of the lima <;:o n corres ponds to the 9.
part of the rectangular graph that is below the
x-axis.
e. For any given valu e of 8 th ere is only one valu e
of r.
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s Set13-3 805
Problem
For a given e.r 2 is the opposite of the value of r 1 at 29. 2 cis 20°, 2 cis 110°, 2 cis 200 °, 2 cis 290°
e + 1so 0
•
r1 = r3 =} (r, e) = (4, 30°) or (4, 150°), while

i,
r 2 = r 3 =; sine = which is impossible. 31. cis 45°, cis 22 5°
To find additional int er sections of r 1 = f{e) and
r2 = g(e).set f(e) = -g(180° - e)and solve.
1
225 ° 45 0
Problem
Set 13-4
1. - 1 + i = v'2cis 135°
3. ./3- i = 2 cis 330°
0
5. -4 - 3 i = 5 cis 216.8698 ...
33. 2 cis 0° = 2, 2 cis 120°, 2 cis 240°
7. 5 + 7i = -/74.
cis 54.4623 .. 0
9. 1 = 1 cis 0°
11. -i = 1 cis 270°
13. 8(cos 34° + i sin34 °) = 6.6323 .. + 4.47 35 ... i
15. 6(cos 120° + i sin 120°) = -3 + 3 i ...f3
2
17. .J2(cos 22 5° + i sin 225°) = - 1 - i
19. 5(cos 180° + i sin 180°) = -5
3 5. cis 30°, cis 90° = i, cis 150°, cis 210°, cis 270 ° = -i,
21. 3(cos 270° + i sin 270°) = -3i cis 330°
23 . a. 3 · 5 cis(4 7° + 36°) = 15 cis 83°
b . ~ cis(47° - 36°) = 0.6 cis 11°
c. 3 2 cis(2 · 47°) = 9 cis 94 °
d. 53 cis(3 · 36°) = 125 cis 108°
25 . a. 4 · 2 cis(238 ° + 51°) = 8 cis 289°
!
b. cis(238° - 51°) = 2 cis 187°
c. 4 2 cis(2 · 238 °) = 16 cis476 ° = 16 cis 116°
d. 2 3 cis( 3 · 51°) = 8 cis 153° 37 . (cos e + i sin 8) 3 = cos 3 e -3 cos e sin 2 e
27. 3 cis 40 °, 3 cis 160°, 3 cis 280° + i (3 cos 2 esine - sin 3 e)
But by De Moivre's theorem,
(cis 8) 3 = cis 38 = cos 38 + i sin 38 .
Equating real parts gives
cos 3 e = cos e(cos 2 e - 3 sin 2 e).
40 °
Equating imaginary parts gives
e
sin 3 = sin ec3 cos 2 e- sin 2 ei.
Problem
Set 13-5
1. a. x = 473 - 300t
y= 155 + lOOt
b. X = 1.5766 ... h
At this time, y = 312.6666 .. krn .
c. Speed = 316.2277 ... krn / h
806 Problem
Set13-5 Answers
toSelected
Problems
3. a. X = 200t COS20° y
y = 10 + 200t sin 20° - 16t 2
b. y
X
900
c.x=900ft<=>t= = 4.7888 ... s
200 cos 20 0 b . Student project. Th e drawing should rese mbl e
At this time, th e graph .
900 11. a. The graphs match.
y = 10 + 200 cos 200 sin 20°
200 b. X = 9 COS8
900 )
2 5 - 4 cos e
- 16 ( 200 cos 200 = - 29.3484 ... ft 9 sine
The cannon ball will fall short. Y = s - 4 cos e
25 + J3IT - The equations give th e same ellips e.
d. e -- tan -I 18
o
- 67.11 11.. . or
C. X = 4 + 5 COSt
e - tan
- - 1 25 - .JTIT--
18 22 .2522 ...
0 y = 3 sin t
d. The two finishe d graphs coinc id e. The e in part b
e. Answers will vary. refers to the angle with the positive x-axis,
measur ed from th e origin, but the ang le tin
5. a. The graph appears to be an ellipse . (See part c.)
part c is measured from th e center (4, 0) of
b. x = 5 cos t, y = 3 sin t. This is the parametric the ellipse.
description of an ellips e.
y
C. y
X
X
Yes, the circles have the same relationship.

Problem
Set 13-6
d. (~)\ (fr=1 Rl. go o
The variab les have unequ al coeffic ients but the

same sign.
7. a. v 1 , v2 , and v
3 placed hea d-to-tail connect th e
origin with P(x, y). Therefor e, = 1 + v2 + 3 . r v v
b. v1= (50t)7 + oJ;v2 = o7 + soJ
C. V3 = -( 70 sin t) 7 - (70 cos oJ;
.·.r = (50t - 70 sin t)i + (50 - 70 cost)]
d. The graph is correct .
e. x(O.l) - x(O) = x(O.l) = 50(0.1) - 70 sin 0.1
= -1.9883 ... cm
Becaus e Pis below th e tra ck as the whee l rotates
270°
clockwis e, P moves backward.
R2. a.
9. a. r =(Scos t +S tsint)· / +(5s int -5tcos t)·J
As parametric eq uati ons,
X = 5 COSt + 5 t Sin t
y = 5 sin t - 5 t cos t
Answ
erstoSelected
Problems Set13·6 80 7
Problem
b. g.
40 °
C.
RS. a. 6.9097 ... + 15.0 501...i

0
b . 16.5605 ... cis 65.3393 ...
R6. a. x= 60tcos24°
d.
y= 60tsin24°
y = 22 .2614 ... mi
b. i. The drawing seems to match the description .
ii . r = (21cost+9cos f t) · 7
e.
+ (21 sin t + 9 sin ft) · J
iii. Graph for O ~ t ~ 6rr. Th e dime makes three
revolutions about the quarter .
y
8 X
f. r =----
3 - s cos e
3 r = 8 + 5 r COS e = 8 + 5 X
9r 2 = 9x 2 + 9y 2 = 64 + 80x + 25x 2
16x 2 + 80x + 100 - 9y 2 = 36
2 2 2
(4X + 10) _ 9y = (X + 2.5) _ (}'._) = l
2
CHAPTER
14
36 36 1.5 2
Hyperbola with center (-2 .5, 0), horizontal ProblemSet 14-1
transverse radius 1.5, and vertical conjugate 1. You would have to add nin e 2s; 5 + 9 · 2 = 23;
radius 2 5 + 99 · 2 = 203
One focus is at the origin .
e= l~If.
= confirming that this is ahyperbo la.
3. Linear
5 + 23
5. --
2
.
· 10 = 140 = the partial sum
R3. Solutions to th e system :
i)
(4i, cos - 1 = (4.6666 ... , 83.6206 ... 0
}
5 + 203
---
2
· 100 = 10 400
'
0
(4i , -COS- I!)= (4.6666 ... , -8 3.62 06 ... )
7. Quadratic: y = x 2 + 4x
Other intersection: (2, 0°) 100 2 + 4(100) = 10,400
0
R4. a. -5 + 12i = 13 cis 112.6198 ... 9. 6 + 12 + 24 + · · · + 1536 + 3072 = 6138
b. 7 cis 234° = -4. 1144 .. . - 5.6631. . i
C. (2 cis 52°)(5 cis 38°) = 10 cis 90° = lOi ProblemSet 14-2
d . (51 cis 198°) + (17 cis 228°) = 3 cis 330° 1. a. Geometric, with common ratio 1
e. (2 cis 27 °)5 = 32 cis 135° b. 64, 85.3
f. (8 cis 120°)113 = 2 cis 40°, 2 cis 160°, 2 cis 280° c. two= 6.3139 ... x 1013
d . 37th term
3. a. Arithmetic, with common difference -13
b. 19, 6
c. two = -1229
d . 50th term
808 Problem
Set14·2 Answe
rs toSelec
tedProblems
5. a. Geometric, with common ratio 2.5 d. Answers will var y. Leonardo Fibonacci was an
b. 856.25, 2140.625 Italian mathematician of the lat e 12th and ear ly
c. t100 = 1.3640 ... x 104 1 13th centuries. The Fibonacci term tn is the
number of pairs of rabbits there will be in the
d . 13th term
nth month if you start with one pair and if every
9
7. a. Geometr ic, with common ratio - 10 pair that has reach ed the age of two months or
b. -36.45 , 32.805 more produces anoth er pair every month.
c. two= -0.001475 ... 21. a. To get to step 3, she can tak e 1 step from step 2
d. 12th term or 2 steps from step l. So th e number of ways to
get to step 3 is the number of ways to get to
9. a. Neither; tn = n 2 - l
step 1 plus the number of ways to get to step 2.
b. 120, 143 Similarly, th e numb er of ways to get to step 4 is
c. trno= 9999 the number of ways to get to step 2 plus the
d. 57th term number of ways to get to step 3.
11. a. Arithm etic, with common difference x - a b. tn = tn-1 = tn-2, where t2 = 2 and t 1 = l;
t20 = 10,946
b . 4x- 3a, 5x- 4a
c. two= lOOx- 99a c. If you let t0 = 1, then this is the same sequence.
d. 240 th term d. t91 = 7.5 X 1018
13. Geometri c, with common ratio 2; 23. The balanc e will be und er $100 in the 41st month ,
n = 10.965 7 ... =? the 11th square; after 40 payments. The total amount paid is
1 · z5 -1- 1 = 9.2233 ... x 1018 grains . The king was 40 · $100 + $15.27 = $4015.27 .
ups et becaus e the number of grains of rice was
so lar ge. Problem
Set 14-3
15. a. $1,26 7,500, $1,235,000, $1,202 ,500, l. a. 3 + 8 + 13 + · · · + 48. There is a common
Sl,170,000, .. . , tn = l, 300 ,000 - n · 32,500 differ ence, 5.
1,300,000 - 30 · 32,500 = 325 ,000 3 + 48
b . S10 = 255 = - - · 10
1,300,000 - n • 32,500 = 0 2
1,300,0 00 Yes, the answers are th e same .
=? n = 32,500 = 40 yr 3 + 498
C. S100= 25,05 0 = - -2-. 100
The depr eciatio n function is linear, and th e
scatter plot points lie on a str aight line. 3. a. t10 = 13.4217 ... cm; S10 = 446.3129 ... cm
b . $1,170 ,000 , $1,053 ,000 , $947,700 , $852 ,930, ... , b. The answ ers are getting closer and closer to 500.
tn = l,300,000 · (0.9)n You can make the answ er as clos e to 500 as you
The busin ess can deduct $130,000 the first year, want by taking the sum of enough terms.
$117,000 the second year, an d $105,300 the third 1
year. After 15 years, the bu siness deducts less C. lim Sn= 100 · -- - = 500 cm
n- oo 1 - 0.8
than $32,500.
5. a. The ser ies is geometric becaus e th er e is a
17. 91%, ::s 82 .8%, "" 75.4%; geometr ic, with common commo n ratio, 1.01. The amount at the fifth
ratio 0.91 month is the fifth partial sum because it is the
tn = 0.91 n; t20= 0.9120 = 0.1516 ... ::s 15.2% sum of the first five terms of the series.
0.91n = 0.10; only 10% will be left after 25 washings.
1 - 1.01 5
19. a. tn = tn- 2 + tn- i , that is, each term is the sum of 100 · l _ 1.01 = $5 10.10
th e preceding two. 1 - 1.01120
t 11 = 34 + 55 = 89 b. 100 · l _ 1.01 = $23,00 3.87
t12 = 55 + 89 = 144
t20 = 6765 $23 ,003.87 - 120 · $100 = $11,003.8 7
b . 1, 2, 1.5, 1.6, 1.6, 1.625, 1.6153 ... , 1.6190 ... , c. n = 241 months
1.6176 ... , 1.6 18 7. a. n p In Pn Bn
c. Answers will vary. The spirals in eac h dire ction 4 1050.00 998.48 51.52 99,796. 97
will us uall y be consecut ive Fibona cci numbers.
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s Set14-3 809
Problem
b. B1 = Bo(l + I) - P 19. Arithmetic, d = - 40; t78 = 1000 + (78 - 1)(-40)
B2 = B1(1 + I) - P= [Bo(l + I) - P](l + I) - P 78
= Bo(l + ! )2 - P(l + I) - P = - 2080; S78 = (1000 + (-2080)) = -42,120
2
B3 = Bz(l + I) - P
1 - (-3 ) 10
= [Bo(l + 1)2 - P(l + I) - P](l + I) - P 21. Geometric, r = -3; S10 = 50 · = 738,100
= Bo(l + 1)3 - P(l + 1)2 - P(l + I) - P 1 - (-3 )
B4 = B3(l + I) - P 23. Arithmetic, d = 11; n = 26
= B0(1 + 1)4 - P(l + !) 3 - P(l + I) 2 - P(l + I) - P
8 4 = Bo(l + !) 4 - P(l + I) 3 - P(l + J)2 - P(l + I) - P
25. Geometric, r = t:n = 19
= Bo(l + !) 4 - P[l + (1 + I) + (1 + I) 2 + (1 + !) 3] 27. Arithmetic, d = - 6; n = 31
= B (1 + !) 4 - p 1 - ( 1 + !) 4
90 = s1 = 9 ; conve r ges, because
29. r = 100 90 10
Ir I < l;
0 1 - (l + J) . 1
hm S,, = 100 · -- = l 000
n- oo 1 _ JL
= Bo(l +!)4 - pl - (1 + I) 4 10
-I
p 31. r = !~= J0 = 1.25; div erg es, because
6 5
lrl 2. 1
= Bo(l + I) 4 + - (1 - (1 + [) 4) 90 27 3
I 33 . r = 300 = 90 = 10 ; converges, because lrl < l;
log(l - !Bo) 1 4
p lim S,, = 300 · -- = 428 -7
n -oo 1 _ _l_
c. n = log(l + I) = 305.9719 ... 10
so it takes 306 months . 35. r= - 950

= 902
_950.5 = 19
- 20 ; converges, because
Ir I < l;
1000
d. B . 1
hmoo S
n-
11 = 1000 · 1 _ (_ 19 ) = 512 32
39
20
500 3 7. (x- y) 3 = x 3 - 3x 2 y+ 3xy 2 - y3
17 39. (2x - 3) 5 = 32x 5 - 240x 4 + 720x 3 - 1080x 2
150 + 810x- 243
False . Halfway through the mortgage (month
4 1. (x2 + y3)6 = x12 + 6 xioy 3 + 15xsy6 + 2 ox 6y9 + 15 x4y12
153), the balan ce is still $82,083.93, about 82% of + 6 x2y1s + yl B
the original amount.
4 3. 8 C3 x 3 y 5 = 56x 3 y 5
9 . a. (0.4 + 0.6) 5 = 0.01024 + 0 .07680 + 0.23040
+ 0 .34560 + 0.25920 + 0.07776 45. 1sC4p 4(- J)ll = - 1365p 4j1 1
b. 5C2(0.4)2(0 .6)3 = 0.34560, about 34 .6% 47. 13C5(x3)6(-y 2)7 = -1716x1 sy14
c. Letting X = the numb er of "point-ups" out of five 49. 5 = 48,384x 3y 5
8 C3 (3x)3(Zy)
flips,
P(X 5, 3) = P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2) + P(X= 3) 51. 1sC4r 4(-q) 11 = - 1365r 4q 11
= 0.01024 + 0 .07680 + 0.2 3040 + 0. 34560 53. Answ ers will vary.
= 0.66304, about 66.3%
d. Letting X = the number of "point-ups" ou t of ten Problem
Set 14-4
flips , Rl. a. 17, 20
P(X5, 6) = 1 - [(P(X = 7) + P(X= 8) + P(X= 9) b . 75
+ P(X = 10)] 5 + 20
= 1 - rnC3(0.4 )3(0.6)7 - 10 C2 (0.4)2(0 .6)8 C. 75 =6 · --
2
- 10C1(0.4) 1(0.6) 9 - C (0.4) 0 (0.6) 10 10 0 d. 80, 160
= 0.6177 ... , about 61.8%, not the same e. 315
probability
R2. a . Neit her; there is no common diff ere nc e or
11. 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 = 65 common ratio.
13. 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + 243 + 729 = 1092 b. t 200 = 1843
1 - 5 11 C. n = 392
15. Geometric, r = 5; Sll = 2 · -- = 24,414,062
1- 5 d . t100 = 3731.7732 ...
17. Arithmetic, d = 7.6; t54 = 24 + (54 - 1)(7.6) = 426.8 ; e. n = 114
54
Ss4 = (24 + 426.8) = 12,171.6
2
810 Probl
emSet14-4 An
swe
rs to Selected
Problem
s
f. 0, 3, 8, 15, 24 1 - 0.6 11
s,,= 500 · ;
= 12 - 1, 2 2 - 1, 3 2 - 1, 4 2 - 1, 5 2 - 1, ... ; 1 - 0.6
6 2 - 1 = 35; 72 - 1 = 48; 8 2 - 1 = 63 1-0.6 16
500 · _ _ = 1249 .647 3 .. mg;
g. t 100 = 100 2 - 1 = 9999 1 06
h. i. Every time you add one month, you mult ip ly 1
500 · -- = 1250 mg
the amount by 1.005. The se qu en ce is mor e 1 - 0.6
appropriate because the inter es t compounds
monthl y, not contin u ous ly. CHAPTER
15
ii. 104t h month
iii. $59,807 .87 Problem
Set 15-1
R3. a. 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17 = 57 1. The gra ph s m atc h.
b. There is a common diff erence, 3.
3. f(- 1) = (-1) 3 - 4(-1) 2 - 3(- 1) + 2 = 0
2 + 17
c. 6 · -2-= 57 5. The gra ph of g is the same as th e gra ph off
tr anslated up by 16 uni ts. However, not e that f
d . 528 th term
crosses the axis in thr ee distinct points , whil e g
e. Because t,, = 4000(0 .95t - 1, you us e crosses th e axis only onc e and is tang ent at one
Yl = sum (se q(4000 *0.95 A(N-l),N,l,200, 1)) po int.
= 79,997 .1957 ... 7. Two of the roots are identic al. The gra ph int ersec ts
1 - 0,95 200 the hori zonta l axis twice; at on e point the gra ph
f. 4000 · l _ 0.95 = 79,997.1957 ... only tou che s th e axis without cross in g.
1 - 0.95" 9. h (-3) = (-3) 3 4(-3) 2 - 3(-3) + 54 = 0
-
g. 4000 · _ 0.95 = 78,377.8762 .. .
1 h (x) = (x + 3)(x 2 - 7x + 18)
lo ( _ (78,377.8762 ...)(1 - 0.95) ) 7 ± .J-23
1 x 2 - 7x+ 18 = 0 => x = = 3.5 ± 2.3979 .. . i
g 4000 2
=> n = = 76 ·
log 0.95 '
th e 76th term Problem
Set 15-2
h. 4000 · l = 80,000 1. a. Y
1 - 0. 9 5
6 7
1 6 7 6 7
i. 13 C 6 a b = , ~~! a b = 17 16a b
6
j. i. Arithmetic; geometric
ii. Maya: t21 = 22 in.; Vincent: t21 = 4.3767 ... in.
iii. Maya: S21 = 357 in.; Vincent: S21 = 32 0.6091...; Three (two up and on e down), th e same as th e
Maya is ahea d by 36.3908 ... in. degr ee of th e p olyn omial
iv. Yes. Vincent approaches 36 · 0\ = 360 in. b. X"' - 1, 2, 4
as th e number of ste p s increases to infini ty, C. -=2._]
1 -5 2 8
so he must at some point p as s 357 in. In fac t, - 1 6 -8
Vincent p asses Maya' s sto pping point on the 1 -6 8 0
46th step.
p(x) = (x + l)(x 2 -
6x + 8) = (x + l)(x - 2)(x - 4)
k. 500(0.6) + 500 = 800 mg;
800(0.6) + 500 = 980 mg; d. Th e oppos ites of th e ze ros of th e p olyn omial
980(0 .6) + 500 = 1088 mg; appear as th e lin ear ter m s in th e factors: If c is a
980(0.6) + 500 ze ro , then x - c is a factor.
= (500(0.6) 2 + 500(0.6) + 500)(0.6 ) + 500 3. Sixth-d egree polynomial ; four rea l zeros; two
3 2
= 500(0 .6) + 500(0.6) + 500(0 .6) + 500 => nonr eal compl ex ze ro s
5. Eighth -degre e polynomial; six r eal zeros (thr ee
doubl e ze ros); two nonr eal comp lex ze ros
Answer
s toSelected
Problem
s Set 15-2 8 11
Problem
7. Example: f (x) = -(x + 3)(x + l)(x - 1) 25. f (x) = x3 - 8x 2 + 29x - 52 = (x - 4)(x 2 - 4 x + 13)
= (x - 4)(x - 2 - 3 i)(x - 2 + 3 i)
27. a. _J 1 - 7 5 4
X
2 - 10 -10
1 -5 -5 -6
~ 1 - 7 5 4
9. Examp le: f(x) = (x + l)(x 2
- 4x + 5) -3 30 - 105
1 -10 35 - 101
P(x) 6
b. p(2) = -6 , -- = x2 - 5x - 5 - --
x- 2 x -2
X
P(x) 101
p(-3 ) = -101, - - = x2 - lOx+ 35 - --
x+ 3 x+3
29 . If p(x ) is a polyn omial , th en p( c) eq uals the
remainder when p(x) is divided by the quantit y
11. Example: f(x) = x.3+ x (x- c).
31. A polynomial function h as at least on e zero in the
set of compl ex numbers.
33. Student program
X
f
35. f(x ) = 2(x + 3)( x + )(x - l)(x - 2)
3 3 b
Sum of zeros : -3 - - + 1 + 2 = -- = --
2 2 a
13. Example: f(x) = x4 + 1
Sum of products of two zeros :
-3 · (-i)
2
- 3 · 1 - 3 · 2 - i2 · 1 - i2 · 2 + 1 · 2
X -1 4 C
=-7 =- =-
2 a
Sum of produ cts of thr ee zeros :
-3 · (-%
) · 1 - 3 · (-%
) · 2 - 3 · 1 · 2 - %· 1 · 2
15. Example: f(x ) = (x + 1)2(x -2) 2
9 -9 d
y = -=--= --
2 2 a
X
Product of zeros: -3 · (-i2) ·1 · 2 = 9 = .!.§_
2
=!
a
37. g(x) = x.3- 8x 2 + 20x - 25
f(x) = (x- 4)(x -~ -~ im )(x - ~ +~ im )
17. No such polynomi al exis ts; a polynomi al cannot 1 1

X=4 , ± ifil
hav e mor e zeros than its degree. 2 2
19. Sum = l, produ ct = -40,
sum of pairwise products = -22 , x = -5 , 2, 4
g(x) = (x- s)(x-%-
~;m)(x-% + ~ im )
1
21. Sum = - s8,produ ct = 1 ~6 , sum of pai rwi se X=5 i ±_!ifil=4+1 (.!+ _!ifil ) + l
'2 2 ' 2 2
_z
Produ cts= 51 X =
12
-3 + 2i -3 - 2i
5I I
23. f(x) = x.3- 4x - llx + 30 = (x + 3)(x - 2)(x - 5)

2
812 Problem
Set15-2 Answers
toSelected
Problem
s
Problem
Set 15-3 5. a. f (x) = -4x3 + 120x2
1. a. /i-X) b . ((10) = 8 in.
c. f(x) = -4x3 + 120x2 = -4x2(x - 30)
f(x) = 0 =} x = 0 ft or 30 ft
" d. /(x)
b. Function has three zeros (equals the degree of X

the equatio n) and two extreme points (one less 20
than the degree of the equation) .
C. 1st 2nd 3rd 7. a. pi.x)
X p(x) Diff. Diff. Diff.
4 2
X
18 10
5 20 20
38 6 Function appears to h ave three verti ces, so it
6 58 26 must ha ve degree at least four.
64 6 b. p(x ) = 0.0058 ... x 4 - 0.3289 ...x 3 + 6.1803 ... x 2
7 122 32 - 36 .623 7 ... x + 193.0963 ...
96 6 with R2 = 0.993 1.. .
8 218 38 p(x)
134
9 352
3. a. ((x) 10
20
X c. The pr edict ed valu es y = p(x ) and residuals y - y
2 7 ar e
-20
X y" y-y "
2 142.03 12 ... 17.9687 ...

b. 1st 2nd 3rd
5 126 .9978 ... -26.9978 ...
X f(x) Diff. Diff. Diff.
7 140.6908 ... -2 0.6908 .. .
2 25.4 12 195.7265 ... 54.2734 ...
-12.3 17 226.2139 ... -6 .2139 ...
3 13.1 -4.6 21 234.2 633 ... -3 4.2633 ...
-16.9 1.8 27 326.2134 .. . 13.7865 ...
4 -3.8 -2.8 32 670 .2425 .. 9.75 74.. .
-19.7 1.8 35 1107.6199 ... - 7.6199 ...
5 -23 .5 -1.0
Residual
-20.7 1.8
6 -44 .2 0.8
-19.9 10 X
7 -64 .1 5
c. f(x) = 0.3x3 - 5x2 + 7x + 29

Cubic regression gives the same result, with
R2 = 1 (curve passes through all the points) . Th e 12-in. mod el is th e most overpriced.
/(x) d. The demand for th e smaller sets is grea ter, so th e
pric e is higher.
X
7
Answer
s toSelected
Problem
s Set15-3 813
Problem
9. a. If y = x 3 + bx 2 + ex+ d, th en 3. X f(x) g(x)
- b = 1.7 + 3.8 + 5.5 =} b = -11.0
C = (1. 7)(3.8) + (1.7)(5.5) + (3.8)(5.5) =} C = 36. 71 1.9 -3 .59 6.41
- d = (1.7)(3.8)(5.5) =} d = -35 .53 1.99 -3 .9599 96 .0401
so 1.999 -3 .995999 996.004001
y= x3 - llx 2 + 36.?lx - 35 .53 2 Undefined Undefined
They-intercept is -3 5.53 mi . 2.001 - 4.00 3999 -1004.003999
2.01 -4 .0399 - 104.0399
4.1 mi
b. Multipl y by -_- - _-- -rru-. 2. 1 -4.39 - 14.39
3 5 53
They show the discontinuity and the asymptote .
f(x) = - 4.1 x 3 + 45.l x2 _ 150.5llx + 4 _1
35 .53 35.53 35.53 5. _J 1 - 10 24 - 16
C. Farm Road 13 2 - 16 16
4 .1 1 - 8 8 0
f(x) 2! x2 - Bx + 8
_J 1 - 10 24 - 17
2 - 16 16
The river goes south befor e the first crossing and 1 -8 8 -1
after the last.
1
d . Farthest south for 1.7 mi ~ x ~ 3.8 mi is g(x) = x2 - Bx+ 8 - --
x- 2
y = -0.3618 .. . mi at x = 2.5676 ... mi. Farthest
north for 3.8 mi ~ x ~ 5.5 mi is y = 0.2508 ... mi at 7. lim f(x) = lim x2- Bx + 8 = -4
x-2 x-2
x = 4. 7656 ... mi. The river is 10 mil es south of 1
limg(x) = lim x 2 - Bx+ 8 - -- = oo
Rout e 66 at x = 2.8568 ... mi eas t of the zero at x-2 x-2 x- 2
5.5 mi .
9. Hori zont al translation by 2, vertical dilation by - 1
11. a. The graphs match. (reflection across th e x-axis)
b. 11. y
X 2
X
2
'
'
c. Both graphs look similar to y= x 3 . The vertices 5 -3

and intercepts of the f graph are hard to see. The 13. f(x) = -- + --
x+4 x -2
terms of lower degree do not affect th e graph
much for large x. 15. x ~ : horizontal translation by - 4,
4
vertical dilation by 5
13. a. R2 = 0.9611... b . SSres = 67 .0324 ...
x ": : hori zontal translation by 2,
C. y = 10.87 5 2
vertical dilation by -3
SSctev= 1724.875
5 3
d. R2 = 1724.875 - 67.0324. . O 17. --+--
x - 4 x+2
1724.8 75 = .9611 ...
9 2
19. - -- --
x+ 5 x+l
Problem
Set 15-4
2 6 1
l. y 21. -- +--+ --
l 9J; x+ l x +3 x -5
1 ~v · X
' 2 23. An indet er minate form looks like§ and may or may
-4
r\ :
~ not hav e a removabl e discontinuity; an infinite form
"' '
' ' ---g
5,
looks like wher e a ~ 0, and ha s a vertical
asymptot e.
81 4 Problem
Set15-4 Answers
toSelected
Problem
s
25. a. If x < 2, then E1¥-
f (x) = 6. If x > 2, th en
5. a. _J 1 - 17 105 - 89
lim f(x) = 2. The graph should look like 1 - 16 89
x-z+
Figure 15-4c. 1 -1 6 89 0
b . g(2.99 ) = 34 + 23 int( 2.99) = 34 + 23(2) = 70
g(3) = 34 + 23 int( 3) = 34 + 23(3) = 70 f (x) = (x - l)(x 2
- 16x + 89)
The graph should look like Figure 15-4d. = (x- l)(x - 8 - Si)(x- 8 + Si)
This means that a 1-ft board is free .
Problem
Set 15·5 b. f(20) = $32 .11; ((14.8647 ...) = $10.00
1. a. Near x = 2, A $10 board would be about 14 ft in. 10
i
((2.00 1) - ( (2)
v:a:---- -
-0 .003999 999 f(x) - f(8) (x3- l 7x 2 + lOSx - 89) - 175
2.00 1 - 2 0.001 C. X - 8 X - 8
= -3 .999999 "'- 4 x3 - l 7x 2 + lOSx - 264 (x - 8)(x2 - 9x + 33)

Near x = 4, x-8 x-8
((4.001) - f(4) 0.00 8006001 = x2 - 9x + 33 if x *8
V "'
4.001 - 4 0.00 1
lim f(x) - f(B) = lim (x 2 - 9x + 33) = 25<t
= 8.00600 1 "' 8 x- 8 X - 8 x- 8
b . lim f (x) - ( (2) = lim (x3- 6x2 + Bx + 5) - 5 d. Line y = Sx - 25 is tangent to the graph.
x-2 X- 2 x-2 X - 2 y
2 2
= lim x3 - 6x + Bx = lim (x - 2)(x - 4x)
x- 2 X - 2 x-2 X - 2
= lim (x2 - 4 x) = -4
x-2
lim f (x) - ( (4) = lim (x3- 6x2 +Bx+ 5) - 5
x-4 X - 4 x-4 X - 4
X
. x3 - 6x 2 + Bx . (x - 4)(x 2 - 2x)
= lim = lim - -- --
x-4 X - 4 x-4 X - 4
7. a. 100°; 106.0660 ...0 ; 6.06 60°; 12.1320 ... deg/ s
= lim
x-4
(x2- 2x) = 8 b. The average rate of chang e from 1 s to 1.1 si s
The an swer s agree . 26.3362 ... deg/ s, and th e average rate of change
c. y= Bx - 27 from 1 s to 1.01 s is 30.2342 ... deg/ s.
c. The values agree . The averag e rate of change is the
slop e of the secant line connecting the two points .
d. The rates are the same for M =0.01 s. As M
approaches zero the average rate approaches
30.685 3 ... deg/ sand th e line com es closer to
X
bein g tan gent to the graph of the function at t= 1.
e. The secant line follows the two points on the
The line is tangent to th e gra ph. curve, sloping less, becoming horizontal, sloping
3. a. steep er in th e negative dir ection, then leveling
out again . The rate (d2 - d1)/ (t 2 - t 1) starts out high,
goes to zero , and becomes negative. The negativ e
rates indicat e that d(t) is getting small er, and that
the door is closing .
f. Answers will vary.
X (min) 9. f'(x) = 7x6
11. f ' (x) = 48x 5
b . y'(3) "" 3 m/ min 13. f '( x) = 27x2 - lOx + 2
y'(7 ) ""- 4 m/ min
15. f'(x) = 6x 5
c. In th e everyday sen se of spee d (without reference
to dir ection ), th e objec t is slowing down at 3 min
and sp eedin g up at 7 min .
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s Set15-5 815
Problem
17. f'(x) = 3x2 - 24x + 36 = 3(x - 2)(x - 6) b. f(x) = (x + 2)(- x2 + 4x - 3)
=; vertices at x = 2, 6 g(x) = (x + 2)(-x 2 + 4x - 4)
h(x) = (x + 2)(- x2 + 4x - 5)
flx)
c. f(x) crosses the hori zontal axis at x = 1, 3.
g(x) is tang ent to th e hori zontal axis at x = 2.
20 h(x) does not interc ept the horizontal axis.
X d. A double zero of a function is a number that
makes two (identical) factors of the function
equal zero. A complex ze ro of a function is a
19. f'(x) = 3x2 - Bx+ 1 = (x - 4 - m)( x - 4 +m ) nonreal complex number that makes the
3 3 function equal zero.
4 ±J"i3 R2. a. f(x) = -x3 + 17x2 - 32x + 30
=; vertices at x = = 0.1314 ... , 2.5251...
3
b . f(S) = 170; f(6) = 234
f(x) c. y = -x 3 + 17x2 - 32x + 30
10 R2 = 1 indi cates perfect fit .
d. y
X
00
21. f'(x) = 3x2 + 1 > 0 for all x =; no vertices X

2
f{x)
10 e. The share price goes up for a while, then
plummets to zero. Reasons may vary.
X R3. a. _u 120 - 1200 3480 - 2400
600 -3 000 2400
120 - 600 480 0
23. ((3) = 44, ('(3) = -9
y = -9 (x - 3) + 44 = -9x + 71 d(x) = 120(x - S)(x - 4)(x - 1)
Zeros at x = 1, 4, 5. The number of zeros equals
f(x)
the degree of the function. The function is
dominated by the cub ic term, which means the
value will eventuall y behave like 120x 3 . This
X
eventually is greater than 700 .
x3 - 4x2 +7x +ll 17
b. = X2 - 2X + 3 + --
x- 2 x- 2
2 5. a. If the rule worked, then you would have d(2) = 23 - 4(2)2 + 7(2) + 11 = 17
f'(X) = X . 2x- 1.
b . According to part a, f '(O)= 0 · 2- 1 = 0. c. ~ 1 - 10 57 - 82
However, the function is increasing at this point, 2 - 16 82
so the derivative (rate of change) is in fact greater 1 - 8 41 0
than zero.
f(x) = (x - 2)(x - 4 - Si)(x - 4 + Si)
c. The derivative of an exponential function cannot
be found using the "power function shortcut" Zeros at x= 2, 4 ± Si.
because part b shows that using this shortcut y
gives at least one answ er that is wrong.
Problem
Set 15-6 X
Rl. a. f(-2) = 8 + 8 - 10 - 6 = 0
g(-2) = 8 + 8 - 8 - 8 = 0
h(- 2) = 8 + 8 - 6 - 10 = 0 d. Fifth-degree polynomial; three real zeros; two
nonrea l complex zeros
816 ProblemSet 15-

6 An
swe
rs toSelected
Prob
lems
R4. a. y g. The train is going north ; th e derivative is positive.
h . f'( 2) = 120 ft / min. For each term, multiply th e
6 term by the exis ting expon ent , then subtract 1
from the expo nent.
Problem
Set 15-7
=
b . f(x) x 2 - lOx + 27 1. z
lim f(x) = 6
x-3
(3, 6) is th e loca tion of th e "hol e" in the gra ph.
c. g(x) = x 2 - 1 Ox + 2 7 + x _1 3
The term x ~ 3 has th e infinite form l
d. §:indet erminat e form X
--''
~: infinit e form y
e. h (x) = -x -3- 1 + -x-46- : (10, 20 , 5_),,
-
x:1 : hori zo ntal translation by l , vertica l dilation

'.J .,"
by 3
2. ii - a= 37+ 16] + 2f
x ~ .J: hori zo ntal translati on by 4, ver tical dilation
by 6 3. Iii- al=v 269 =15.401 2 ... =1540.1219 ... m
Y, 4. The plane was higher by 200 m.
s. cos e = o.s311...
X e = 33. 1626 ... 0
6. proj = 720.1190 ... m

7. (ZiX ii) • Zi= 0
0 = h (X) =? X = 2 (ZiX ii) • a - b)l_a
- -
COS e = leiX blfZil = Q =? (a X
RS. a. Vav = 73.2 ft/min
3 2
b. Vav = d (x)- d(2) = 120x - 1200x + 3480x- 3120 8. A= 539,096.4663 ... m 2
x-2 x-2 9. e = 60 °
(x - 2)(x 2 - Bx + 13) f / . 10. p s: (3.5, 23.2)
= 120 t mm
x- 2
0.45 -0.78 20][xl [0.45x- 0.78y+ 20]
c. Removable dis con tinuit y at x = 2
y
11. [ o.;s o.is \o ;J= o.78x+~.45y+10
200 12. P = (3.5130 ..., 23 .1639 ... )

X
13.
d. Vav = 120(x2
e. The derivati ve is lim

- Bx+ 13)
x- 2
d(x) - d(2)
x- 2
= 120 ft / min.
n
~
o.,,..·,·
./···
f. y = 120x + 480
The line is tan gent to the gra ph . 14. The fixed point is (-6 .6386 .. ., -6.26 19 ... ), which is
th e upper left point of th e image.
d(x)
0.4 cos(-20°) 0.4 cos 70° -~5]
15. [Bl = 0.4 s~(-20 °} 0.4 s: 70°
[
0.4 0 0~]
16. [Cl= [ ~ 0~4
X
Answers
toSelected
Problem
s Set15-7 817
Problem
17. Th e graphs should match. y
18. Perimeter
Iteration N of Each Total P
0 36 36
4 12 48
2 16 4 64 18 .,
.j 256 27. V= 18 rr x -- rrxJ
3 64 3 -3- 25
19. Total P = 63 ,568 ,1J4.677 2 ... 10v'3
r = ,/6 = 2.4494 ... ; h = - - = 5.77 35 ..
3
20 . Iteration A
28. Th e cras h occurs at (r; 8) = (3,960,325.9227 ... 0
).
0 81
29 . (5 cis 70°)(8 cis 40 °) = 40(cos 110° + i sin ll0 °)
1 36
= -13.6 808 ... + 37.5877 .. i
2
3
16
6-l
9
30. ™= 4 cis 0°, 4 cis 120°, 4 cis 240 °
31. Th e figure is called a card ioid b ecause it resem bles
21. D = 1.2618 .. a h eart shape.
22. Lim A= 0 y
n- =
Jim p = oo
/1---+ 00
This makes sense b ecau se an object of X
0
dim ension less th an 2 has ze ro area, whereas an
obj ect of dim en sion grea ter than 1 has infinit e
len gth.
23 . The s igns of the x ~- and y 2 -terms are oppos ite. 32.
25x 1 - 9y 2 - 200x + 18y = -39 1
= c;4r-(y;1r 0 =
X x = 24 cos e - 12 cos 2e
{ y = 24 sin e - 12 sin 2 8
Th e point on th e rolling qu arter that was touching
24. C= 4 th e fixed quart er along the x-axis traces out the
C 4 card ioid.
e = - = - = 0.8 33 . 7, 12, 17, 22
a 5 34. 8 + 24 + 72 + 216 = 320
10
a 5
d=- = -=
e 0.8
6.25 35 . 12 + 15 + 18 + · · · + 36 + 39 = L. (9 + 3n) = $255
n~l
25. y 36. At th e end of 36 months, the bal ance is

500 · 1.0075 36 = 654 .3226 ... = $654 .32 . $154.32 of
th at is int erest. If th e int eres t were compound ed
yearly, the balan ce would b e
500 · 1.09 3 = 647.5 14 5 .. = $64 7.51
Compou nd int eres t gives you an extra $6.81. The
A+ B = 2a = 10 = length of major axis value increases in a series of jumps (on e jump every
D = eA = 6.25A compo undin g period) rath er than continuou sly.
X = 5 COS t
26 .
{ y = 3 sin t
x ' = 5 cos t + 2
{ y' = 3 sin t + 1
818 Problem
Set15-7 Answer
s toSelected
Problems
3 7. In sequ en ce mod e on your grapher, enter 42. f(x) = (x - l )(x2 - 24x + 22 5)
nMin = 0 = (x - l)(x - 12 - 9i)(x - 12 + 9 i)
u (n ) = .9u (n - 1) + 30
4 3. Z1 + Z2 + Z3 = 1 + (12 + 9i) + (12 - 9 i) = 25
u (nMin) = {100}
44. ((20 ) = $2755.00
n tn Rounded
f (x) - f(lO ) (x - 10)(x2 - 15x + 99) .
4 5. = = x2 - 15x + 99
0 100 100 x - 10 x - 10
1 120 120 if X *- 10
2 138 138
3 154 .2 154 Jim f(x) - f(lO) = Jim (x2 - 15x + 99) = $49 / ft
x- I O X - 10 x -1 0
4 168. 78 169
5 181.902 182 46. Line y = 49x + 275 is tangent to th e gra ph .
and the se ries eve ntu a lly leve ls off at 300 . y
Solvin g 0 .9x + 30 = x gives x = 1 l~.

9 = 300 .
38 . tn = 112 + l; t 1oo = 10,00 1
39. 11 = 71
1
I -
00
4o. - ,
1
= 1 + 0.4 352 .. + 0.2675 .. + 0. 1894 .. + ...
n - 1 11 ·-
Sl0o = 3.6030 ..
4 1. _J 1 -25 249 -225

1 -24 225
1 -24 225 0
Thi s mean s that 1-ft tr ees a re free .
Answers
toSele
ctedProblem
s Set15-7 819
Problem
j
Glossary
Algebraic: Involving only the operations of algebra Circular functions (pp. 117-11 9): Periodic functions
performed on the variable-namely , addition, subtraction, whose independent variable is in radians, a real number
multiplication (including int eger powers), division, and without units.
roots.
Coefficient of determination (pp. 355 , 357): The fraction
Amplitude (of a sinusoi dal graph) (p. 95): The vertical of SSdev that has been removed by the linear regression
distance from the sinusoidal axis of a graph to its SSctcv- SSres
maximum or minimum . r2 = .
SSctev
Angular velocity (pp. 139-140): The number of degrees Combination (pp . 412-413) : A subset of elements
(or radian s or revolutions) per unit of time through which selected from a set without regard to the order in which
a point on a rotating object turns. the selected elements are arranged.
Argument (p. 8): In f(x), the variable x or any expression Common difference (pp. 641-644): The constant added
substitut ed for x.. to a term to get the next term in an arithmetic sequence
Arithmetic sequence (pp . 639, 641, 644): A sequence in or series .
which each term is formed recursively by adding a Common ratio (pp. 642, 644): The constant multiplier of
constant to the previous term. a term to get the next term in a geometric sequence or
Arithmetic series (pp. 639, 656): The indicated sum of series.
the terms of an arithmetic sequence. Completing the square : Reversing th e process of
Asymptote (p. 4): A line that the grap h of a function squaring a binomial to go from y = ax 2 + bx+ c back to
approaches and to which it gets arbitrarily close as x or y the form y = a(x - h)2 + k that shows translations and
approaches positiv e or negative infinity. dilations.
Barnsley's method (pp . 524-525): A means of generating Complex conjugates (p. 614): Two complex numbers of
fractal figures that involve iterations of multip le the forms a + bi and a - bi, where a and bare real
transformations; at each stage, one of a given set of numbers and i = Ff.
transformations is selecte d at random and performed Complex number (p. 614): The sum of a real number and
on the point that is the image of the preceding an imaginary number .
transformation.
Complex plane (p. 614): The representation of complex
Binomial distribution (p. 429): Probabilities that are numbers by points in a Cartesian coordinate system.
associated with r successes in n repeated trials for an
event with two outcomes. Composite function (pp. 22, 28): A function of the form
f(g(x)), where function g is performed on x and then
Binomial experiment (p. 429): A random experiment in function {is performed on g(x). The domain of the
which th e same action is repeated a number of times an d composite function is those x-values in the domain of g
in which only two results of the action are possible. for which g(x) is an element of the domain off
Binomial series (pp. 428, 649, 654-655): A series that Composition of ordinates (p. 214): The method by which
comes from expanding a positive integer power of a sinusoids or other functions are combined by adding or
binomial expressio n. multiplying the corresponding ordinates for each value
of X.
821
Concave up (or down) (p. 97): The graph of a function (or Dependent variable (pp. 3-4): The output of a function,
a portion of the graph between two asymptotes or two an equation, or a formula .
points of inflection) is called concave up when its
Derivative (pp. 695, 696): The instantan eous rate of
"hollowed out" side faces upward; it is called concave
change of a function.
down when its "hollowed out" side faces downward.
Derivative function (p. 701): The function that gives the
Conic section {p. 545) : The curve formed by the
instantaneous rate of change of a given function at any
intersection of a plane with a cone.
x-value.
Conjugate axis (p. 5 5 7): For a hyperbola, the name
Deviation (pp . 355, 357): For a data point (x, y), the
given to the axis of symmetry perpendicular to the
directed distance of its y-value from y, y - y, wh ere y is
transverse axis.
the average of they-values.
Constant: A number with a fixed value, as opposed to a
Dimension (the Hausdorff dimension) (p. 532): If an
var iab le, which can take on different values.
object is transformed into N self-similar pieces, the ratio
Correlation coefficient (pp. 355-357) : The valuer, which of the len gt h of each piece to the leng th of the origina l
is the positive or negative square root of the coefficient object is r, and the subdivisions can be carr ied on
of determination. infinitely, then the dimension D of the object is D = log ~.
log,:
Cosecant function (pp. 73-74): One of the trigonometric
Direction angles (of a position vector) (p. 486): <X, from
functions, equal to the reciprocal of the sine function;
abbreviated "csc." the x-axis to the vector; {3,from the y-axis to th e vector;
y, from the z-axis to the vector.
Cosine function (pp. 69, 74): One of the trigonometric
functions; abbreviated "cos." Let e be the angle of Direction cosines (p. 486): The cosines of the direction
rotation of the positive u-axis, terminating in a position angles of a position vector .
containing the point (u, v), then cos e = ~. whoce r is the Directrix (pp. 565-566): A line associated with a conic
distance of the point (u, v) from the' origin. ··· sect ion.
Cotangent (pp. 73-74): One of the trigonometric Direct variation funct ion (p. 10): A function with the
functions; equal to the reciprocal of the tangent function; general equation f(x) = ax, where a stands for a constant.
abbreviated "cot."
Discrete function (pp. 40, 640): A function whose domain
Coterminal angles (p. 63): Two angles in standard is a set of disconnected values.
position are coterminal if and only if their degree
measures differ by a multiple of 360°. Displacement (pp. 44, 68): A vector that indicates an
object moving from one point to another.
Critical point (pp. 98, 671): A point where the tan gent
line to the graph of a function is either horizontal or Displacement vector (p. 453): The difference between an
vertical. object's initial and final positions.
Cross product (p. 4 79): The cross product of two vectors Distance formula (p. 200): A form of th e Pythagorean
is a vector with the following properti es: a x b is theorem giving the distance D betwee n two points (x1 , y 1)
perpendicular to the plane containing a and b;the and (x?, y ,) in a plane in terms of their coordinates:
a
magnitude of X b is la El IallEl
X = e
sine, where is D~ .J(~I ~ X2)2 + (Y1 - Y2)2.
the angle between the two vectors when they are placed Diverge (p. 653): A series diverges if the partial sums do
tail-to-tail; the direction of a x b is determined by the not approach a fin ite limit as the number of terms
right-hand rule. becomes infinite .
Cycle (pp. 67, 95): The part of a graph from a point on it to Domain (p. 4): The set of valu es that the independent
another point where the graph first starts repeating itself. variab le of a function can have.
De Moivre's theorem (p. 619): The "short way" to raise a
complex number to a power. Raise the modulus to the
Dot product (p. 466): 'J · b = lallbl
cos 8, where 8 is the
angle between the two vectors when they are trans lated
power and multiply the argument by the exponent; for tail-to-tail. Also called the scalar product or inn er product.
e e,
examp le, if z = r(cos + i sin 8) = r cis then
2 = r" cis ne. Eccentricity (pp. 565, 566) : Eccentricity , e, is the ratio of
11
the distance betw een a point on a conic section and the

Degree (of a polynomial) (p. 670): For a polynomial focus, d 2 , and the distan ce between the same point and
expression in one variab le, the greatest exponent of that d,
variab le. the directrix, d 1: e = d~·
822 Glossary
Ellipse (p. 567) : The set of all points Pin a plane for Hyperbola (p. 56 7): The set of all points Pin a plane
which the sum of the distances from point P to two fixed for which the absolute value of the difference of the
points (the foci) is constant. distances from point P to two fixed points (the foci) is
constant .
Ellipsis format: A three-dot ( ..) notation that incLicates
something has been left out. Identity (p. 162): An equation that is tru e for au values of
th e variable in the domain.
Even function (pp. -!6, 206): The function f is an even
function if and only if f(-x.) = f(x.) for all x in the domain. Imaginary number (p. 614): A numb er that is th e square
root of a negative number.
Event (p. -!00): In probability, a set of outcomes.
Independent events (pp. 402 -4 03): Events are called
Explicit formula (pp. 6-ll, 6-!3): For a seq u ence, specifies
ind ependent if the way one event occurs does not affec t
1 as a function of n.
11
the ways the other event(s) could occur.
Exponential function (pp. 10, 296-297) : A fun ction in
Independent variable (pp . 3-4): The input of an equation
which the inde pendent , ariable appears as an expo nent.
or formula.
Extrapolation (p. 6): Using a function to es timate a value
Indeterminate form (pp. 688, 690): An expression that has
outsid e the range of the given data.
no dire ct meaning as a numb er, for exampl e, gor O · oo.
Factorial (pp. -W8--l09) : For any positive integer n,
Infinite form (pp. 688 , 690) : A form such as ! that
n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · · · nor, equi\'a lently,
indicates a value that is larger than any real number.
n' = n · (n - l) · (n - 2) · · · · · 2 · l.
O!is defined to be equa l to 1. Inner product: See Dot produ .
Fibonacci sequence (pp. 6-l6 - 6-l 7): The se qu ence of Interpolation (0): Using a function to estimate a ,
integers l, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 3-l, 5S, 89, 14-l, 233, ... , within the r~e of given data.
form ed according to the rule that each int eger is th e sum
Intersection ~ and B arc two event s,
of the preceding two.
then the intersection of A and B, A n B, is the set of all
Focal distance (p. 574): The distance from the cent er of a outco mes that are found in both event A and event B.
conic section to either focus.
Inverse of a func tion (pp. 33, 39, 81): The invers e of a
Focus (pp . 56-l, 566): A point associated with a conic function is the relation formed by interchan ging th e
sect ion. variables of the function . If the inverse relation is a
funct ion , th en it is called the in verse {uncHon and is
Fractal (pp. 524, 531): A geometric figure that is
denoted r - ' (x) .
compose d of se lf-similar parts.
Inverse variation function (p. 10): A function with the
Frequency (pp. 96-97): The reciprocal of the period .
general equation f"(x) = ; , where a stands for a constant
Function (pp. 3, 8): A relationship between two variabl e and x ~ 0.
quan ti tics for which there is exactly one value of th e
Iterate (p. 503): To perform an operation over and over
d ep en dent var iable for each \'alue of the ind ependent
again, eac h tim e operating on the imag e from the
var iable in the domain.
prece ding step.
Geometric sequence (pp. 639, 656): A seq uen ce in which
Law of cosines (p. 251): In triangle ABC, with sides a, b,
eac h term is formed recursively by multiplying the
and c opposite angles A, B, and C, resp ectively,
previous term by a constant.
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bccosA.
Geometric series (pp . 639, 6-l2, 64-l): The indicated sum
Law of sines (p. 259) : In triangl e ABC, with sid es a, b, and
of the terms of a geometric seq uence.
c opposite angles A, B, and C, respectively,
Harmonic analysis (pp. 21-l, 216-2 17): The reverse of the a b C
--=--=--
compo sition of ordinates; a method by which parent sin A sin B sin C
sinusoid functions arc found from the resultant function.
Leading coefficient (p. 670): In a pol ynomial in one
Harmonic series (p. 658): A series suc h as variabl e, the coefficient of the highest-de gree term.
1 + ! + 1+ ±+ · · · + +,+ · · · in which success ive terms are
Limit (pp. 517-518, 688-689): A numb er that a function
the reciprocals of the terms in an arithmet ic se qu ence.
value f(x.) approaches, becoming arbitrarily close to it, as
Hausdorff dimension: See Dimension. x. approaches either a specific value or infinity.
Glossary 823
Linear combination (p. 198): Of two expressions u and v, Outcome (p. 400): A result of a·random experiment.
a sum of the form au+ bv, where a and bare constants.
Parabola (p. 574): The set of all points Pin a plane for
Linear function (pp. 9, 294): A function with the general which P's distance to a fixed point (the focus) is equal to
equation y = ax+ b, where a and bare cons tants. its distance to a fixed line (the directrLx).
Linear regression (pp. 353, 357) : The process of finding Parameter (p. 177): A variable used as an arb itrar y
the best-fitting linear equation for a given set of data. constant, or an independent variable on which two or
more other variables depend.
Linear velocity (pp. 139-140): The distance per unit of
time that a point on a rotating object travels along its Parametric equations (of a plane curve) (p. 177): The two
circu lar path. equations that express th e coordinates x and y of points
on the curve as separate functions of a common variable
Linearizing data (pp. 367-369): The pro cess of usin g
(th e param eter).
logarithms to transform data so that a linear function fits
the transformed data. Parametric function (p. 176): A function specified by
parametric equations .
Logarithm (pp. 314, 316, 321, 322): y = loga xis an
expo nent for which a >'= x. Partial sum of a series (pp. 244, 639): The Nth partial sum
of a se · the first N terms of the series.
Logarithmic function (pp . 328-329): The fun ctio n thatJ
the inverse of an expone ntial function. J Period (pp. 56, 67, 97): For a periodic function , the
difference be een the horizontal coordinates of ts
Logistic function (pp. 336, 337): A function of the form
C C
f(x) = - b . or f(x) = b- . , where a, b, and c stand
1 + ae " 1+a " eriodic function (p. 67): A
for constants, e is the base of the natural logarithm, and at regular int ervals.
the domain is all real numbers. Permutation (pp. 407, 413): An arrangement in a definite
Major axis (p. 549) : For an ellips e, the lon ger of its two order of some or all of the elements in a set.
perpendicular axes; for an ellipsoid, the lar gest of its Phase displacement (p. 95): The directed horizontal
three axes. distance from the vert ical axis to the point where the
Mathematical expectation (p. 434): The weighted average argument of a periodic fun ction equals zero . For
of the values for a random exper iment each time it is run. examp le, if y = cos (x - 2), the phase displacement is 2; or
The "weights" are th e probabilities of each outcome. if y = sin(x +1), th e phase displacement is-¥,
Mathematical models (p. 3): Function s that are used Point of inflection (p. 97): The point where a graph
to make predictions and interpretations about a switches its direction of concav ity.
phenomenon in the real world. Point-slope form (p. 294) : y - y 1 = a(x - x 1), where (x1, Y1l
Matrix (p. 504): A rectangular array of terms called elements. is a fixed point on the line.
Minor axis (p. 549) : For an ellips e, the short er of its two Polar axis (p. 600): In the polar coord inat e system, a fixed
perpendicular axes; for an ellipsoid, the smallest of its ray, usually in a hori zontal position.
thr ee axes. Polar coordinates (pp. 599, 601): A method of
Mutually exclusive (p. 403): When the occurrence of an represent ing points in a plane by ordered pairs of (r, 8).
event excludes the possibility that another event will also The valu e r represents the distance of the point from a
occur. fixed point (pole), and e represe nts the angle of rotation
of the polar axis to a position that con tains th e point.
Numerical: Referring to constants, such as 2 or rr, rather
than to parameters or variables. Pole (p. 600): In the polar coordinate system , the origin.
Oblique triangle (p. 249): A triangle none of whose Polynomial (p. 670): An expression involving only the
angles are right angles. operations of addition, subtraction, and multipli cation
performed on the variable (including nonnegative int eger
Odd function (pp. 46, 206): The function f is an odd powers).
function if and only if f( -x) = -f(x) for all x in the domain.
Polynomial function (p. 9): A function of the form
One-to-one function (p. 36): A function f is a one-to-one y = p(x), where p(x ) is a polynomial express ion . The
function if th ere are no y-values that correspond to more general equation is
than one x-value. p(x) = a,,x" + a,,_1 x 1 + · · · + a 2 x 2 + a 1x + a 0 •
11
-
824 Glossary
Polynomial operations (p. 670): The operations of Reference angle (pp . 63-64): For an angle in
add ition, su btra ction, and multiplication. standard position, the positi ve acute angle (measured
count erclockwise) between the horizontal axis and the
Position vector (pp. 451, 453): For a point (x, y), its
terminal side.
position vector starts at the origin and ends at the point.
Relation (p. 8): Any set of ordered pairs .
Power function (pp. 10, 295): A function of the form
y = ax", where a * 0. Residual (pp. 353, 357): The residual deviation of a data
Power series (p. 644): A series in which each term is a
y
point from the line = mx + bis y - y,
the vertica l
directed dis tan ce of its y-value from the line.
consta nt coeffic ient times a power of the variab le.
Residual plot (p. 382): A scatter plot of residuals.
Principal val ue (p. 126): The value along a chosen
branch of a multi-valued function, suc h as an inverse Resultant vector (p. 453): The sum of two or more
trigonometric function. vectors .
Probability (pp. 399, 400): If the outcomes of a random Sample space (p. 400): The set of all outcomes of an
exper iment are equally likely, then the proba bility that a experiment .
particular event will occur is equal to the numb er of
Scalar (pp. 451, -153): A quantity, such as time, spee d, or
outcomes in the event divided by the number of
volum e, that has magnitude but no direction.
outcomes in the sample space.
Scalar product: See Dot product.
Probability distribution (p. -129): A probability function
that tells how th e 100% probability is distributed amo ng Scalar projection (p. 4 70): If e is the ang le between cl
the various possible events. and b when they are place d tail-to-tail, then the scalar
Proportionality constan t (p. 295): The constant a in the a
projection of on bis p = lalcos e.
equation of a power function y = ax". In general, a Scalar quantity (pp. 451, 453): A quantity, suc h as
constant that equals th e ratio of two quantities. distance, tim e, or volum e, th at has magnitude but no
direction.
Quadratic function (p. 295) : A function of the form
y = ax 2 + bx+ c, where a * 0. Secant (pp. 73-74): One of th e trigonom etric fun ctio ns,
equal to th e reciprocal of th e cosine function;
Radian (pp. 110-111): A central angle of one radian
abbrevia ted "sec."
intercepts an arc of the corresponding circle equa l in
lengt h to the radius of th e circle. Self-similar (p . 524): When an object or a figure can be
broken into sm aller parts that are similar to one anoth er
an d to the original object or figure .
an le in a cir efined as the arc length cor respond·
to the angle divided b , ·us of the circle. adian Sequence (pp. 639, 640, 643) : A function whose domain
angle measures are real numbers with no units. is the se t of posit ive int egers. The independent variable is
the term numb er, n, an d the dependent variable is the
Random experiment (p. 400): In probab ility, an
term valu e, t,,.
experiment in which there is no way of telling the
outcome beforehand. Series (pp . 639, 648-649) : The indicated sum of the terms
of a sequence .
Range (p. -1):The set of all values of the dependent
variabl e that correspond to values of the independent Simple event (p. -100): A sing le outcome of an exper imen t.
variab le in the domain .
Sine function (pp. 61, 69 , 74): One of th e tri gonom etri c
Rational function (p. 11): A function that can be functions; abbreviated "sin." Let e be the ang le of
expressed as the quotient of two polynomial rotat ion of the positive u-axis, termina tin g in a position
express ions. containing the point (u, v); then sine=~. where r is the
distance of the point (u, v) from the origin.
Recursion formula (pp. 641, 643): A formula for terms of
a sequence that specifies t,, as a function of the pr ece ding Sinusoid (pp. 61, 96 - 97) : Any translation or dilation of
term, t,,_ 1. the parent function y = sin x or y = cos x.
Reduction ratio (p. 14 7): In a system of inter locking Sinusoidal axis (p. 96): The axis that runs alon g the
gears, the ratio of the angular velocity of the fastest gear midd le of th e grap h of a sinusoid.
to the angular velocity of the slowest gear.
Glossary 825
Slope -intercept form (p. 294): The general equation Union (pp . 422-423): If A and Bare two events, then the
y = ax + b, where a and b are constants and the domain union of A and B, Au B, is th e set of all outcomes that
is all real numb ers. are in event A or event B (or both).
Standard position (of an angle) (p. 62): The position of an Unit circle (pp. 74, 178): A circle of radius 1.
angle with the vertex at the origin and the initi al sid e
Unit vector (pp. 268, 451, 453, 462): A vector th at is one
along the positive horizontal axis.
unit long.
Tangent function (pp. 73, 74): One of the tri gonome tric
Variable: A symbol used to stand for any one of a set of
e
functions; abbreviated "tan." Let be the angle of
numb ers, points, or other entities; the set is called the
rotation of the positive u-axis , terminating in a position
domain of the variable, and any member of th e set is
containin g th e point (u, v); then tan e = {
called a value of the variable.
Tangent line (p. 696): The tange nt line of a curve at a
point is the line whose slop e equa ls the slope of the
Vector (pp . 266-267 , 453): A directed line segment, v.
curve at that point. Vector projection (pp. 469-4 70): If i1 is a unit vector in
the dire ction of b,then th e vector projection of a on b is
Transformation (pp. 15, 18, 45): An operation that maps
points in the plane or space uniquely. Some exam ples are lal e u,
p = cos e
where is the angle betwe en and b.a
dilation, translation, or rotation, which can change the Vector quantity (pp. 266, 453): A quantity, such as force,
shape or the position of the gra ph of a relation or of velocity, or displacement, th at has both ma gni tude (size)
some other figure. and dir ect ion .
Transverse axis (p. 557) : For a hyper bola, th e name Vertex form (pp . 295, 552): For a quadratic function,
given to th e axis of symmet r y that runs from vertex y- k = a (x - h)2, where a, h, and k stand for constants,
to vertex. the vertex of th e parabola is at (h, k).
Trigonometric functions (pp. 68, 74): The six functions Zero of a function (pp. 669, 671): A value of x = c for
sine, cosin e, tangent, cotangent, secan t, and cosccant. whi ch f(c) = 0.
826 Glossary
Index of Problem Titles
A Arithm etic Series Probl em , 657 Car Wheel Curtate Cycloid Probl em ,
Abso lute Value Function-Odd or Assoc iativit y Probl em, 274 636
Even?, 48 Asteroid Probl em, 182 Circle Probl em , 577
Abso lut e Value Transfo rma tions A1,vni
ng Problems, 484, 500 Circl es Probl em , 608
Problem, -l 7 Circul ar Function Compr eh en sion
Accident / Illness Insurance Problem, Prob lem, 124
439 B Circular Per mut ation s Probl ems, 411
Backup System Problem, 426 Circus Cann on Problem, 489
Accurate Drawing Problem, 263
Bacterial Culture Probl em, 29 Clock Probl em, 150
Accurate Drawing Project, 254
Bacteria Problem, 363 Closure Und er Addition Probl em , 274
Acute, Right, or Obtuse Problem, 255
The Add-Add Property Proof Problem, Bank Interes t Problem, 364 Closure Und er Multiplication by a
Barnsley's Method Program, 527 Scalar Probl em , 2 74
313
Barnsley's Method Program Coastlin e Length Problem, 536
The Add-Multi ply Problem Proof
Debugging, 5 2 7 Coefficient of Determination Review
Problem, 314
Baseball Probl em, 302 Problem , 687
The Add-Multiply Property Proof
Prob lem, 349 Baseball Team Problems , 406, 4 10 Coffee Cup Problem, 349
Basketb all Game Problem, 442 Coffee Table Problem, 588
Airlin e Overbooking Problem, 442
Batting Average Probl em , 438 Cofunction Problem for the Invers e
Airplane Engine Problems, 427, 432
Airplane Landing Problem, 85 Behavior of Polynomial Functions for Sine Function Probl em, 213
Large Values of x, 686 Cofunction Prop erties for th e Inverse
Airplan e Lift Problem, 277
Bicycle Prob lems , 144, 154 Circular Function Problem, 213
Airplane Looping Problem, 636
Billiards Table Probl em, 593 Cofunction Property for Cosines and
Airplane ear -Miss Velocity Vector
Binomial Series with oninteger Sines Probl em, 204
Probl em, 498
Airplan e Payload Prob lem, 686 Exponent Problem, 664 Color Blindn ess Problem, 431
Airplane's Path Problem, 625 Bode's Law Problem, 664 Comet Pa th Problem, 579
Airplan e Velocity Problem, 277 Bouncing Ball Probl em, 665 Commutativit y Problem, 273
Airplan e Weight and Area Boun cing Spring Prob lem, 133 Compari ng Formulas Prob lem, 258
Braking Distance Probl em, 42 Comparin g Graph s Prob lem, 610
Problem, 312
Airport Problem, 282 Bridge Problem, 588 Compar ison of Met hod s Problem, 257
Bumblebee Problem, 699 Compl et ing the Squar e Problem, 556
Air Show Prob lem, 708
Buried Treasure Probl ems , 92, 134 Composit e Argume nt Property
Problems, 239 Derivation Problem, 205
AM Radio Project , 230 C Composit e Function Algebra ically
Ancestors Problem, 646 Calculator Comp onent s Probl em, 425 Problems, 31, 32
Angle of Elevation Experimen t, 283 Calorie Consumption Problem, 387 Composit e Fw1etion Graphi cally
Anni e's Conic Section Problems, 710 Canal Barge Probl em, 277 Problem s, 30
Archaeo logy Problem, 460 Candle Light er Probl em , 442 Composit e Function(s) Num erically
Archery Prob lems, 5,313,437 Car and Truck Problem, 229 Problems, 31, 54
Arc Length and Angle Problem, 116 Carbon-14 Dating Problem, 333 Composit e of a Function and Its
Area Problem, 312 Carbon Dioxide Probl em, 392 Invers e Probl em, 189
Arithmet ic and Geometric Means Car Breakdown Probl em , 425 Compound Interest Problem s,
Problem, 648 Car Trou ble Problem, 44 1 312, 32 7
827
Computer Construction Problem, 578 Displacement Vector Prob lem, 272 Expectation of a Binomia l Experiment,
Conchoid of icomedes Problem, 182 Displacement vs. Distance Absolute 438
Conclusions Problem, 536 Value Problem, 48 Exponential Function Problem, 293
Conic Construction Problems, 5 78 Distance between a Point and a Line
Constant-nth-Differences Proof Problem, 497 F
Project, 686 Distance between Skew Lines Factorial Sequence Problem, 64 7
Constant-Second-Differences Property Problem, 498 Fence Problem, 254
Proof Problem, 314 Diving Board Problem, 684 Fibonacci Sequence Problem, 646
Construction Problems, 72, 83 Door Closer Problem, 700 Figure Skating Problem, 144
Convergent Geometric Series Pile Double Argument Property for Finding Other Intersections Points
Driver Problem, 65 7 Tangent, 238 Problem, 613
Cosine Double Argument Properties Doug's Iterative Transformation First Girl Problem, 433
Derivation Prob lem, 238 Problem, 708 Fixed Point Problem, 521
Cost of Owning a Car Problem, 41 Driving Problem, 706 Fixed Points in a Strange Attractor,
Credit Card Problem, 648 Dust Problem, 144 530
Cricket Chirp ing Problem, 40 Dynamic Conics Problem, 5 78 Flagpole Problem, 84
Cricket Problem, 447 Dynarnic Geometric Series Problem, Flanged Wheel Prolate Cycloid
Cube Problem, 474 661 Problem, 628
Cubic Function Problem, 313 Dynamic Matrix Transformations Flashlight Problem, 29
Cup and Saucer Problem, 444 Problem, 515 Flight Path Problem, 254
Cycloid Problem, 182 Dynamic Reflection Problem, 50 Flood Control Tunnel Problem, 494
Cylinder in Ellipsoid Area Problem, Dynamic Sinusoid Sums and Products Foerster's Tree Problem, 528
564 Project, 230 Football Plays Problem, 427
Cylinder in Ellipsoid Problem, 563 Dynamic Transformations Forensic Bullet Path Problem, 494
Cylinder in Sphere Area Problem, 564 Problem, 21 Four-Dimensional Vector Problem,
Cylinder in Sphere Volume Problem, Dynamic Unit Circle Properties 466
563 Problem, 162 Four Pulley Problem, 147
Dynamic Variation of Tangent and Four Transformation Problem, 56
Secant, 110 Fox Population Problem, 132
D Dynamic Vector Projection Fractional Dimension Problem, 709
Data Cloud Problem, 360 Problem, 4 73 Frequency Problem, 105
Deer Prob lem, 42
Functions of Reference Angles
The Definition of e Problem, 335
Prob lem, 72
Depreciation Problem, 646 E
Derivation of the Area Formula Earthquake Problems, 52, 333
Prob lem, 258 Ebola Outbreak Epidemic Problem, G
Derivation of the Law of Cosines 341 Gas Mileage Problem, 384
Prob lem, 2 5 5 Eighteen-Wheeler Prob lem, 431 Gas Tank Problem, 359
Derivation of the Law of Sines Ellipse from Geometrical Properties Gas Temperature and Volume
Problem, 263 Problem, 627 Problem, 5
Derivative Function, 701 Ellipse from the Cartesian Equation Gear Problem, 145
Derivative of an Exponentia l Function Problem, 556 Gear Tooth Problem, 633
Problem, 702 Ellipse Problems, 5 76, 609 Gear Train Problem, 147
Derivative Shortcut for Power Ellipse Proof Problem, 5 56 General Polar Equation of a Circle
Function Problem, 700 Ellipsoids in Sketchpad Problem, 563 Problem, 634
Detour Problem, 276 Elliptical Pendulum Project, 590 Geology Problem, 4 77
Dice Problem, 433 Epicycloid Problem, 628 Geometrical Derivation of the Law of
Dimension Definition Applied to a Essay Project, 283 Cosines Problem, 2 54
Square Prob lem, 535 Euclid's Problem, 284 Geometrical Derivation of the Law of
Dimension of Sierpi11ski's Square Even Function and Odd Function Sines Problem, 263
Problem, 535 Problem, 48 Geometric Series by Long Division
Dimension of Sierpinski's Triangle Even Property of Cosine Problem, 659
Problem, 5 3 5 Problem, 205 Geometric Series for Compound
Discrete Function Problem, 40 Exact Function Value Problems, 212 Interest Problem, 658
Discriminant of Unrotated Conics Exact Value of sin 18' Project, 244 Geometric Series Mortgage Problem,
Problem, 586 Exact Values Problems, 238 659
82 8 Index
ofProblem
Titles
Geometric Series Problem, 657 I Log-log and Semilog Graph Paper
George Washington's Will Identiti es Problems, 229 Problem, 346
Problem, 646 Identity Problems, 239 Lot Area Problem, 258
Grade Problem, 426 Incorrect Point Problem, 313
Grain of Rice Problem, 645 Indy 500 Prob lem, 448 M
Grand Canyon Problem, 84 The Inequ ality sin x < x < tan x Marching Band Formation Problem,
Grand Piano Problems, 87, 277 Problem, 124 146
The Grapevine Problem, 84 Inflection Point Problem, 105 Marketing Problems, 590
Grapher Program for Iterative Interpretation Problem - Composite Mars Orbit Problem, 578
Transformations, 514 of a Function and Its Inverse, 189 Measles and Chicken Pox
Grapher Program Test, 514 Inverse Circular Relation Graphs, 151 Probl em, 42 7
Graphing Problems, 228 Inverse Variation Function Meatball Problem, 388
Graphs of Complex Zeros Problem, Problem, 586 Medication Problem, 666
705 Investment Income Problem, 509 Merry-Go-Round Problem, 152
Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Involute of a Circle Problem, 629 Meteor Problem, 555
Relation s by Pararn etrics, 183 Island Bridge Problem, 262 Meteor Tracki ng Problems, 589
Island Problem, 135 Mile Run Record Times, 388
H Model Rocket Problem, 349
Half Argument Interpretation Monthly Interest Problem, 662
Problem, 237
J Mortgage Payment Problems, 6, 648
Journal Problems, 79, 105, 124, 168, Mountain Height Problem, 275
Half Argument Property for 190,205,223, 389,40~420,434,
Tangent, 239 Multiple-Choice Test Problems, 431,
474,490,515,536,621 , 661,687 438,444
Halley's Comet Problem, 589
Handicap Ramp Project, 87 Multipliers of Zero Problems, 484, 510
Harmonic Analysis Problems, 220 K The Multiply-Multiply Property Proof
Harmoni c Series Divergence Koch's Snowflak e Problem, 529 Problem, 314
Problem, 658 Musical ate Problem, 204
Height and Weight Problem, 53 L
Height-Weight Historical Ladder Problems, 84, 497 N
Problem, 380 Latus Rectum Problem, 580 The Name "Logarithm" Problem, 320
Helicopter Problem, 283 Laundry Problem, 646 atural Exponential Function
Heredity Problem, 431 Lawn Mower Blade Problem , 143 Probl em , 303
Hero 's Formula and Impossibl e Law of Sines for Angles Problem, 262 New Subdivision Problem, 359
Triangles Problem, 258 Learning Curve Problem, 391 ormal Vector Proof Problem, 4 78
Hide-and -Seek Problem, 426 License Plate Problem, 406 Nuclear Reactor Project, 443
Highland Drive Problem , 86 Life Insuran ce Problems, 439 Numbere d Ind ex Card Problem, 440
Highway Rest Stop Prob lem, 459 Light Bulb Problem, 420 Numerical Solution of Equation
Hinged Rulers Problem , 279 Light int ensity Probl em, 44 7 Problems, 175
Hip Roof Problem, 4 72 Linear Combina tion of Cosine and
Historical Research Problem, 702 Sine Derivation Problem, 205 0
Historical Search Project, 401 Linear Function and Its Inverse Odd -Even Property Geometrica l Proof
Horizontal Line Test Problem, 43 Probl em, 33 Problem , 211
Horizontal Translation and Dilation Linear Function Probl em, 293 Odd-Even Property Proof, 211
Problem, 32 Lines Problem, 608 Oil Well Problem, 136
Horizontal Translation and Zeros Loan Problem, 666
The Other Function Fit Problem, 313
Problem, 680 Logarithmic and Exponential Function Other Quadrants Problem, 162
Horizontal vs. Vertical Graph s Problem , 334
Transformations Problem , 105 Logarithmic Function Problems,
Hose Probl em, 391 350, 448 p
Hose Reel Problem, 88 Logarithmic Function Vertical Dilation Paper Towel Problem, 144
Hot Water Prob lem, 384 and Translation Problem, 334 Parabo la Problems, 577, 609
Hyperbola Problems, 556, 576, 609 Logarithm of a Power Property Proof Parabolic Antenna Problem, 593
Hyperboloid Project, 590 Problem, 320 Parabolic Lamp Reflector Project, 586
Hyperboloids in Sketchpad Logarithm of a Power Quotient Proof Parametric Equations for Polar Curv es
Prob lem, 563 Problem, 320 Prob lem , 632
Inde
xofProbl
emTitles 829
Parametric Function Domain
Problem, 182
Push-ups Problem, 666
Pyramid Problem, 87
s
Sailboat Force Problem, 472
Partial Fractions Probl em, 704 Pythagorean Quadruples Sales Incentiv e Problem, 437
Partial Sum Proof Problem, 661 Problem, 485 Same Birthday Problem, 433
Pattern in Sine Values Problem, 79 Satellite Problems, 286, 287, 288, 290,
Pebble in the Tire Problem, 136 Q 596
Pendulum Problem, 193 Quadratic Function Problem, 510 Seating Problem, 406
Perfect Solo Problem, 432 Quadratic Function Sum and Product Secant Function Problem, 108
Permutations with Repea ted Elements of Zeros, 679 Seed Germination Problem, 438
Problems, 411 Quarter and Dime Epicycloid Problem, Seesaw Problem, 144
Perspective Probl em, 465 632 Sequences and Series Problems, 711
Piano Tuning Problem, 229 Quarter, Dime, and Nickel Problem, Serpentine Curve Problem, 627
Pick-Three Problem, 444 4-tO Shark Problem, 349
Piecewise Functions - Weight Above Quartic Function Sum and Product of Ship Collision Project, 626
and Below Earth's Surface Zeros Problem, 680 Ship's Propeller Problem, 143
Problem, 49 Quotient Property for Cota ngent Ship's Velocity Problem, 278
Piggy Bank Problem, 646 Problem, 109 Shock Felt Round the World Problem,
Pilgrim's Bean Crop Problem, 685 Quotient Property for Tangent 135
Plane's Equation Proof Problem, 4 78 Problems, 109 Shoe Box Construction Project, 489
Planetary Motion Science Fiction Shoe Size Problem, 30
Prob lem, 633 R Shortcuts for Projections Problem,
Planetary Period Problem, 364 Rabbit Overpopulation Problem, 342 473
Planet Diameter Problem, 86 Radioactive Tracer Problem, 309 Shot Put Problem, 143
Polar Coordinate Problems, 710 Radiosonde Air Pressure Problem, Sierpinski's Square Problem, 526
Population Growth Rate Problem, 380 383 Sierpinski's Triangle Problem, 526
Population of the United States Radio Station Problem, 265 Silversword Problem, 427
Prob lem, 327 Radioth era py Problem, 85 Sine Curve Trace r Problem, 183
Popu lation Problems, 345, 350, 386 The Rational Root Theorem, 706 Sine Doubl e Argument Property
Porpoising Problem, 150 Reading Problem, 302 Derivation Problem, 238
Power Function Problem, 293 Reciprocals of the Zeros Problem, 680 Sine Fun ction Problem, 56
Power-Reducing Identities Prob lem, Rectangle in Ellipse Problem, 563 Sine Times Cosine Ts a Sinusoid
230 Reflecting Property of a Parabola Problem, 238
Power Series Problem, 664 Prob lem, 594 Sine Wave Tracer Project, 79
Present Value Compow1d Interest Reflex Angle Prob lem, 283 Sinusoidal Regression Problem, 394
Problem , 659 Resear ch Problems, 14, 540, 621 Sinusoid Conjecture Probl ems, 2 3 7
Principal Branches of Sine and Cosine Research Projects, 335 , 693 Sinusoid Dilation Problem, 123
Problem, 83 Residuals Prob lem, 358 Sinusoid Prob lems, 237
Printed Paragraph Problem, 364 Review Problems, 419 Sinusoid Translation Problem, 123
Probability Distribution Prob lem, 448 Rise and Run Property for Quadratic Sit-Ups Prob lem, 360
Product of Two Sinuso ids Prob lem, Probl ems, 346 Six SSA Possib ilities Problem, 266
219 River Basin Problem, 378 Sketchpad Fractal Project, 530
Program for Cross Products Prob lem, River Bend Problem, 685 Slope Field Logistic Function Prob lem,
484 Roadrunners Problems, 365, 366 347
Projectile Motion Problem, 625 Rocket Problem, 277 The Snake Problem, 395
Projectile Problem , 181 Roller Coaster Problems, 133 , 630 Snowflake Curve Series Prob lem , 660
Proof of the Pythagorean Property of Roller Skating Problem, 609 Soccer Team Problems, 410
Direction Cosines, 490 Roof Valley Problem, 478 Sound Wave Problem, 13 7
Proof Prob lems, 380 Rope Swing Problem, 133 Spaceship Problems, 273, 426, 555
Proper Divisor s Problem, 433 Rose Problem, 610 Space Station Problems, 278 , 465
Pulley Problem, 145 Rotated Polar Graphs Problem, 609 Spherical Balloon Prob lem, 54
Pump Jack Prob lem, 151 Rotating Beacon Problem, 174 Spindletop Problem, 447
Pumpkin Sale Prob lem, 276 Rotating Lighthouse Beacon Spreading the News Prob lem, 340
Punctua li ty Prob lem, 444 Probl em, 109 Spreading the News Simu lation
Punctured Tire Problems, 40, 52 Rotation and Dilation from Equation, 34 1
Punted Footb all Problem , 40 Parametric Equations Project, 586
830 IndexofProblemTitles
Square and Square Root Functions, 32 Television Set Problem, 389 V
Square of a Sinusoid Problem, 193 Temperature-Depth Problem, 379 Variable Amplitude Pendu lum
Squares of Cosine and Sine Are Termi nal Position of 1A Prob lem, 238 Problem, 138
Sinu soids Problem, 238 Th ird Row Probl em, 522 Variable Triangle Problem, 258
A Square Wave Function and Fourier Three -Dimensiona l Distances Variable xy-Term Problem, 586
Series Project, 24-1 Proble m, 465 Vector Properties Problem, 460
Stadium Problem, 588 Three Gear Problem, 146 Velocity Problem, 272
Staircase Problem, 64 7 Three Wheel Probl em, 150 Vertical Linc Test Problem, 14
Standardized Test Scores Problem, Thumbtack Binomial Series Problem, Vincent and Maya's Walking Problem ,
360 660 663
Stea mb oat Problem, 132 Thumbtack Probl em, 431 Virus Probl em, 509
Step Discontinuity Prob lems, 38, 693 Tide Problems, 90, 135 Visibility Problem, 279
Step Functions-The Postage Stamp Tim and Lum's Board Pricing Visiting Problem, 426
Problem, 49 Problem, 698 Vitami n C Dosage Problem, 663
Stock Market Problem, 703 Torque Problem, 485 Vocabular y Problem, 4 73
Stopping Distance Problem, 7 Tractor Problem, 145 Volume Problem, 311
Stove Heating Element Problem, 7 Traffic Light Problems, 426, 431
Studio Problem, 276
Submarine Problems, 85, 564
Traffic Problem, 30
Train Probl ems, 703, 704
w
vValkingProblem, 625
Submarine Sonar Problem, 222 Transfo rma tion Problems, 228
Water Use Problem, 3 79
Sum of Two Sinuso ids Problem, 219 Tree House Problem, 464
Waterwheel Problem, 130
Sunk en Ship Problem, 89 Tree Problems, 663, 712
Weed Competition Problem, 385
Sunlight Under the Water Problem, Triang le Ineq ualit y Problem, -161
Weighted Average Problem, 442
345 Triangle in Parabola Problem, 563
Wheel and Grindstone
Sunrise Prob lem, 137 Triangu lar Block Probl em , 8 5
Problem, 145
Sunri se Project, 222 Trigono metri c lnequa lity Probl ems,
Why Barnsley's Method Works
Sun spot Prob lem, 134 175, 176
Problem, 539
Surpri se Problem, 176 Trip le Argument Prop erties Problems,
Wild Oats Problem, 58
Sur veying Problems, 85, 279 213, 620
Wind Chill Problem, 386
Swimming Prob lem , 272 Truck Problem, 146
Window Problem, 86
Synthetic Substitution Program Truss Problem, 276
Wind Velocity Prob lem, 278
Problem, 679 Tunne l Problem, 190
World Series Problem, 432
Systems of Quadrat ic Equations Two Linear Functions Problem, 54
Wrapp ing Function Problem, llS
Problem, 594 Two-Stage Rocket Problem, 684
T u X
xy-Term Problem, 556
Tallest Skyscraper Prob lem, 8-1 Underwater Research Lab
Tangent Function Problem, 108 Prob lem, 276
Telephone umber Problem, --106 Unknown Angle Problem, 258 z
Televis ion Set Pricing, 684 Uraniw n Fission Problem, 43 7 Zero Vector Problem, 274
Inde
xofProblem
Titles 831
General Index
A direction, 486 - 488 of a parallelogram, 482-483

AAS. See law of sines law of sines and, 261 of a triangle, 255-257, 275,483
absolute valu e, 45 measure of, notation for, 70, 112 argun1ent
of complex number (modulus), 615 measure of rotation al, 62-65 and comp lex numbers, 615
dilation and, 97 parameter t, 177 of a fun ction, 8, 95
of vector, 267, 453 ra dian meas ur e of. Seeractian tri gonometric vs. circul ar
absolute value transformations, meas ure functions ctistinguished by, 119
44-45 re fere nce. See reference angle See also composit e argument
absolute zero, 6 re flex, 283 properties; doubl e
add-add property of linear functions, specia l, 113-115 argument properties;
304,307 standar d position of, 62 half argument properties; trip le
adctition, axjoms for, 715- 716 symbo ls for, 63 , 252 argum ent properties
addition, opposite of sum and angular velocity, 139-140 arithmetic means, 648
differen ce property, 722 connected rotating obj ects and, arithm etic sequence(s), 639, 640-641,
addit ion property of equality, 718, 141- 142 644
719 reduction ratio, 147 arithmetic series, 639 , 650-651,
converse of, 718, 719 sing le rotating object and , 140-141 656
adctitive identity, 715 arc(s) ASA. See law of sines
adctitive inverses, 715 ractian measure and subt end ed, assoc iation of var iables, 356
add-multiply property of exponentia l 111-112 associa tive property
functions, 305,307 stan dar d position of, 118 axiom for addition, 716
add-multiply semilog graph paper, 370 arccosine (arccos) function axiom for multiplication, 716
adjacent leg, 68 calcu lator use and, 80, 81 exte nd ed, 726
adjoint matrix, 506-507 composi te of cosine and, 187-188 vector addition and, 2 74
algebra, fundamental theorem of, defined, 81 asymptotes
674-675 gra ph of, 185 defined ,4
algebrai c information, 3 principal branch of, 80, 185 horizontal, 4-5
algebraic numbers, 714 so lutions for, finding, 124-128, of hyperbolas, 547
ambiguous case (SSA),263-264 168-169, 171 ver tical . See vertica l asympto tes
amplitu de, 95 arcsine (ar csin) function at tr actor s. Seefixed point; fractals;
multiplication of sinuso ids and, 216 defined,81 strange attractors
variable, 216 graph of, 185 auxiliary Cartes ian graph, 602
analytic geometry of conic sections, principal br anch of, 185 average rate of change, 696
564-575 so lu tions for, finding, 169-170, 171 average, weighted, 435,442
anchor, 725 arctangent (arctan) function axjoms
angle(s) defined, 81 addition and multiplicat ion,
bearin g, 270-271 grap h of, 184 715-716
comp lementary . See principal branch of, 184- 185 defin ed, 715
comp lemen tary angles so lu tions for, finding, 169, 170-171 equalit y, 717
cotermina l, 63 area ord er, 717, 723
degree notation for, 70 as com p os ite fun ctio n , 22-23 prop erties proved from, 717-722
dihedral, 478 of a half-ellipse, 5 59-560 subtr action and divis ion, 716
833
axis of symmet r y, 5 5 7 centrip etal force, 277 compl ementa ry event s, 424-425
ellipses, 549, 557-558 chain react ion, 443 compl eti ng the squ are, 556
hyp erbolas , 5 5 7-5 58 circle(s) compl ex conj ugates
axle, 142 ellipse as transformations of, defined, 614
178- 179, 548 zeros of a fun ction as, 674-675
gra ph and equation of, 54 7, 548 comple x numb ers, 614, 713
B involute of, 629 in Cartesian form, 614-6 16
Barn sley, Michael, 524
param etric equ ations for, 5 51, 581 conversion of, 615-6 16
Barnsley's method, 524-525
polar equati ons for, 604-605 defin ed, 614
base changing in logarithms, 32 1- 323
cir cular fun ctions, 117- 121 op erations with, 616-6 19
base e, 297, 322
defined, 118- 119 in polar form , 614-6 19, 615
ba se 10, 29 7, 314-3 19, 322
as equivalent to trigonom etric zeros , 669, 674-675
bearing, 270-2 71
func tion s, 119 comp lex plan e, 614
bea ts, 223
graphs of, 119- 121 comp lex zeros, 669, 674-675
best- fittin g fun ction. See regr ess ion
inverse. See inverse relation s compon ent add ition of vector s,
bifolium gra ph, 606
circular permutations, 411 268-270
binomi al coefficient s, 654-655
cisso id of Diodes, 606 components of vectors, 454
bin omial expan sion. See binomi al
closed interv al, 170 composit e argume nt prop erties
ser ies
closure under addition, 715 for cosine, 198, 199-201, 208, 210
bin omia l experim ent, 429
vector addition and, 274 and dou ble argum ent prop erties,
bin omia l form ula (bin omial theo rem),
closur e under multiplication, 715 231, 232-233
655
coeffic ient(s) for sine, 208, 210
binomi al probability dis tribution,
bin omial, 654-655 solving trigonom etric equations
429-430
constant. See constants with, 210
binomi als, conjugate , 165- 166
correlat ion, 355-357 , 362 sum and product properties and ,
bin omia l series, 649 , 654-656
of determination, 355-357 224-227
binomial formula and, 655
leading, 670, 675 for tangent, 209-2 10
coefficients of, calculating,
coeffic ient of determination (r 2 ), composit e fun ctions . See compos ition
654 - 655
355-357, 372 of fun ction s
and fun ction of a random variable,
cofun ction s, 162 composition of fun ctio ns, 22-28
428-429
complementary angles and, defined, 28
prop erti es of, 656
206 - 207 domain and ran ge of, 26-28
binomi al theorem (binomial formula),
prop erti es of, 206 -2 07, 213 from equation s, 25-26
655
com bin ation s of function and its invers e,
Boole, George, 11
calculation of, 413 -4 17 187-188
Boolean variables , 11- 12
defined, 413 from graphs , 23-24
bran ch of fun ction, 50, 80-81,
probabilities of, 412 - 417 inside / outsid e fun ction s, 23
184- 185
symbol for numb ers of, 413 symbol s and notatio n for, 22-23
Briggs, Henr y, 316
See also permutations from tables , 24-25
combining like term s prop erty, 719 tran sfor mations as, 28
C comme nsurate matrix, 504, 50 5 compos ition of ordinates, 214-216
calculator s common difference, 641 amplitud e and, 216
approximate values of common logarithms (base 10), doubl e argum ent properties and,
trigonom etr ic fun ction s by, 75 314- 319, 322 231, 232-233
inverse fw1ction symbols on, 80, 81 common ratio, 642 Fourier se ries, 244 -2 4 5
See a lso grapher commutati ve propert y half argum ent prop erties and, 231,
calculu s, 701 axiom for addition, 716 234-236
cantilever beam, 684 axio m for multiplic ation , 716 products and squar es of cosin e
Cantor, Georg, 53 7 vector add ition and , 273 and sine and, 231-232
Cantor set, 537 compar ison axiom, 717 revers e of (harmoni c analysis),
cardioid s, 602, 604 comp lement ary angl es 216-2 18
Cart esian coordinate system. See cofun ction prop erti es an d, sinusoid al axis and , 215, 216
coordinate axes 206-20 7 sum and product prop erti es and,
Cartesia n equations of conic sections, and co-pr efix, 75, 79 223-227
546-551 , 552-553 , 582 defin ed, 206 compounded int erest , 641-64 2
834 General
Index
concavit y, 97, 293, 295, 296 cofunction prop erties and, exac t values of, 76- 77
conchoid of Nicomedes, 607-608 206-207 graphs of, 106-107
co1lic sect ions, 545 defin ed , 74 inverse of, 185
applications of, 587 exac t values of, 76- 77 notation for. 74
Cartesian eq uations of, 546-5 51, graph s of, 106-107 as odd function, 206
552-553, 582 inverse of, 185 Pyth agorean property ancl, 161
directrix of , 565-566 not ation for, 74 quoti ent prop erty an d , 107
ctiscriminant of, 582-584 as odd function, 206 recipro cal function of. See
eccentricity, 565-566 Pythagorean prop ert y and, 161 recipr ocal prop erty; tangent
focal distances, 567 reciprocal fun ction of. See function
focus, 564-565, 566 recipro cal propert y; sine function as term, 75, 79
graph s of, 545, 547, 550-55 1 as term, 75, 79 See also trigonom etr ic fun ctions
latu s rectum of, 580 See also trigo nometri c functions coterrninal ang les , 63
napp es of, 546 cosine (cos) function counting prin cipl es, 402-404
param etric equations of , 551-553 appro ximat e valu e of, 75 criti cal point s, 71
polar equations of, 600, 603-604 argument of, 95 of sinu soids, 97 -9 8
Pythagorean property for, 568 cofunction properti es and, See also ver tex (vertices)
radii of, 56 7 206-207 cross produ cts , 4 79-483
two-foci properties, 567 compos ite argument property and, cubi c fun ction (s)
See also quadri c surfaces; rotated 198, 199-2 01, 208, 210 co ns tan t-t h ird -d ifferences
con ics definition by coorctinate form, 7--1 prop ert y and, 313,68 1
conju gate axis, 557 definition by right triang le, 68, 74 as polynomial function, 9
conj u gate binonlials, 165-166 definition for any size ang le, 68-69 sums and products of ze ros of,
conju gate pairs of ze ros, 674, 675 degree notation and, 70 675-677
co nju ga te radius, 566 direction, 486-488 zeroes of, 669, 6 71
co nju ga tes, comp lex. See comp lex doub le argument prop ert ies for, Curie, Marie, 296
conju gates 231, 232-233 curtate cycloicl(s), 636
co nsta nt function, 294 as even function, 205 - 206 cusp,602-603
constant-nth-di fferences property, exact values of, 76- 77 cycle of sinusoid, 95
681 half argum ent prop erty for, 231, cycloid(s)
constants 234-236 curtate, 636
add -add property and, 304 inverse function of. See arccosine ep icycloid, 628 , 711
constant -second-differences linear combination property and, param etric eq uation s of, 623-624
property, 306, 307 198- 199 prolate, 628
constant-third-differences nota tion for, 69 cylind er(s), graphs of, 179
property, 313 as p eriodic fun ction, 66- 71
multiphcation fac tor, 443 principal branch of, 80 D
proportionality, 295 Pythagorean prop ert y and, data
symbo ls for, 9 160-161 findin g fun ctions from, 352-383
continuous funct ions, 639, 640 reciprocal function of. See fittin g polynomial functions to,
contradiction, proof by, 723-725 reciprocal property; sec ant 680-682
convergence of partial sum s, function decibel, 315
652-653, 727 of a reference ang le, 72 degree mod e of grapher, 61
convex ity, 97 sign of, 69 degree of angle
convex polygon(s), 280 tang ent and cotangent quoti ent conversion to/ from ractians, 112-113
coo rdin ate axes prop ertie s and, 107 notation for, 70
auxiliary graph on, 602 as term, 75, 79 origin of, 111
comple x numb ers on , 614-616 See also sinu so id(s); trigonometric degre e of pol ynomial, 670, 686
reflections across, 43-44 functions De Moivre, Abraham , 62 1
standard po sition of angle on, 62 cosi n es, law of, 250-253, 274 De Moivre's th eorem, 618-619
See also polar coorctinates .- ---, cota ngent (cot) fun ction dependent var iable, 3-4
corre lation coefficient (r), 355-357, approximate value of, 75 f(x) notati on and, 8-9
362 cofunction prop erti es and, graphing, 3-5
cosecant (csc) fun ction 206-207 See al so range
approxima te value of, 75 defined, 74 depreciation, 646
General
Index 835
derivative (instantaneous rate of of number by itself, property, 722 cancellation prop erty of, for
change), 694-697, 701 of numbers with opposite signs, multiplication, 720
derivative function, 701 prop erty, 722 converse of addition property, 718
determinants, 481 by 1, prop erty, 722 multiplication property of, 719
cross products and, 481 domain(s ) equal vectors, 267, 453
of matrices, 506 of composite fun ctions, 26-28 equations
deviations, 355 defin ed,4 of circular functions, 120
defined, 3 5 7 interval notation for, 170 completing the square and, 556
residual. See residual(s) of inverse trigonom etric composite functions from, 25-26
sum of the squares of the , 355-357 functions, 81 of ellipse, 178, 545
differences of piecewis e function, 45, 50 identities, 162-166
cons tant-s econd -differences restricted, ll - 12 as information source, 3
property, 306 , 307 See also range of inverse trigonometric functions
constant third, 313 dominate, highest-degree term as, 686 (arccos, arcsin, arctan), 124-128,
opposite of sum and, property , dot products , 466-469 168-171
~
defined, 46 7 lin ear combination, 198
dihe~~ angle, 4 78 double argument properties, 231, of lines , 490-493, 605
dilation(s) , 15-17, 18-19 232-233 logarithmic, 324-326
factors for, 548 double zeros, 669, 674 numerical solutions, 172
inside and outside duality property, 162 parametric. See parametric
transformations, 17 equations
matrices and, 5ll, 516-5 17, 519 E of piecewise functions, 50
of a parabola, 552 e, 297, 322 o( plane, 4 74-4 77
periods and, 97 eccen tricity , 565-566, 569-573 polar. See polar equations
of unit circle to ellipse, 548 Einstein, Albert, 466 quadratic . See quadratic equations
dimension, fractal, 530-534 elements of a matrix, 504 regression, 355,357
dimensional analysis, 113, 141 ellipse(s), 178 sinusoidal, 96-97
direction angles, 486-488 area of half-ellips e, 5 59- 560 of tangent line, 696-697
direction cosines, 486-488 Cartesian equations for, 548 trigonometric. See trigonometric
direction of vector, 266 center-radius form of equation for, equations, solving
dir ectrix , 565-566 545 vector, of lines in space, 490-493
dir ectrix radius, 566 defin ed, 567 See also general eq~ ions
direct variation functions, 9 directrix of, 565, 566 even function(s), 45-4 ~
discontinuous functions, 687-690 eccentricity of, 565, 566, 569 cosine as , 205-206
discontinuous graphs, 105-106, focus of, 564, 566 defined , 46
687-688 graphs of, 548 events
discrete data points, 313, 639 major axis of, 549 complementary, 424-425
discret e functions, 40-41, 640 minor axis of, 549 defined,400
discriminant, of a conic section, parametric equations for, 178, independent, 402-403
582-584 581 intersection of, 421-422
displac eme nt , 44, 266 polar equations for, 600, 603-604 mutually exclusive, 403
periodic functions and , 68-69 Pythagorean property of, 568 overlapping, 403-404
phase , 95 radii of, 566, 569, 569-573 union of, 422-423
vector of, 453, 454 recognition of, 54 7 explicit formula for sequences, 641,
See also distance transformation of unit circle to, 643-644
distance, defined, 45 178- 179, 548 exponential function(s), 293
distance formula, ZOO ellipsis format, 75 add-multiply property of,
distributive property ellipsoid(s), 5 58 305,307
axiom for multiplication, 716 endpoint behavior, 361-362, 383 base e, 297
for division, 721 envelop e, 216 defined, 10
extended, 723-724, 725-726 envelope curve, 217 general equation of, 10, 296, 297
for subtraction, 721 ep icycloid(s), 628, 711 geometric sequence as, 644
divergence of partial sums, 653 equality graphs of, 10, 296
division addition prop erty of, 718 inverse of. See logarithmic
definition of, 716 axioms for, 717 function(s)
836 Ge
neralIndex
lineari zing dat a, 36 7- 36 8, 369 composite. See composition of power. Seepower function(s)
parent function, 296 functions as pre-ima ge, 15
regression and, 36 1-362, 367-368, constant, 294 quadrati c. See quadratic
371-372, 381-383 continuous, 639, 640 function(s)
residual plot s and , 381 -38 3 critical points of. See critical of a rand om variable, 428-429
special functions, 297 points; vertex (vertices) range of. Seerange
tran sform ed fun ction , 296 cub ic. See cubic fun ction (s) rational. Seerational algebraic
exponents defined , 8 function(s)
logarithms as, 315, 316-317, dependent variable of, 3-5 removable discontinuity in,
321-322 derivative, 701 688 -689
of pol ynomials, 67 1 direct variation, 9 sinusoidal. See sinusoid(s)
extrapo lation, 6 discontinuous, 687 -6 90 strictly increasing / decreas ing, 36
extreme point, 67 1. See also criti cal discrete, 40-41, 640 transformations of. See
point s; ver tex (vertices) domain of. See domain(s) transformation(s)
even. See even function(s) verbal description of, 4
F exponential. See exponential vertical line test of, 4
r- (x), not at ion of, 36
1 function(s) wrapping, 111,115
f (x), notation of, 8-9 graphs of. See graphs and x-intercept(s) of, 8
factorial s, 408-409 , 654-655 graphing y-intercept of, 8
factor th eore m, 673 greatest integ er, 49 y-value of, 9, 354-355
Fibonac ci numbers, 646 hori zontal line test of, 43 zeros of. See zeros of a function
Fibonac ci sequence, 646-647 identification of, by grap h shape, fundamental theorem of algebra,
field axioms, 715-716 293-301 674-675
first octant, 462
five-leaved rose, 603
fixed point , 517-52 0
identification of, by numerical
patterns, 304-310
image of, 15
j G
gear train, 147
fixed po sition, 408 independent variable of, 3-5 general equation s
focal dista n ces input for, 23 conic section, 550-551
ellipse, 567 inside, 23 , 28 direct variation function, 9
hyp erbola, 567 instantaneous rate of chang e of exponential function, 10, 296, 297
parabol a, 574-575 (derivative), 694-697, 701 inverse variation function, 10
focal radiu s, 566 inverse of. Seeinverse function(s) linear functions, 9, 294
focus (foci), 564-565 , 566 invers e variation, 10 logarithmic function, 329
focus-dir ectix prop erty, 566, 570 invertible. Seeinvertibl e logistic function, 33 7
Foucault , Leon, 193 function(s) polynomial function, 9
Foucault's pendulum, 155, 193 linear. See linear function(s) power function , 10, 295
Fourier, Jean-Baptist e-Joseph, 245 logarithmic. Seelogarithmic quadratic function, 9, 295
Fourier series, 244-245 function(s) rational function , 11
four-leaved rose, 60 7, 610- 611 logistic. Seelogistic function(s) sinusoidal function, 96
fractals, 524-525, 531 as mathematical models, 3 geometric means, 648
Cantor se t, 537 naming, 9-11 geometric sequences, 639, 641-642,
dimen sion s of, 530-534 notation for, 8-9 644
Mandelbrot set, 540 numerical information from, 3 geometric series, 639, 651-652, 656
Sierpinski's triangl e, 526 numerical patterns of, 304-310 inductive proof of, 727
snowflake curv e, 529-530, odd. See odd function(s) geometry
532-534 , 660 one-to-one. Seeone-to-one analytic , of conic sections,
frequen cy, 96, 97 function 564-575
friendl y window, 16 ordered pairs and, 8 cross produ cts and, 481-483
fun ction s output for, 23 golden ratio, 647
algebraic information from. See outsid e, 23, 28 grapher
equations parametric, 176-179 conic sections by, 550-551
argum ent of. See argument periodic. Seeperiodi c function degree mode, 61
asymptotes of. See asymptot es piecewise, 45 , 50 ellipses incomplete on, 584
circular. See circu lar function s polynomial. Seepolynomial friendl y windows in, 16
cofunctions. See cofunctions function(s) parametric mode, 177, 184
General
Index 837
grapher (continued) of po lar equation s, 600-605, provin g, 163-166
p artia l sums on, 649 606-607 identity matrix, 506 - 507
period multiples and, 128 reciproca ls of tri gonomet ric image
polar mod e, 602 functio ns an d, 106-107 of a figur e, 511
radian mode, llO restr icted domains and, 11- 12 of a function, 15
sequence mode, 641 serni log graph paper, 346, 3 70, image matr ix, 511
graph ical inform atio n , 3 375- 376 imagina ry numb ers, 614-615
graph s and grap hin g serp entin e curve, 627 imaginary part of complex numb er,
abso lut e value transformations, 45 of sine function, 61 614
auxiliary Cartesian gra ph, 602 of sinu soids, 96-102 , 214-216 im aginary unit (i), 614, 615
bifolium, 606 sp iral, 607 inclin omet er, 283
cardioid, 602 step discon tinuity in, 48-49 incomm ensurat e matrix , 504 , 50 5
of circul ar functions, 119-121 th.ree-leaved ro se, 607 ind epe nd ent events, 402-403
cissoid of Dioclese, 606 transforma tion s. See independent variable, 3-4
of composit e functions, 26-27 transformation(s) graphin g, 3-5
compo site functions from, 23-24 var iabl e sinusoidal axis, 215 param ete r, 177
of composite sinu so ids, 214-216 vert ical line test, 14 See also domain (s}
concavity, 97, 293, 295, 296 grea test int eger functions, 49 indeterminat e form, 688, 690
conchoid of Nicomed es , 607-608 indu ction hypoth esis, 725
conic sections, 545, 546 H indu ction, math emat ical, 723-728
cusp, 602-603 half argu m en t prop ert ies , 231, indu ction prin cipl e, 725
cycloid, 623 - 624, 62 8 234-236 inequalities
of a cylind er, 179 har moni c analy sis, 214, 216-218 triangle, for vectors, 461
depende nt var iable on, 3-5 h armoni c sequ ence s, 657 tri gonom et ric, 175
discontinuou s, 105-106, 68 7-688 harmonic series, 658 infinite form, 688, 690
even and odd functions, 45-46 Hausdorf, Felix, 531 infini ty symbo l, 690
extrapo lation in, 6 Hausdorf dimension, 532 infl ection point s, 97
five-leaved rose, 603 head of vecto r, 267, 453 initial condition, 347
four-leaved rose, 607, 610-611 Hero of Alexand.ria, 256 inner products (dot produ cts),
of fun ction types, 9-11, 293-301 Hero's formula, 256-257, 275 466-469
harmonj c ana lysis of, 216-218 hori zontal asymptotes, 4-5 input for function, 23
hori zo ntal line test, 43 hori zont al axis, 4 inside function, 23, 28
identification of functions by hori zonta l line test, 4 3 in side tran sformation, 17, 28
shape of, 293-301 hyp er bola(s) inst ant aneo us rate of chang e
ind epend ent variab le on, 3-5 axes of symmetry of, 557-558 (deriva tive), 694-697, 701
infl ection points, 97 defined, 567 integer, 714
as information source, 3 dir ect rix of, 565 interpol ation, 6
instantan eous rate (derivative) on, ecce ntricity of, 565, 566, 569 int ers ection
696 focus of, 564 ofevents,421-422
interpolation in, 6 gra ph and equation for, 54 7, 548 , of polar curv es, 610-611
of invers e fun ctions , 34- 35 , 36-38, 550 of region s, 175
39, 184- 186 parametr ic equation s for, 551-552 , interval notation, 170
of invers e trigonometric functions, 581 inverse circular re lations . Seeinverse
184- 186 po lar coordinates and, 604 relations
lemniscat e of Bernoulli, 607 Pythagorean prop ert y of, 568 inverse function( s), 33-39
lima c;on of Pas cal, 600, 602, 604, radii of, 566 , 569 , 569-573 algebraically, 3 5-36
610-611 hyper boloid(s), 558-559 circular. See invers e relations
of linear combination prop erty, hypo tenus e, 68, 69 composite of a function and its,
198-199 hypoth esis, induction, 725 187-188
of logar ithmic functions, 328-329 defined, 39
log-log graph paper , 346, 369, 370, exac t valu es of, 186- 18 7
372-374 I graphs of, 34-35 , 36-38 , 39,
ordered pai.rs on, 8 i (imaginary unit ), 614, 615 184-186
param etr ic equations and, 37- 38, identiti es invertibl e functions. See invertible
178-179 defined, 162 function(s)
838 Genera
l Index
notation for, 81 leas t element , axiom for, 723 single rot ating object and , 140- 141
nume rically, 34 Leibniz, Gott fried Wilh elm , 694 lines in spa ce, vector equations of,
pronunciation of notation, 81 lemn iscate of Berno ulli , 607 490-493
symb ols for, 34 length of vect or. Seevector(s): logari thm (s)
trigonometr ic. Seeinverse ab solu te value of chang e-of-ba se prop erty,
trigonometric functions lima<;on o f Pasca l, 600 , 602, 604, 32 1- 323
inverse matrices, 506 610-6 11 common (ba se 10), 314-3 19, 322
inve rse relations, 33, 124-128. See lim it defined , 316
also arccosine funct ion; arcs in e defi n ed, 688 equation s of, so lving, 324 - 32 6
a
funct ion; arctangent function; deriva tive as , 695, 696 tor y of, 316
inverse trigonometr ic functions of fixed poin t attr actor , 517- 518 eari za tion of da ta usin g,
inverse trigonometr ic funct ion(s), notation for, 688, 690 67-3 76
80-8 1 of p ar tial sum , 653 -log and semil og graph pap er,
cofunction properties for, 213 of ration al fun ction, findin g, 346,369-370 , 372-3 75
composite of a fun ction and, 689-690 Napierian , 335
187-188 line(s) natur al, 322
defined, 81 polar equ ation s for, 605 of a p ower, 315, 316, 318, 324
exact values of, 186-18 7 skew, 498 of a produ ct, 315, 316, 317, 318,
notation for, 81 tangent, deriva tive and, 696-697 324
princ ipa l br anch an d, 80-81, vec tor equ ations of, in spac e, prop erti es of, 314- 319, 321-324
184-185 490-493 a quot ient, 315, 316, 317-3 18,
principa l value, 126 lin ear combina tion prop ert y, 198- 199 324
ranges of, 185-186 linear equ a tion syste m s, ma tri x logarithmi c ftmcti on(s), 328-332
r ight triang le prob lem s and, 80-8 1 so lution of, 507-5 08 as expon ent, 315, 316-3 17, 321- 322
See also inve rse relatio n s lin ear fun ction(s), 293 expr essi on s simplifi ed usin g,
inverse varia tion function(s), 10 add- add prop ert y of, 304 , 307 318-3 19
inverti ble funct ion(s), 36-38 arithm etic sequ en ce as, 644 I(:) general equation of, 329
def in ed, 39 bes t-fittin g, 353 graphs of, 328-329
hori zo n tal lin e test for, 43 cons tant , 294 multip ly-add prop er ty of, 32 8,
invo lu te of a circle, 629 defin ed , 9 r 329 - 330
irr ational nu mbers, 713- 714 gen era l equa tion of , 9, 294 p ar ticul ar equ ation s for, 330-332
itera tion, 503 graph of, 9 ,,1eg ression and, 364
fixed po int limit of, 517-520 graph s of, 294 logistic fun ction(s), 336-339
of matrix transformations, inverse of, 38 l expon ential functi on compar ed to,
512-513, 517 pare n t fun ction, 294 337
Sierpinsk i's carpet an d , 503, point -slop e form , 294 general equ ation for, 337
526-527 regr ess ion and . See linear graph s of, 336-337 , 339
strange a ttractors and, 522-525 regr ession prop erti es of, 339
See also fracta ls slop e-int ercept form , 294 regress ion and , 366
tr ans forme d fun ction , 294 log-log graph p aper, 346, 369 , 370,
lineari zing data 372-3 74
J exp on en tial fun ction , 367-36 8, lower b ound , 97-98
jo urn al, 50-5 1
369
p ower fun ction, 368 -36 9
K linear regression, 353, 354- 357 M
Koch's snow flake cur ve, 529-530, endpoint beh avior and , 362 Maclaurin series, 664 - 665
532-534,660 equ ation , 357 Magnifi cati on . See dilation
log-log and semilog graph pap er magnitude, 266, 4 51, 4 53
L for, 346, 369-3 70, 372-375 main diagon al, 506
lat us rectu m , 580 residu al plot s and , 381- 383 major axis of ellip se , 549
law of cos ines, 250-253, 274 tr ans formati on of data for, major diam eter, 567
law of sines, 258-261, 275 367-376 major radiu s, 566, 567
leading coefficient linear velocity, 139- 140 Mand elbrot se t, 540
defined, 670 conn ected ro tatin g obj ects and , math emati cal expectation, 4 34-4 36
negative, 675 141-142 math emati cal induction, 723- 728
Genera
l Index 83 9
mathematical models converse of zero property, 720 sine and tangent as, 205 -206
defined, 3 of equality , 719 See also even function(s)
residual plots and, 381-383 of fractions, 720 one-to-one function, 36, 39
sinusoids as, 130-131 of-1, 720 principal branch as, 80, 185
matrix (matrices) provable from axioms, 719-720 open interval, 170
addition and subtraction of, 504 of two opposites, 721 opposite leg, 68
adjoint, 506-507 of zero, 720 opposite of an opposite property, 720
combin ed transformations with, multiplicative identity, 715 opposite of sum and difference
516- 517, 519 multiplicative inverses, 715 property, 722
commensurate, 504, 505 multiply -add property of logarithmic opposites of equal numbers property,
defined, 504 functions, 328 , 329-330 721
det ermina nts of, 506 multiply-add semilog graph paper, opposite vector, 453
dilations with, 5ll, 516-517, 519 370, 375 - 376 order, axioms for, 717
elements of, 504 multiply-multiply property of ordered pairs, 8
fixed point and, 517-520 functions, 305 -306, 307 ordinates, composition of. See
identity, 506-507 mutually exclusive events, 403 composition of ordinates
incommensurate, 504, 505 outcomes
inverses, 506 N counting principles, 402-404
iterated transformations with, Napier, John, 316 defined,400
512-513, 516-517 Napierian logarithms, 33 5 outer product (cross product),
multiplication by a scalar, 505 natural logar ithms, 322 479 - 483
multiplication of two matrices, nested form of a polynomial, 672 output for function, 23
505 -507 Newton , Sir Isaac, 694 outside function, 23, 28
multipliers of zero, 510 nonconve x polygon(s), 283 outside transformation, 17, 28
rotations with, 5ll-512, 516- 517, notation. See symbols and notation overlapping events, 403-404
519 numbers , 713-714
solution of a linear system, algebraic, 714 p
507-508 comp lex. See complex numbers parabola(s), 295
stra ng e attractors and, 522-525 Fibonacci, 646 defined , 574
transformation matrix, 511 imaginary, 614-615 directrix of, 565
translations with, 515-517, 519 irrational, 713-714 eccentricity of, 565, 566
ma ximum sustainable population, rational, 713 focal distance of, 574-575
347 real, 614, 675 focus-directrix equa tion of, 5 75
Maxwell, James Clerk, 507 transcend en tal, 714 f<?CUS of, 564
mean, 354 numerical information, 3 graphs and equations for, 547, 548,
means, arithmetic and geometric, 648 552-553
microcuries, 309 parametric equations of, 553, 581
minimum, sum of the squares of th e 0 polar coordinates and, 604
residuals as, 3 5 3 oblate spheroid, 558 paraboloid(s), 5 5 7
minimum sustainable population, 347 oblique triangle(s) cylinder inscribed in, 561
Minkowski, Herman, 466 ambiguous case (SSA),263-264 par allelograms, area of, 482-483
minor axis of ellipse, 549 area of, 255-257 parameter, 177
minor radius, 566 defined, 249 parametric equations, 177
modulus, 615 law of cosines and (SAS), 250-253, of a circle, 551, 581
moving objects 274 eliminating the parameter,
instantaneous rate of change of law of sines and (AAS, ASA), 177-178
(derivative), 694-697, 701 259 - 261, 275 of an ellipse, 178, 581
parametric equations for, 621-624 summary of techniques for, graphing inverse relations with,
polynomial functions fitt ed to, 274-275 37-38
680-682 obtuse triangle(s), 251 from graphs, 178-179
multiplication, axioms for, 715-716 octants, 462 of a hyperbola, 551-55 2, 581
multiplication factor, 443 odd -even function properties, and moving objects, polar
multiplication properties 205-206 equations for, 621-624
cancellation property of equality, odd function(s), 45-46 of a parabola, 553, 581
720 defined,46 of rotated conics, 580-581
840 General
Index
parametric functions, 176-179 polar equat ion s, 599 criteria for selectin g, 185
parent function, 70-71 of conic sec tions, 600, 603-604 d efin ed, 80-81
parity, 206. See also even function(s); graphs of, 600-605, 606-607 principal value, 126
odd function(s) parametric functions and , 621-624 probability, 399
partial fractions, 690-691 of special circles and lines, binomial distribution, 429-430
partial sum of a ser ies 604-605 combin at ions, 412-4 17
algebraic computation of, 650-652 pole, 599, 600 complementary even ts, 424-425
convergence of, 652-653, 727 polygo n(s) countin g principles, 402-404
divergence of, 653 convex, 280 defin ed, 400-401
Fourier ser ies, 244-245 nonconvex, 283 distributi on of, 429
on a grap her , 649 polynomial expressions, 670 fun ction of a rand om variable as,
Lnductive proofs of formulas for, polynomial funct ion(s), 670 428-4 29
727-728 constan t-nth -differences property int ersection of events, 421-422
ma notation for, 650 and ,681 math em atical exp ecta tion ,
Pascal's triangle, 654 defined, 9 4 34-436
p degree of, 6 70 uni on of events , 422-423
calculat ion of, 97 derivative function of, 701 words associated with, 400-401
defLned, 67 division of, 672 See also permutati ons
frequency as reciprocal of, 96 factor th eore m and, 673 probabilit y distribution, 429
unequal, compos ition of sinusoids as finite sum of power fun ction, produ ct
with, 214-2 16 670-67 1 of complex numb ers in polar form,
per iodic function, 56 fitting to dat a, 680-682 617-6 18
defined,67 genera l equa tion of, 9 cross (outer, vector), 4 79-483,
per iodicity of sine and cosine, 69- 71 grap hs of, 9, 670, 671 480
permutations, 407-409 lea ding coeffic ient of, 670, 675 dot (inne r, sca lar), 466-469
calcu lation technique, 415 nested form, 672 logarithm of, 315, 316, 317, 318,
circular , -Hl remai nd er theore m and, 672-673 324
combinat ion s, 412-417 synt hetic substitution and, recipro cal of, property, 720
defined,407 671-674 scalar and mat rix, 505
factorials, 408-409 zeros of. See zeros of a scalar and vector, 45 1
fixed position and, 408 function of two opposites, property, 721
wit h repeated elements, 411 polynomial op eration s, 670 product of two op po sites property,
restri cted position and, 408 population, minimum / maxim um 721
symbols for numbers of, 413 su sta inable, 34 7 product pr ope rti es (sum and product
See also comb inations position vector, 4 51, 453 prop er ties), 223 - 227
phase displacement, 95 power function(s), 293 prolat e cycloid(s), 628
piecewise function, 45 defined, 10 prolat e spheroid(s), 559
branch of, 50 derivative of, 701 proofs
planes in space genera l equa tion of, 10, 295 by contr adiction , 723-725
equation of, 474-477 graphs of, 10, 296 of iden tities, 163-166
x-intercept of, 477 lir\ear izing data, 368 , 369 inducti ve, 727-728
point-slope form, 294 multipl y-multipl y property, of quoti ent property, 159- 160
po in ts of inflection, 9 7 305-306 , 307 of swn of series, 727-728
po lar axis, 600, 601 parent function, 295 writin g, 164
po lar coord inates, 599 proportionality constant, 295 prop er divisor, 433
complex numbers and, 614-619 regression and, 361-362 , 368-369, p-seri es, 711
defined, 601 372-374 Pythagorean prop erties , 160-161
inter sect ions of polar curves, sum of fini te numb er of. See dire ction cos ines, 487
610-611 polynomial functions elimin ating the parameter and,
lima c;on of Pascal, 600, 602, 604, transformed, 295 177-17 8
610-611 powerseries,664-665 for ellip ses, 568
notation for, 600-601 pre-image for hyp erbo las, 568
polar axis, 600, 601 of a function, 15 transformation s using, 163- 166
pole, 599, 600 itera tion and, 503, 511 for trigonometric functions,
properties of, 601 prin cipal bran ch for inverse fun ction 160- 161
General
Index 841
Pythagor ean quadrupl e, 48 5 defined,4 exact valu es of trigonometri c
Pythagorean theor em, thr ee- of inver se tri gonometric functions, functions and, 77
dim ensional, 465 185- 186, 186 sine and cosine of, 72
See also domain(s) refer ence triangle, 68-69
Q rat e reflection( s), 4 3- 44
Q.E.D ., 38 average, 696 absolute value and, 45
quadratic equation s defined, 694 across coordinat e axes , 43-44
gen eral, 9 instantan eous (derivative), of even and odd functions, 45 -46
solving, 172 694 -6 97, 701 reflex angle(s), 283
in three variables. See qu adri c rational function(s), 68 7 reflexive axiom for equali ty, 717
surfaces defined, ll re gress ion
in two variables . See conic sections iliscontinuous, 687-690 endpoint beh avior , 361-362, 383
quadratic formula general equation of, ll exponential, 36 1-3 62 , 367-3 68,
SSA calculation and, 264 graph of, ll 371- 372 , 381-383
trigonometric solutions and, 172 ind eterm inat e form of, 688, 690 linear. See linear regression
quadratic function(s), 29 3 infinit e form of, 688, 690 logarithmic, 364, 375-3 76
constant-second-differences limit of, finding, 689 - 690 logistic, 366
property for, 306, 307 partial fraction s of, finding, power, 361-362, 368 - 369 , 3 72-3 74
defin ed, 7, 9 690-691 quadratic, 366 -3 67, 372
genera l equation of, 9, 295 rational numb er s, 713 re sidua l plots, 38 1-3 83
graphs of, 9, 29 5 multipli cation prop er ty of, 720 sinusoidal, 394
invers e of, 36-3 7 rational root th eor em, 706 regress ion equation, 3 5 5, 3 5 7
parent function, 295 real numb er s regression lin e, 3 53
regress ion and, 366-367, 372 in complex numb ers, 614 r elation, defin ed, 8
transform ed, 295 defin ed, 714 r emainder theorem, 67 2-67 3
vertex, 295, 671 prop erties provabl e from axioms, removabl e dis continuity , 688-689
ver tex form, 295 715- 718 repeat ed elem ents, permutations
zeros of, 6 71 zero s of a function and, 675 with , 4ll
quadric surfaces, 55 7-55 9 reciprocal(s) residual(s), 3 53
inscrib ed figur es within, 559-562 of complex numbers in polar form, defined, 3 5 7
quartic function 617- 618 plot s of , 381-383
as a polynomial, 9 conics and limac;ons relationships, sum of the square of the , 353,
properties of, 671 604 354-357
quotient properties division defined by, 716 residual deviation . See r esidual(s)
cotangent, 107 of equal numbers, prop erty, 721 residual plot, 381-383
proofs of , 159-160 of 1, property, 722 resolving vectors, 269
tang ent, 107 parity of, 206 restrict ed domains, ll-12
of a product, prop erty, 720 restricted position, 408
R r eciproca l of a, property, 720 resultant vector, 4 53
radian measure, ll0 - ll5 r eciprocal function , 302 Richter magnitude, 333
conversion from revolutions/min, r eciprocal property of trigonometric right-handed coordinate system, 480
141 functions, 73 right-hand rule, 479
conversion from / to degrees, and graphin g of trigonometri c right triangle problem s, invers e
ll2 - ll 3 functions, 106- 107 trigonometri c functions and, 80- 81
defin ed, 112 not ation for inverse function roots, of a compl ex numb er, 619
notation for, ll 2, ll9 ilistinguish ed from , 80, 81 rotar y motion, 138-142
of sp ecial angles , ll 3- ll5 pattern of, 73 connected rotating objects,
radius (radii) summary of, 158-159 141-142
composite function and, 22-23 See also trigonom etri c functions; notation for, 139
of conic section s, 566, 569-573 specific fun ctions listed by name reduction ratio, 147
perioilic functions and, 68 -69 recursion formula for sequences, 641, single rotating object, 140-141
random experiment, 400 64 2-644 rotat ed conics, 580 -58 1
random variable, function of, 428-4 30 reduction ratio, 147 rotation
range ref erence angle, 63-65 matrice s and, 511-512, 516-5 17, 519
of composite functions, 26-28 defin ed, 64 measur ement of, 61, 62 -65
842 Genera
l Index
s permutation s in. See permut ations
sym bol for element of, 170
period of. See period
products of, with equal periods ,
samp le point, 559
samp le space, 400 Sierpin ski's squar e (Sierpin ski's 231-232
SAS. See law of cosines carpe0 , 503, 526-527 products of, with un equal periods ,
sawtoot h wave pat tern, 245 Sierpinski' s tri angl e, 526 215-2 16
scalar products (dot products), sigma not ation, 650 pronunci ation of term, 61
466-469 sim pl e event , 400 regression and, 394
I
scalar proje ction , 4 70, 4 73 sine (sin) function, 61 sums of, with equal periods . See
scalars J approximate value of, 75
cofun ction prop erti es and,
compo site argument properties
sums of, with un equal periods,
defined, 266 , 453
matri x multipli ca tion by, 505 206-207 214-215
vector multipli cation by, 45 1 compo site argument prop erty for, upper bound , 97- 98
secant (sec) fun ction 208, 210 sinusoidal axis, 96
appr oximate value of, 75 and cosecan t graph, 106-107 addit ion of sinusoids and ,
cofunction prop erti es and , definition by coordinat e form, 74 215,216
206-207 definition by right trian gle, 68, 74 sy111bolfor, 98
defined, 74 definition for any size angl e, variab le, 215
as even function , 206 68-69 skew lines, 498
exact values of, 76-77 doubl e argwnent prop ert y for, 233 slide rule s, 316
graph s of, 106-107 exact values of, 76- 77 slope, 90
inverse of, 185 graph of, 61 derivativ e and, 696
notati on for, 74 half argument property for, 235 graphs and, 295
Pythagorea n property and , 161 inverse function of. See arcsine linear equation form s and, 294
reciprocal function of. See cosine function slop e field, 34 7
(cos) funct ion; recipro cal linea r combination prop erty and, slope-intercept form, 294
prop erty 198-199 snowflak e curve, 529-53 0, 532-534 ,
as term, 74, 75 notation for, 69 660
See also trigonometric functions as odd fun ction, 205-206 sound, 197
second differenc es, 306 as parent funct ion, 70-71 beats, 22 3
self-similar figur es, 524 , 531 as periodic fun ction, 56, 66-71 dec ibels, 315
semilog graph pap er, 346, 3 70, Pythagorea n propert y and , wavelength, 137
375- 376 160-161 spec ial angles, radian m easur es of,
sensitiv e depend ence on initial reciprocal function of. See 113- 115
con diti ons, 685 cosecant (csc) fun ction; sp eed, 268
sequenc e(s), 639 r eciproca l property sp heroid(s), 558
arithm etic, 639, 640-6 41, 644 of referen ce angle, 72 spiral, 607
defin ed, 643,644 sign of, 69 square( s)
exp licit formul a, 64 1, 643-644 tangent and cota ngent quoti en t of a real nwnber, prop er ty, 721
geometric, 639, 64 1-642, 644 propert ies and, 107 of sinu soids, 231-232
harmonic, 657 See also sinu soid(s); trigonom etric sum of. See sum of the squar es
mean s and , 648 fun ction s swn of series of, inductive proof
recursio n formula, 641, 642-644 sines, law of, 259-261, 275 of, 728
term s, finding, 644 sinu soid (s), 61 square , compl eting the, 5 55
series, 639 amp litud e of. See amplitud e squar e matrix, 504
arithm etic, 639, 650-65 1, 656 axis of. See sinusoidal axis square wave, 244
binomi al. See binomial series criti cal points, 97 - 98 SSA (ambi guou s case), 263-26 4
geometric, 639, 651-652, 656, 727 cycle of, 95 SSdev (sum of squares of deviations ),
harmoni c, 658 equati on of, general , 96-97 355-357
partial swns of. See partial swn of equ ations of, parti cular, 98-102 SSres(swn of squ ares of residuals),
a series frequency of, 96, 97 353 , 354-357
power, 664-665 grap hin g of, 96-102, 214-2 16 SSS, 259
p-series, 711 harmoni c analysis of, 216-2 18 standard po sition
serpentine curv e, 627 infl ectio n points, 97 of angle, 62
sets lower bound , 97 -9 8 of ar c, ll8
combin ations in. See combin atio ns as math ematica l model s, 130- 131 step discontinuit y, 48-49
General
Ind
ex 843
strange attractors, 522 ellipsis, 75 reciprocal function of. See cotangent
graphical, 523-52 4 f(x), 8-9 function; reciprocal pro pert y of
num erical, 524-525 r- 1
(x), 36 trigonometr ic functions
See also fractals factorial, 408 as term, 74
str ictly decreasing function, 36 infinity, 690 See also trigonometric functions
strictl y increasing function, 36 int erval, 170 tangen t line, derivative an d, 696-697
strong corre lation, 356 invers e cosine, 80 Taylor series, 664-665
substitution inverse function, 34 term
as property, 718, 719 inverse matrix, 506 of a sequ ence, 644
synthetic , 671-674 limit , 688, 690 of a series, 650, 651, 656
subtend s, defined, 111- 112 logarithms, 321-322 term ind ex, 650
subtraction p ar tial sum, 649 third differ ences, 313
definition of, 716 permutation , 413 thr ee-dimension al Pythagorea n
opposite of sum and differenc e polar coordinat es, 600 - 601 theo rem, 465
property, 722 probability, 400 thr ee-dim ens iona l vectors, 449-493
of vectors, 453-458 Q.E.D., 38 three- leaved ros e, 607
sum and difference, prop ert y of r (radius), 69 Titus, Joh ann , 664
opposit e of, 722 radians, 112, 119 transcendental num bers, 714
sum and product properties rotary motion , 139 transfo rmation (s), 15-19
product to sum, 224-225 SAS, AAS, ASA, SSS, 259 absolut e value, 44- 4 5
sum to produ ct, 225 -227 sin (0), 69 dilations. See dilation(s)
sum of the squares sinusoidal axis, 98 identit y proofs and, 162-166
deviat ions, 355-357 sum (sigma), 650 as ima ge, 15
dir ectio n cosin es, 487 sum of th e squares of the ins ide/ outs ide, 17, 28
re sidu als , 3 5 3, 3 54- 3 5 7 deviations, 355 iteration. See iteration
sums, partial. See partial sum of a sum of the squar es of the pare nt function and, 70-71
series residuals, 353 reflec tion s. See reflectio n(s)
surface area O (theta), 61 tra nslati ons. See transla tion(s)
cone, 562 th erefor e, 38 of trigonom etric expressions,
cylind er, 562 triangle, 252 162- 166
sphere, 562 variables, 9 transitive axioms, 717
symbols and notation symmetric axiom for equ ality, 717 translation(s), 15, 17-19
absolute value, 267 symmetry , axis of. See axis of with matri ces, 515-517, 519
adjo int matrix, 506 sym met ry of power fun ction, 295
ang le, 63, 252 synthe tic substitution , 671-674 of vectors, 267, 453
angle m easu re, 61, 63, 70, 112, 252 transverse axis, 5 5 7
ang le of rotation, 61, 63 , 139 T transverse radiu s, 566
approximate ly equal to, 127 tail of vector, 453 trial , 400
approximate values of tan gent cur ve, 217 triangle(s)
trigonometric functions, 75 tang ent (tan) function area of, 255-257, 275,483
average of y-values, 3 54 app roximat e value of, 75 cross produ cts and area of, 483
best-fitting line (regression line), 353 cofunction prop erties and, 206-207 obliqu e. See obliqu e tria ngle(s)
cent er line, 98 composit e argument pro per ty for, Pasca l's, 654
coefficient of determination, 355 209-210 reference, 68-69
combination s , 413 defined, 73, 74 Sierpinski's, 526
composite fun ction , 22-23 double argument property for, 233 summar y of techniques using,
constants, 9 exac t values of, 76-77 274-275
corre lat ion coefficient, 3 5 5 graphs of, 107 test for size of angle in, 2 5 5
cos (0), 69 half argument proper ty for, 235 See also trigonometri c functi ons
cross product, 4 79 inverse fun ction of. See arcta ngent tr iangle inequality for vectors, 461
degre es, 70, 119 fun ction trichot omy axiom, 717
derivativ e, 696 notation for, 74 tr igono metr ic equations, so lving
determinant, 506 as odd function, 205 -2 06 composite argument pro perties
dot produ ct, 46 6 Pythagorean prop erty and , 161 and , 210
element of a set , 170 quoti ent prop erty and, 107 inverse function and, 168- 171
844 General
Index
linear combination property and, matrix rota tion and, 511 vertex form , 295 , 552
202 and product of scalar and vecto r, vertica l asymptotes, 105
num erical solutions, 172 451 discon tinui ty of fun ctions and, 688
quadratic forms and, 172 property of, direction cosines and, tangent, cotangent, seca nt , and
trigonometri c functions 487 cosecant functions an d , 105-107
approximate values by calculator, 75 vector addition and, 268-269 vertica l axis, 4
circular functions . See circular vecto rs in space and, 462 vert ical lin e test, 14
fun ctions upp er bound, 97 -98 volum e
cofunctions. See cofunc tions of a cone, 562
composite argument properties. See V of a cylind er, 562
composite argument properties varia bles of a par aboloi d , 561
definitions of, summary of, 74 associa tion of, 3 5 5 of a sph ere, 562
doubl e argument properties, 231, Boolean, 11- 12
232-233 dependent. Seedepe nd en t vari able w
duality property of, 162 independ ent. Seeind epe nd en t wavelength , 13 7
exact values by geometry, 76-77 variable weak corr elation, 356
half argument properties, 23 1, random function of, 428-430 weighted average, 4 3 5, 442
234-236 sym bols for, 9 well-defined opera tion , 510
inver se of. Seeinverse variabl e sinusoida l axis, 215 well-orderin g axiom , 723
trigonom etri c function(s) vector(s), 266-267 wrapping fun cti on , 111, 115
linear combination prop erty, ab so lut e valu e of, 267, 45 3
198-199 addition of, 26 7-271, 273-274, X
odd -even properties, 205-206 453-458 x-axis, refl ection s across , 43-44
Pythagorean properties, 160-161 bearing, 270-2 71 x-intercept , 8
quotient properties for, 107 components of, 268-270, 454 of a plan e, 4 77
recipr oca l prop erty of. See cycloid equ ation an d, 624 See also zeros of a function
re ciproca l property of defined, 267, 453 x-radius , 548
tr igonometri c functions displa ceme nt , 453, 454
right tri angle definitions of, 68 equation s of lines in spa ce, 490-493 y
sum and product prop erti es, mu ltiplicat ion by scalar, 45 1 y-axis, reflectio n s across, 43-44
224-227 multip licat ion of (cross products), y-interc ep t, 8
summary of properties for, 240 479-483 y-radius, 548
Seealso polar coordinates, graphs of mu ltipli cat ion of (dot produ ct), y-valu e, 9, 354 - 355
trigonom etr ic inequaliti es, 175 466-469
trigonometry, 68
triple argument properties, 213, 620
oppos ite, 453
position, 451, 453
z
zero
two-foci property, 567, 5 70 proj ections of, 469 -4 71, 4 73 denomin ator of, functions and. See
resultant, 268 vertic al asym pt otes
u three-dime nsi ona l, 461 -463 division by, an d graphs of
union of event s, 422-423 triangle inequalit y for, 461 functions, 105
unit circle unit. Seeunit vectors multipli cation prop er ty of, and
ellip se as transformations of, ze ro vector, 2 74 converse, 720
178-179, 548 vecto r difference, 4 53-458 multipliers of, 510
graph and equation of, 547 vector equatio n of a cycloid, 624 ze ro-produ ct property, 510
param etr ic equations for, 551 vector product (cross produ ct), ze ros of a functio n , 669
unit hyp erbo la, 54 7, 5 51 479-483,480 comp lex, 669, 674-675
unit imaginar y numb er, 614, 615 vector quantities, 266, 453 defined, 671
unitless numb er, 112 vector sum, 453-458 doubl e, 669, 674
unit parabola, 547 velocity, 268. See also angula r finding, 671-674
units velocity; linear velocity numb er of, and degree of
dim ensional analysis and, 113, 141 verbal information, 4-5, 50-5 1 polynomial , 671
rnicrocuri es, 309 vertex (ver tices), 295 ra tion al root th eorem , 706
unit vectors ellips e, 549 sums and produ cts of, 675-677
cross produ cts and, 480 hype rbola , 550 zero vector, 2 74
defin ed,453 quadratic func tion s, 295, 671
General
Index 845
Photograph Credits
Chapter 1
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Chap ter 2
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Chapte r 5
195: www.comstock .co m; 198: Paul Arthur / Getty Image s; 204: Ken Karp Photogr aph y; 206: Ken
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Chapte r 6
247: Bill Bachmann / The Image Works; 256: Provided by UHR- Hydrosc ience and Engine ering,
Th e University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, from 1688 translation of Hero of Alexander's Pneumati cs
in the Histo ry of Hydra uli cs Rare Book Collection, UT Libraries (Specia l Collec tion s); 267: Carl &
Ann Purcell / CORBIS; 268 (top): Richard Bickel/CORBIS; 268 (bottom): AP/ Wide World Photo s;
270: Chlau s Lotscher / Stock Boston; 272: Bob Daemmrich / Stock Boston ; 274: Bettm ann / CORBIS;
276 (bottom): Erik Simonsen / Getty Images; 276 (top): PictureQuest; 277: Steven Starr/ Stock Boston;
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Chapte r 7
291: Envin & Peggy Bauer / Wildstock; 295: Michael Smith ; 296: AJP/ Emilio Segre Arc hives;
299: Richard Hut chin gs/ PhotoEdi t, Inc.; 304: Ken Karp Photo grap hy; 309: © Science Photo Librar y/
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847
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Chap ter 8
351: Kevin Fleming /C ORBIS;356: Comput er Histo ry Museum; 361 : Mike Robinson /S up erStock,
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382 : Barry Runk /G rant Heilman Photo graphy , Inc.; 383: Graham Neden/C ORBIS;
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World Photo s; 391: Malcolm Dunbar / Getty Images ; 393: AP/Wide World Photos; 396: Dan Suz io
Chapter 9
397: Vince Streano/Getty Ima ges; 399: Laur a Murr ay; 401: David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit, Inc.;
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432: Mark Richard s/P hoto Edit, Inc.; 436: Mark Richards/PhotoEdit, Inc.; 438: The Sport ing News;
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Chapte r 10
449 : Donald Corner and Jenny Youn g/ www.greatbuildin gs. com; 452: AP/Wide World Photos;
460 : Jame s L. Ames / CORBIS;466 (left): Stock Montage; 466 (right) : AIP/ Emilio Segr e Archives;
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Chapter 11
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Chapter 12
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557: AP/Wide World Phot os ; 558: Ken Karp Phot ograp hy; 559 (top left): Court esy of Mr. Mom's
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Chapter 15
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PAUL A .

CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

•1~4• Key Curriculum Press

Textbook Product Manager: James Ryan

© 2007 by Key Curriculum Press. All rights reserved.

Photograph credits appear on the last two pages of the book.

Advisors, First Edition

About the Author

A Note to the Student from the Author xiii

CHAPTER 1 Functions and Mathematical Models 1

CHAPTER 2 Periodic Functions and Right Triangle Problems 59

CHAPTER 3 Applications of Trigonometric and Circular Functions 93

CHAPTER 4 Trigonometric Function Properties, Identities, and

CHAPTER 5 Properties of Combined Sinusoids 195

CHAPTER 7 Properties of Elementary Functions 291

CHAPTER 8 Fitting Functions to Data 351

CHAPTER 10 Three-Dimensional Vectors 449

CHAPTER 11 Matrix Transformations and Fractal Figures 501

CHAPTER 12 Analytic Geometry of Conic Sections and Quadric Surfaces 543

CHAPTER 14 Sequences and Series 637

CHAPTER 15 Polynomial and Rational Functions, Limits, and Derivatives 667

APPENDIXA Types of Numbers, Axioms, and Other Properties 713

APPENDIX B Mathematical Induction 723

Answers to Selected Problems 729

Index of Problem Titles 827

General Index 833

Photograph Credits 847

Graphically The graph at right is the graph of a y (m)

shows that y is negative. These 6

values may or may not be - 10

Verbally wltervthe, t!tU"iab!-M

~- Fore,x~ the, C()ejfici,w:-4.9u PvC()n£ttU1i:tlw±u PvruuLt

Solution It seems reasonable to assume that the time it

Domain: 0 s; speeds; speed limit

1-2 Types of Functions

A function y Not a function y

No two y-values More than one

Figur e 1-2a Figure 1-2b

Each point on a graph corresponds to an ordered pair of numbers, (x, y).

Verbally: f(x) varies quadratically with x, or f(x) is a quadratic function of x..

Features : The straight-line graph, f(x), changes at a constant rate as x changes.

If bis positive If bis negati ve

• Exponential function, Figure 1-2h

Restricted Domains and Boolean Variables

Solution Enter y 1 = - x 2 + 5x + 3 / (x ;;,:0 and x::; 4) Divide by a Boolean variab le.

f/,x) The graph in Figure l -2k shows the restricted domain .

Birth hei ght Adul t

Problem Set 1-2

For Problems 1-4,

5. Quadratic (polynomial) function

Property: The Vertical Line Test

Figure l-2m illustrates the test .

33. rly)_x 34. Yx in Problem 35 is not.

42 . Research Problem: Look up George Boole

Not a function Y A vertic al line A fun ction Y No verti cal line

func tion f function f

x = Su The x-values of the dilate d im age must be 5 times the

Figure l -3c shows the graph of the image, y = f(f x).

This graph is the same as the graph of y 2 in Figure l-3d.

represents a dilation by a factor of a in the y-direction and by a factor of bin

Solution Left graph: Vertical dilation by a factor of 3

Problem Set 1-3

. Sketch an isosceles triangle.

Q9. Find 30% of 3000.