Fuel 205 (2017) 71–79

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

Effect of compression ratio and hydrogen addition on part throttle

performance of a LPG fuelled lean burn spark ignition engine
K. Ravi, J. Pradeep Bhasker, E. Porpatham ⇑
School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 632 014, India

h i g h l i g h t s

 Brake power, brake thermal efficiency increases with raise in compression ratio.
 Increase in compression ratio and hydrogen addition extends the lean misfire limit.
 Emissions of HC, NO and CO2 increases with increase in compression ratio.
 Hydrogen addition enhances combustion rate and brake thermal efficiency.
 Hydrogen addition result in reduction in HC, CO and CO2 emissions.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A single cylinder CI engine was modified to operate as a LPG fuelled lean burn SI engine. The engine was
Received 8 November 2016 tested at 1500 rpm and 20% throttle opening at compression ratios 9:1, 10:1, 10.5:1 and 11:1 by varying
Received in revised form 17 May 2017 equivalence ratios. The influence of compression ratio and 15% hydrogen substitution on energy basis at
Accepted 18 May 2017
the optimal compression ratio of 10.5:1 on performance, emission and combustion behavior were studied
and compared. The brake thermal efficiency and brake power output increases with rise in compression
ratio, and above a critical value of 10.5:1 the improvement was small when compared to the increase in
Keywords:
emissions. The advantage of brake thermal efficiency from higher compression ratio is narrow under low
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Lean burn
load conditions. The ever increasing load due to the auxiliaries which are likely to grow more require bet-
Compression ratio ter low load performance and emissions. Wide flammable limits of hydrogen enable ultra-lean combus-
Hydrogen tion and its anti-knock enhancement makes it advantageous compared to increasing the compression
Performance and emission ratio at part throttle condition. Hydrogen addition enhanced the combustion rate and heat release rate,
reduced cyclic variations, and extended the lean limit of operation. There was perceptible improvement
in brake thermal efficiency, brake power and considerable reductions in hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide levels. Due to retarded ignition timing the NOx emission increase was not significant.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The ever increasing demand of petroleum products diminishes
the reserves at rapid phase. We need to preserve the resources
for the future generation and substitute it with other possible
alternate fuels. It is also our conscientiousness to preserve nature
with less pollution. Gaseous fuels generally result in lower emis-
sions, economical and are available in abundant. The properties
of various gaseous fuels and gasoline are given in Table 1.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), hydrogen and Compressed Nat-
ural Gas (CNG) are encouraging alternatives for Internal Combus-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: porpatham.e@vit.ac.in (E. Porpatham).
tion (IC) engines because of their high hydrogen to carbon ratio,
wide ignition limits, high flame speeds and high knock resistance.
Combustion of very lean mixtures of these fuels leads to lower
emissions and increase in thermal efficiency. Hydrogen, producer
gas and biogas are obtained from renewable sources. LPG, a bypro-
duct of the petroleum refining mainly consists of propane and
butane is also produced from natural gas and shale gas. It is gener-
ally stored in cylinders as liquid at pressures in the range of 10–
15 bar which eliminate the requirement of a fuel feed pump.
Higher compression ratios can be used in engines due to the higher
auto-ignition temperature and octane rating of LPG.
The lean combustion technology is slowly replacing conven-
tional stoichiometry combustion for reducing carbon print and pol-
lutants in automobiles. The energy conversion efficiency of an

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.05.062
0016-2361/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
72 K. Ravi et al. / Fuel 205 (2017) 71–79
Table 1
Properties of Gasoline, LPG, CNG and Hydrogen.
Properties/fuels Gasoline
Chemical structure, Composition (% vol) C4 to C12
C7H17
Physical state Liquid
Density at 15 °C, kg/m3 737
Octane number 86–94
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 43.44
High Heating Value (MJ/kg) 46.53
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio 14.7
Flammability limits (vol. % in air)
Leaner 1.4
Richer 7.6
Auto-ignition temperature °C 371
Flame speed (cm/s) 37.5
Stoichiometric A/F (kg of air/kg of fuel) 14.7
Source: IS 4576, IS 14861, Gas India.
engine becomes greater and the exhaust emissions go lower when
the fuel air mixture is made lean, but the design of lean burn
engine is certainly more difficult and its performance is very sensi-
tive to operating conditions. Special techniques have to be used
when lean mixtures are employed in order to avoid cycle by cycle
variations and erratic combustion. Superior combustion character-
istics of hydrogen when added with LPG in small quantities
improve performance, reduce emissions and extend lean limit. This
research work intends to study the influence of compression ratio
and addition of hydrogen on the performance and emission aspects
of LPG fuelled lean burn Spark Ignition (SI) engine at part throttle
condition. Part throttle operation requires power for driving auxil-
iaries like electrical generator, water pump, cooling fan, air com-
pressor, air conditioner, heater, servo motors, oil pump, power
brakes and power steering pump, which account to 10% of the total
fuel consumption and is likely to grow in the future.
Sita Rama Raju et al. [1] reported extension of lean limit and
improved thermal efficiency. Increase in Hydrocarbon (HC) emis-
sion and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) with increase in compression
ratio was observed with LPG and CNG fuels. Zheng et al. [2] inves-
tigated the compression ratios (8:1, 10:1, 12:1 and 14:1) effects on
performance and emissions with CNG and concluded that com-
pression ratio has a significant influence on the combustion dura-
tion at lean combustion. In another study, Poompipatpong et al. [3]
compared 9:1, 9.5:1, 10 and 10.5:1 compression ratios for CNG as
fuel. At 9.5:1 compression ratio, lower fuel consumption was
reported. Total Hydrocarbon (THC) and NOx emissions increased
with increase in compression ratio, but NOx emission declined at
10.5:1 compression ratio. Porpatham et al. [4] observed the perfor-
mance of a single cylinder SI engine fuelled with biogas run at
compression ratios of 9.3:1, 11:1, 13:1 and 15:1 under different
throttle conditions. The observations inferred that higher compres-
sion ratio lead to higher thermal efficiency. Pradeep et al. [5] con-
ducted experiments on a direct injection LPG fuelled two stroke SI
engine. The results showed reduction in HC emission and increase
thermal efficiency. Sayin et al. [6] focused on the effect of compres-
sion ratio on a SI engine fuelled with iso-butanol (10%, 30% and
50%) along with gasoline. The results indicate that at all compres-
sion ratios, increased performance and decreased emissions were
seen with the increased ratio of iso-butanol. Fleming et al. [7]
investigated the influence of compression ratio on a single cylinder
SI engine with natural gas and gasoline as fuel at minimum
advance for maximum brake torque (MBT) timing and at compres-
sion ratios ranging from 8.4:1 to 18.5:1. It was reported that at a
compression ratio of 8.4:1, spark timing for natural gas was 2 to
LPG CNG Hydrogen
C3H8-40% CH4-85% H2
C4H10 -60% C2H6 and C3H8-9%
N2 and CO2-6%
Liquid/Gas Compressed gas Compressed gas
0.557 / 2.21 0.78 0.08
103–105 120 130
45.7 47.14 120
49.53 52.20
15.5 17.3 34.2
1.9 5 4
9.7 15 75
488–502 540 585
38.25 34 275
15.5 17.3 34.2
6 crank angle degrees advanced than the gasoline engine and the
indicated thermal efficiency was higher than petrol at an equiva-
lence ratio lower than 0.8.
Rakopoulos et.al [8] developed an advanced simulation model
with accurate flame front formulation for availability analysis
and suggested supplying increasingly leaner mixtures as loads rise
in order to keep the emitted NOx low. Quather [9] tested the
response of engine variables on the lean limit at equivalence ratios
ranging between 1.1 and leanest possible limit using propane and
iso-octane as fuels. He found that with compression ratio of 10:1,
the lean limit equivalence ratio was extended from 0.82 to 0.69.
Ladommatos et al. [10] conducted experiments with natural
gas/carbon dioxide mixtures on a high compression ratio (15:1)
fast burn spark combustion system. It was observed that a lean
burn, high compression, open chamber, turbulent combustion
system would enable gas engines to operate efficiently with low
specific emission. Ma et al. [11] experimented on six cylinder
natural gas engine under different compression ratios (10:1, 11:1
and 12:1) at 1200 rpm, excess air ratio of 1.6 and manifold pres-
sure of 50 kPa. Higher compression ratio resulted in higher torque
as well as lower fuel consumption, accelerated heat release rates
and lowered Coefficient of Variations (COV) of Indicated Mean
Effective Pressure (IMEP). Rakopoulos et.al [12] used higher order
statistical parameters like stochastic analysis for averages, stan-
dard deviations, probability density functions, autocorrelation,
power spectra, and cross-correlation coefficients that can reveal
cause and effect relationships for cyclic variability.
Lim et al. [13] studied the outcomes of compression ratio on
general characteristics in a SI engine operated with Hydrogen
enriched Compressed Natural Gas (HCNG) 30 and reported that
at 11.5:1 compression ratio, the thermal efficiency increased and
NOx emission decreased. Hora et.al [14] performed experiments
at three compression ratios (10:1, 11:1 and 12:1) under identical
conditions on two different HCNG compositions. 30HCNG showed
relatively lower brake specific fuel consumption compared to
20HCNG. Combustion parameters including heat release rates
and peak pressure improved at higher compression ratios for both
HCNG mixtures. However, 30HCNG performed slightly better than
20HCNG. Selim et al. [15] studied the effects of compression ratios
from 9.6:1, 12.5:1 and 15:1 on an altered Compression Ignition (CI)
engine. The observations indicate that the higher torque and lower
fuel utilization were achieved at 12.5:1 compression ratio. De Boer
PCT et al. [16] observed the results of a range of compression ratios
between 9:1 and 12:1 and inferred that hydrogen operation at
higher compression ratios are liable to adverse knocking.
 K. Ravi et al. / Fuel 205 (2017) 71–79
Ma et al. [17] examined the result of 20% hydrogen enrichment
with natural gas on cycle by cycle variations (CCV). Lean limit
extension, reduction in variations of maximum pressure, CoV of
IMEP and flame development phase were reported. Kahraman
et al. [18] on a SI engine fuelled with methane–hydrogen (CH4-
H2) observed lower Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions were lower
with higher speeds and excess air ratio. Ma et al. [19] conducted
experiments on lean limit extension through hydrogen supple-
ments (0%, 10%, 30% and 50% by volume) in a six-cylinder natural
gas fuelled SI engine with throttle body injection. A higher engine
speed is constructive towards lean limit extension but not true
for higher loads. The cause and effect of engine speeds was insignif-
icant. Enhanced power output, improved thermal efficiency and
lean operation were possible with hydrogen addition. Zhao et al.
[20] reviewed the response of compression ratio (10:1 and 12:1)
at constant speed of 1200 rpm with 55% hydrogen enriched com-
pressed natural gas in an SI engine. He concluded that within a
range of excess air coefficient less than 1.8 increases in compression
ratio reduced fuel utilization, enhanced power and torque but
didn’t affect the emissions.
Potential and knocking characteristics of a HCNG engine with a
high compression ratio were examined by Park et al. [21]. They
reported a decline in excess air ratio at peak thermal efficiency.
Intake air supercharging was recommended. Retarded spark tim-
ings for HCNG operation at higher compression ratio were taken
into account by Lim et al. [22]. The results showed that at 11.5:1
and excess air ratio of 1.8 and retarded spark timing of 10 degree
crank angle from MBT lead to 2% higher thermal efficiency, 61.7%
lower NOx emission. Zhao et al. [23] conducted experiments on a
HCNG engine under different equivalence ratios and concluded
that rise in compression ratio could obviously improve the general
performance and combustion condition of the engine under nor-
mal operation. Rakopoulos et.al [24] reported that the increase in
amount of hydrogen up to 15% in biogas improve combustion
due to the gain in combustion temperature. Porpatham et al. [25]
stated that addition of hydrogen in smaller quantities with biogas
improved the efficiency and power, also reduced HC emissions and
cycle to cycle variations. Above 15% hydrogen addition, spark tim-
ing had to be retarded to avoid knock. Xin et al. [26] varied the
hydrogen fraction (15%–35%) in biogas engine and observed faster
heat release rates and shorter combustion duration.
Salvi et.al [27] experimented on single cylinder hydrogen
fuelled SI engine with varying compression ratios and Exhaust
Gas Recirculation (EGR) rate. NOx emission increased with increase
in compression ratio. Retarded ignition timings and increase in
EGR rate reduced the NOx emission and reduction in knocking.
The reaction and response of EGR, compression ratio and boosting
under knock free engine operation was studied by Su et.al [28] on a
2 L SI engine. The outcomes show that the efficiency was improved
by addition of cooled EGR than by bettering the compression. Xie
et.al [29] studied the effect of air, and EGR (both hot and cooled)
dilution. The observations show that the extent of combustion,
ignition lag and cyclic variations were more for hot EGR at same
dilution level. Lower fuel consumption was reported for cooled
EGR and air dilution. Also HC, CO and NOx emissions were lower
for cooled EGR than the air dilution.
Earlier work indicates that improvement in performance and
emissions of gas engines can be obtained by enhancing the com-
pression ratio. Taking advantage of the good anti knock character-
istics of hydrogen, the use of small amount has been useful in the
case of LPG and natural gas engines especially at part throttle con-
ditions. Lean combustion, being an efficient technique for enhanc-
ing the performance of SI engine is limited by the flammability
limits of gasoline, biogas, natural gas and LPG. Hydrogen on the
other hand provides a solution to progress the lean limit operation
without settling on performance.
73
2. Present work
In the present study the effects of compression ratio were stud-
ied on a LPG fuelled lean burn SI engine to obtain performance,
emission and combustion characteristics at part throttle condition.
Subsequently the engine was run with a small quantity of hydro-
gen without compromising on power (15% on the energy basis
was optimal based on another study) along with LPG to enhance
its combustion characteristics to extend the lean limit of operation.
A single cylinder CI engine with a power output of 4.4 kW at
1500 rpm was modified to operate as a gas engine using LPG as
the fuel with a swirl ratio of 2. The response of enhancing the com-
pression ratio on performance and emission was studied at differ-
ent equivalence ratios. Four compression ratios namely 9:1, 10:1,
10.5:1 and 11:1 were tried. In another study at full load operation
compression ratio of 10.5:1 was found optimal as compression
ratio of 11:1 developed abnormal combustion. Hence the influence
of hydrogen addition at an optimum compression ratio of 10.5:1
was also studied at different equivalence ratios. Spark timing was
adjusted for maximum brake torque and to avoid occurrence of
knock in all cases. Performance parameters like brake power, brake
thermal efficiency, emissions of HC, CO, NO, NOx and heat release
rate were studied and compared.
3. Experimental setup and experiments
The illustrative diagram of the experimental setup is shown in
Fig. 1. The required compression ratio was changed to required val-
ues, by changing the clearance volume without altering the maxi-
mum squish velocity. This was done by simultaneously changing
the clearance height and volume of the bowl on the piston. The
combustion chamber was hemispherical in shape. The top land
on the piston was altered while maintaining the needed clearance
volume and having a hemispherical shape for the combustion
chamber. Ravi et al. [30] explained the calculation of piston geom-
etry dimensions for different compression ratio at a constant
squish velocity of 4 m/s [31].
The combustion chamber is hemispherical in shape with a bowl
in piston type. The engine is coupled to an eddy current
dynamometer (Make: Dynalec, India) which is set to operate at
constant speed mode to carry out the experiments at 1500 rpm.
LPG at a pressure of 1.03 bar (abs) is made available by heating
the storage cylinder in a hot water bath to avoid condensation of
LPG in the flow line. Airflow is measured by means of a positive-
displacement type air flow meter (Make: Dresser, USA), with a
surge tank connected on the intake side to smoothen the air flow.
The LPG flow is throttled by a fine control valve and the fuel flow is
measured using a positive displacement type gas flow meter
(Make: Toshniwal, India). The flow rates of air and fuel helps in cal-
culating the equivalence ratio. The fuel is inducted into the intake
manifold. Hydrogen from a cylinder was throttled down to near
atmospheric pressure and allowed into the intake manifold
through another positive displacement gas flow meter. Its flow rate
was separately controlled. Precautions were taken to avoid back-
fire by passing the hydrogen through a set of flame arresters. The
energy input to the engine was calculated using the mass flow
rates and calorific values of biogas and hydrogen that were
admitted.
The engine is fitted with an electronic based Capacitor Dis-
charge Ignition (CDI) spark system. The spark plug is positioned
at the centre of the combustion chamber. A micro controller based
ignition timing control is developed in the laboratory to set the
spark timing precisely based on crank angle basis rather than on
the time basis. The reference signals to the device are taken from
the optical crank angle encoder (Make: AVL, Austria) to initiate
74 K. Ravi et al. / Fuel 205 (2017) 71–79
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
spark at a desired crank angle. A flush mounted piezoelectric pres-
sure sensor (Make: Kistler, Switzerland) is fitted on the cylinder
head to determine the in-cylinder pressure. The intake manifold
pressure is obtained using a piezo-resistive transducer (Make: Kis-
tler, Switzerland). An optical crank angle encoder is mounted on
the cam shaft to record the corresponding pressures and crank
angle values and also to vary the spark timing. A computer based
data acquisition system (Make: Gantner Instruments, Germany)
is used to record the cylinder pressure and the manifold pressure
with respect to crank angle. At every test condition, data for 100
cycles are acquired for processing. The pressure signals from the
piezoelectric transducer are referenced based on the in-cylinder
pressure during suction Bottom Dead Centre (BDC), which is
assumed to be the same as the average intake manifold pressure.
A MATLAB code was developed to analyze the combustion param-
eters and its cyclic variations at each operating condition.
The exhaust gas was analyzed with a Flame Ionization Detector
(FID) (Make: Rosemount Analytical, USA) for HC emission, chemi-
luminescent analyzer for NO and NOx ((Make: Rosemount Analyt-
ical, USA)) and Non-Dispersive Infra-Red (NDIR) for CO and
CO2emissions (Make: Horiba, MEXA 554JA, Japan). The uncertainty
of all the parameters were calculated using Gaussian distribution
method with confidence limits of ±2r (95.45% of measured data
were within ±2r of the mean value). 10 sets of readings were taken
at the same operating condition for estimation of uncertainty. The
list of instruments used and their estimated uncertainty values at
typical operating conditions [32] are given in Table 2
4. Results and discussions
Performance and emission characteristics of the engine by using
LPG as fuel at different compression ratios and influence with 15%
hydrogen substitution at 10.5:1 compression ratio are presented
and discussed below. The equivalence ratio was varied by changing
the gas flow rates alone without changing the throttle position. The
throttle position was held constant at 20% of maximum.
4.1. Performance, emission and combustion parameters
Fig. 2 shows the variation of brake power output against equiv-
alence ratio for all the compression ratios and 15% hydrogen sub-
stitution at 10.5:1 compression ratio. Under lean conditions, the
results show a decline in thermal efficiency and power output over
all compression ratios owing to reduction in the inducted fuel
quantity. Power output decreases suddenly within the occurrence
of misfire. The extreme lean limit as mentioned in the figure con-
forms to a position ahead of the onset of misfire and at less than
10% of the coefficient of variation of IMEP (Fig. 10). There is an
improvement in brake power output with raise in compression
ratio and hydrogen addition over entire range of equivalence ratio.
The misfire occurrence under lean condition was at an equivalence
ratio of 0.67 with a compression ratio of 11:1 and 0.71 with com-
pression ratio 9:1 as against 0.53 with 15% hydrogen substitution.
Increase in compression ratio raises the in-cylinder gas tempera-
ture and lowers dilution of residual gases which increase the lean
limit operation.
It is clear that hydrogen with wide range of flammability when
added with LPG admits the engine to run at much more leaner con-
ditions without misfire and it gets extended to an equivalence ratio
of 0.53. Further, the higher flame speed of hydrogen enhances the
combustion rate and improves the power output significantly. The
peak power with hydrogen addition is 3 kW and with neat LPG it is
2.8 kW at the compression ratio of 10.5:1 as shown in Fig. 2.
Figs. 3 and 4 shows the variation of brake thermal efficiency and
specific fuel consumption with equivalence ratio. Increase in com-
pression ratio increases the brake thermal efficiency and reduces
specific fuel consumption.
However, at higher equivalence ratios it is realized that the rise
in brake thermal efficiency is less when compared to the leaner
 K. Ravi et al. / Fuel 205 (2017) 71–79 75

Table 2
List of instruments accuracy and uncertainty.

Sl. No. Measuring Instruments Make Model Accuracy Uncertainty

1 Air flow meter Dresser, USA G 40 ±5% full scale reading ±0.9%
2 Fuel flow meter Toshniwal, India UG G4 ±1.5% of full scale reading ±0.9%
LPG
3 Thermal gas mass flow meter-Hydrogen Fox Thermal Instruments, USA FT3 ±0.2% of full scale ±0.74%
4 Pressure pick up Piezo-electric KISTLER, Switzerland 6613 CA ±0.5% full scale reading 0.846
5 Pressure pick up Piezo-resistive KISTLER, Switzerland ±0.4% full scale reading 1.046
6 5 gas analyzer Horiba, Japan MEXA 584 L CO: ±0.07% of full scale reading ±3.92%
CO2: ±0.53% of full scale reading ±3.92%
7 HC Analyzer 400 A Rosemount Analytical, USA 400A ±1% of full scale reading ±0.28%
(Flame Ionization Detector)
8 NOx Analyzer (chemiluminescent) Rosemount Analytical, USA NGA2000 CLD ±0.5% of full scale reading ±2.42%
9 Speed Dynalec, India Reluctance Type ±0.5% of full scale reading ±2%
Torque HBM, India S-Type ±0.25% of full scale reading ±0.5%
10 Charge Amplifier KISTLER, Switzerland 5039A332 & 4618A0 ±1% full scale reading –
11 Crank angle encoder AVL, Austria 365C 0.1 deg.CA –
12 Digital data Acquisition System Gantner Instruments, Germany QStation101T ±2 bit –
Q BloxxA107 Q BloxxD101

Fig. 2. Variation of brake power with equivalence ratio. Fig. 4. Variation of specific fuel consumption with equivalence ratio.

operation at the same equivalence ratio brake thermal efficiency

Fig. 3. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with equivalence ratio.
mixture. With rise in compression ratio from 9:1 to 11:1, the peak
brake thermal efficiency increases from 26.2% to 28.1%. At 15%
hydrogen addition, the peak brake thermal efficiency is 28.6%,
but occurs at an equivalence ratio of 0.9, whereas with neat LPG
was found to be 27.7%. It may be noted that 15% hydrogen exhibits
maximum power output. Also, for the same equivalence ratio
increasing the hydrogen content increases the value of energy
inducted.
In general as the mixture becomes lean there is a rise in hydro-
carbon emission level. Fig. 5 depicts the variation of HC emission
with equivalence ratio with split Y-axis at two different scales
for better visualization at lean equivalence ratio. At any equiva-
lence ratio, increase in compression ratio generally resulted in
small increase of hydrocarbon emissions which is because of
increase of charge trapped in crevices and post oxidation in the
exhaust manifold, given that the exhaust gas temperature is higher
and also indicate poor conversion efficiency for lower compression
ratios as seen in Fig. 6. As the equivalence ratio reaches a particular
lower limit there is a sudden rise in HC level due to misfiring. HC
emission level decreases considerably because of hydrocarbons
present in the fuel being substituted by pure hydrogen. The wide
flammability limit and higher flame speed of hydrogen extend
the lean limit of the inducted fuel mixture, lead to better combus-
tion and lowers HC emission at extreme lean condition.
The proportion of reduction in the hydrocarbon concentration
in the intake charge is less than the reduction in the exhaust gas,
which indicates that the reduction is because of improved combus-
tion of LPG. At an equivalence ratio of 0.9 (at maximum brake
76 K. Ravi et al. / Fuel 205 (2017) 71–79

Fig. 7. Variation of nitric oxide emission with equivalence ratio.

Fig. 5. Variation of hydrocarbon emission with equivalence ratio.

Fig. 8. Variation of nitrogen dioxide emission with equivalence ratio.

Fig. 6. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with equivalence ratio.

thermal efficiency), HC level with 15% hydrogen substitution is

0.14 g/kWh as against 0.31 g/kWh at 10.5:1 compression ratio in
pure LPG operation.
Increase in peak combustion temperature because of higher
compression ratio result increase of Nitric oxide and Nitrogen
dioxide emission levels as seen in Figs. 7 and 8. Similarly hydrogen
substitution also leads to increase in NO and NO2 emissions
because of higher peak combustion temperatures. There is a
decrease in exhaust gas temperature with increased compression
ratio as well as hydrogen addition owing to better conversion effi-
ciency (Fig. 3). A significant reduction in exhaust gas temperature
is observed when the mixture becomes lean. At any equivalence
ratio increase in hydrogen addition increases the exhaust gas tem-
perature to an extent. The exhaust gas temperatures of hydrogen
addition is slightly less than that of 10.5:1 and higher than 9:1,
10:1 and 11:1 compression ratios which signifies better combus-
tion and conversion efficiency.
As the experiments were carried at leaner than stoichiometry
Fig. 9. Variation of carbon monoxide with equivalence ratio.
conditions, the CO levels are very low as seen in Fig. 9. At higher
equivalence ratios, there is a slight increase in CO due to partial
combustion. We find that the CO levels on the rich side are the probably leads to higher temperatures and dissociation of CO2 to
lowest for the compression ratio of 9:1. A higher compression ratio CO. The CO level falls with addition of hydrogen.
 K. Ravi et al. / Fuel 205 (2017) 71–79 77

This is expected as the extent of carbon inducted decreases as

the proportion of hydrogen in the fuel enhances. There is a 40%
reduction in CO2 (Fig. 10) with 15% hydrogen addition.
The Coefficient of Variation (COV) of IMEP is seen in Fig. 11. It
rises sharply at the Lean Misfire Limit (LML) which is the equiva-
lence ratio at which the COV of IMEP crosses 10%. At approximately
the same equivalence ratio, it was observed that the HC emission
also increased sharply. Addition of hydrogen enhances the flame
velocity of the inducted fuel mixture and hence lowers the COV
of IMEP. As the compression ratio increases the COV of IMEP
slightly reduces at all equivalence ratios, the lean misfire limit
extends as the compression ratio increases and is significant with
hydrogen addition.
Fig. 12 shows that the MBT spark timing is more advanced, as
the mixture becomes lean. This is to compensate for the increased
flame development period (Fig. 13) and reduced flame speed. The
MBT ignition timing has to be retarded when the compression ratio
is increased due to increased combustion rate. At any equivalence
ratio, hydrogen addition improves the flammability, increases Fig. 11. Variation of COV of IMEP with equivalence ratio.
flame speed and therefore requires lesser flame development time.
With 15% hydrogen added LPG the spark timing has to be retarded
by at least a minimum of 6 degrees for best performance.
It is also seen that from pressure crank angle curve at equiva-
lence ratio of 0.9 (at maximum brake thermal efficiency), as the
compression ratio increases pressure also increases as seen in
Fig. 14. With increase in compression ratio, the occurrence of peak
pressure closer to TDC. Significant difference is seen between com-
pression ratios of 10.5 and 11:1 but addition of 15% hydrogen at
10.5 compression ratio leads to significance improvement in peak
pressure and occurrence is also close to TDC by 3° CA.
Fig. 15 shows the typical heat release pattern at an equivalence
ratio of 0.9. An increase in compression ratio raises the heat release
rate, this is due to higher flame velocity with increase in compres-
sion ratio. Also addition of hydrogen lead to higher heat release
rate in spite of flatter pressure curve signifying better conversion
efficiency. This will lead to good thermal efficiency. Fig. 16 shows
the cumulative heat release which infers an increase in heat
release on account of hydrogen addition.
Among the four compression ratios tried small difference in
brake thermal efficiency and brake power obtained at part load
conditions. However the addition of 15% hydrogen at the compres-
sion ratio of 10.5:1 was found to be the most suitable and Fig. 12. Variation of spark timing with equivalence ratio.
influential.

Fig. 10. Variation of carbon dioxide with equivalence ratio. Fig. 13. Variation of flame development period with equivalence ratio.
78 K. Ravi et al. / Fuel 205 (2017) 71–79

35 5. Conclusions
Fuel: LPG+Hydrogen
30 Speed: 1500 rpm The following conclusions were drawn based on the experimen-
Timing:MBT tal investigations on LPG fuel SI engine at part throttle conditions.
Cylinder Pressure (bar)

25 Throle:20%
Equivalence Rao:0.9  The brake power output and brake thermal efficiency increases
20 slightly with increasing compression ratio.
 The lean misfire limit of combustion of LPG is extended with
15 rise in the compression ratio. Hydrogen addition significantly
enhances the combustion rate and lean misfire limit. The peak
power and thermal efficiency are also increased significantly.
10 CR=9  The MBT timing has to be retarded on compression ratio
CR=10
CR=10.5 increase and hydrogen addition.
5
CR=11  It was found that HC, NO and CO2 emissions increase with
CR=10.5, 15% Hydrogen increasing compression ratio
0
 With hydrogen substitution a drastic reduction in HC emissions
320 340 360 380 400 420
is observed. This is because of the extension in the lean limit
Crank Angle (deg) due to wide flammability limits and higher flame speeds of
Fig. 14. Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle at equivalence ratio of 0.9. hydrogen fuel. HC level decreases from 1672 ppm with neat
LPG to 43 ppm with 15% hydrogen addition at an equivalence
ratio of 0.71
 There is no significant increase in NO and NO2 due to hydrogen
addition as it is required to retard the spark for MBT timing.
50  The in-cylinder pressure increases with increase in compression
CR=9:1 ratio and also in case of 15% hydrogen addition.
CR=10:1  The heat release rate and the cumulative heat release increase
Heat Release Rate (J/deg.CA)

40 CR=10.5:1 as the compression ratio is increased. This is further enhanced

CR=11:1 with addition of hydrogen.
CR=10.5:1, 15%Hydrogen
30 On the whole experiment conducted at part load indicates
Fuel: LPG+Hydrogen
Speed: 1500 rpm
hydrogen addition can significantly enhance the performance and
Timing:MBT reduces HC and CO in case of LPG-fuelled lean burn engine. This
20 Throle:20% can be implemented in large stationary LPG fuelled engine to
Equivalence Rao:0.9 enhance performance.

10
Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the Department of Science and Tech-

0
350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 nology, India (DST-Grant No. SB/FTP/ETA-0128/2013) and VIT
Crank Angle (deg) University, Vellore, India for the financial support extended in car-
rying out this project.
Fig. 15. Variation of heat release rate at equivalence ratio of 0.9.

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