Lectures After Midterm 5-8 PDF

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Lecture 5 – Volcanoes & Mountain Formation

Movie Notes: Nova in the path of a killer volcano - YouTube
 Alert level 4 means volcanoes can occur within 24 hours
 Volcanoes erupts in early June in Japan
 June 12 the first, small volcano erupts (Clearing its throat)
 5-8 cubic km of ash deposit
 50 000 people lost their homes
 Four levels of alert for volcanic eruption (he asked questions)
o 24-hour alert or 48 hours?
o Eruption can occur within 2/3 weeks
o Activities detected, eruptions not eminent
o Level 2 activity intensified
 Signs before volcanoes erupt
o Magma movement
o Increase sulfur dioxide emission level increase (correlation spectrometer to
measure)
o Seismic activities (rise and fall of magma)–eruptions in the ground
o Regions around the mount bulges and crumples as the gasses built up in the magma
chamber
 It is possible to see magma bloom
 Fo e aste s p edi ted that ol a o ould t e upt ut e upted a d it as i Ne ado ‘uiz
(Colombia) –City of Armero
 Occurred in 1986
 22 000 people died
 The first person to report the volcano eruption was a nun
 Massive eruption occurred June 15
o Effect of the volcanoes:
 Less than 500 people died
 More than 50% farm animals were killed
 650 000 jobs were lost
 15-mile radius had to be evacuated
 landscape was changing to monochromatic landscape and 4 meter of ash
Volcanic Eruptions
 Volcanoes are openings or vents, with or without a conical hill or mountain near them
 Volcanoes occur in the Pacific Ocean in what is called the Ring of Fire
 They are conduit, fiscous through ash material flow through the surface lava
 Magma and others spill on
 Plutonic or intrusive rocks igneous, they are domain for many years
 When they become restless, they show signs of activities that hiss or roar
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 Characterized by violent vibrations within the mountain, followed by the explosions and release of
gases and lava (have columns of ash clouds, pyro (fire) cumulus clouds) creates a cloud of its own,
identified by its own microclimate)
 The e a e a ti e ol a o s i the o ld, so e a e i o e uptio s ut ot as severe as the
Philippians
 RING OF FIRE
o Volcanoes occur in the Pacific Ocean is what is called
o is the movement of plates, where they collide, strike or streak
 Accumulation of gas within mountains are forced out, (CO2, SO2, water vapor, NO2) and kill
 Gas build up within the conduit, the constant pressure eventually explodes and spills onto the
surface.
 Not all materials bring things onto the surface, there is Initial land force by process of orogeny
(mountain building)
 Overtime the agent denudation; describes processes by which element in atmosphere breakdown
rocks, breakdown into smaller pieces
 Denudation forms into subsequent landforms called sequential landforms
 Not all materials released come to the surface, some remain inside
 Can result in Caldara (magma chamber)
 If ag a does t o e to the su fa e it gets solidified
 DIKE (solid rock, also sheet like landform) its formed within the earth as magma oozes through
fishes or cracks
 Many Dikes are vertical in shape and cut across (perpendicular to) sedimentary layers. Dike is made
of igneous rock, and is very solid and resistant to ocean. Is like a wall of rock and can be collided
over time
 Sill, is formed by magma forces its way through Strata or crosses the horizontal layers of rocks it
solidifies
 It solidifies from 1cm to kilometers, and tens of thousands of km in width
 Any type of rock formed is originally plutonic rock
 Batholith rocks are globular or large forms of rocks formed in earth crust, part of exposed surface
through years of ocean
 Batholith is often formed at base of magma column
 Whereas laccolith is smaller and formed midway from base to the surface of sedimentary layers
 Both batholith, laccolith are igneous rocks, plutonic rocks, and intrusive rocks
 Extrusive rocks are formed on the surface layer, intrusive are formed inside

Volcanic Features
 Dike is made of igneous rock

o Solid rock, sheet like landform
o Resistance to erosion
o Vertical layers in shape
 Sill
o Occurs when magma solidifies in the horizontal fashion through strata
o Vary in size from less than 1 cm to more than 1 km
o And tens of thousands in km in width
 Plutonic rock is any rock formed in air seals
 Batholith
o Part of it is exposed to years of erosion
o Formed at the base of magma column
o Large forms of rocks
 Laccolith
o Formed in the middle sedimentary layer
o Smaller rocks
 Intrusive rocks or plutonic describes the above four (Dike, Sill, Batholith, Laccolith)
 Extrusive rocks are formed on the earth surface whereas, intrusive rocks are formed inside

Features Associated with Volcanic Eruption

 Stratovolcanoes
o Felsic lava & cloud of hot white gases.
o Explosive or composite volcanoes
o Characterized by violent explosions due to
large accumulation of gasses in the magma
chamber and the conduit
o Each layer varies in mineral compositions
and thickness
o Very viscous
o When eruption occurs material solidify in
short period of time/ distances
 Thicker
o Thus, ag a does t flo fa e ough
o Cone shaped magma
o Ex: Mount Saint Helens, Mount Rainier and Pinatubo
 Caldera
o Deep depressions volcano
o Crater link
o Water accumulates in the crates (Oregon)
o Sumatra and Java occurred in Krakatoa in 1883
o Whe e uptio o u s, the e is o a i g. He e, it s da ge ous. The water seeps
through the rock layers and cools down the magma.
o Water cools down the magma
o Occurred in Lake Nyos in east Africa
o Large amount of CO2 released and killed many people
 Shield Volcanoes of Oregon
o Effusive volcanoes
o Gently sloping, from angle of 6-12 degrees of horizontal plane
o Can be enormous
o Ex: Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa
 Rises from the death of ocean to high altitude, larger than Mount Everest
o Ex: Looks like an upside down shield
o Low viscosity (very fluid) and spread several km away from the conduit
o In Iceland, the volcano was named Iceland Volcano??? (*on TEST)= Eyjafjalljokull
 Hotspots
o Pronoun in oceans
o Exist as long as there is constant supply of magma
o Very common in oceans, any cracks that occur in plate boundary cause magma
overflowing
o Once the plate boundaries are sealed they become dormant, and harden
o Very transient or short lived
o plumes of upwelling basaltic

 Hot Spring or Geysers:

o Ground water is heated to high temperatures
o Magma interact with subterranean water reserves
o Water gets heated and gushes out steam
o Indication: Smells like sulphur
o Ex: Old Faithful in Greater Yellowstone National Park
 Old Faithful
o In PPT read textbook
Types of volcanic eruptions

 Effusion Volcanoes/ Hawaiian Eruption:
o Highly fluid, low viscosity, gentle slope
o Effusive volcano
 Strombolian (looks like firework):
o Burst type of eruption and looks like
fireworks
o Mount Etna, Italy in October 2002,
k o as Lighthouse of
Medite a ea
o Occurs daily and have lightning flashes
o Characterized by release of Lapilli
 Tavurvur/ Vulcanian eruption
o Release of large smoke and fire that covers the entire mountain or surrounding
areas
o Ex: Papua New Guinea
 Plinian Eruptions:
o Ex: Mount Vesuvius
o Most violent of all eruptions
o Extended several km from the base
o Occurs once in a while and the impact is very severe/ intense
o Buried the twin cities Pompeii and Herculaneum
 Large amount of cities buried of ashes and gases
Volcanic hazards and their impacts

 Eruptive related hazards
Asphyxiation
Vesuvius ad 79 Pompeii and Herculaneum
o Lava flows
 Oozes non explosively from volcanic vent
 Temperature is greater than 1000 degrees Celsius
 When exposed to surface it solidifies

 Can be easily walked away from it as it is slow

 Torch anything on its path
 Put cold water to stop the lava flow
 Cold water makes it solid and
o Lava
 Are erupted non-explosively from a volcanic vent
 Temperature of lava is greater than thousand degrees Celsius
 When exposed to surface it solidifies
 Given that lava is slow, you can walk slowly it o t touch you
 Since lava is red & hot it can easily touch anything like the side of the road
and can cause burning
 Easiest way to stop the flow is to throw cold water on it, and then the solid
material acts as a barrier to the lava
 Two kinds of lava:
 Aa Lava
o Folds into rough and spiky shape when solidifies
o When it hardens it will puncture your feet if you try to walk on
it
 Pahoehoe
o Lava is twisted and turned like a robe as it moves from
volcanic vents to low lying area and forms unique designs
o Difference between Aa and Pahoehoe is Aa is jagged, spiked
whereas, Pahoehoe is rope like
o Pyroclastic flows and base surges
 Flow of extremely hot pebbles, bolus
stones, sand stones and other fragments
from the vent
 Move fast in large column
 Hot gases may escape from
 Can form Pyro cumulus clouds
 Thunder and Lightning
 Ex: Mount St. Helens
o Large Tephra fall and ballistic fragments:
 Ballistic fragment of material which are
characterized by the release of lapilli or
bones
 Cost inferno or large fire that can destroy
forests
o Ash Falls
 Powdery/ fine material and can be
airborne for several days and kilometres
 Potential to accumulate in mechanical paths or machines and cause them to
malfunction
 Reduces visibility because of scattered by insolation

 Cause aircraft engines to malfunction

 Cover water treatment facilities, and disrupt draining systems
 Block sun light
 Health:
 fill up nostrils and eardrums can be filled with it, respiratory
problems: asthma, breathing
 Create a thin sheet layer over plants and leaves which prevents
photosynthesis, reason for why crops die
o Poisonous volcanic gases
 CO2, CO, SO2, Hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride, and carbon disulfide are
a few gases released from volcanic eruptions
 Together it can create suffocation and asphyxiation
 Non eruptive hazards:
o Large volume debris avalanches
 Very common on mountain tops, because the melt water lubricates,
sediments of rocks and causes it to be dislodged from erratic (uneven) plane
 Avalanches occur
o Landslides
 Triggered by vibrations and moving water or earthquakes
 Influenced by gravity
o Lahars
 Fastest flowing of volcanic materials, can create volcanic ocean and they
wash the foundations of building as well as trees and cause dislodged or
bruited
 Dislodged, rapid over 300km/h, high temperature
 Can occur long after an eruption
Benefits of volcanoes
 Lava rocks are used to build roads, stones, support metals etc.
 Soil fertilizers
 Used for paves
 It can be crashed and be used for asphalts, and laying down roads
 Geothermal energy source Yukon geothermal project Mokai in New Zealand
o Heat in the air
 Produces geothermal energy (heat from the earth), it is inexhaustible (hard to put out)
Reducing volcanic hazards

 Monito ; past eha io of ol a o s, past f e ue of ol a o s a d use it to p edi t if it
will occur in the future
 Study radio carbon decay to know when volcanoes occurred

 Hazard Assessment:
o Hazard zonation –are used to create land mapping where you identify high region
zones and find very prone areas, and take care of that particular zone
 Volcanic Monitoring and Surveillance
o History of Volcano such as study past f e ue of ol a o s a d use it to p edi t if it
will occur in the future
o Tephrochronology is used to monitor volcanoes
 Studying sedimentary deposits
 Mo ito i g of the zo es, keep t a k of histo of ol a o s usi g
Tephrochronolgy (volcanic ash from a single eruption study over time) (study
deeper layers and consider the materials in it, and in the upper part of the
sediment)
o Volcanic Precursors
 Earthquakes, and eruptions help predict it in the future
o Tilt meters
 Designed to measure the displacement of land, number of gases coming out
of an area, or the instability of the land
o Thermal and magnetic measurements
 Land use planning and regulations
o Reduce potential at risk events
o Next step to reduce potential adverse effects by burning development in higher risk
areas and evacuating people form that zone, safely and using medical supplies,
temporal houses, food and water supplies
 Economic Planning
o Safe and well organized evacuations
o Medical supplies, temporary houses, food and water supplies
 Preparedness, contingency and disaster awareness
o Establishments of houses
o Social workers to council the people (example: which way to escape the event)
 Hazard Specific counter measures – diverts the lava flow away from very high populations:
o Pour cold water on lava to stop the flow and cool it down
o In the case of Lahar create a long trench and avoid the flow
Mountain Formations
SAYS IN THE PPT OUTLINE BUT DOES NOT TALK ABOUT IT IN PPT (READ IN TEXTBOOK INCASE)
Examples of mountain ranges

SAYS IN THE PPT OUTLINE BUT DOES NOT TALK ABOUT IT IN PPT (READ IN TEXTBOOK INCASE)

Lecture 6 – Weathering, Soil and Erosion

Processes of Weathering
 Mechanical Weathering:
o Pressure Release Fracturing
 Granite or intrusive rocks are formed deeper in earth
 Exposed after years of erosion
 Buried beneath earth about 15km below
 After erosion, the pressure is released and broken down into smaller
fragments
 EX: The Johnson's Shut-Ins State Park in the southwestern region of the St.
Francois Mountains, USA
o Frost Wedging
 Splitting of rock through pressure exerted when water freezes.
 Freezing water expands by 9.2%.
 Coastal areas prone to frost wedging where temperature oscillates around
the freezing point.
 Ice Crystals accumulate in cavities of rocks at night
 Rocks expand at night and contract at daytime
 During day time ice melts and very experienced mountain climbers know it is
wrong to climb mountains of ice during daytime. Also, the slope can drag you
down.
 Characterized by freezing and hot during daytime, resulting in contraction
and expansion
 Ex: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Atlantic coast
 Ex: At the east ridge of Mt. Brewer (the easy way up), near the summit. This
mountain, like most in the Sierra, is covered by a thick layer of sharp-edged
boulders produced by frost wedging. Frost wedging is well-developed here
because the temperature cycles across the freezing point many days each
year.
o Abrasion by dessert
 Collision between loose sediments that are transported by wind and rocks
that are found on land
 When rocks collide they tend and smoothen rock edges
 Create ventifact which is a stone shaped by the erosive action of windblown
sand.
 Ex: Sahara
o Abrasion by glaciers:
 Mass of moving ice often carves and smoothen the surface of ice
 When ice moves across the land, it forms a smooth, gentle slope on one side
and on the other side it is rough and a steep slope
 Ex: Rouge Montonne

o Salt Crystal Growth

 When water reached in weather accumulated in rock, it expands and the salt
melts. Then rocks break down into smaller pieces. Ex: Halite
 When the water evaporates, there is a white outline remaining
 When liquid water rich in salt evaporates, they leave behind salt particles
 The salt accumulation can expand and the rocks can expand and when it
rains it dissolves in water and runs off in the cavity (this is how salt in rocks
are integrated)
o Thermal Expansion and Contraction:

 Very common in tropical and subtropical regions in the world
 Exposed to daily and yearly cycles of heating and cooling. Results in
expansion when heated and contraction when cooled.
 Many engineers are required to leave a gap/ spacing between rocks so the
o ks do t a k he e pa di g i heat
 Thermal expansion and contractions result in cracks in the rocks
 From -5 to 25 degrees Celsius for rock breakdown
 Chemical Weathering: Deeply pitted surface of limestone in a desert environment. Rainfall
erodes the limestone into pits and channels by dissolving it
o Dissolution Chemical Weathering:
 When dissolved minerals and nutrients often cause rocks to break down
 When leaves decompose, the nutrients that they release also causes the rock
to break down
 When seeds get into the cavities of rock, then rocks expand as the seed
grows. The roots of the seed grow in the rock over time with enough rainfall
 Dissolution occurs when rocks reach certain minerals dissolve in water or in
acidic and basic water
 Dissolved in pure or acidic water
 Salt rock will easily dissolve in pure water
 Calcium carbonate rock rarely dissolve in pure water
 When water is rich in acid have high amount of hydrogen ions
 Water rich in basic have hydrogen oxide
 Ex: In Mammoth lake, Kentucky the water flows through the crack
 Stalactite
o Is an icicle-shaped formation that hangs from the ceiling of a
cave, and is produced by precipitation of minerals from water
dripping through the cave ceiling. Most stalactites have
pointed tips.
 Stalagmite
o A stalagmite is an upward-growing mound of mineral deposits
that have precipitated from water dripping onto the floor of a
cave. Most stalagmites have rounded or flattened tips.

o Hydrolysis
o Oxidization
 Chemical and mechanical weathering sometimes act together
Karst Topography & Cavern Features

 Easily soluble in rain or acidic water
 Pools of water
 (Funnel shaped depression) Have channels
that form with ground water
 Necessary Conditions:
o In a region where rocks are easily
soluble
o Secondly, formed in a region where
rain water is acidic
o Thirdly, subterranean bases which
are characterized by carbons or
caves
Soil Horizons
 O horizon:
o organic rich upper layer
 A horizon
o zone of eluviation
 B horizon
o zone of illuviation
 C horizon
o transition to subsoil
Mass Movement
 Types of Movement
o Another factor is moisture
 Lubricates the surface area of the particles
 Lubricates surface between soil and raptured plane
o Another factor is earthquakes and volcanoes
 Causes landslides by causing slope to shake violently and making them
unstable
 Gravity will influence the slope to be detached from the bed rock which
results in landslides

 When humans construct roads around the rocky mountain, the roads have to
be shaped in a certain angle or else it can result in a disaster
 Human activities through road construction or through mining can
destabilize slope and causes soil to move down slowly
o Creep:
 Slowest of the mass movement
 Often the regolith or soil will move several inches or centimeters per year
 Often the movement is imperceptible to the eye or no sudden movement
 The pavement is slowly croached upon
 Slowest down slope movement of regolith
 Evidence of creek
 Telegraph post tilted downwards or fence titled down will indicated
that creep is taking place
 If there is a tree on the slope, the tree will be a J shape since the base
of the tree is constantly under pressure by soil
 It is wrong to buy a home on the perch of a slopes
 Sandstone rocks are not stable
 Very strong granite rocks should be used to construct homes on hills
or slopes
 To stop a creek, develop a sand Crete
 They are blocks of concrete with holes and they are placed on
creepted slopes. Any loose particles/ material will just fall in the holes
 Create Creek terrist or Gabions
o Reinforced with
o Gabion barricade, made of wire cages filled with cobble and
pebble
 Lamina often occurs when the slope is subjected to the influence of gravity
and the lower particles will move and will cause the upper layer to move
o Mud flow/ flow
 Often occurs when there is rapid down slope movement of water saturated
soil
 Often occurs after intense rain fall
 As the rain water concentrates in channels, it carves the channels into
trenches or grooves or gutters
 The concentration of the sediment will increase until the volume of the
sediment is
 Ex: Pacific Palisades in California
o Landslide
 Occurs when there is enough moisture in soil to trigger slide but not too
much water to cause a flow
 A slide is a sheet of material that slips over a failure plane ending anywhere
from a meter to a kilometer down slope
 Cracks or elongated ratchets indicate that the slope is moving


Features of landslide
 Slump
o It is a kind of landslide in which the regolith moves over a
ratchet curved plane
o Occurs over a concave slope
 When blocks of material slide over a concave slope and it tends to rotate and
causing trees to tilt backwards
 Ex: La Conchita, California has experienced devastating landslides
o Rock fall
 Often occurs when bolus or heavy rocks or dislodged from a cliff face and
crumples down dues to the influence of gravity
 Ex: Burr Trail, Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, Utah, USA
 One major process is freeze and fall or also known as frost wedging
 In arctic zones rock freezes at night
 When they freeze at night the water in the cracks harden and they
expand and during daytime as ice melts and the cracks weakens
 Prevention measures for rock falls and topples
 Create a heavy wire nets or fences along the cliff faces
 Barricades along roadsides
 Shotcrete
o Cement mixture applied to restrict water access
 Rock bolt
o Drill a hole through the detached rock to the bed rock beneath
and bolt the detached rock.
 Ex: Two giant boulders dislodged during a landslide almost destroyed a
farmhouse in the village of Ronchi di Termeno, Italy, this January. After the
boulders rolled down from the hill, one wiped out a barn, the second came
to rest against the main house. A portion of the vineyard was destroyed in
the process but no one was hurt, according to reports.
 Mass movement events
o Frank slide, Alberta, Canada
o Madison Canyon Rockslide, Montana, USA
o New Britain- Papua New Guinea Landslide
Presentative Measures for Rock falls and Topples

 Heavy wire nets or fences
 Barricades along roadsides
 Shotcrete (cement mixture applied to restrict water access)
 Rock bolts

Mitigation of mass movement

SAYS IN PPT COURSE OUTLINE BUT DOES NOT TALK ABOUT IT. READ ABOUT JUST INCASE
Lecture 7 & 8 – Streams and River Systems

The Hydrological Cycle
 There is continuous interchange of water between the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
geosphere, biosphere, troposphere, lithosphere, cryosphere, etc.
 Water can never be depleted because in the law of thermodynamics energy is neither
created nor destroyed but rather can be transformed from one form to another.
 Water is not lost when consumed
 Human body is 70% water
 Water is converted from one state to another: liquid, gas, solid
 First benefit
o Water cycle helps transform from one landmass to another
o The water cycles help redistribute water along the land masses (continents)
 Second Benefit
o Helps purify water
o If there is contaminated water, fresh water evaporates, leaving the contaminated
particles behind.
 Ex: In salt water, salt will be left behind
o VOCs in petrochemical that will precipitate with the rain causing acid rain
 Third Benefit
o Helps nutrient recycling
o Rain water cycles/ percolates through soil and helps dissolve minerals which are
transported from one location to another
o All rivers flow into the sea but the sea is never full
o This is because of the water cycle, whatever that goes into the ocean evaporates in
an endless cycle
o Whatever goes into the ocean evaporates into the clouds (stored as ice) and will fall
as rainfall and the process repeats.
 Water cycle important part of our life support system, key for plants animals and humans.
 Largest River in the world, by way of the volume of water flow is Amazon River in Brazil.
 Mississippi River in U.S is the second largest river
 Congo River in central Africa is the third largest river
 Longest River is the Nile River: goes through Egypt, Africa,
 70% of the surface area of the world is water
 Ocean accounts for 97.5% of the volume of water in the world also it is salty due to large
amount of dissolved minerals such as sodium chloride, potassium and magnesium
 2.5% of water are in icecaps like the Greenland icecaps and major lakes including the
Canadian great lakes,
 0.01% is rivers

 Characteristics of stream flow

o Stream flow and velocity
 Speed of which the river flows
 Stepper the slope, greater the velocity
 Where rivers take the slope
 Often rains on the windward side
o Gradient
 Upper Course
 Mountains serve as a barrier to moisture air masses.
 When rainwater gathers in channels they go into V shaped valleys.
 Rivers flow swiftly (in upper part) and undercuts something of the
valley. Tend to find long profile valleys that interlock.
 Results in erosion
 Truncated spurs: Moves through the valley, can interlock with each
other.
 Water falls are example of upper course river landforms
o Ex: Niagara Falls
 Middle course
 Occurs where stream erodes laterally (edges and sides) to form U
shape valleys
 Development of rapids along the valley. Rapids are obstacles along
the bed of the river which cause water to experience turbulence
 Open U-shaped valleys
 Water can rise and fall swiftly
 Lower Course or flat plane
 Characterized by deposition of sediments which are transported
across streams over several dispenses
 Known for flat plane level
o Discharge
o Stream Channel
Process of Stream Erosion

 Three kinds of erosion
o Hydraulic Action
 When streams use their sheer force or velocity to erode particles from beds
and banks and edges of the river valleys
 The curvature of obstacle
 The air pockets within cavities of the rock will contract.
 When the water retreats, the rocks expand so they will eventually dislodge
from the valleys and the beds of stream.
 Also, known as mechanical action, so it is one of the reasons why the rivers
have the potential to erode the bedrock and the edges of the valley.

o Abrasion
 When sediments are transported by streams act as projectiles as they collide
with edges and banks of rivers by so doing they break it down into smaller
fragments
 Based on collision between loose sediments
o Stream Capacity
 Ability to transport large amount of
sediment through the currents to low
line sediments/ area
 Down-cutting
o Either process can cause two kinds of erosion,
lateral erosions (edges) and down-cutting
which occurs on the bank or the bottom of the
valley on which it flows.
River Transportation
 Solution
o Occurs when rocks are dissolved and transported by rivers
o Very common in regions made up of limestone or calcium carbonate (calcite) rocks
or Halites (Contains large amount of sodium chloride or salt)
o Bedrock are limestone rocks
o Evidence is when the surface of the water changes color according to the minerals
that are dissolved in the water
o No physical particles are not visible but the chemicals are there
 Suspension
o Occurs when very light sentiments (such as silt, mud, alluvium) are carried along
with the stream currents to a low line area.
o For suspension to take place particles need to be fine and very small and lighter in
weight
o Water will be very murky
o Common after heavy rainfall
o Ex: Red River, Mississippi
 Saltation
o Derived from salten which means hops or jumps
o Particles that are slightly heavier or are light weight are lifted from the bedrock and
often carried along the current for short distance and as the velocity of the carrying
reduces, they drop down the particles to the bedrock again.
o Occurs with particles of sand, stones and pebbles
o Once the water dislodges materials from the bedrock they may be lifted from a short
distance and weight will force it back to bedrock again and slowly hops and jumps
will occur.

 Traction
o Heavy stones and rocks are pushed and tossed along the bed of the stream and
these particles are too heavy to be lifted. Thus, they are rolled or pushed along the
bed of the stream
Rapids
 Flood Plane Level
 Low-line area characterized by large amounts of sediments which are deposited by streams.
 When the sediments intersect or block the stream course (or block), it forces the stream to
move in a zigzag fashion (meanders or sinus)
 They do this because they have a gentle slope meaning low velocity and large amounts of
sediments being transported by the stream.
 There is a development of an ox-bow lake or a cut-off lake or a horse shoe shaped lake.
 Many ox-bow lakes are semicircular in shaped and they often result from a situation where
the river cuts through a meanders loop.
 Low-line velocity
 Yazoo is a stream that moves parallel to the main river.
Braided Stream
 When rivers are forced to divide into several channels due to the deposition of sediments
along the path of the river, so it will flow for some distance and eventually it will converge
after considerable distance.
 Formed in the lower course of the stream where there is reduce velocity, there is a large
amount of sediments which blocks the path of the river = divides into several channels
Delta
 When rivers divide into several channels before flowing into the ocean
 Network of channels that are formed are known as distributaries. When there are many of
them, it is known as distributaries stream.
 When a major river divides it is known as distributary
o Common in lower course (low-line areas)
 Tributary when smaller streams flow into bigger streams
o Common in upper and middle course
 When streams divide into several channels before flowing into ocean they form triangular
shape and this area is conducive to wild life.
 Network of distributaries foam a triangular shape known as delta. There are wildlife
habitats because there is water and sand.
 Marshland or swamp
 Lower course of the stream or alluvium has large amount of nutrients for agriculture

 Different types of delta

o River Brahmaputra in Bangladesh
o Ganges and Indus (main river in India)
Drainage systems
 Area that is drained by a river or distributaries (water shed)
 May form different patterns as they move along a plane
 Dendritic
o Occur when small streams flow into major rivers in an acute angle (angle that is less
than 90 degrees)
o They tend to form a pattern that looks like the roots of a tree
o Thus, the o igi of the o d de d iti de d o h o olog , de d o ea i g t ee .
o One of the things you find is the reason you have dendritic drainage systems is
because the terrain is made up of uniform rock features
 Trellised
o Small rivers flow into major rivers at the angle of 90 degrees or perpendicular to the
major river
o Common in regions of ridges (chain of mountains that form a barrier).
o The broken lines in the picture is indicative of the summit of a particular mountain.
 Centripetal
o Streams flow from highlands into an internal drainage system the lake it s like a
spoke of a bicycle wheel)
o Common in crater leak
o Converge
 Radial
o Occur when streams flow outward from a common summit or mountain top
o Ex: mountains in south America
o Diverges
 Deranged Drainage system:
o When the pattern of st ea flo is i egula o i te itte t, ofte st ea s do t
have a recognizable or distinct cause
o They flow for short distance and then disappear into pool of water
o Known as contorted drainage system
Flood control measures

 Ex: Mississippi or Red River
 Limit exposure to hazards
 Artificial levees (combination of a rock and sand) are built along the edge of the stream to
control floods.
o Marine corp. engineering created 11km of levees along the banks of the Mississippi
river.

Fresh water
 There are two key sources of freshwater: groundwater and surface water.
 Ground Water …la gest a d slo est ese oi of f esh ate
o It is the a u ulatio of li uid ate i o k o soil ate ials u de the ea th s
surface (underground)
o The amount of water stored underground depends on the porosity of the rock and
soil ate ial …ho u h spa e it the e et ee the o k a d soil pa ti les he e
water can hide)
o Underground sections of rock and soil containing large amounts of usable
grou d ate a e k o as a uife s
o Aquifers can be defined as porous layers of sand, gravel or bedrock through which
groundwater flows in significant quantity to withdrawal
 groundwater flow is usually less than 1m/yr.
o Influent Rivers take source from mountains that take high rain fall
 Increase in volume in rainy season and reduce in volume during dry seasons
 Given seasonal variation of water it is described as ephemerals. Rainfall are
short lived and flow seasonally.
o Effluent Streams take their source from ground water region and aquifer and flow
throughout the year, known as perennial streams
 Does not directly depend on rainfall
 Surface Water
o Water can also found on points where streams flow into the ocean
o Surface water include the accumulation of liquid water in wetland, lakes, ponds, etc.
o Zone of vadose is the void and empty spaces around rocks
o When water settles in meshes, peat, swamp, etc., it is described as palustrine.
o Small lakes and ponds/ major lakes is known as lacustrine
o The point where streams flow into the ocean = estuary
 The proportional distribution of water in oceans and rivers
 Freshwater in the second column accounts for 2.5%
 Lakes account for larger proportion, soil moisture account for 38%, streams account for less
than 1%. (Third column)
 Rivers account for 0.01% in proportion to the amount all water in the world.
Aquifers
 Water accumulates in the void empty spaces of rocks
 Two types of empty spaces
o Zone of aeration
 They are air pockets between sediments within rocks
 Often described as zone of saturation in which water completely fills the
empty spaces in the rocks
 That s he e a uife s happe

 Aquifers are saturated with water

o Aquiclude or aquitard
 Aquiclude is a solid, impermeable area underlying or overlying an aquifer and
 An aquitard is a zone within the earth that restricts the flow of groundwater
from one aquifer to another.
 A completely impermeable aquitard is called an aquiclude or aquifuge.
 Aquitards comprise layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low
hydraulic conductivity.
 A water budget reflects the relationship between input and output of water through a
region.
 Inflow of water through the empty spaces of the rocks or sediments
 Aquifer discharge or by pumping is losing water from that layer
 Balance between the inflow of water by recharge and outflow by discharge is known as
budget
 When inflow of water exceeds the outflow of water then
there is surplus
 When discharge exceeds inflow then it is deficit
 Safe aquifer yield
 See figu e . ; . i te t …toast a d ja etapho
 Two types of aquifer
o Unconfined aquifer
 The water bearing layer is sandwiched
between less permeable such as granite or
clay material is lying below and top layer is
permeable such as soil
 Has permeable material (e.g., sandstone, limestone, gravel) in which
groundwater is stored over and impermeable layer (e.g., granite, gneiss,
clay).
 Less pressure
 Draw a well and use jeet zones to draw water out
o Confined aquifer
 The water bearing layer is sandwiched between two impermeable rocks such
as clay and granite
 Has permeable material in which groundwater is stored in between two
impermeable layers
 High amount of pressure
 Water dashes out naturally when u drill a hole
 Known as an Artesian well
 Both types of aquifers are basic water systems requiring:
o i flo s …o e ha ge o i g f o surface water percolating down from soils via
wetlands)
o And outflo s …o dis ha ge ia e apo atio , atu al seepage i to su fa e ate ,
and human withdrawal – pumping wells).

Recharge Rates
 Natural rates of recharge and sizes of recharge areas are
important because, similar to precipitation, they vary
considerably from place to place.
 The flow of groundwater is generally less than 1m/year, so
it takes thousands of years to replenish aquifers naturally
through the hydrological cycle (so much like in real estate,
lo atio atte s , ou a t to fi d a la ge a uife ith a
high recharge rate).
 BUT human activity can effect recharge rates through
withdrawal beyond capacity of recharge area (see
diagram):
 Text example of a coastal city (such as New Orleans),
where saltwater from the oceans intrudes into freshwater aquifers, which only becomes a
problem when too much freshwater is withdrawn due to increased population and the
saltwater is drawn further in-land – issue is that salt ate is ot pota le d inkable).
 DESPITE issues with natural availability (geographical distribution, precipitation variability,
the salt o ld, a d e ha ge ates , ate is defi itel a flo esou e – it has the potential
to be renewable.
 Classifications of resources:
o Flow: replaced by natural processes but can be depleted, sustained, increased
through management (water, soils)
o Stock: limited in supply, not naturally replenished within human time scale (fossil
fuels)
o Continuous: remain essentially unchanged after human use, are in constant supply
on a human time scale (solar, tidal energy)
 Salinization - when water dissolves, and white residue is left behind
o High amount of salt on the land = salinization
o Such a land, cannot support crops because there is too much salt
 Sink holes
o Ex: Texas and Florida
 Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River
o Columbia river, when it flows across the US it is used for agriculture and industrial
use.
o When water gets to the ocean, there is very little water left.
o Recently the Mexican government complained to US authorities about salt levels in
the rivers
o There are 12,000 desalination plants around the world, they account for 50% of all
desalination plants. Since 2009 there have been many attempts to increase these
amounts
o Biggest man-made river projects in Libya
o The right way to prevent water loss is to seal the base of the canal = no evaporation

o Dams are constructed because high megawatt of electricity production (10:1 ratio,
Eroi is the energy returned on investment).
 For every 1 calorie put into the production, you get 10 calories (energy) back
 Three Georges Dam on the Yantze River
o Biggest Dam
o Several generating (32) plants, constantly upgrading it
o Highly politicized, Chinese people didn't want world to know.
o Countries like to keep it on the low.
o The dam was partially designed to keep away floods, that kills people.
 Helped prevent floods.
 Typical Dam
o Advantages
 Electricity production
 Can cause opportunity of transportation
 Provides water for aggregation supports water for agriculture.
 Flood control.
 Provides recreational opportunities
o Disadvantages
 Flood waters often emanates or submerges forest areas or crops fields, low
line areas too.
 It can also trap sentiments behind the dam
 Ex: alluvium
 Dams by their nature there is potential energy behind the dam and if it
breaks the risk can be very enormous such as when an earthquake occurs
(dams make micros earthquakes), supposing an earthquake occurs near the
dam the volume of water behind the dam may fill the exert pressure on the
rocks onto the reservoir. When dams break, it causes a sudden rush of water
to land on industrial residence
 Disrupt migration of salmon results in decline of fish population
 Thermal pollution due to increase temperature conditions in the
downstream side. On the downstream side there is less capability to absorb
oxygen. Dissolved oxygen could also be lost due to the heat and it will affect
the productivity and survival of fish population in the downstream side
 High amount of mercury were present
 Biomagnification is when contaminants move from lower trophic level to
higher trophic levels along the food chain
 Bioaccumulation occurs when the contaminants builds up in the tissue of
single or individual organisms.
 Lipophilic is contaminant build up in human beings
 The pathways are through drinking water, air, soil, food and they can also be
obtained by way of contact
o The biggest dam in Canada is Gardiner Dam in south Saskatchewan River
o Another big dam is the James Bay in northern Quebec

 Viewed as a means of economic independence from the wider Canadian

population
 Typical lake
o Nutrient Balance in lakes
 Oligotrophic: poorly nourished, devoid of
nutrients
 Eutrophic: rich in nutrient supplies,
abundance growth of algae
(characterized by over flow of nutrients).
Decomposition of algae depletes the
water body of oxygen (known as dead
because fish cannot survive)
 Thermocline: boundary between cold
and warm waters.
Water Quality
 Human induced factor either through manufacturing, animal raising, factor chimneys
release chemicals that affect water
 Biological components
o According to health Canada, water used for swimming (the thicker chloroform
bacteria should not exceed 200 cell per 100 mL of water, over the years Canada has
several cases of contamination
 Ex: 2005 there was E. Coli contamination this affected the water system of Saskatchewan
community. Over 2000 people were hospitalized due to kidney problems and
gastrointestinal problems
 Outbreak of E. coli (Escherichia coli O157:H7) in Walkerton, Ontario, May 2000 and reasons
for outbreak of E. coli
o Firstly, agricultural runoff, (manure) Waste water facility broken down and was
u de epai s a d as t a le to pu if the ate .
o “e o dl , the do t have a water sampling laboratory. Had to take sample in
Manitoba.
o Thirdly, Walkerton does not have efficient water management, they have history or
track record of negligence and inefficient management activities so under normal
circumstances they should not be allowed to renew license
o Fourthly, Walkerton did not issue boil water alert
o Fifthly, budget cut which reduced the frequency of testing and sampling/monitoring
of water
 Multi-Barrier approach to water is three step process to screening water and removing
contaminants
o Reservoir
o Municipal water treatment facility
o Distribution system
 Is Bottled Water Safe?
o Cryptosporidium is a biological agent that affected the water system

o Wisconsin Milwaukee
o 1993 approx. 100 people were made ill
 Eutrophication is a biological agent that affects water. In Canada we are less exposed to
bacteria.
o Ex: River blindness also known as Onchocerciasis is caused by parasitic worms, which
result in elephantiasis (swelling of legs arms caused by worms), itching, bumps and
blindness
 Point sources of water contamination: a known or identifiable location (Ex: pipe, factory
chain, wastewater treatment facility, landfill site, etc.)
o Advantages: know where it is coming from, can easily deal with it
 Non point sources come from ubiquitous locations
o For instance, in Greater Toronto Area we have large amount of oil leaks from cars,
windshield water fluid, coolant water.
 There's also salt runoff applications (from winter) goes to rivers and causes pollution
 Birth control pills are often not removed from wastewater and a lot of people drink from
them and are exposed to them. Results in changes in hormone balance. A big situation of
feminized males.
 In animal kingdom, when male frogs are exposed to atrazine (which is used as a pesticide)
the male frogs become feminine can describe them as hermaphrodite (both male and
female physical features) when some of these chemicals are combined it is lethal

 Synergism: group of substances or chemicals that act in combination to cause lethal impact
on organisms or the environment than when they are separate. Can be corrosive,
flammable, reactive, explosive
 Teratogens: known to cause birth defects
o Ex: Birth control pills known as thalidomide is a chemic al in birth control pills that
prevents nausea and headaches
 Mutagens: chemical that causes DNA mutations
o Ex: Embryo may be effected as mutation occurs.
 Neurotoxins: group of substances that causes assault on nervous system
 Allergens: chemicals that cause over reaction/activation of nervous system
 Carcinogens: chemicals or substances known to cause cancer. Cause malignant cells and
overgrowth of cells.
 Endocrine Disruptors: substances or chemicals that can change the hormonal balance of
people
Sources of Water Pollution

 Physical Pollutants:
o Radioactive materials
o Thermal water discharges from heat energy facilities
o Sediments discharged from several locations (landfill sites, construction sites, mines,
and various deepening/widening/diversion and channelization) of fiscal water
pollutions
o Releases a lot of sediments: residential construction, road construction - clog or
block flow of rivers
o Most notorious - activity of salt mill industries. Exposes land to erosion and the
sediment flows to low-line areas of the rivers.
o Processes of collecting timber. Use to use hands to remove timber but now have
specially designed boats to peel the timber. All of that sediment ends up in the
water and they decompose and causes problems
o Deepening, widening, diversion and channelization
o Residential/ road constructions release a lot of sediments which will clog or block
the flow of radas
 Chemical Pollution:
o Released from industrial sources or chimneys
o DDTE (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane) and PCB (polychorlonated biphenyl) are
chemicals that pollute the environment
 Killed large number of beluga whales
o DDT as assi el used i the 9 s
o People in Asia use DDT to fish
o Belugas had high concentration of DDT in their fatty tissues
o Exon Valdez Oil Spill at Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989

 Base of the ship hit the continental shore. Punctured container of crude oil
and caused leaks.
 50% of oil slick washed ashore, 20% was collected and 14% was evaporated
 Rest was displaced by ocean currents
 Before the oil spill, in 2010, in the Gulf of Mexico. This was biggest the
biggest Canadian oil spill.
 Had to melt crude oil on beach using high pressure hot water. Many animals
died.
 Read Article on D2L
Treatment of Contaminated Water

 Elimination of the source
o Excavate tank and pump oil out
 Monitoring by hydrogeologist will determine concentration of chemicals, type of chemicals,
where they are coming from and direction they are likely to flow
 Primary water treatment:
o Transfer waste water through screening points which are designed to remove
organic matter (EODs) from the water
o Pass it through another screening point in order to remove sludges and send them
through a digestive chamber for further processing.
o Sent through a sedimentation tank so that all the stones, the sand, will be separated
from the water and sent to a grit chamber
 Secondary water treatment has 2 major processes:
o Aerobic breakdown of organic matter. Bacteria will die after this treatment.
o Can also use Anaerobic bacteria to consume bacteria in the absence of air.
o In the process Methane Gas can be produced and the gas can be harnessed for
household use.
 Advanced Stage:
o Used to remove minerals or chemicals
o Carbon filters or sand filters are used to remove nutrients and chemicals from the
water
o Can use chlorine to disinfect the water or can also expose it to ultraviolet rays to kill
any bacteria or organisms found in the water
 In Canada we have nuclear stations in Pickering, Darlington, and Bruce
 Disposal of Nuclear waste
o Burry the waste in the Yucca or Rocky Mountains
Water Demand and Supply

 If you are taking water from a source, you have to be sure that you are taking the right
amount so that you ensure that the system can recharge consistently
 Average Canadian consumes 245 liters of water per day is consumed in Canada per person

 Canal through which the water passes should be completely sealed and covered so no
water is lost by evaporation
 Industrial use of water are manufacturing, food processing, metal fabrication, and energy
production (It is the largest water consumption).
 Agricultural Water Use
o Overhead sprinklers and instead use Drip irrigation which computer programmed
o Drip irrigation is form of irrigation that saves water and fertilizer by allowing water
to drip slowly to the roots of many different plants
 Aral Sea
o One location where water was used inefficiently
o Once the fourth-largest lake on Earth
o Lost over 80% of its volume in 45 years from diversion
o Consequences
 Lost 60,000 fishing jobs
 Pesticide-laden dust from the lake bed is blown into the air
 The otto a ot i g a k the egio s e o o
o Reasons for the water loss are due to irrigation
Managing Water Resources

 Input Approach
o This entails an increase in water supply via new water sources
o Through the Bergeron Findeisen Theory
o Discover new water wells
o Attempt to increase the supply of water by tapping into new resources, which has
been the most common form of water management until recently
o Examples include: desalinization (process of removing salt from seawater); towing
icebergs from the Antarctic; cloud seeding (condensation nuclei) and water diversion
(Aral Sea)
o Kepler in 2009 discovered 9 planets that are habitable (have water)
 Output Approach
o Seal all leaks in broken pipes
o Have proper meter to measure the amount of water is consumed
o Attempt to minimize losses or contamination of existing supply or minimize
difference between water withdrawal and consumption (i.e., increase the efficiency
of use)
o Examples of increasing efficiency through water metering and pricing; efficient
technology such as drip irrigation
o Examples of pollution control for point sources (effluent standards, treatment
facilities) and non-point sources (land use control, protection of recharge areas by
limiting landfills, etc.)

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Lecture 5 – Volcanoes & Mountain Formation

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 Dike is made of igneous rock

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Features Associated with Volcanic Eruption

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 Hot Spring or Geysers:

Types of volcanic eruptions

Volcanic hazards and their impacts

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 Can be easily walked away from it as it is slow

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 Cause aircraft engines to malfunction

Reducing volcanic hazards

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Examples of mountain ranges

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Lecture 6 – Weathering, Soil and Erosion

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o Salt Crystal Growth

o Thermal Expansion and Contraction:

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Karst Topography & Cavern Features

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Presentative Measures for Rock falls and Topples

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Mitigation of mass movement

Lecture 7 & 8 – Streams and River Systems

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 Characteristics of stream flow

Process of Stream Erosion

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 Different types of delta

Flood control measures

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 Aquifers are saturated with water

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 Viewed as a means of economic independence from the wider Canadian

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Sources of Water Pollution

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Treatment of Contaminated Water

Water Demand and Supply

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Managing Water Resources

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WATCH MOVIE: Movie: For Love of Water (FLOW)-2008

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