Technical Writing Guidebook PDF

A GUIDEBOOK ON
THE PREPARATION OF
TECHNICAL REPORTS, PAPERS,

AND PRESENTATIONS
Prepared by
GEORGE TCHOBANOGLOUS and HAROLD LEVERENZ
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of California, Davis
Davis, CA
Copyright  2010
George Tchobanoglous and Harold Leverenz
Draft copy for personal use only
Version 01/27/2010
CONTENTS
Page
LIST of FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
LIST of TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Organization of Guidebook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
2. REPORT TYPES, ORGNIZATION, AND FORMATTING . . . . . 2-1
Types of Engineering Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
General Organization of Formal Engineering Reports . . . . . . . 2-1
General Organization of Technical Papers . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Report Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Mechanics of Report Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
3. PREPARATION OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Development of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Citation of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Mechanics of Table Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
4. PREPARATION OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Development of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Citation of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Mechanics of Pictorial Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Mechanics of Data Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Mechanics of Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
5. PREPARATION OF EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Mechanics of Writing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
General Format for Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Placement of Equations in Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Equations in Examples or Sample Calculations . . . . . . . . . 5-3
6. CITATION OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Evaluation of Reference Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Citation Methods for Reference Sources . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Format Styles for Reference Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
iii
7. SOME NOTES ON WRITING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
8 WRITING THE REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
Preparing an Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Preparing Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Writing the First Draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Revising and Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
The Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5
9. EVALUATE YOUR WRITING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
The Fog Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
Working Words and Glue Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
10. PUNCTUATION AND WORD USAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
Formation of Compound Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6
Abbreviations and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7
Using Words Correctly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9
Words Commonly Misspelled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10
A Working Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11
11. TECHNICAL MEMORANDUMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
12. ORAL PRESENTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

Types of Oral Presentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1
Preliminary Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1
Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2
Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3
13. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
Reference Cited in Guidebook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
Useful Older References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
14. CONVERSION FACTORS, ABBREVIATIONS AND
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1
15. WRITING ASSIGNMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1
iv
FIGURES
9-1 Typical FWS constructed wetland: (a) definition sketch and (b) view of
FWS wetland at Gustine, CA
9-2 Typical SF constructed wetland: (a) definition sketch and (b) view of
FS wetland at Mesquite, NV
9-3 Typical floating plant aquatic treatment system: (a) definition sketch and
(b) view of water hyacinth system at San Diego, CA
9-4 View of Sacramento Regional CSD Demonstration Wetland
9-5 Typical constructed wetland for stormwater treatment
9-6 View of Arcata, CA FWS constructed wetland
Example of Figure Listing
v
TABLES
9-1 Representative applications of constructed wetlands and aquatic
treatment systems
9-2 Summary of principal removal and transformation mechanisms in
constructed wetlands for the constituents of concern in wastewater
9-3 Typical coefficients of variation for constructed wetlands subject to
different wastewater temperature variations
9-4 Typical characteristics of emergent plants used in constructed wetlands
9-5 Typical BOD and TSS removals observed in FWS constructed wetlands
9-6 Typical ammonia and nitrogen removals observed in FWS constructed
wetlands
Example of Table Listing
vi
FOREWORD
HOW TO BECOME A BETTER WRITER

Effective report writing involves hard work, a willingness to review and rewrite as
many times as necessary, and the motivation and enthusiasm to persist. The
best way to become an effective writer is to write, write, and continue to write
each chance you get. Some suggestions that will help one become a better
technical writer are (adapted in part from M&E, 1965):
1. Recognize and embrace the importance of writing. Your success as an

engineer or manager will depend on your ability to write.
2. Consider writing a subject of inquiry. Analyze writing, study writing, and

understand writing as you would a treatment process, for example.
3. Develop your writing skills. Practice writing within a prescribed time limit.
Writing that is labored will also appear the same to your audience and will
be cumbersome to read and understand.
4. Review, rewrite, and peer review your papers and reports. Writing is an
iterative process. Rewriting adds polish and elegance to a report or paper.
Ask a colleague to review what you have written and make constructive use
of the feedback. If anyone is willing to take the time to review what you
have written, their comments must be considered seriously. Peer review is
standard practice with most professional journals.
vii
1
INTRODUCTION
A fundamental part of the modern engineering profession is the preparation of

reports, papers, and the oral presentations of the results of studies. Effective
communication is the engineer's stock in trade. To be competitive, it is imperative
that an engineer develop a proficiency in the preparation of all types of engineering
communication. While the clarity of the content is dependent on continual practice,
the mechanical features of report preparation, as presented in this guidebook on
writing, are learnable and mastered easily. Good form leads to the preparation of
better reports. In 1927, C. W. Park in his text, English Applied In Technical Writing,
noted that:
Even though a reader's interest is wholly in the subject matter his [sic] first impression
of a piece of writing is necessarily based on its general appearance. If the manuscript
is neat and well arranged, and if it has a clean-cut, finished look, any one who picks it
up is predisposed in favor of the writer and his work. The content, upon being closely
examined, may prove to be disappointing; but it will need to be strikingly poor in order
to [sic] wipe out entirely the favorable impression which was created at the start by its
good mechanical form. On the other hand, if a manuscript is illegible, untidy, scrappy,
or incomplete, the reader's reaction is certain to be unfavorable. The subject matter will
need to be exceptionally good in order to [sic] overcome the reader's adverse opinion.
1-1 PURPOSE
The purpose of this guidebook is to introduce and review the main elements involved
in the preparation of engineering reports including: the organization, structure, and
formatting of reports; the presentation of tables, figures, and equations; the citation
of references; and the writing reports and technical memorandums. Also included
are some tips on evaluating your writing for readability and wordiness and
mechanical elements and word usage. The preparation of oral presentations is also
addressed.
1-2 ORGANIZATION OF GUIDEBOOK

The preparation of formal engineering reports involves the selection of a format for
the report, preparation of tables for the presentation of data and information in
1-1
1 Introduction
tabular form, preparation of figures to illustrate the interrelationship between two or

more variables, equations to represent symbolically numerical relationships between
variables, and reference lists for in-text citations and footnotes. Once the format,
tables, figures, equations, and references have been gathered and prepared, the
writing of the report is undertaken. The organization of this guidebook follows the
above sequence. The following sections deal with specific topics related to the
preparation of formal engineering reports:
2. Report Types, Organization, and Formatting

3. Preparation of Tables
4. Preparation of Figures
5. Preparation of Equations
6. Citation of References
7. Some Notes on Writing and Editing
8. Writing the Report
9. Evaluating Your Writing
10. Punctuation and Word Usage
In addition to the preparation of formal engineering reports, the preparation of

technical memorandums and the development of materials for oral presentations are
addressed in Secs. 11 and 12, respectively. References are given in Sec. 13.
Conversion factors, abbreviations, and physical constants are presented in Sec. 14.
1-4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The completion of this writing guidebook would not have been possible without the
cooperation and assistance of numerous individuals - past and present. For all of
the students, engineers, writers, and editors who have helped and struggled with me
[senior author] in the past, my heartfelt thanks. The senior author is indebted to his
colleagues Jeannie Darby and Ed Schroeder, who encouraged and supported the
development of this guidebook and to the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering at University of California, Davis for allowing me to teach a course on
report writing.
1-2
2
REPORT TYPES,
ORGANIZATION, AND FORMATTING
Although each report is unique, all are much the same in adherence to some
recognized style and organization, the use of tables and figures for brevity and
clarity, references to the literature for background material and the support of
findings, the presentation of conclusions, and often the inclusion of data and other
reference materials in one or more appendixes for documentation. The purpose of
this section is to review: (1) the types of engineering reports used in practice, (2) the
general organization of engineering reports, (3) general organization of technical
papers, (4) the mechanics of report formatting, and (5) the mechanics report
preparation.
2-1 TYPES OF ENGINEERING REPORTS

The types of reports used for the communication of technical ideas include: (1) the
technical memorandum, (2) the letter report, (3) the formal report, (4) papers and
articles for journals, and (5) proposals. The technical memorandum form, described
in Sec. 11, is used to describe progress on a segment of a large project,
observations from site visits, and assessments of new equipment. The letter report
is used to convey the results or findings on a project of limited scope. The formal
report, discussed in Sec. 2-2, is most suitable for presenting the results of extensive
engineering studies, such as a master plan. Papers and articles for publication in
technical and scientific journals, discussed in Sec. 2-3, are typically used to present
the results of research and operation experiences. The purpose of proposals is self-
evident, however, the required format should be obtained from the agency issuing
the request for proposals.
2-2 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF FORMAL ENGINEERING REPORTS

While an infinite number of report formats are possible, the purpose of this section is
to present a generalized format for technical reports. Technical papers are
considered in the following section.
2-1
2 Report Types, Organization, and Formatting
Organization of Report
Engineering reports are organized into three major parts: (1) front matter, (2) report
body, and (3) end matter. The individual items that are typically included in each of
the three major parts of an engineering report are presented and described in Table
2-1. Because of its importance, an expanded discussion is included of what
constitutes an effective executive summary.
Table 2-1
Items included in the front matter, body, and end matter of formal engineering reports
Item Description
Front Matter Front matter is used to provide an overview of the information contained in the report,
including where the information is located. Depending on the scope of the report, not all of the
sections listed below may be necessary. The following items typically constitute the front matter of
most reports.
Front Cover The layout of the front cover may be defined by the agency for who the
report was prepared. Items on the front cover may include report title,
report date, report number, client or funding agency, and report authorship
Title Sheet Located inside front cover. Items included on the title sheet include full
report title; names of author(s), principal investigator(s), project committee
member(s), and/or company affiliation for the author(s); report date;
applicable copyright notice, and client or funding agency.
Letter of Transmittal Sometimes placed in front of the title sheet. Should be presented on
company letterhead and contains a letter submitting the report, references
the report authorization, and contains a general statement of the report
contents. The letter should be addressed to the client and signed by the
principal investigator or person in charge.
Executive Summary If used, sometimes included in front of report body. The executive summary
is a stand-alone summary of the project or study. Element of the executive
summary include a description of the task, what was done, key findings or
results, and future actions (see separate discussion in this section).
Contents Often listed as Table of Contents. Contains a listing of all major report
sections in the order presented in the report and the corresponding report
page number.
List of Figures All figures (illustrations, photographs, maps, data plots, etc.) contained in
the report should be numbered consecutively and listed along with their
corresponding page number on a separate report page titled 'Figures'. If
there are only a few figures, the list of figures may not be necessary.
List of Tables All tables contained in the report should be numbered consecutively along
with their corresponding page number on a separate sheet titled 'Tables'. If
there are only a few tables, the list of tables may not be necessary.
Abbreviations Sometimes combined with units. A listing of all abbreviations and symbols
used in the report presented with the corresponding phrase or symbol
description. May not be required if there are only limited abbreviations used
or if the intended audience is familiar with the abbreviations used in the
report.
Continued on following page
2-2
Table 2-1 Continued

Item Description
Glossary Sometimes included as an appendix. Definition of terms used in the
report that may be unfamiliar to the intended audience.
Units List of all units used in the report along with the symbols used for their
representation in the report body.
Acknowledgements Often placed in different locations. Used to identify the people or
entities that contributed to the work.
Report Body The report body can contain details of the problem that was being investigated, how
the study was conducted, results from the study, and an analysis of the results, including conclusions.
Table and figures are used throughout the report body to enhance the presentation of information.
The following materials typically constitute the report body.
Executive Summary Sometimes included with the front matter. See above.
1. Introduction General description of the study, including the purpose, objectives, and
scope, as needed to understand the detailed description of the study
presented subsequently in the report.
2. Project Description Presentation of information needed to explain the context of the report
and Background subject, including reference to previous related work
3. Review of Existing Description of the facility or system that is the focus of the study.
Facilities or Systems Explanation of the specific issues that have been encountered that
have brought about the study.
4. Review of alternatives Presentation of alternative facilities or systems that have been
identified and the development of a procedure to assess the
alternative scenarios.
5. Technical feasibility Assessment of the selected alternative scenarios based on the design
assessment specifications, suitability for the proposed application, or other criteria
as appropriate. The technical feasibility analysis results provide the
basis for selecting the alternative scenarios that should be subjected to
an economic and/or life cycle analysis.
6. Economic analysis An assessment of the expected economic impacts of the project,
including capital and operating expenses, and sources of revenue for
the project.
7. Life cycle analysis Evaluation of the overall environmental impact of the project or
proposed alternative(s), typically in terms of equivalent carbon dioxide
emissions. This type of analysis has become a standard requirement
for most engineering studies.
8. Comparison of Interpretation of the study findings, including important conclusions
alternatives and discussion of the implications of the technical, economic, and life
cycle analysis.
9. Summary and A brief restatement of all important findings identified in the study. It is
Conclusions good practice to review the project objectives to ensure that the report
is complete.
10. Recommendations Presentation of a proposed course of actions based on the conclusions
developed previously. This section may also include suggestions for
future studies that are needed.
2-3
Table 2-1 Continued

Item Description
References A listing of citations to all other sources of information that were used in
the study.
End Matter The end matter contains elements such as appendixes, bibliography, glossary, and
index. The following items typically constitute the end matter of most reports.
Appendixes Used to present information relevant to the report but not appropriate for
inclusion in the report body, including basic or raw data, exhibits,
samples of data sheets, etc.
Blank Sheet Put before the report back cover.
Back Cover Should be of same paper stock as cover, text is sometimes added to the
outside, but may also be left blank.
Importance of the Executive Summary

Of the items listed under the front matter in Table 2-1 perhaps the most important is
the preparation of the Executive Summary (ES), which is what most people read,
even those not interested in the subject. The most significant feature of an ES is
that it must be able to Stand on its Own. It is important to remember the ES is your
chance to tell the story of the project or study, the details are in the body of the
report. The key elements of an ES are:
 What was the task or project?

 What was done and by whom?
 Key findings, results, or main points
 Future or necessary actions
In preparing the ES it is important not to cut and paste random sentences or

thoughts from the body of the report (unfortunately, a common practice), rather the
ES should be written anew, restating material from the body of the report in a
concise readable manner. Avoid unnecessary technical terms requiring long
definitions, all jargon, and pay careful attention to grammar and logic.
2-3 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF TECHNICAL PAPERS

Because many organizations and journals specify rigid formats, practice in
conformity is educational. "Such conformity need not throttle creativity any more
than the sonnet form inhibits a poet. Instead, a fixed format makes writing easier"
(Sanks, 1979). Although each technical journal has its own style, it is possible to
2-4
generalize the format used by most journals for technical articles as presented in
Table 2-2. Always refer to the journal specifications and requirements for the
submission of technical papers and articles.
Table 2-2
Items included in the front matter, body, and end matter of technical papers.
Item Description
Title and Authors The study title should clearly state the topic of the research.
The author(s), their affiliation(s), and contact information for
the corresponding author should be included under the title.
Abstract The abstract in a technical paper corresponds to the ES in the
technical report, as discussed above. The abstract, as with the
ES, is your chance to tell the story of your research study or
project; project details may be found in the paper.
Key Words Selected words, terms, and phrases used to identify the topics
or subjects considered in the paper.
1. Introduction General description of the study, including the purpose,
objectives, and scope, as needed to understand the detailed
description of the study presented subsequently in the report.
2. Background Presentation of information needed to explain the context of
the report subject. Generally, the background also contains a
summary, along with reference citations, obtained through an
extensive review of the literature.
3. Hypothesis A clear statement of the proposed explanation for an observed
phenomenon. The purpose of the study is to test the
hypothesis.
3. Experimental Facilities Description of the type of facility used for conduct of the study,
if applicable. Field studies may include a description of the
site, including coordinates and other relevant site information.
4. Methods and Procedures Explanation of the experimental protocols, experimental
design, analytical techniques, statistical evaluations, models or
other software platforms that were used, and other measures
relevant to the study. The methods section should contain
enough information such that another person could exactly
replicate the study and get the equivalent results.
5. Results Can also be titled 'Experimental Results'. Detailed
presentation of the study findings, such as measurements that
were made or output from modeling.
6. Discussion Interpretation of the study findings, including important
conclusions from the study, a description of how the results
support or disprove the hypothesis, discussion of how the
present results compare to previous results, analysis of the
implications of the results. In some cases, future studies that
are needed and/or recommendations that can be made as a
result of the study may also be presented.
2-5
Table 2-2 Continued

Item Description
7. Summary or Conclusions A brief restatement of all important findings identified in the
Discussion. It is good practice to review the study objectives
to ensure that the study and report are complete.
References A listing of citations to all other sources of information that
were used in the study.
Acknowledgements Used to identify the people or entities that contributed to the
work, including specific funding sources.
2-4 REPORT FORMATTING

The format elements of report writing deal primarily with the layout of the report
pages including the chapter or section titles, the headings to be used, the placement
of figures and tables, whether justification will be used, the citation format for
references, and the other myriad details that must be taken into consideration in the
preparation of a successful report.
Headings
Headings are used to introduce the general content of the presentation that follows.
To make maximum use of each heading some introductory text must follow. It is
poor form to have the text beginning with a second level heading.
Hierarchical Number of Heading Levels Although any number of headings can be

used, the number of hierarchical levels used in a technical report should be limited to
three, not counting the chapter or section title. If it is found that more are required,
the material should be recast. Examples of two different heading styles are
presented on the following pages.
Number of Second and Third Level Headings When second and third level
headings are used, a minimum of two second or third level headings must be used.
A single second or third level heading should not be used, as it is poor form.
Justification of Text
In engineering reports it is quite common for the text to be set with margins that are
justified (also referred to as flush-left, flush-right). Text that is not justified is referred
2-6
to as flush-left, ragged-right. Based on numerous tests, it has been found that

reading comprehension is improved by about 20 percent when text is set flush-left,
ragged-right as compared to justified text. The primary reason for the reduction in
comprehension is that the uneven spacing used between words eventually tires the
eyes and limits the length of time text can be read without straining. The effect that
justification has on comprehension can be appreciated by reading the following two
paragraphs: the first is set with justification and the second with flush-left, ragged-
right.
Paragraph Set With Flush-Left, Flush-Right Justification

Municipal wastewater contains a wide range of particulate and dissolved
constituents. Most of the particulate matter is organic and biodegradable.
Separation of the larger particulate matter from the wastewater, using screens
and sedimentation, is inexpensive and the resulting sludges can be stabilized,
concurrent with energy recovery, using anaerobic digestion. Material
remaining in the wastewater after primary sedimentation includes fine and
colloidal particles and dissolved organic and inorganic material. The organic
matter is mostly biodegradable and is usually treated using an aerobic
biological process. The dissolved inorganic material is typically non-reactive
and can be discharged to the environment. However, a few inorganic
constituents [e.g., ammonia nitrogen (NH3)] are toxic to aquatic organisms and
will need to be removed.
Paragraph Set With Flush-Left, Ragged-Right

Municipal wastewater contains a wide range of particulate and dissolved
constituents. Most of the particulate matter is organic and biodegradable.
Separation of the larger particulate matter from the wastewater, using screens
and sedimentation, is inexpensive and the resulting sludges can be stabilized,
concurrent with energy recovery, using anaerobic digestion. Material
remaining in the wastewater after primary sedimentation includes fine and
colloidal particles and dissolved organic and inorganic material. The organic
matter is mostly biodegradable and is usually treated using an aerobic
biological process. The dissolved inorganic material is typically non-reactive
and can be discharged to the environment. However, a few inorganic
constituents [e.g., ammonia nitrogen (NH3)] are toxic to aquatic organisms and
will need to be removed.
2-5 MECHANICS OF REPORT PREPARATION

The mechanics of report layout include, the placement of headings, spacing and
margins, the use of headers and footers, and page numbering conventions.
2-7
Placement of Headings
There are many acceptable arrangements for the placement of headings (e.g., flush-
left, indented, centered, etc.). Examples of heading placement are presented on
pages 2-9 and 2-10.
Spacing and Margins

The spacing used in the report text should be such that the text page does not
appear to be too crowded. Examples of spacing and margins are illustrated on
pages 2-11 and 2-12.
Use of Headers
In long reports or long chapters or sections, a header is used to identify the chapter
or section. In books, the left header is used commonly to identify the chapter and
the right header is used to identify the section within a chapter. The same format is
also used in long complex reports. Often the header is placed above a fine line as
used in this guidebook (see top of page). A header is not used on the opening page
of a chapter or section.
Page Numbering and Placement Conventions

Although a number of page numbering conventions are in use, the following
convention is commonly used for engineering reports.
1. Lower case roman numerals are used for the front matter, starting with the
report cover. The report and title page are not numbered even though they
are counted in the numbering sequence. For example, the page number of
the contents page in this guidebook is roman numeral iii, following the cover
and title page.
2. Two conventions are used for the body of the report. In the first method, the
body of the report is numbered consecutively starting with page 1. In the
second method, each chapter or section is number separately with the
chapter or section number placed in front of the page number. Either a dash
or period is used between the chapter or section number and the page
number (e.g., 2-1 or 2.1). The ES may be numbered as ES-1, etc., prior to
the first section.
2-8
3. Two conventions are also used for the end matter of the report. In the first
method, where consecutive page numbering has been used for the body of
the report the consecutive numbering is continued throughout the end matter.
In the second method, each appendix is numbered separately (e.g., A-1, A.1,
etc.)
4. Page numbers are usually placed in the footer, either centered or justified
often below a fine ruled line as used in this guide (see bottom of page).
Although page numbers have been placed in the header or at the side of
each page, this practice is not common in engineering reports.
2-9
Report Outline Style - 1 With Section Numbering

First, second, and third level headings flush-left. Third level heading cut in (text follows on
same line as heading). First level heading is all capitalized. Lead capitals are used for the
second and third level headings.
In Outline Form
CHAPTER 2 SETTING OF MASTER PLAN (Chapter title, text below)

2.1. SERVICE AREA (1st level heading, text below)
Physical Characteristics (2nd level heading, text below)
Surrounding Waters (2nd level heading, text below)
Beneficial Uses (3rd level heading, text follows on same line)
Water Quality (3rd level heading, text follows on same line)
Land use (2nd level heading, text below)
2.2 THE CURRENT SEWER SYSTEM (1st level heading, text below)
In Written Form
2
THE SETTING OF THE MASTER PLAN
To understand the development of the SSMP, it is important to understand the

nature of the service area and the sewerage system including the . .
2.1 THE SERVICE AREA

The service area can be characterized by its climate, land use, surrounding
waters (including beneficial uses and water quality) and air quality. . .
Physical Characteristics
San Francisco is situated on the northern end of a narrow peninsula between the
Pacific Ocean on the west and the San Francisco Bay estuary on the north . .
Surrounding Waters
San Francisco Bay, bounds the eastern and northern margins of the city.
Approximately 40% of the land area of California drains through the bay.
Beneficial Uses. San Francisco Bay provides a wide variety of beneficial uses.
These include swimming, boating, fishing, duck hunting, tourism . .
Water Quality. Many San Francisco Bay species are contaminated and in decline.
Factors contributing to this situation may include increasing . .
Land Use
Of the total city land area, 82% is developed. Somewhat less than half of this
developed area is residential (Association of Bay Area Governments, 2004).
2.2 THE CURRENT SEWERAGE SYSTEM

The current San Francisco sewerage system effectively collects, conveys and
treats all of the dry-weather domestic wastewater and urban runoff flows . .
2-10
Report Outline Style - 2 With Decimal Numbering

First, second, and third level headings flush-left with decimal numbering. Third level
heading cut in (text follows on same line as heading). First level heading is all capitalized.
Lead capitals are used for the second and third level headings.
In Outline Form
CHAPTER 2 SETTING OF MASTER PLAN (Chapter title, text below)

2.1. SERVICE AREA (1st level heading, text below)
2.1.1. Physical Characteristics (2nd level heading, text below)
2.1.2 Surrounding Waters (2nd level heading, text below)
2.1.2.1 Beneficial Uses (3rd level heading, text follows on same line)
2.1.2.1 Water Quality (3rd level heading, text follows on same line)
2.1.3 Land use (2nd level heading, text below)
2.2. THE CURRENT SEWER SYSTEM (1st level heading, text below)
In Written Form
2
THE SETTING OF THE MASTER PLAN
To understand the development of the SSMP, it is important to understand the

nature of the service area and the sewerage system including the . .
2.1 THE SERVICE AREA

The service area can be characterized by its climate, land use, surrounding
waters (including beneficial uses and water quality) and air quality. . .
2.1.1 Physical Characteristics

San Francisco is situated on the northern end of a narrow peninsula between the
Pacific Ocean on the west and the San Francisco Bay estuary on the north . .
2.1.2 Surrounding Waters
San Francisco Bay, bounds the eastern and northern margins of the city.
Approximately 40% of the land area of California drains through the bay.
2.1.2.1 Beneficial Uses. San Francisco Bay provides a wide variety of beneficial
uses. These include swimming, boating, fishing, duck hunting, tourism . .
2.1.2.2 Water Quality. Many San Francisco Bay species are contaminated and in
decline. Factors contributing to this situation may include increasing . .
2.1.3 Land Use
Of the total city land area, 82% is developed. Somewhat less than half of this
developed area is residential (Association of Bay Area Governments, 2004).
2.2 THE CURRENT SEWERAGE SYSTEM

The current San Francisco sewerage system effectively collects, conveys and
treats all of the dry-weather domestic wastewater and urban runoff flows . .
2-11
2
PAGE FORMATS FOR REPORTS
Line, if used, either hairline

or 3/4 pt placed 3 pt above
chapter title
Line, either hairline or 3/4 pt placed

3 pts below chapter title
Chapter title, single space, all caps 18 pt
Upper margin formats

1 - 1.0 in Chapter number 36 pt
2 - 1.0 in
3 - 1.0 in
4 - 1.0 in
Right margin formats
1 - 1.15 in
Left margin formats 2 - 1.25 in
1 - 1.35 in 3 - 1.0 or 1.15 in
2 - 1.25 in 4 - 1.0 in (back to back with
3 - 1.25 in 0.5 in gutter)
4 - 1.0 in (back to back with
0.5 in gutter)
First page for chapter or section

Four different formats are shown for use with 8.5 by 11 in paper.
Bottom margin formats

Hairline, if used, is
1 - 1.0 in
2 - 1.0 in placed 3 pt above
3 - 1.0 in page number
4 - 1.0 in
Page number (12 pt) is placed 0.5 in

above the bottom of the page.
Page number is usually centered
on the working area. If consecutive
page numbering is not used, the
chapters or sections are numbered as
follows: ES-1, 1-1, 2-1, etc.
2-12
Hairline, if used, is placed 3

pt below header
Upper margin
formats
1 - 1.0 in Top of header (9 pt) is placed 0.5
2 - 1.0 in in below the top of the page. The
3 - 1.0 in header is placed on the right hand
4 - 1.0 in
side of the page in the single page
format. Two spaces are used
between the number and the title
of the chapter or section.
Intermediate pages
Four different formats are shown for use with 8.5 by 11 in paper.
Left margin formats Right margin formats

1 - 1.35 in 1 - 1.15 in
2 - 1.25 in 2 - 1.25 in
3 - 1.25 in 3 - 1.0 or 1.15 in
4 - 1.0 in (back to back with 4 - 1.0 in (back to back with
0.5 in gutter) 0.5 in gutter)
Bottom margin formats

Hairline, if used, is
1 - 1.0 in
placed 3 pt above
2 - 1.0 in page number
3 - 1.0 in
4 - 1.0 in
Page number (12 pt) is placed 0.5 in

above the bottom of the page.
Page number is usually centered
on the working area. If consecutive page
numbering is not used, the chapters or
sections are numbered as follows: 1-1,
2-1, etc.
2-13
3
PREPARATION OF TABLES
In reports and papers, tables are used frequently to present experimental,

computational, and operational data; project information; and summaries of literature
search findings. Sometimes tables are used instead of figures and vice versa. The
development of tables, the citation of tables, and mechanics involved in the
preparation and presentation of tables is considered in the following discussion.
3-1 DEVELOPMENT OF TABLES
When developing and referring to a table in the text, the following points should be
considered.
1. Why is the table being presented?
2. Reasons for the design of the table.
3. What does the table contain?
4. Source of original data or information?
5. How have the data been manipulated?
6. Why are some data missing?
7. What exceptions are there to the normal meaning of rows and columns?
8. What is the accuracy of the data?
9. What is the statistical variation of the data?
10. Describe the rows and columns of the table.
11. How do related or comparable data in the table correlate among themselves?
12. How do the data correlate with other data in the same report?
13. How do the data correlate with data from other publications?
14. What is the meaning of the data?
15. What conclusions can be drawn from the data presented in the table?
3-1
3 Preparation of Tables
3-2 CITATION OF TABLES
Tables must be keyed to the text at least once. The table should be placed
immediately after its first mention, either on the bottom half of the same page or on
the top of the next page. If tables are placed several pages after first being cited,
the reader will lose comprehension.
3-3 MECHANICS OF TABLE PREPARATION
The mechanics of table development involve understanding the parts of the table
and the mechanics of formatting.
Parts of a Table
Tables are comprised typically of the following parts:
1. Table number and title
2. Boxhead (used to identify the entries in the vertical columns)
3. Stub (used to identify the horizontal entries in the table)
4. Boxhead for the stub
5. Field (the area of the table in which the data are presented)
The above parts of a table are identified in Table 1.
Table Formatting
The mechanics of table formatting involve the arrangement of the columns and rows,
and the spacing within the columns and rows as shown in Table 2. The proper
format for tables is illustrated in Tables 3 through 6. All of the tables shown are of
the open type in that they are not boxed in with borders on all sides. In presenting
data values in tables the units should be placed in a separate column or included in
boxhead title, as appropriate. The inclusion of a separate column for units is
illustrated in Table 3; units are included in the column headings in Table 4. A table
with multi-level or hierarchical entries is presented in Table 5. The presentation of
figures in a table is illustrated in Table 6. When footnotes are included with tables
they are usually lettered with a superscript and arranged left to right from top to
bottom. Specific journal conventions should be used for publications.
3-2
Boxhead for Table number Boxhead for

stub and title column titles
Table 1 (Parts of a table)

Summary of filtration runs for Fuzzy Filter
Filtration rate Medium depth Estimated

Compression porosity,
Run no L/m2 • min gal/ft2 • min ratio, % mm in %
1 205 5 0 760 30 92
2 205 5 15 650 25.5 90.5
3 205 5 30 530 21 88.5
4 205 5 40 460 18 87
5 410 10 0 760 30 92
6 410 10 15 650 25.5 90.5
7 410 10 30 530 21 88.5
8 410 10 40 460 18 87
9 820 20 0 760 30 92
10 820 20 15 650 25.5 90.5
11 820 20 30 530 21 88.5
12 820 20 40 460 18 87
13 1230 30 0 760 30 92
14 1230 30 15 650 25.5 90.5
15 1230 30 30 530 21 88.5
16 1230 30 40 460 18 87
Stub Field containing

data
3-3
Table title can be right

justified or centered. Lead
cap only for table title
Single entries are placed on

bottom line of table heading
Lead cap only
followed by comma
before unit
3 pt space
Table 2 (Mechanics of table formatting)

Data on the biodegradable fraction of selected organic waste components
based on lignin content
Volatile solids, Lignin 3 pt space
VS, % of total content, LC, Bio-degradable
Component solids, TS in % of VS fraction, BFa
3 pt space
Food wastes 7 - 15 0.4 0.82
Paper
Newsprint 94.0 21.9 0.22 1 or 2 pt
space
Office paper 96.4 0.4 0.82
Cardboard 94.0 12.9 0.47
Yard wastes 50 - 90 4.1 0.72
3 pt space
a Computed using Eq. 4-11
3 pt space
Presentation of Tables
Tables may be designed to occupy the full width of the typed page, but generally are
more pleasing in appearance when smaller than the full width of the page. Tables
are centered usually, but may be placed on the left margin. When tables are
presented in the landscape mode, in either a single page or back to back format, the
bottom of the table should face the right side of the page.
3-4
Table 3 (Separate column for units)

Typical design information for surface filtration of secondary settled effluent using a Discfiltera
Item Unit Typical value Remarks
Size of opening in µm 20 – 35 Stainless steel or polyester

screen material screen cloths are available in
sizes ranging from 10 to 60 µm.
Hydraulic loading m3 /m2 • min 0.25 – 0.83 Depends on characteristics of
rate suspended solids that must be
removed.
Headloss through mm 75 - 150 Based on submerged surface
screen area of drum.
Disc submergence % height 70 – 75 Bypass should be provided when
% area 60 – 70 head loss exceeds 200 mm.
Disc diameter m 1.75 – 3.0 Varies depending on screen
design; 3 m is most commonly
used size. Smaller sizes increase
backwash requirements.
Backwash % throughput 2 at 350 kPa
requirements 5 at 100 kPa
a Adapted in part from Tchobanoglous et al. (2003)
Table 4 (Units listed in column header)

Typical single family home water use, with and without water conservationa
Typical single family home water use
Without water conservation With water conservation
Water uses L/capita.db Percent L/capita.db Percent

Toilets 76.1 27.7 36.3 19.3
Clothes washers 57.2 20.9 40.1 21.4
Showers 47.7 17.3 37.9 20.1
Faucets 42.0 15.3 40.9 21.9
Leaks 37.9 13.8 18.9 13.8
Other domestic 5.7 2.1 5.7 3.1
Baths 4.5 1.6 4.5 2.4
Dish washers 3.8 1.3 3.8 2.0
Total: 274.4 100 187.8 100
aAdapted from AWWA Research Foundation, 1999.
bL/capita.d, liters per capita per day
3-5
Table 5 [Table with multi-level (also hierarchical) entries]

Improvements to physical facilities made to improve plant operation
Date Improvements
Inlet works
8/8/06 to 1/8/07 • Rebuilt/replaced all isolation gate hydraulic cylinders. Ground out
gate channels. Installed new rubber seals on gate bottoms.
Grouted in new stainless steal gate seats.
• Installed new bar screen rakes, wear shoes, repinned chains,
reset to proper length.
• Replaced worn grit collector steel rails with a modified design to
improve reliability.
• Replaced grit collector chain, sprockets and tension arms.
Installed grease line for submersed bearings.
Secondary aeration
8/1/05 to 11/28/06 • Installed LDO probes & meters for better dissolved oxygen
control.
• Installed in-process solids meters in aeration basins.
• Purchased 2 new aeration blower motors-upgrade over existing
units. Grease lubricated bearings instead oil bath-babbitt design.
South secondary clarifiers
10/18/06 to 1/8/07 • Repaired corner sweeps.
• Repaired isolation gate to allow for repairs to clarifiers without
taking basins off-line.
• Replaced bent gate shaft with custom made shaft.
• Removed scale from gate channels to allow freer movement.
• Repaired scum pumps.
Sodium hypochlorite system
9/1/06 to 12/15/06 • Rebuilt all three residual chlorine analyzers
• Programmed in a negative residual compensator.
• Programmed in a residual trim to subtract from flow proportioned
hypochlorite dosage.
3-6
Table 6 (Figures incorporated in table)

Description of surface filters used in water reclamation applications
Type Description
Cloth Media Filter (CMF) The CMF, marketed under the trademark
AquaDisk® by Aqua-Aerobic Systems, also consists
of several disks mounted vertically in a tank. Each
disk is comprised of six equal segments. The CMF
differs from the DF in that water flows by gravity
from the exterior of the disks through the filter
medium to an internal collection system. Two types
of filter cloth can be used: (1) a needle felt cloth
made of polyester or (2) synthetic pile fabric cloth
Discfilter® (DF) The DF, developed by Hydrotech and marketed in

the U.S. by Veolia Water Systems, consists of a
series disks comprised of two vertically mounted
parallel disks that are used to support the filter cloth
Each disk is connected to a central feed tube. The
cloth screen material used can be of either polyester
or Type 304 or 316 stainless steel. The filter
mechanism can be furnished with a self-contained
tank or for installation in a concrete tank. In cold
climates or where odor control is a consideration, an
enclosure can be provided for the disks.
3-7
4
PREPARATION OF FIGURES
The effective development and use of figures in technical reports is of critical
importance. In many cases, a quality figure can convey quickly a great deal of
information that would otherwise be laborious to describe only in text. The figures
used in technical reports are of three general types: (1) pictorial illustrations such as
process flow diagrams (schematics), organization charts, and work flow diagrams;
(2) plots of experimental, computational, and operation data; and (3) photographs
and renderings of equipment and facilities. The development of figures, citation of
figures, and mechanics involved in the development of figures are considered in the
following discussion. Separate sections are devoted to each type of figure for clarity.
4-1 DEVELOPMENT OF FIGURES
The questions that must be asked for each type of figure are discussed below. If the
report is ever to be reproduced in black and white, the impact on color figures must
be considered. In general, it is a good policy to confirm that all figures will reproduce
correctly in black and white.
Development of Pictorial Illustrations

When referring to a pictorial illustration, the following points should be considered:
1. Why is the illustration being presented?
2. Reasons for the design or layout of the illustration.
3. What does the illustration contain (e.g., treatment process flow diagrams,
organization charts, work flow diagrams, etc.)?
4. Are there specific parts or elements of the illustration that should be
highlighted for the reader?
5. Is the illustration related to any of the data plots or photographs and or
renderings presented in the paper?
6. Is the illustration original or adapted from someone else?
4-1
4 Preparation of Figures
Development of Data Plots

When developing and referring to a figure containing data, the following points
should be considered:
1. Why is the figure being presented?
2. Reasons for the design of the figure.
3. What does the figure contain (e.g., axis’s labels)?
4. Where do the original data come from?
5. How have the data been manipulated?
6. Why are some data missing?
7. What is the accuracy of the data?
8. What is their statistical variation?
9. How do related or comparable data in the figure(s) correlate among
themselves?
10. How do the data in the figure correlate with other data in the same report?
11. How do the data and/or plots correlate with data and plots from other
publications?
12. What is the meaning of the data that are plotted?
13. What conclusions can be drawn from the data presented in the figure?
Development of Photographs and Renderings

When referring to a photograph or rendering, the following points should be
considered:
1. Why is the photograph or rendering being presented?
2. Reasons for the orientation of the photograph or rendering.
3. Are there specific parts of the photograph that should be highlighted for the
reader?
4. Is the photograph related to any of the data plots or pictorial illustrations?
5. Is the photograph or rendering original or provided by someone else?
6. Would providing geographic coordinates help the reader understand the
setting for the photograph or the extent of the facility being described.
7. Is the quality of the photograph consistent with the final image size
4-2
4-2 CITATION OF FIGURES
Figures must be keyed to the text at least once. The figure should be placed
immediately after its first mention, and depending on the size, either on the bottom
half of the same page, the top half of the next page, or on a full page following the
first mention of the figure.
4-3 MECHANICS OF PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS
Pictorial illustrations can encompass line drawings of process schematics, flow

diagrams, and organizational charts. In addition to the main focus of the illustration,
the components for illustrations include call-out lines, arrows indicating direction of
flow, descriptive text, and standard details. The mechanics of data plots and
photographs are presented in subsequent sections.
Size and Layout

Illustrations should not be larger than required to effectively convey the message. In
some cases, breaking symbols may be used to reduce the overall size of an
illustration. The composition of the illustration should only include information
required to convey the message. Some illustrations may require supplemental
details, such as directional compass, scale information, or related notes.
Lettering
For most purposes, the type size used in illustrations should be 10 pt. In some
cases, a smaller type size may be used where the figure is larger and the type size
is therefore reduced to fit. San serif fonts, such as Helvetica or Ariel, should be used
for illustrations. When a type size of 10 pt is used for the regular text, superscripts
and subscripts should be 8 pt, and raised or lowered by 2 pt, respectively. Where a
type size other than 10 pt is used, the superscript and subscript should remain
proportional.
Use of Callouts and Arrows

Callouts are used to describe a particular feature or detail in an illustration. The
basic callout consists of a line connecting the particular feature or detail to the
4-3
descriptive text. The line should be a hairline, or 0.5 pt, as a heavier line will distract
from the diagram and may be confused for a line in the illustration. When possible,
supporting callout text should be set slightly away from the actual illustration to focus
the readers eye on the diagram itself. The callout line should approach the
supporting text in a balanced manner. Running the callout lines in parallel will result
in an organized look.
Arrows are never used to callout a feature or detail, and are only used to show the
direction of flow or movement. It is important to select an arrow shape and size that
is balanced and consistent with all figures in the report. An example arrowhead
detail including the proportions for arrowhead and the connecting line are shown on
Fig. 4-1.
Standard Details
Process flow diagrams typically include features such as pumps, flow meters,
gauges, and valves. It is recommended to use a standard set of details for these
features for purposes of consistency and effectiveness of conveying information to
the reader. A sample pump detail that is used in process flow diagrams is shown on
Fig. 4-2. Most agencies have a catalogue of standard details.
Figure 4-1
Dimensions of arrowhead used to represent flow direction or movement
Figure 4-2
Standard pump detail
4-4
Software Recommendations
Illustrations can be prepared using any of the various commercially available
software packages, however, not all illustration software packages are equal. For
example, the drawing software that accompanies MS Word is not very sophisticated
and can only be used for preparing simple diagrams, unless significant time is
invested. The preferred software when high quality technical illustrations are to be
prepared is Adobe Illustrator. AutoCAD is useful for the preparation of precision to-
scale drawings, however, technical illustrations prepared using AutoCAD can be
difficult to import into a technical report due to inconsistencies with other illustrations.
In many cases, the illustrations placed in technical reports will not need to be drawn
to scale.
Sample Illustrations
A few technical illustrations are shown below to familiarize the reader with the some
of the techniques described in this section. Lines with arrows are used to represent
the UV light emitted during UV disinfection on Fig. 4-3. The plan view of an MBR
facility is presented on Fig. 4-4. As shown on Fig. 4-4, several of the callout lines
are drawn parallel, resulting in an organized look. Also shown on Fig. 4-4 are the
standard arrowhead and pump details. Using standard features helps the reader
focus on the substance of the figure instead of being distracted by non-uniformity.
An informational process flow diagram with inserts is shown on Fig. 4-5. Two
examples of 3-dimensional illustrations are presented on Figs. 4-6 and 4-7. An
integrated wastewater management scheme employing centralized, satellite, and
decentralized facilities is shown on Fig. 4-6. Figure 4-7 is a 3-dimensional depiction
of the 2-dimensional MBR shown on Fig. 4-4. Two process flow diagrams are shon
on Figs. 4-8 and 4-9.
4-5
Figure 4-3
Particle interactions that affect the effectiveness of UV disinfection including microorganism shading;
light scattering, reflection, and refraction; and incomplete penetration
Figure 4-4
Plan view of membrane bioreactor with an anoxic section for nitrogen removal
4-6
Figure 4-5 (flush-left placement of figure title)

Diagram of centralized wastewater collection system with (a) commercial building interception type,
(b) extraction type, (c) upstream type, and (d) individual home with greywater interception type
satellite facilities.
4-7
Figure 4-6
Diagram of future hybrid wastewater management system incorporating both
decentralized, satellite, and centralized facilities.
Figure 4-7
Koch Puron submerged hollow fiber membrane bioreactor
4-8
Figure 4-8
Proposed process flow diagram for the City of Davis Wastewater Treatment Plant.
Dashed lines indicate alternative flow pathways or intermittent flows.
Figure 4-9 (flush-left placement of figure title)

Schematic flow diagram for 2.65 x 104 m3/d (70 Mgal/d) advanced water treatment facility
(currently under construction, 2006), at the Orange County Water District, Fountain Valley, CA).
Coordinates: 33.692 N. 117.942 W).
4-9
4-4 MECHANICS OF DATA PLOTS
When data are to be presented in a technical report, a number of factors should be

considered. The specific type of plot to be used for presenting the data can have a
significant impact on the readers understanding. Thus, it is important for the writer
to be familiar with the various available types of plots.
Types of Data Plots

There are many types of plots that can be used to present the same data set,
however, some alternatives will be more effective. Plot types used for most data can
be divided into scatter and line plots, bar charts, pie charts, and statistical plots.
Scatter and line plots are used commonly for presenting data on an x-y plane. Line
plots are used when there continuity between data points, such as with the output
from computer models or theoretical curves. Scatter plots are used when the values
between data points are not known, as with experimental measurements. Bar charts
can be horizontal or vertical and most useful for comparing two sets of values for
limited data sets.
When a large data set is to be plotted, bar charts can be cumbersome. Line, scatter,
and bar charts can be used for plotting three-dimensional data when a z-axis is
included. Pie charts are used for comparing percentages of a whole, however,
because of their high space to information content ratio, pie charts have limited
application in technical reports. Statistical plots may include features such as error
bars, confidence intervals, and other information about the distribution. Statistics
textbooks or reference guides should be consulted when preparing statistical plots.
Probability distributions are another type of statistical plot used commonly when
working with environmental data sets. Information on construction and interpretation
of probability distributions can be found in Asano et al., 2007.
Plot Size and Line Weights

Plot size and aspect ratio can be an important consideration when optimizing the
presentation of a data set and visually for the reader. Common plot sizes used in
4-10
technical reports are 3 in. by 3 in. and 2.75 in by 4 in. for the y- and x-axis lengths,
respectively. Line weights should be selected for a balanced look. Typical line
weights used for data plots are 1 pt for the border, 0.75 pt for tick marks, 0.5 for
internal gridlines. The size of the marker used for data points should be selected so
that they are not too small to be obscured by lines or curve fits, and not so large that
they overlap or obscure other information on the plot. For most purposes a 9 or 12
pt data marker is adequate. Data marker characters should be selected to ensure
that they will be unique even when reproduced in black and white. Lines connecting
data point markers and curve fits should be 0.75 to 1 pt.
Axis labels should be set slightly away from the axis values. As a starting point, both
axis labels and values should be 10 pt. Internal text can be smaller that the text
used for axis labels, usually 8 pt. If callout lines are used in the data plot, a line
weight of 0.5 pt should be used, with lines drawn parallel where feasible to give an
orderly appearance. When legends are used, they should be placed in one corner
of the plot window, if there is sufficient space.
Software for preparing data plots include: MS Excel, Kaliedagraph, and Deltagraph,
among others. In some cases, it may be easier to manipulate data in one program,
e.g., Excel, while Kaliedagraph is used for development of the final data plot. When
necessary, data plots can further be exported into illustration software if other
features are to be added.
Sample Plots
Several sample plots are shown below to demonstrate different techniques for
presenting data. A simple scatter plot with a linear curve fit is shown on Fig. 4-10.
Important features to note on Fig. 4-10 include the faded gridlines that do not
interfere with the presentation of the data, sufficient tick marks to permit the reader
to determine the value of individual data points, and text inserts to identify the data
sets instead of a legend.
4-11
A hybrid line-bar plot is shown on Fig. 4-11. The hybrid plot is used to display
several different data sets simultaneously. The probability distribution shown on Fig.
4-12 is plotted over a set of typical values. Construction of Fig. 4-12 required
several steps, extraction of the original data set from an MS Excel database, plotting
the data set in Kaliedagraph, and importing the plot into Adobe Illustrator, where the
typical values were inserted into the background for reference. Another example of
a hybrid plot involving a process schematic, a 3-dimensional illustration, and a data
plot are shown on Fig. 4-13. Of necessity, the lettering size has been reduced to
incorporate the necessary descriptions of the process steps.
4-5 MECHANICS OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Photographs and or renderings are often included in technical reports to give the
reader visual information about the topic of the report. However, poor quality
photographs and or renderings may not be effective in conveying the writers point.
In the age of digital image capture devices, a wide range of alternatives exist for
acquiring digital images, including cell phone camera, still frame capture from video,
digital cameras, and flat-bed scanning. Similarly, a variety of computer programs
are available for creating renderings. It is important for the writer to become familiar
with the process of selecting and editing images for use in technical reports. The
following discussion is focused on photographs; the same observations apply to
renderings.
Selection of Photographs
Photographs should be selected based on their content and quality. Ideally, the
content of the photo should be limited to the topic under consideration. Photographs
taken haphazardly may contain items such as passers-by, tree branches, or other
matter that obscures the point of the image. Photographs that are blurred or have
exposure problems will be difficult to recover and should not be used in technical
reports.
4-12
Figure 4-10
Typical dose response curves for UV disinfection developed from data obtained using a collimated
beam device for dispersed microorganisms (Cooper et al., 2000)
Figure 4-11
Curves of chlorine residual versus chlorine dosage for wastewater containing ammonia nitrogen
(Adapted from White, 1999)
4-13
Figure 4-12
Comparison of New Haven WWTP 2007 effluent probability distribution for TSS with range of effluent
probability values reported for conventional activated sludge processes (Asano et al., 2007).
Figure 4-13
Schematic illustration of the application of biodosimetry as used to determine the performance of a
test or full scale UV reactor (Adapted in part from Crittenden et al., 2005)
4-14
Manipulation of Photographs
The development of photographs for use in technical reports can involve a number
of operations, including cropping, adjusting the brightness/contrast, removing
distortions, rotating, and resizing. For guidance in performing these operations,
photo editing software and the associated manuals should be consulted.
File Type and Resolution

The file type used for acquiring photographic images, manipulating photographs
within software, and importing image files into technical reports depends on the
equipment and software available as well as the required quality of the finished
image. File types used when capturing images include RAW and JPG. The
resolution used will depend on the final use of the technical report. For example,
images used for display on a computer screen at a zoom level of 100 percent may
have a resolution of 100 dpi. Reports to be printed will require higher resolution,
typically in the range of 300 dpi. When there is insufficient resolution, photographs
will appear out of focus or pixilated. Images that do not have sufficient resolution
should not be used. Options for dealing with low-resolution images include
recapturing the image when possible, reducing the size of the image in the
document, and manipulation in photo editing software.
There are numerous commercially available software bundles for photo editing
including products by Adobe and Corel. It is advised that, regardless of the software
selected for image editing, instructional books should be obtained and used to
ensure user proficiency.
Sample Photographs
Several sample images are shown below to demonstrate different approaches for
presenting photographic images in technical reports. Images of treatment processes
are shown on Fig. 4-14, while close-up detail photographs of a laboratory procedure
are shown on Fig. 4-15. A hybrid satellite photo with text callouts is shown on Fig. 4-
16. White lines have been added to the callout lines to them easier to follow.
4-15
Geographic coordinates are given in the title for Fig. 4-17 to allow the reader to gain
additional insight on what is depicted in the photograph by locating the specific site
using software such as Google Earth.
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 4-14 (10 pt figure title)

Views of primary sedimentation basins: (a) grit and grease accumulation that has been floated
to the surface by gases (CO2 and CH4) produced under anaerobic conditions and (b) grit
remaining in primary sedimentation tank after dewatering (Note: grit must be removed from
basins with a pumper truck).
4-16
30 minutes
minutes
(a)
60 minutes
minutes
(b)
Figure 4-15 (10 pt figure title)

Views of mixed liquor samples in settlometer in Settleability Test No. 1 after (a) 30 min and (b) 60
min. Settlometer 1 contains mixed liquor collected from effluent end of activated sludge reactor
no. 1. Settlometers 2 and 3 contain the same mixed liquor sample collected from junction box.
Sufficient sample was collected from the junction box to do two settlometer tests, one as collected
(3) and one deaerated (2).
4-17
Figure 4-16 (10 pt figure title)

Ariel view of modern wastewater treatment plant. Note biological nutrient removal (BNR) and
dechlorination and post-aeration features of the plant.
Figure 4-17
Rio Hondo Spreading Grounds operated by the County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County.
These basins and the unlined portions of the rivers and creeks permit large volumes of reclaimed
water to percolate into the aquifer. (Coordinates: 33.993 N, 118.105 W, view at altitude 4 km.)
4-18
5
PREPARATION OF EQUATIONS
In reports and papers, equations are used to define the relationship between two
or more variables symbolically. The mechanics, format, and placement in text of
equations is considered in the following discussion.
5-1 MECHANICS OF WRITING EQUATIONS

1. In metric units there can only be one slash (major dividing line). Entries
above and below the slash that contain slashes in units must be enclosed
in appropriate fences as illustrated below.
Order of fences = ⎡⎣ { ( )⎤⎦}

For example, the following equation is written incorrectly:
The correct way to write the equation (with only one open slash) is:
V (3.00 m3 / s)
=
Q (0.100 m3 / s)
2. The preferred general form of equations is as written below.
(1.01325 × 105 N / m2 )(28.97 kg / kg − mole)

ρa,20o C = = 1.204 kg / m3
(8314Ni m / kg − mole airiK )(293.15K)
3. An alternate form of above equation is as follows. While not preferred,

this form may be used in certain cases where necessary to make things
clearer. There is, however, a big space penalty. Also, when the equation
moves to two lines, the advantage is less clear.
5-1
5 Preparation of Equations
4. If possible, avoid spanning equations across multiple lines
5-2 GENERAL FORMAT FOR EQUATIONS

Simple equations are often expressed with a forward slash (/), also known as a
shilling symbol or solidus. For example, simple fractions may be expressed as
1/2 or a/b. While the use of the forward slash is acceptable for simple fractions,
equations presented in engineering reports should be expressed using a
horizontal line for clarity. Several examples of equations expressed with a
horizontal line are shown below. In some cases, a forward slash is used within
an equation (see Eq. 7).
(1)
(for n ≠ 1) (2)
(for n = 1) (3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
5-2
5 Preparation of Equations
(7)
5-3 PLACEMENT OF EQUATIONS IN TEXT

Equations placed within text should be centered, with the equation number in
parenthesis and right-hand justified, as illustrated below. Note that each
equation should be placed on it’s own line and not embedded in the text.
With the first method, the quantity of sludge produced daily (and thus wasted
daily) can be estimated using Eq. (7-26) (Tchobanoglous et al., 2003):
(7-26)
where PX,VSS = net waste activated sludge produced each day, kg VSS/d
Yobs = observed yield, g VSS/g substrate removed
Q = influent flow, m3/d
So = influent substrate concentration, g/m3 (mg/L)
S = effluent substrate concentration, g/m3
Note: Equal signs are aligned
5-4 EQUATIONS IN EXAMPLES OR SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

It should be emphasized that the units should be always inserted in the equations
used in the example or sample calculations to allow checking that the
computation has been done correctly.
1. The concentration is determined as follows:
2. The absorptivity, , of NDMA is:
5-3
6
CITATION OF REFERENCES
In preparing reports and papers it is common to reference sources from the literature
for corroborating information and data to support or disprove a point. Whenever
mention is made of material derived from another source (e.g., concepts, data,
figures, etc.), the source of the material must be identified so that the reader knows
who to credit. Strategies for selecting reference sources, techniques used for proper
citation of references, and formatting styles for reference lists are discussed in this
section.
6-1 EVALUATION OF REFERENCE SOURCES

When preparing engineering reports where the work of other people is referenced,
the reliability of the reference sources should be considered. It is important to
determine if the work cited was performed by the cited author or is a "citation of a
citation of a citation" Frequently, it is found that citations refer to an unfounded
opinion by the cited author, particularly when said opinion supports the opinion of the
citer. It is, therefore, essential that the source(s) of information be scrutinized
carefully in their original form (Cooper, 2008). Some important questions that should
be asked about research articles, review articles, and theoretical articles or position
papers are presented below.
Research Articles
1. Is a meaningful, testable question presented in the introduction?
2. Is the study design appropriate for the research question?
3. Were adequate sampling techniques, controls, and procedures used to
ensure the validity of their results?
4. Are the data and results presented in a clear and unambiguous manner
5. Are the conclusions logical and supported by the results?
6. Were alternative explanations or conclusions considered?
6-1
6 Citation of References
7. Were the limitations of the results discussed?
Review Articles
1. Is the focus of the review on a specific research question or issue?
2. What types and kinds of sources are used in preparing the review? How up-
to-date are these sources? Are the sources cited the original, or are they
secondary citations.
3. Is it clear how each of the sources cited in the review was used to contribute
to an understanding of the research question or issue?
4. Are the major sources discussed in the review evaluated critically or are they
merely summarized?
Theoretical Articles or Position Papers

1. Is a clear statement of the position taken presented?
2. Are the assumptions the author makes valid?
3. Are the reasons the author holds this position convincing?
4. Is the experimental, statistical, and observational evidence presented in
support of the position taken accurate, representative, and sufficient?
5. Are alternative theories or explanations considered in the paper?
6. Are opposing views presented fairly?
7. Are opposing positions conceded or refuted effectively?
6-2 CITATION METHODS FOR REFERENCE SOURCES

The origin of reference material must be identified so that the readers, if they
wish, may review the original sources to ascertain if the interpretation
presented is correct. In this section, two methods commonly used to cite
materials from other sources are presented: the parenthetical reference (also
known as an “in text citation”) and the footnote. Both of these citation formats
along with the format for references are considered in this section.
6-2
Parenthetical Citation
In the parenthetical method of citation, either the author and date or a number
are included in the text (typically within parentheses) to identify material taken
from another source. It is assumed that the reference listing contains the
following: (1) full authorship, (2) the full title of the work, and (3) the
publication information. When the cited work is by two authors, both are
included in the citation. When three or more authors are involved, the et al.
format is adopted [e.g., (White et al., 1996)].
Citation By Author And Date In the author and date method of citation, the
name(s) and date are included within parentheses.
One author: (Jones, 2000)
Two authors: (Jones and Jones, 2000)
Three or more authors: (Jones et al., 2000)
Sort by year when there are multiple citations:
(Author, 2000; Author, 2001; Author, 2002)
(White, 1996; White and White, 1997; White et al., 1998)
(Burton et al., 1995; Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998; Asano, 2000)
If the author is mentioned by name in the text, then only the date is included:
Jones et al., (2000) reported on the...
… used in Standard Methods (2003).
Note: Do not use Italic for “et al.”
Citation By Number In older engineering reports and in a number of

technical journals it is common practice to identify the source of the material
with a number enclosed in parentheses. The number is keyed to the
reference list which contains: (1) full authorship, (2) the full title of the work,
and (3) the publication information.
Two types of numbering schemes are used for the reference list: citations
presented in sequence and citations presented in alphabetical sequence. In
the first case, citation numbers are presented in sequence [e.g., (1), (2), (3), .
6-3
. .] and the references are identified sequentially and not alphabetically. In

the second case, the references are arranged alphabetically and numbered
sequentially. When reference is made to a specific reference the number of
that reference is cited in the text without regard to order of numbering.
The difficulty with the use of the numbering scheme for references is that if a
reference is forgotten, then all of the reference numbers in the text must be
changed to accommodate the added reference. By comparison in the
author/date citation format discussed above, an additional reference can be
accommodated easily. If numbered references are used, it is suggested that
you write the manuscript using the author/date citation format. When the
manuscript is complete, number the references and then insert the
appropriate numbers in the text in place of the author/date citation.
Footnote Citation
In the footnote citation style superscripted numbers are used to identify
material taken from another source. The source of the material
corresponding to a given number in the text is identified at the bottom of the
page. If the number of citations is lengthy, the footnotes may run to the
second page. This citation style is seldom used in engineering reports.
6-3 FORMAT STYLES FOR REFERENCE LISTS

At present, more than 100 reference styles are in use. Regardless of the
citation style adopted the reference list should contain: (1) full authorship, (2)
the full title of the work, and (3) the publication information. Two general
citation are in common use. In the first format style, the date is included after
the author(s) name(s). In the second format style, the date is included at the
end of the reference citation.
Author and Date Citation Format

The format for articles in journals, books, federal agencies, and professional
organizations where the date is included at the end of the citation is as follows. All
6-4
of the references presented below would be arranged alphabetically in an actual

paper or article. Also it should be noted that in the following listing the initials of
subsequent authors following the first author are placed in front of the surname. In
many journals the initials of subsequent authors are placed after the surname.
General guidelines for the format style used for journal citations are as follows:
 First author: Last Name, First and Middle initials.
 Other authors: First and Middle initials, Last Name.
 For more than one author, insert “and” before the last author.
 No period or comma between the last author and (year).
 Journal article title is in quotation marks, comma inside of the quotation mark.
 Use Title Case, except for “a” “of” “the” “from” etc.
 Journal name or standard abbreviation is in Italic, followed by a comma (see
list of standardized journal abbreviations given in Table 6-1).
 Journal volume = number in bold followed by a comma.
 Journal issue number = number not bold followed by a comma.
 Journal pages = number-number (e.g., 872-895) followed by period.
 Use a period in the very end.
Examples of the formatting of reference lists are presented below for citations to
journal articles, books, works with editors, government agencies and professional
organizations, conference proceedings, and websites.
Articles in journals
Angelakis, A.N., M.H.F. Marecos do Monte, L. Bontoux, and T. Asano (1999) “The
Status of Wastewater Reuse Practice in the Mediterranean Basin: Need for
Guidelines,” Water Res., 33, 10, 2201-2217.
Benjamin, M.M., G.V. Korshin, and C.W. Li (1997) "The Decrease of UV Absorbance
as an Indicator of Tox Formation," Water Res., 31, 6, 946-949.
(Note: Alternate placement of initials)
Benjamin, M.M., Korshin, G.V., and Li, C.W. (1997) "The Decrease of UV
Absorbance as an Indicator of Tox Formation," Water Res., 31, 6, 946-949.
Edwards, M., and T. Meyer (1996) "Lead versus Alkalinity and pH," J. AWWA, 88, 3,
81-90.
Tchobanoglous, G., F. Maitski, K. Thomson, and T.H. Chadwick (1989) "Evolution
and Performance of City of San Diego Pilot Scal;e Aquatic Wastewater
Treatment System Using Water Hyacinths," J. WPCF, 61, 11/12, 1245-1257.
(or vol. 61, no.11/12, pp 1245-1257)
6-5
Table 6-1
Summary of journal abbreviations used commonly in environmental engineering
Journal title Abbreviation
Agricultural Water Management Agr. Water Mgnt.
American Institute of Chemical Engineers Journal AIChE J.
Applied Environmental Biology Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
American Journal of Public Health Am. J. Public Health
Biosystems Engineering Biosyst. Eng.
Chemical Engineering Science Chem. Eng. Sci.
Corrosion Science Corros. Sci.
Environmental Progress Environ. Prog.
Environmental Science & Technology Environ. Sci. Technol.
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.
Irrigation Science Irrig. Sci.
Journal American Chemical Society J. Am. Chem. Soc.
Journal Environmental Engineering Division, J. Environ. Eng. Div. ASCE
American Society of Civil Engineering
Journal of Membrane Science J. Membr. Sci.
Journal American Water Works Association J. AWWA
Journal Water Environment Control Federation J. WPCF
Journal Water Environment Federation J. WEF
Ozone Science & Engineering Ozone Sci. Eng.
Proceedings of Water Environment Federation Proceedings of WEFTEC 2007
Technical Exhibition and Conference 2007
Transactions American Society of Agricultural Trans. ASAE
Engineers
Water Research Water Res.
Water Environment Research Water Environ. Res.
Water Science and Technology Water Sci. Technol.
Books
Asano, T. (ed.) (1985) Artificial Recharge of Groundwater, Butterworth
Publishers, Boston, MA.
Asano, T., F.L. Burton, H. Leverenz, R. Tsuchihashi, and G. Tchobanoglous
(2007) Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies, and Applications, McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Baird, R.B., and R.K. Smith (2002) Third Century of Biochemical Oxygen
Demand, Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA.
6-6
Crittenden, J.C., R.R. Trussell, D.W. Hand, K.J. Howe, and G. Tchobanoglous
(2005) Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Inc, New York.
Oliver, B.G., and E.G. Cosgrove (1975) "The Disinfection of Sewage Treatment
Plant Effluents Using Ultraviolet Light," J. Chem. Eng., (Canadian), 53, 4, 170-
174.
Tchobanoglous, G., F.L. Burton, and H.D. Stensel (2003) Wastewater
Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th ed., Metcalf and Eddy, Inc.,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. (Note: , NY. omitted)
Article, section, or chapter within a book with editors

Asano, T., and A.D. Levine (1998) “Wastewater Reclamation, Recycling, and Reuse:
An Introduction,” 1-56, in T. Asano (ed.), Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse,
Water Quality Management Library, Vol. 10, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Cooper, P.F. (2001) “Historical Aspects of Wastewater Treatment,” 11-54, in P.
Lens, G. Zeeman, and G. Lettinga (eds.), Decentralised Sanitation and Reuse:
Concepts, Systems and Implementation, IWA Publishing, London, U.K.
Hand, D.W., D.R. Hokanson, and J.C. Crittenden (1999) Air Stripping and Aeration,
Chap. 5, in R.D. Letterman (ed.) Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of
Community Water Supplies, 5th ed., American Water Works Association,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Tchobanoglous, G. (1987) "Aquatic Plant Systems for Wastewater Treatment:
Engineering Considerations," 26-48, in K.R. Reedy and W.H. Smith (eds.)
Aquatic Plants for Water Treatment and Resource Recovery, Magnolia
Publishing Inc., Boca Raton, FL.
Government agency and professional organization reports

ASCE (1998) Sustainability Criteria for Water Resources Systems, Prepared by the
Task Committee on Sustainability Criteria, Water Resources Planning and
Management Division, American Society of Civil Engineers and the Working
Group of UNESCO/IHP IV Project M-4.3, Reston, VI.
ASHRAE (2000) ASHRAE Guideline 12-200 Minimizing the Risk of Legionellosis
Associated with Building Water, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA.
ASTM (2002) D4189-95 Standard Test Method for Silt Density Index (SDI) of Water,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
AWWA (1999) Water Quality and Treatment, 5th ed., Chap. 8, 8.54-8.58, American
Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
State of California (1980) Evaluation of Industrial Cooling Systems Using Reclaimed
Municipal Wastewater: Applications for Potential Users, Office of Water
Recycling, California State Water Resources Control Board, Sacramento, CA.
6-7
U.S. Department of Agriculture (1974) Soil Conservation Service: Border Irrigation,

Chap. 4, Sec. 15, In Irrigation, SCS National Engineering Handbook, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
U.S. EPA (1975) National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations, Fed. Reg. 40,
248, 59566-59588.
U.S. EPA (1980) Wastewater Aerosols and Disease, in H. Pahren and W.
Jakubowski (eds.) Proceedings of a Symposium, 1979, EPA/600/9/80/028, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. EPA (1981) Process Design Manual for Land Treatment of Municipal
Wastewater, EPA 625/1/81/013, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center
for Environmental Research information, Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. EPA (1983) Design Manual: Wastewater Stabilization Ponds.
EPA/625/1/83/015, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, Washington, DC.
(Note: Two references by same author or agency in same year)
U.S. EPA (1999a) Combined Sewer Overflow Technology Fact Sheet, Alternative
Disinfection Methods, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/832/F-
99/033, Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. EPA (1999b) Alternative Disinfectants and Oxidants Guidance Manual, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/815/R-99/014, Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. EPA and U.S. AID (2004) Guidelines for Water Reuse, EPA/625/R-04/108, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Agency for International
Development, Washington, DC.
United Nations (2003) World Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision - Highlights,
United Nations Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
United Nations, New York.
U.S. Department of the Interior (2003) Water 2025: Preventing Crises and Conflict in
the West, Washington, DC.
USGS (1984) National Water Summary 1983-Hydrologic Events and Issues, U.S.
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2250.
WCED (1987) Our Common Future (The Brundtland Commision’s Report), World
Commission on Environment and Development, Oxford University Press,
Oxford, UK.
WPCF (1990) Manual of Practice, Natural Systems for Wastewater Treatment,
Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D.C.
WHO (1973) Reuse of Effluents: Methods of Wastewater Treatment and Health
Safeguards. Report of a WHO Meeting of Experts, Technical Report Series No.
17, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
6-8
WHO (2000) Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report,
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation,
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
WPCF (1989) Water Reuse: Manual of Practice, SM-3, Water Pollution Control
Federation, Alexandria, VA.
WRI (2000) World Resources 2000-2001: The Frayinig Web of Life, World
Resources Institute, Washington DC.
Conference proceedings
Richards, D., R.W. Crites, T. Asano, and G. Tchobanoglous (1993) “A Systematic
Approach to Estimating Wastewater Reclamation Costs in California,” 235-245,
in Proceedings of WEFTEC 2006, Water Environment Federation, Anaheim,
CA.
Websites
Caltech Library Services (2010) "Journal Title Abbreviations," California Institute of
Technology, accessed 10 Janurary 2010,
<http://http://library.caltech.edu/reference/abbreviations/>.
CDC (2006) “Legionellosis: Legionnaires’ Disease (LD) and Pontiac Fever,” in
Disease Listing, Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases, Center for Disease
Control and Prevention, accessed 2 October 2009, <http://www.cdc.gov/>.
U.S. Census Bureau (2003) "Population briefing national population estimates for
July, 2001," United States Census Bureau, accessed 8 May 2004,
<http://www.census.gov/>.
Yardley, J. (2005) "Rural Water Worries Persist After Chinese Chemical Spill," The
New York Times, accessed 16 February 2008,
<http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/27/international/asia/27china.html?pagewant
ed=print>.
Number Citation Format

The format for articles in journals, books federal agencies and professional
organizations where the date is included at the end of the citation is as
follows. Also it should be noted that in the following listing the initials of
subsequent authors following the first author are placed in front of the
surname. In many journals the initials of subsequent authors are placed after
the surname.
1. Benjamin, M.M., G.V. Korshin, and C.W. Li: "The Decrease of UV Absorbance
as an Indicator of Tox Formation," Water Res., 31, 6, 946-949, 1997.
6-9
(Note: Alternate placement of initials)

1. Benjamin, M.M., Korshin, G.V., and Li, C.W.: "The Decrease of UV Absorbance
as an Indicator of Tox Formation," Water Res., 31, 6, 946-949, 1997.
2. Edwards, M., and T. Meyer: "Lead versus Alkalinity and pH," J. AWWA, 88, 3,
81-90, 1996.
3. Asano, T., F.L. Burton, H. Leverenz, R. Tsuchihashi, and G.
Tchobanoglous: Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies, and Applications,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2007.
4. Crittenden, J.C., R.R. Trussell, D.W. Hand, K.J. Howe, and G. Tchobanoglous:
Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New
York, 2005.
5. Oliver, B.G., and E.G. Cosgrove: "The Disinfection of Sewage Treatment Plant
Effluents Using Ultraviolet Light," J. Chem. Eng., (Canadian), 53, 4, 170-174,
1975.
6. Tchobanoglous, G., F. Maitski, K. Thomson, and T.H. Chadwick: "Evolution and
Performance of City of San Diego Pilot Scal;e Aquatic Wastewater Treatment
System Using Water Hyacinths," J. WPCF, 61, 11/12, 1245-1257, 1989. (or vol.
61, no.11/12, pp 1245-1257, 1989.)
Citation Software
Many people are now using integrated citation software, such as EndNote to compile
and format reference lists. The advantage of citation software is that reference lists
for technical articles are reports can be generated instantly from citation libraries.
Citation libraries can be assembled manually by entering data, or downloaded from
online research databases. Inserting the citation into the document automatically
adds the full citation to the reference list, which is updated automatically as changes
are made. While citation software can be used to generate a reference list rapidly,
extra care must be taken to ensure correct formatting and to check for redundancy
errors. Writers are encouraged to first become familiar with reference citation styles
before becoming dependent on the output of citation software.
6-10
7
SOME NOTES ON WRITING
When writing reports, it common to fall into bad habits with respect to word
usage, grammar, and the use of unnecessary expressions. Another common
problem is allowing inanimate objects to take active roles in the presentation
(e.g., "Figure 1 directs the reader . . ."). The purpose of this section is to identify
some of the more common writing problems and to offer alternative approaches
to avoid poor usage. The question of whether text should be flush-right justified
is considered in Chap. 2. The errors in the following listing should be identified
using the search function present in all word processing programs and weeded
out systematically.
1. In general, reports should be written in third person. The terms “I,” “we,” or
“our” should never appear anywhere in the text. If these terms are found,
the sentence should be rewritten to eliminate them. Search for “I,” “we,” or
“our” and edit them out.
2. The use of the word “this” is to be avoided wherever possible, especially in

sentences such as:
This shows what can be done.
This indicates good performance.
Use of the word “this” may be acceptable in sentences such as:
This situation is deplorable. – Only if the “situation” is unambiguous.
This mechanism is too complex. – Only if the “mechanism” is unambiguous.
3. The following references to tables or figures are to be avoided,

unequivocally. In general, inanimate objects should not indicate, show,
depict, etc.
Figure 1-1 shows that the engine was warm.
Figure 1-2 indicates a cold start.
Figure 1-3 also presents the results of the regression analysis.
7-1
7 Some Notes on Writing
Table 1-1 shows how complex the situation is.

Table 1-2 describes the best approach.
4. When referring to tables and figures, the following style is preferred:

Design information is shown in Table 1. (shown in)
Typical designs are illustrated on Fig. 12-2. (illustrated on)
5. Use of the words "from" and "between"

The range is from 10 to 15 m/d. (from with to)
The range is between 10 and 15 m/d (between with and)
6. The phrase “in order to” should never be used. “In order to” should be
replaced with the word “to.”
7. Use of the word "since"

"Since" is used in a time sense (e.g., since 1900), and not as a substitute for
"because" or "as"
8. Avoid split infinitives.

In the modern language, a split infinitive involves the placement of an
adverb (usually an -ly adverb) between the word to and its corresponding
infinitive verb. The use of split infinitives should be avoided in engineering
reports. In some rare cases a split infinitive can be used for added
emphasis.
to emphatically inquire; to inquire emphatically
to consistently overdose; to overdose consistently
9. Avoid excessive use of adverbs, especially adverbs such as very,

significantly, drastically, etc.
10. Avoid overusing favorite words or expressions.

For example words such as "existing," "major," "significant," "typical," and
word phrases such as "in order to," "in the manner of,"
11. Avoid hyperbole (excessive exaggeration) in engineering writing. For

example:
The plant was operated stupendously well.
The sentence should be written as:
7-2
The plant was operated well.
12. Do not use arcane data or information known or understood by only a

selected few.
13. Avoid the use of clichés in engineering writing. For example"
"fit as a fiddle," "dumb as a stump," "works like a champ"
14. If a foreign term is used, it is "de rigor" to use it correctly. (replace "de rigor"
with "de rigueur")
15. Avoid the use of mixed metaphors in engineering writing. For example:
The proposed plan has as much vision as a stump.
16. Do not be vague or repeat the same information a number of times in a

single sentence (M&E, 1965). For example:
"It appears that the estimated cost is about $2,500."
The reader has been told three times that the cost figure is not exact.
Replace with:
"The estimated cost is $2,500."
17. Introduction of abbreviations in text.

There are two accepted ways in which abbreviations are introduced in
written text, as illustrated below.
The total suspended solids (TSS) was 25 mg/L
The TSS (total suspended solids) was 25 mg/L
The first method is used commonly in engineering reports. In either case,
once introduced, the abbreviation is used thereafter.
18. Percent versus %

Percent should be written out as "percent" in the text. In tables, use of the
symbol, %, is acceptable. In figure captions and table titles, "percent"
should be written out. The term "percentage" is not used with numbers, as
it is a relative term (e.g., a large percentage)
19. Order of fences (parentheses, brackets, and ellipses) in text and equations:
parentheses ( ) first, followed by brackets [ ], followed by ellipses { }.
7-3
{⎡⎣( )⎤⎦}
At the present time, the California Department of Health requires a Ct value
[the product of the residual chlorine concentration, C (mg/L) and contact
time, t (min)], of 450 mg-min/L.
20. When should a number be spelled out.

Numbers used in text that are integers and less than 10, should be spelled
out. Numbers greater than 10 should be written as numerals. If a sentence
begins with an integer number it should be spelled out. For example:
Two million gallons per day is the rated capacity of the plant.
When not at the beginning of a sentence, two million gallons per day is
written as 2-Mgal/d, 2-mgd, or 2-MGD (often, the dash used to form a
compound adjective is omitted, e.g., 2 Mgal/d). THe sentence can be recast
to omit the compound adjective see Sec. 102 for discussion of compound
adjectives.
Decimal values in the text should be reported with numerals and therefore
cannot be used at the beginning of a sentence.
21. Use of exponential form for numbers

In engineering reports it is common practice to use the exponential form for
numbers beyond about 10,000, although there is no hard and fast rule for
doing so. A useful rule is that exponents should be in factors of three (e.g.,
103, 106). For example:
The flowrate was 150,000 m3/d. In exponential form is:
The flowrate was 150 x 103 m3/d
22. Referring to figures, section numbers, and equations in the text.

a. Guidelines for figures
Figure is "Fig." or "Figs." Examples: Fig. 6-2 or Figs. 6-2a and 6-2b or
Figs. 6-2a,b. No parentheses around the "a" or "b". First word of
sentence: "Figure 6-2a" or "Figures 6-2 and 6-3"
b. Guidelines for section numbers
Section is "Sec." or "Secs.” unless it is the first word in a sentence.
7-4
Examples: “see Sec. 6-2” or “see Secs. 7-5 and 7-6”. First word of
sentence: “Section 6-2” or “Sections 6-2 and 6-3”
c. Guidelines for equations
Equation is "Eq." or "Eqs." The word "Equation" or "Equations" is
spelled out if either is the first word in the sentence. No parentheses
"()" around the equation numbers that are referred to in the text. But
parentheses should appear around the equation number on the
equation line. Examples: “… as defined previously in Eq. 5-1” or “…
defined in Eqs. 5-1 and 5-2”. First word of sentence: “Equation 5-1” or
“Equations 5-1 and 5-2”.
23. Use of flush-right justification

In general, flush-right justification should not be used in engineering reports
where the objective is the communication of ideas and concepts (see more
complete discussion in Sec 2-3).
24. Phrases to avoid in engineering writing
The following is a listing of phrases that should be avoided in engineering
reports. Suggested substitutions are also given for reference.
Empty phrases Use, substitute

at this point in time now
at that point in time then
by means (reason) of by
due to the fact that because
during the time that while, when
fewer in number few
for the purpose of for
for the reason that because
for the sake of for
goes under the name of called
if conditions are such that under
in accordance with with, about,
inasmuch as because
In connection with with, about, concerning
In favor of for
in order to to
in the event that if
In this day and age today
7-5
it is evident that evidently

It is interesting to note that note that
In the event of (that) if
it is often the case that often
in view of the fact that because
it would appear that is
on the other hand delete altogether
prior to before
serves the function of being is
serves to function as is
subsequent to after
with reference to about, concerning
with respect to compared
with a view to to
7-6
8
WRITING THE REPORT
In preparing engineering articles for publication, project reports, or books, the
most important consideration is the audience. The style of an engineering report
for a technical review panel will be different than that for a city council. If there
are multiple audiences, the writing should be geared to the level of understanding
of the least knowledgeable audience. As it works out, if your mother understands
your report, chances are good the engineers will also understand it, although the
reverse may not be true.
Engineers often ask about style. The answer is not to worry about style, but to
write as clearly as you know how. Write as though you are explaining the
subject to a friend. If you continue to strive to write as clearly as you know how,
your style will evolve naturally.
Effective report writing involves hard work, a willingness to review and rewrite as
many times as necessary, and the motivation and enthusiasm to persist. The
best way to become an effective writer is to write, write, and continue to write
each chance you get. Some suggestions that will help one become a better
technical writer are (adapted in part from M&E, 1965):
1. Recognize and embrace the importance of writing. Your success as an

engineer or manager will depend on your ability to write.
2. Consider writing a subject of inquiry. Analyze writing, study writing, and

understand writing as you would a treatment process, for example.
3. Develop your writing skills. Practice writing within a prescribe time limit.
Writing that is labored will also appear the same to your audience and will
be cumbersome to read and understand.
4. Ask colleagues to review what you have written and make constructive
use of the feedback you receive. If anyone is willing to take the time to
8-1
8 Writing the Report
review what you have written, their comments must be considered

seriously. Peer review is the order of the day with most professional
journals.
The general steps involved in preparing engineering reports are discussed in the
remained of this chapter.
8-1 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

One way to begin to write a technical article or report is to ask a series of
questions such as (adapted from Sanks, 1979):
1. Who is the audience?
2. What is the specific purpose of the memo, article, or report (to inform,
persuade, entertain)?
3. How much explanation and documentation will be required?
4. Does the report have to include a survey of the literature, and if so specific
or exhaustive?
5. Should all of the data be analyzed and included and if not what should be
omitted?
6. What general conclusions can be drawn?
7. What material can be removed, if any?
As the number of questions is increased, sufficient material will be developed to
prepare an outline.
In the above listing, the question "who is the audience?" is of critical importance
as it will affect the style and form of the memo, article, or report. It is not a
question of whether to be technical or not technical, it is a question of visualizing
or imagining your reader and directing your writing to them. In all cases, the
writing should be geared for the reader with the lowest level of understanding,
especially if you are conveying new concepts and ideas.
8-2
8-2 PREPARING AN OUTLINE

The principal purpose of an outline is to develop a logical approach to present
the material, to eliminate repetition, to reduce unnecessary verbiage, and to
include the pertinent information and data. With a good outline the writing is
easier, quicker, and better. An outline can take a variety of forms varying from a
simple list of words to a complete outline with headings and subheadings and
topic sentences (Hine, 1975). It should be noted that some experienced writers
may simply form a mental image of the outline, which serves the same purpose
(Sanks, 1979). In general, it is recommended that an outline be prepared
regardless of one's experience. The time spent on developing an effective
outline will be more than made up during the writing process.
8-3 PREPARING FIGURES AND TABLES

There are two schools of thought on whether the tables and figures should be
prepared before beginning to write the report. One school of thought is that if the
tables and figures are prepared beforehand, it will be easier to write the report
because the figures and tables will help to clarify and amplify the text. The other
school of thought maintains that it is best to start writing and that when you come
to a spot where a table or figure is needed stop and prepare it. While both
approaches are valid, the former is generally more effective. In any case, even if
the tables and figures have been prepared before the writing begins, inevitably
more or revised new tables and figure will have to be prepared as the writing
proceeds. The specifics of preparing effective tables and figures have been
discussed previously in Secs. 3 and 4, respectively.
8-4 WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT

Writing the first draft involves fleshing out the detailed outline. One way of writing
the report is to imagine that you are explaining the subject to a colleague as you
work your way through the various sections. As you write it is important to strive
to be clear, to be concise, to be logical, to not repeat yourself, to have good
organization, to use common everyday words, and to be positive, not negative
8-3
and apologetic. It is also important not to take for granted anything the reader
should know. Thus, it is necessary to present any information that would be
needed, so the reader does not have to guess what the author had in mind.
In writing an article or report, it is neither necessary or desirable to use a single

style such as long or short sentences. It is more important to vary your style and
pace (the rate at which new idea and thoughts are introduced). Initially, it is best
to use a leisurely pace which can then be increased as the reader becomes more
familiar with the material. Further, selection of the most appropriate word is not
necessary in the preparation of the first draft. Word usage will be refined in the
revising and editing process.
The body of the report should be reviewed to make sure that the statements that
belong in other parts of the report are moved or eliminated. It should be noted
that statements and ideas are not repeated in the body of the report. An
exception is their repetition in the conclusions and or the abstract (Sanks, 1979).
Many reports have either a summary of conclusions section or subsection. If a

summary is used, the summary is generally presented in narrative form. Where
conclusions are used, they are typically presented as short numbered
statements. Also, it must be perfectly clear if the conclusion is based on the
data, a personal opinion, or on the literature. Statements in a summary and
conclusions section or subsection which are inconsistent with the material
presented in the body of the report is one of the most common errors made in
engineering reports. As noted above, one of the questions that must be asked in
the preliminary run-up to the preparation of the outline is "What general
conclusions can be drawn?"
8-5 REVISING AND EDITING

As important as writing the first draft of an article or report is, the process of
revising and editing is what elevates ordinary writing to effective, interesting, and
award winning writing. During the revising and editing process it will be possible
8-4
to focus the report to meet your purpose and the intended audience. Asking a
colleague to review all or a portion of the manuscript will also be helpful. Before
beginning the revising and editing process it is best to put the report away for a
day of two, before you start the process. In revising and editing the report it is
useful to scan each page and ask yourself does the material presented help to
further the purpose and objectives of the report, should some material be moved
to another section for a more logical flow, and should some material be discarded
for clarity and brevity.
8-6 THE FINAL REPORT

The process of completing the final article or report involves cross checking to
make sure there are no inconsistencies between chapters or sections; making
sure the table of contents, list of tables, and list of figures is up to date and
complete; and that all of the references cited in the text have been included in the
reference list. In addition, any necessary acknowledgements should be checked
and added. Finally, proof read the final report one more time before releasing it.
Congratulations, The Report Is Completed
8-5
9
EVALUATE YOUR WRITING
Once a report has been prepared in draft form, and the process of rewriting has
begun, it is also useful to evaluate your writing for readability, conciseness, and
excessive use of non-essential words. Over the years, a number of different
methods have been devised to assess a written work. For the purpose of this
guidebook, two methods are used to evaluate written material. The first method,
known as the "Gunning Fog Index" (or "Fog Index") has been developed to assess
the readability of a written text (Gunning, 1968). The second method, which deals
with "working words" and "glue words" was developed to improve the conciseness
and precision of written text and to reduce the use of non-essential words (Wydick,
2005).
9.1 THE FOG INDEX

The fog index as used to evaluate the readability of text is computed with the
following formula:
Reading level (grade) = (Average number of words in sentences + percentage

of complex words of three or
more syllables) x 0.4
The value of the fog index can vary from about 5 to more the 20. For example, a
value of 12 would correspond to the reading level of a high school senior. Technical
writing with a fog index greater than 12 will be difficult for most people to read.
To apply the fog index (Gunning, 1968; Wikipedia):

1. Take a paragraph of about hundred words in length.
2. Determine the average number of words in a sentence by dividing the total
word count by the number of sentences.
3. Count the number of complex words with three or more syllables (not including
proper nouns, compound words, common suffixes, and –ing as a syllable) and
divide by the total number of words and express as a percentage.
9-1
9 Evaluate Your Writing
4. Add the average number of words in a sentences and the percentage of

complex words and multiply the sum by 0.4
Consider the following passage from an engineering report.
"The challenges and planning recommendations for (1) sewers including tunnels,
transport/storage (T/S) structures, combined sewer discharge (CSD) structures, pump stations
and force mains and (2) for treatment facilities, biosolids management, and energy utilization
and production were discussed previously in Chapters 3 and 4, respectively. The purpose of this
chapter is to discuss the means and methods for the implementation of the aforementioned
recommendations. Implementation of such an ambitious program of recommendations will
involve a number of changes from past practices. The most comprehensive change is the
adoption of integrated urban watershed management as the principal tool for planning and
decision making. Other changes involve the use of asset management techniques, revisions of
the capital improvement program, changes in the enterprise management, and policy and code
revisions. Each of these subjects is considered in this chapter. In addition, responses to
regulatory changes and technological developments are also discussed."
Total number of words = 147

Number of sentences = 7
Average number of words in a sentence = 21.0 (147/7)
Words with three or more syllables = 25
Reading level = [ 21.0 + (25/147) x 100] (0.4) = 16.8
As a frame of reference, the Fog Index for the New York Times is about 11 to 12.
The Fog Index for technical writing is typically between 10 and 15 and seldom
exceeds a value of 18.
9-2 WORKING WORDS AND GLUE WORDS

In the writing of engineering reports the written text is comprised of two types of
words: working words and glue words. Working words carry the meaning of the
sentence, while glue words (e.g., of, the, and, before, after, who, which, then, that,
etc.) are used to hold the working words together to form coherent grammatical
sentences (Wydick, 2005). Consider the following examples.
9-2
9 Evaluate Your Writing
From the Textbook "Water Reuse"

"The potential transmission of infectious disease by pathogenic microorganisms
is the most common concern associated with nonpotable reuse of treated
municipal wastewater. "
The number of working words is 14, the number of glue words is 8, and the
percentage of glue words to working words is 57 percent.
From the "Pomona Virus Study"

"Concurrent with the development of a virus sampling technique, various unit
processes were evaluated to optimize performance."
11: 6: 55%
From a Recent Engineering Report

"The conduct of a pilot plant study was requested by the client."
6: 6: 100%
Rewritten
The client requested a pilot plant study be conducted
6: 3: 50%
A pilot plant study was requested
4: 2: 50%
When the percentage ratio of glue words to working words exceeds 75 to 80
percent, the sentence should be recast.
In addition to a detailed presentation of the concept of working words and glue

words, the book Plain English for Lawyers by Wydick (2005) is recommended highly
as a guide for improving your writing.
9-3
10
PUNCTUATION AND WORD USAGE
This chapter deals with the important mechanical elements that are a
fundamental part of report preparation. The subjects considered in this section
include: (1) punctuation, (2) formation of compound words, (3) abbreviations and
units, (4) using words correctly, (5) words commonly misspelled, and (6) a
working vocabulary. It is not the intent here to replace the many books that have
been written and continue to be written on these subjects, but to present a brief
review of these elements for quick reference. For a more in depth study of these
elements and other issues related to writing, The Economist Style Guide (The
Economist, 2005), Plain English for Lawyers (Wydick, 2005), and the Handbook
of Technical Writing (Alred et al., 2006) are recommended.
10-1 PUNCTUATION
The principal elements of punctuation used in engineering reports, arranged in

alphabetical order, are: the apostrophe, brackets, colon, comma, dash, ellipses,
exclamation, hyphen, parentheses, period, question mark, quotation marks,
semicolon, and slash. Each of these elements of punctuation is considered in
the following discussion. The following material was developed, in part, from:
Houp. and Pearsall (1980), Park (1927), Rosen and Behrens (1997), Shaw
(1993), and Alred et al. (2006).
Apostrophe
The apostrophe is used to:
1. Form the possessive of all nouns.
Singular Plural
Normal Possessive Normal Possessive
Man man’s men men’s
Woman woman’s women women’s
individual individual’s individuals individuals’
children children’s doctors doctors’
10-1
10 Punctuation and Word Usage
2. Form the possessive indefinite pronouns.

everyone’s other’s someone’s
3. Stand for missing letters (contractions) and numbers.

aren’t (are not) can’t (can not) it’s (it is)
couldn't (could not) wasn’t (was not) won’t (will not)
The ‘60s were a wonderful period.
The class of ‘53 donated a piano.
Brackets
The bracket is used to:
1. Enclose comments, alterations, or corrections in quoted material.
“The subject matter will need to be exceptionally good in order to [sic] overcome
the reader's adverse opinion.”
In the above sentence, the expression "sic" italicized (Latin meaning “thus”),
enclosed in brackets, is inserted in the quoted material to highlight what the
authors believe is an error in grammar (the use of the term "in order to" instead of
the word "to").
“He [the superintendent] was preoccupied with the failure of the pumps.”
The words "the superintendent," enclosed in brackets, were added by the
authors for clarity.
2. Enclose reference citation numbers instead of parentheses.
It has been observed that bacterial populations in natural systems can acclimate to colder
temperatures and maintain their mass in spite of slower activity rates [24].
3. Enclose words or comments enclosed in parentheses.

However, a few inorganic constituents [e.g., ammonia nitrogen (NH3)] are toxic to
aquatic organisms and will need to be removed.
Colon
The colon is used to:
1. Introduce an enumeration or listing.
Key elements of the TRR concept include: (1) production of water suitable for potable use
from wastewater, (2) assessment of the relative health risk of the potable water produced
versus the existing potable supply, (3) assessment of an innovative and alternative
aquatic plant based secondary wastewater treatment system . . . .
The material to be presented is organized into sections dealing with: (1) types and
application of wetland and aquatic systems, (2) treatment kinetics in constructed
wetlands and aquatic systems, (3) free water surface constructed wetlands, (4)
subsurface flow constructed wetlands . . . .
2. Introduce a long quotation.

In his 1927 text, English Applied In Technical Writing, C. W. Park noted that:
10-2
"Even though a reader's interest is wholly in the subject matter his first
impression of a piece of writing is necessarily based on its general
appearance. If. . . . ."
3. Separate the hour and minute and the hour, minute, and second
9:27 a.m., 10:15:23 p.m.
Comma
The comma is used to:
1. Separate independent clauses in a compound sentence.
If numbered references are used, it is suggested that the manuscript be written using the
author/date citation format.
2. Separate a transitional word, a phrase, or a clause at the beginning of a

sentence.
Unfortunately, the data did not warrant such a detailed analysis.
Clearly, the equation is in error.
3. Separate three or more items in a series.

Reuse Alternatives 1A, 2B, 3A, and 3B are considered in the following analysis.
The principal elements of punctuation used in engineering reports, arranged in
alphabetical order, are: the apostrophe, brackets, colon, comma, dash, ellipses
exclamation, hyphen, parentheses, period, quotation marks, semicolon, and slash.
4. Set off parenthetical expressions.

Nitrite nitrogen, determined colorimetrically, is relatively unstable and is oxidized easily to
the nitrate form.
5. Set off a nonrestrictive appositive clause.

Constructed free water surface wetlands, shallow basins with emergent plants, will be
used for wastewater treatment
An appositive is a word, phrase, or clause the repeats the thought of the previous word,
phrase, or clause.
6. Set off a date, geographical expression, proper names, and a title after a
proper name
After November 25, 1996, the new routing program should be used.
The program was developed in Davis, CA, during the ‘60s.
Dash
The dash is used to:
1. Set off parenthetical comments and statements
Nitrite nitrogen⎯determined colorimetrically⎯is relatively unstable and is oxidized easily
to the nitrate form.
10-3
Note: Although commas and parentheses can be used for the same purpose, dashes
are more emphatic.
Ellipsis
The ellipsis is used to note a break in continuity to:
1. Indicate that words have been omitted from the end of a sentence
subsurface flow constructed wetlands. . . .
Note: Four spaced periods are used when material is omitted at the end of a sentence
2. Indicate that words have been omitted for the middle of a sentence
“The subject matter will need to be exceptionally good . . . to overcome the reader's
adverse opinion.”
Note: Three spaced periods are used to indicate words omitted within a quoted
sentence:
Exclamation Mark
The exclamation mark is used to:
1. After an exclamatory phrase, clause, or sentence
The activated sludge process is a mess!
No, the pumps failed!
2. Highlight strong feelings such as elation or surprise

The failure of the pumps was distressing!
Wow! the treatment plant worked as designed.
3. Highlight caution or danger
Danger! do not go into a collection system access port without proper training.
4. Placement
When exclamation marks apply to the material within a quote they are placed within the
quote marks. When exclamation marks apply to the entire sentence they are applied
outside of the quotation marks.
Note: Exclamation marks are seldom used in engineering reports.
Hyphen
The hyphen is used to:
1. Join certain compound words (e.g., compound adjectives-see Section 7-2)
The six-inch (6-in.) diameter pipe had failed.
A long-needed overhaul was necessary
2. Introduce a long quotation or an enumeration
10-4
3. Divide a word at the end of a line
Parentheses
Parentheses are used to:
1. Enclose numbers and letters in lists.
subsurface flow constructed wetlands, . . . .
2. Enclose reference citations author and date or number within the text.
temperatures and maintain their mass in spite of slower activity rates (Vela, 1974).
temperatures and maintain their mass in spite of slower activity rates (24).
3. Enclose explanatory words, phrases, or reference material.

Decisions about treated wastewater dispersal options (e.g., discharge to Willow Slough
Bypass or beneficial reuse) will not be constrained.
4. Enclose either US customary or metric units where dual units are

used in the text.
It has been found that a paddle-tip speed of approximately 2 to 3 ft/s (0.6 to 0.9 m/s)
achieves sufficient turbulence without breaking up the floc.
ρ = mass density of liquid, slug/ft3 (kg/m3)
µ = dynamic viscosity, lb • s/ft2 (N • s/m2)
Period
The period is used:
1. At the end of a sentence.
The project report is complete.
What is done is done.
2. As a full stop, after most abbreviations and contractions.

B.S., Ph.D., U.S. EPA, etc.
Dr., Mr., Mrs., etc.
Question Mark
The question mark is used:
1. At the end of a direct question.
Is Eq.12-3 correct?
2. After a series of questions in the same sentence.
10-5
Which pump will be used? the 4 in.? the 6 in.? or 8 in.?
3. To express uncertainty when enclosed in parentheses.

A value of 425 lb/yd3 (?) was used in the computations.
Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are used in engineering writing to:
1. Set off short quotes
In his 1927 text, English Applied In Technical Writing, C. W. Park noted that: “Even
though a reader's interest is wholly in the subject matter his first impression of a piece of
writing is necessarily based on its general appearance.”
2. Titles of Articles in Reference Lists

Tchobanoglous, G., F. Maitski, K. Thomson, and T.H. Chadwick (1989) "Evolution and
Performance of City of San Diego Pilot Scale Aquatic Wastewater Treatment System
Using Water Hyacinths," J. WPCF, 61, 11/12, 1245-1257. (see also Sec. 6)
Placement of other punctuation marks when used with quotation marks.

1. Commas and periods
Commas and periods and are always placed inside quotation marks.
2. Semicolons and colons

Semicolons and colons are always placed outside of the quotation marks.
3. Question marks, exclamation marks, and dashes

When question marks, exclamation marks, and dashes apply the material within the
quote they are placed within the quote marks. When the question marks, exclamation
marks, and dashes apply to the entire sentence they are applied outside of the quotation
marks.
Semicolon
The semicolon is used to:
1. Set off independent clauses in a compound sentence
The work effort was planned for Monday; however, the contractor was busy on another
project.
2. Set off long or subdivided units in a series or when one or more of the
items in series contains commas.
Some of the reasons for the observed differences are as follows: (1) many organic
substances which are difficult to oxidized biologically, such as lignin, can be oxidized
chemically; (2) inorganic substances that are oxidized by the dichromate increase the
apparent organic content of the sample; (3) certain organic substances may be toxic to
the microorganisms used in the BOD test; and (4) high COD values may occur because
of the presence of interfering substances.
10-6
Slash (also known as a forward slash, virgule, etc.)

The slash is used:
1. To denote alternatives
(530) 576-5000/5220
2. In place of omitted words
3
g/m (gram per cubic meter)
mi/hr (miles per hour)
3. To separate the numerator from the denominator in mathematical
expressions
a/b, (a + b)/(c + d)
Note: Although often used with dates (e.g., 5/24/10), the use of slashes in dates
should be avoided in technical reports, especially in reports that will be
distributed internationally.
10-2 FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS
Compound words are formed by the union of two or more words to represent a
single concept, typically used as an adjective. The principal compound words
used in engineering reports are compound nouns and adjectives.
Rules For Writing Compound Words

1. Write compound nouns without a hyphen
2. Write compound adjectives with a hyphen
3. Omit the hyphen when the meaning is clear without it
Compound Adjectives
The examples given below are chosen to illustrate the principal ways in which compound
adjectives are formed (Park, 1927).
1 Noun + noun compounds

tool-room (practice) motor-generator (set)
machine-tool (operation) railway-accident (problem)
2 Numeral + noun compounds

two-cycle three-ply
four-inch (4-in.) 2200-volt
six-cylinder 7-candlepower
40-horsepower third-class
10-7
3 Descriptive adjective + noun

high-speed (engine) high-potential (insulator)
open-hearth (process) cast-iron (frame)
heavy-duty (engine) high-pressure (system)
4 Compound participial adjectives

wedge-shaped cold-rolled
nickel-plated water-jacketed
motor-driven high-priced
shunt-wound wood-working (machinery)
direct-connected wire-drawing (machine)
home-made cost-keeping (methods)
5 Phrase compounds
make-or-break (analysis)
state-of-the-art (review)
filter-to-waste (percent)
area-to-volume (ratio)
10-3 ABBREVIATIONS AND UNITS
Abbreviations of names and terms, geographic names, Latin words, and units are
used routinely in engineering reports and papers to make them more readable by
avoiding the repetition of long phrases. Common abbreviations are considered in
this section.
Common Names and Terms

Name Abbreviation
Average daily wastewater flow ADWWF (ADWF is also used)
Biochemical oxygen demand, 5-day BOD5
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Chemical oxygen demand COD
Food to microorganisms ratio F/M
Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids MLVSS
Ammonia nitrogen as nitrogen NH3-N
Nitrate nitrogen as nitrogen NO3-N
Oxygen O2
Phosphate PO4
Total dissolved solids TDS
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen TKN
Total organic carbon TOC
Total suspended solids TSS
10-8
Geographic Names
The abbreviations used by the U.S. Postal Service for states are given below.
State Abbrev. State Abbrev.
Alabama AL Idaho ID
Alaska AK Illinois IL
Arizona AZ Indiana IN
Arkansas AR Iowa IA
California CA Kansas KS
Colorado CO Kentucky KY
Connecticut CT Louisiana LA
Delaware DE Maine ME
Florida FL Maryland MD
Georgia GA Massachusetts MA
Hawaii HI Michigan MI
Minnesota MN Oregon OR
Mississippi MS Pennsylvania PA
Missouri MO Rhode Island RI
Montana MT South Carolina SC
Nebraska NE South Dakota SD
Nevada NV Tennessee TN
New Hampshire NH Texas TX
New Jersey NJ Utah UT
New Mexico NM Vermont VT
New York NY Virginia VA
North Carolina NC Washington WA
North Dakota ND West Virginia WV
Ohio OH Wisconsin WI
Oklahoma OK Wyoming WY
Latin Abbreviations
Latin abbreviations often used in engineering reports include:
ad lib., ad libitum (at will)
c., ca., circa (about, around)
e.g., exempli gratia (for example)
et al., et alii (and the others)
etc., et cetera (and other things; and so on)
et seq., and the following
i.e., id est (that is)
N.B., Nota Bene (note well)
op opus (work of music, art)
[sic] Bracketed and set in italics. The term is inserted in quoted material
to indicate that the writer being quoted is responsible for the
grammatical error.
v., vs., versus (against, in the direction of)
viz., videlicet (namely)
10-9
Units
Each engineering discipline has its own set of units and corresponding
abbreviations. The units and abbreviations used most commonly in the field of
environmental engineering are given in Appendix A-3 in both in SI and US
customary units. It is accepted practice when writing an engineering report not to
put periods after most measurement abbreviations (e.g., ft, min, s, and yd). The
abbreviated form of inches is typically written with a period (in.) to differentiate it
from the word "in."
10-4 USING WORDS CORRECTLY

Words such as “principal” and “principle;” “stationary and stationery;” and “cite,”
“site,” and “sight” are frequently misused in engineering reports. These and other
misused words are given in the following list.
Word Definition or usage

Accept / except Accept is a verb meaning to receive.
Except is usually a preposition meaning excluding.
Affect / effect Affect is usually a verb meaning to have an influence on.
Effect is usually a noun meaning a result, or the power to produce a
result. Note that effect can also be a verb meaning to bring about
or execute.
Alternately / alternatively Alternately is an adverb that means in turn; one after the other.
Alternatively is an adverb that means another option; one or the
other.
Capital / capitol Capital refers to a city or town that is the seat of government, the
accumulation of wealth, purchase cost of equipment or facilities, or
to an upper case letter.
Capitol to a building where lawmakers meet.
Cite / site / sight Cite is a verb that means to quote as an authority or to recognize as
a source.
Site is a noun meaning location.
Sight is something that is seen.
Complement / compliment Complement is a noun or verb that means something that
completes or makes up a whole.
Compliment is a noun or verb that means an expression of praise
or admiration.
Comprise / compose The whole comprises the parts.
The parts compose the whole.
Concurrent / consecutive Concurrent is an adjective that means simultaneous or happening
at the same time as something else.
Consecutive means successive or following one after the other.
10-10
Council / counsel Council is an assembly called together for discussion or

deliberation.
Counsel is advice or guidance.
Dependant / dependent Dependant is a person who depends on another entity for support.
Dependent is relying on something else, such as relying on or
requiring a person or thing for support, supply, or what is needed.
Discreet / discrete Discreet is an adjective that means prudent, circumspect, or
modest.
Discrete is an adjective that means separate or individually distinct.
Farther / further Farther is used for physical distance.
Further means to a greater degree, or an extension of time or
degree.
Past / passed Past refers to events that have previously occurred.
Passed is the past tense of to pass.
Principal / principle Principal is a noun meaning the head of a school or an organization
or a sum of money.
Principle is a noun meaning a basic truth, law, rule, or standard.
Stationary / stationery Stationary is an adjective that means fixed or unmoving.
Stationery is a noun that means paper materials used for writing or
printing.
Than / then Than is a comparison of unequal components.
Then refers to another time, next in order, or in that case.
To / too / two To is a preposition.
Too is an adverb usually used as 'also' when adding or including
some additional information.
Two is a number.
10-5 WORDS COMMONLY MISSPELLED
Although misspelled words are often unavoidable, even with the advent of spell
checkers embedded with standard writing programs, every effort should be made
to learn the correct spelling and usage of words. The following is a listing of
words that are commonly misspelled (adapted from Park, 1927).
accessible eliminate parallel

accommodate equipped percent
accurate exhaust personnel
affect (effect) facilitate phosphorus
alignment filtration planning
aluminum foundry preceding
analysis gage (gauge) precipitate
applied gases preventive
article governor principal
automatically gravitation (principle)
auxiliary guard procedure
10-11
business height propeller

caisson horizontal quantity
capacity hydraulic receptacle
chute ignition recommend
column indispensable referred
compressor inflammable remedy
condenser insoluble reservoir
control insulation resources
controlled interchangeable riveted
conveyor laboratory scraper
coarse (course) laid sediment
cupola liquefy superintendent
cylinder lose temporary
definite maintenance tendency
description making too (to)
desirable malleable transmission
detached manufacture triple
dimensions mathematics trolley
disappear movable until
disintegrate necessary vacuum
distillation operation ventilate
eccentric original vertical
efficiency piece
10-6 A WORKING VOCABULARY

As with the spelling of words, every effort should be made to learn and use words
effectively. The following is a listing of words that should be in the working
vocabulary of any practicing engineer (adapted from Park, 1927).
acrid flaunt pathological

altruistic foist peremptory
ameliorate fortuitous pertinent
amenable futility plastic
animosity heterogeneous poignant
blatant homogeneous potential
cogent implacable quip
communal importunity relevant
consummate impunity sheer
contingency increment smug
conversant indigenous solecism
crucial ineptitude sporadic
cynical inhibit static
10-12
delete innate stigma

deplete innovation subversive
dereliction intrinsic supine
derogatory introspection talisman
dictatorial inveterate tautology
dilemma invidious transcendental
disparity inviolate. transient
dogma laconic transitory
delete latent truculent
drastic layman ubiquitous
deplete millennium unobtrusive
empirical mural untenable
enjoin naive untrammeled
epigram nonchalant utopian
exotic opulent vacillate
extenuate ostensibly vitiate
fatuous ostentatious vociferous
fiat parlance
10-13
11
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUMS
The use of technical memorandums has become increasing popular in the
engineering community. Technical memorandums are used to describe the
progress on a segment of a large job as well as to describe the assessment
of new equipment or site visits to visit existing facilities. On some large
planning projects technical memorandums are designed to become individual
chapters, sections, or appendixes.
11-1 FORMATTING
A variety of formats are used for technical memorandums. Typical formats for
the reporting of engineering findings and visits to new facilities are presented
on the following two pages.
11-2 MECHANICS
Most organizations have there own format for technical memorandums.

Some suggested margins are as follows.
Margins: Top = 1 in, bottom =1 in, left hand side = 1.25 in, and right hand side = 1.00
in or left hand side = 1.00 in and right hand side = 100 in.
11-1
11 Technical Memorandums
1. Review of Technical Process
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM NO. 1
SUBJECT: Flocculation (for example)
DATE: March 5, 2010
PREPARED BY: G. Tchobanoglous
The purpose of this memorandum is to is to present a brief description of the

flocculation process, information on its application, and summary of process design
criteria. The material presented in this memorandum has been obtained from a
review of the published literature, textbooks, reports and other reference works, and
actual operating facilities.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
PROCESS APPLICATION
PROCESS DESIGN CRITERIA
REFERENCES
See suggested citation format in Sec. 6.
Margins: Top = 1 in., bottom =1 in., left hand side = 1.25 in., and right hand side =
1.0 in. or left hand side = 1.00 in. and right hand side = 1.0 in.
11-2
11 Technical Memorandums
2. Site Visit
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM NO. 2
SUBJECT: Site visit to T and L composting facilities
DATE: March 5, 2010
PREPARED BY: H. Leverenz

The purpose of this memorandum is to present a brief description of a
composting facility visited in Modesto, CA on March 1, 2010. The facility, built
in 2008, has been in operation for 6 months.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Brief description of facility including dimensions, throughput tonnage, capital
and operating costs.
DESIGN AND OPERATION

Summary of pertinent data and information on the design and operations obtained
from talking to the operators
OBSERVATIONS AND COMMENTS

Observations and impressions of the facilities visited.
REFERENCES
See suggested citation format.
APPENDIXES
Margins: Top = 1 in., bottom =1 in., left hand side = 1.25 in., and right hand side =
1.0 in. or left hand side = 1.00 in. and right hand side = 1.0 in.
11-3
12
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
Civil and environmental engineers are responsible for the technical aspects of a
community infrastructure comprising the basic installations and facilities on which
the growth and well-being of a community depends. To be effective in meeting a
community's needs, engineers must be able to communicate in a variety of
mediums including written, oral, and visual. Further, the ability to communicate
effectively will play an important role career advancement and professional
recognition. Some suggestions for improving the text of oral presentations are
presented in this section. Improvements on delivery involve practice, practice,
and more practice. The most important piece of advice about oral presentations
is to avoid reading your presentation material verbatim-it’s the kiss of death.
Your presentation materials should reflect the main ideas and add clarity to what
you are saying verbally.
12-1 TYPES OF ORAL COMMUNICATIONS

The principal types of oral communications are:
Informal: To exchange ideas, information, and feelings
Technical presentations: To share information, to inform
Technical proposal: To gain support for ideas or projects
While the primary focus of this guide on writing is on written communications,
principally reports and articles, the written portion of presentations is the focus of
this section
12-2 PRELIMINARY PREPARATION

In beginning to gather information and data for a presentation it is useful to keep
in mind the following words: who, what, when, where, why, and how (Bolmer,
1981). These words are also useful in report writing.
12-1
12 Oral Presentations
12-3 FORMATTING
As noted above, the presentation materials must convey the main ideas and
reinforce the spoken word. The principal elements of the presentation materials
are:
Ideas, concepts, and themes
Lists of items
Illustrations
Tables-general information and data
Graphs-one and two dimensional
Figures-line drawings, pictorial graphics
Figures-photographs
Equations
With the advent of modern presentation packages, such as PowerPoint, the
formatting of presentations has become much simpler. In fact, most agencies
have their own style for general layout of PowerPoint slides, which typically
includes the name and logo of the organization or the agency.
Identifying Key Ideas and Concepts

The most serious mistake made by nearly all presenters is cramming too many
ideas and concepts into one presentation. It is of critical importance to ask
oneself the following question: if I could leave the viewers with one or two
messages or ideas what would they be? One approach that has proven to be
effective is to first identify the conclusions of the presentation. Identifying the
conclusions first will help to focus the development of the presentation outline
and the final form of the presentation.
Length of Presentation
As a general rule, one minute should be allowed per slide. Thus, for a thirty-
minute presentation which includes a ten minute question and answer period the
number of slide should be about 20, with 22 as a maximum for the twenty minute
presentation period. If you find that you have 30 or more slides, it is clear that
you have not prepared a thoughtful presentation, but have merely gathered
12-2
together stuff, which is an injustice to you and your audience. Take the time to
edit and to cut, cut, and cut. The amount of information per slide is considered
in the discussion on mechanics.
12-4 MECHANICS
The mechanics of PowerPoint presentations involve the placement of the pricipal
elements in a logical and manner that is easy to follow.
Amount of Information Per Slide

An important rule that should always be followed for maximum presentation
effectiveness and impact is to limit the number of words or data bits to 30 or less
per slide, excluding short prepositions (e.g., in, of, for) and the slide title.
Limiting the number of data bits or words is hard work, but in the end will reflect
positively on you. How many times have you been to a presentation where the
presenter says "I know you can't read the numbers on this slide, I can hardly see
them from the podium" (a carryover from the use of overhead projectors). It
matters not how well known the speaker is, he or she has wasted your time. The
slide should not have been included in the presentation.
Do the Lights Need to be Dimmed

If the lights in the presentation venue are to be dimmed, it is important that slides
with dark colored backgrounds be avoided, as they are difficult to read. If it is
known that the lights will be dimmed, a white background should be used for the
slides. Also, it should be noted that when the lights are dimmed, the slides
become the focal point for the audience. Because the presentation slide must
carry the talk, it is important that the slides convey the key ideas and concepts
you are trying to present as clearly and directly as possible.
Examples
Examples of unacceptable and acceptable slides are presented below.
12-3
Unacceptable - Too many words (~ 42 words, not counting slide title)
Revised - 25 words
12-4
Sample slide with data table
Sample slide with process flow diagram
12-5
Sample slide with photos and text
Sample slide with line drawing and photo
12-6
13
REFERENCES
Two sets of references are included in the following listing: those cited in the
guidebook and other useful references.
13-1 REFERENCES CITED IN GUIDEBOOK

Alred, G.J., C.T. Brusaw, and W.E. Oliu (2006) Handbook of Technical Writing, 8th
ed., St. Martin's Press, New York.
Bolmer, J. (1981) "Tips on Talking in Public," Chem. Eng., 88, 19, 143-146.
Cooper, R.C. (2008) Personal Communication, Benicia, CA.
Crittenden, J.C., R.R. Trussell, D.W. Hand, K.J. Howe, and G. Tchobanoglous
(2005) Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Inc, New York.
Gunning, R. (1968) The Technique of Clear Writing, McGraw-Hill, New York
Hine, E. A. (1975) "Write in Style: Be Clear and Concise," Chem. Eng., 81, 26, 41-
45.
Houp, K.W., and T.E. Pearsall (1980) Reporting Technical Information, 4th ed.,
Collier Macmillan Publishers, Encino, CA.
M&E (1965) Manual of Standard Practice for Typing & Assembling of Engineering
Reports, Boston, MA
Park, C.W. (1927) English Applied In Technical Writing, F. S. Crofts & Co., New
York.
Rosen, L.J., and L. Behrens (1997) The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 3rd ed., Allyn &
Bacon, Boston, MA.
Sanks, R.L. (1979) Technical Reports, 4th ed., Montana State University, Bozeman,
MT.
Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory (1966) Report Preparation Manual,
University of California, Berkeley, CA.
Shaw, H. (1993) Punctuate It Right, 2nd ed., Harper Perennial: A Division of
HarperCollins Publishers, New York.
Tchobanoglous, G., F.L. Burton, and H.D. Stensel (2003) Wastewater
Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th ed., Metcalf and Eddy, Inc.,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
The Economist (2005) The Economist Style Guide, Profile Books Ltd, London.
13-1
13 References
Vinci, V. (1975) "Ten Report Writing Pitfalls: How to Avoid Them," Chem. Eng., 81,
26, 4548.
Wydick, R.C. (2005) Plain English for Lawyers, 5th ed., Carolina Academic Press,
Durham, NC.
13-2 USEFUL OLDER REFERENCES

Hundreds of books have been written on report writing. Recent books on the subject
may be found by going to amazon.com and typing "engineering writing" or "scientific
writing." What follows is a selection of older books that are quit good that can often
been found in used book stores. There is a new 2005 illustrated edition of the
famous Strunk book, however, the older edition is more direct and preferred. In any
case, a copy of the Strunk book should be in your engineering library.
Ebbitt, W.R., and D.R. Ebbitt (1982) Index To English, 7th ed., Scott, Foresman and
Company, Glenview, IL.
Guth, H.P. (1977) Concise English Handbook, 4th ed, Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Inc., Belmont, CA.
Houp, K.W., and T.E. Pearsall (1980) Reporting Technical Information, 4th ed.,
Collier Macmillan Publishers, Encino, CA.
Karls, J.B., and R. Szymanski (1975) The Writers Handbook, Laidlaw Brothers
Publishers: A division of Doubleday & Company, Inc., River Forest, IL.
Monroe, J., C. Meredith, and K. Fisher (1977) The Science of Scientific Writing,
Kendall/Hunt Publishing company, Dubuque, IA.
Park, C. W. (1927) English Applied In Technical Writing, F. S. Crofts & Co., New
York.
Rosen, L.J., and L. Behrens (1997) The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 3rd ed., Allyn &
Bacon, Boston, MA.
Scott, J.H. (1928) Engineering English, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Shaw, H. (1993) Punctuate It Right, 2nd ed., HarperPerennial: A Division of
HarperCollins Publishers, New York.
Strunk, W., Jr., and E.B. White (1979) The Elements Of Style, 3rd ed., Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
Trelease, S.F. (1958) How To Write Scientific And Technical Papers, The MIT
Press, Cambridge, MA.
Turabian, K.L. (1967) A Manual For Writers Of Term Papers, Theses, and
Dissertations, 3rd ed., The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
13-2
14
CONVERSION FACTORS,
ABBREVIATIONS, AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
A-1 Unit Conversion Factors, SI to U.S. Customary and U.S. Customary to SI
A-2 Conversion Factors for Commonly Used Wastewater Treatment Plant

Design Parameters
A-3 Abbreviations for Units
A-4 Physical Constants

A-1
UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS, SI TO U.S.
CUSTOMARY AND U.S. CUSTOMARY TO SI
To convert, multiply in direction shown by arrows

SI unit name Symbol   Symbol U.S. customary unit
name
Acceleration
meters per second m/s2 3.2808 0.3048 ft/s2 feet per second
squared squared
meters per second m/s2 39.3701 0.0254 in/.s2 inches per second
squared squared
Area
hectare (10,000 m2) ha 2.4711 0.4047 ac acre
square centimeter cm2 0.1550 6.4516 In.2 square inch
square kilometer km2 0.3861 2.5900 mi2 square mile
square kilometer km2 247.1054 4.047 x 10-2 ac acre
square meter m2 10.7639 9.2903 x 10-2 ft2 square foot
square meter m2 1.1960 0.8361 yd2 square yard
Energy
kilojoule kJ 0.9478 1.0551 Btu British thermal unit
joule J 2.7778 x 10-7 3.6 x 106 kW•h kilowatt-hour
joule J 0.7376 1.356 ft • lbf foot-pound (force)
joule J 1.0000 1.0000 W•s watt-second
joule J 0.2388 4.1876 cal calorie
kilojoule kJ 2.7778 x 10-4 3600 kW•h kilowatt-hour
kilojoule kJ 0.2778 3.600 W•h watt-hour
megajoule MJ 0.3725 2.6845 hp•h horsepower-hour
Force
newton N 0.2248 4.4482 lbf pound force
Flowrate
cubic meters per day m3/d 264.1720 3.785 x 10-3 gal/d gallons per day
cubic meters per day m3/d 2.6417 x 10-4 3.7854 x 103 Mgal/d million gallons per day
cubic meters per m3/s 35.3147 2.8317 x 10-2 ft3/s cubic feet per second
second
cubic meters per m3/s 22.8245 4.3813 x 10-2 Mgal/d million gallons per day
second
cubic meters per m3/s 15850.3 6.3090 x 10-5 gal/min gallons per minute
second
liters per second L/s 22,824.5 4.3813 x 10-2 gal/d gallons per day
liters per second L/s 2.2825 x 10-2 43.8126 Mgal/d million gallons per day
liters per second L/s 15.8508 6.3090 x 10-2 gal/min gallons per minute
A-1-1
Table A-1 Continued from previous page

name
Length
centimeter cm 0.3937 2.540 in. inch
kilometer km 0.6214 1.6093 mi mile
meter m 39.3701 2.54 x 10-2 in. inch
meter m 3.2808 0.3048 ft foot
meter m 1.0936 0.9144 yd yard
millimeter mm 0.03937 25.4 In. inch
Mass
gram g 0.0353 28.3495 oz ounce
gram g 0.0022 4.5359 x 102 lb pound
kilogram kg 2.2046 0.45359 lb pound
megagram (103 kg) Mg 1.1023 0.9072 ton ton (short: 2000 lb)
megagram (103 kg) Mg 0.9842 1.0160 ton ton (long: 2240)
Power
kilowatt kW 0.9478 1.0551 Btu/s British thermal units
per second
kilowatt kW 1.3410 0.7457 hp horsepower
watt W 0.7376 1.3558 ft-lbf / s foot-pounds (force)
per second
Pressure (force/area)
Pascal (newtons per Pa (N/m2) 1.4504 x 10-4 6.8948 x 103 lbf / in.2 pounds (force) per
square meter) square inch
Pascal (newtons per Pa (N/m2) 2.0885 x 10-2 47.8803 lbf / ft2 pounds (force) per
square meter) square foot
Pascal (newtons per Pa (N/m2) 2.9613 x 10-4 3.3768 x 103 in. Hg inches of mercury
square meter) (60°F)
Pascal (newtons per Pa (N/m2) 4.0187 x 10-3 2.4884 x 102 in. H2O inches of water (60°F)
square meter)
kilopascal kPa 0.1450 6.8948 lb/in.2 pounds (force) per
(kilonewtons per (kN/m2) square inch
square meter)
kilopascal kPa 0.0099 1.0133 x 102 atm atmosphere
(kilonewtons per (kN/m2) (standard)
square meter)
Temperature
degree Celsius °C 1.8 (°C) + 32 0.555(°F – 32) °F degree Fahrenheit
(centigrade)
degree Kelvin K 1.8 (K) – 459.67 0.555(°F + 459.67) °F degree Fahrenheit
A-1-2
Table A-1 Continued from previous page

name
Velocity
kilometers per km/s 2.2369 0.44704 mi/h miles per hour
second
meters per second m/s 3.2808 0.3048 ft/s feet per second
Volume
cubic centimeter cm3 0.0610 16.3781 in3 cubic inch
cubic meter m3 35.3147 2.8317 x 10-2 in3 cubic foot
cubic meter m3 1.3079 0.7646 yd3 cubic yard
cubic meter m3 264.1720 3.7854 x 10-3 gal gallon
cubic meter m3 8.1071 x 10-4 1.2335 x 103 ac•ft acre • foot
liter L 0.2642 3.7854 gal gallon
liter L 0.0353 28.3168 ft3 cubic foot
liter L 33.8150 2.9573 x 10-2 oz ounce (U.S. fluid)
Source: Tchobanoglous et al. (2003)
A-1-3
A-2
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR COMMONLY USED
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN
PARAMETERS

SI units   U.S. units
g/m3 8.3454 0.1198 lb/Mgal
ha 2.4711 0.4047 ac
kg 2.2046 0.4536 lb
kg/ha 0.8922 1.1209 lb/ac
kg/kW • h 1.6440 0.6083 lb/hp • h
kg/m2 0.2048 4.8824 lb/ft2
kg/m3 8345.4 1.1983 x 10-4 lb/Mgal
kg/m3 • d 62.4280 0.0160 lb/103 ft3 • d
kg/m3 • h 0.0624 16.0185 lb/ft3 • h
kJ 0.9478 1.0551 Btu
kJ/kg 0.4303 2.3241 Btu/lb
kPa (gage) 0.1450 6.8948 lbf/in2 (gage)
kPa Hg (60 °F) 0.2961 3.3768 in Hg (60 °F)
kW/m3 5.0763 0.197 hp/103 gal
kW/103 m3 0.0380 26.3342 hp/103 ft3

L 0.2642 3.7854 gal
L 0.0353 28.3168 ft3
L/m2 • d 2.4542 x 10-2 40.7458 gal/ft2 • d
L/m2 • min 0.0245 40.7458 gal/ft2 • min
L/m2 • min 35.3420 0.0283 gal/ft2 • d
m 3.2808 0.3048 ft
m/h 3.2808 0.3048 ft/h

A-2-1
Appendix A-2 Continued from previous page
SI units   U.S. units
m/h 0.0547 18.2880 ft/min
m/h 0.4090 2.4448 gal/ft2 • min
m2/103m3 • d 0.0025 407.4611 ft2/Mgal • d
m3 1.3079 0.7646 yd3
m3/capita 35.3147 0.0283 ft3/capita
m3/d 264.1720 3.785 x 10-3 gal/d
m3/d 2.6417 x 10-4 3.7854 x 103 Mgal/d
m3/h 0.5886 1.6990 ft3/min
m3/ha • d 106.9064 0.0094 gal/ac • d

m3/kg 16.0185 0.0624 ft3/lb
m3/m • d 80.5196 0.0124 gal/ft • d
m3/m•min 10.7639 0.0929 ft3/ft • min
m3/m2 • d 24.5424 0.0407 gal/ft2 • d
m3/m2 • d 0.0170 58.6740 gal/ft2 • min
m3/m2 • d 1.0691 0.9354 Mgal/ac•d
m3/m2 • h 3.2808 0.3048 ft3/ft2 • h
m3/m2 • h 589.0173 0.0017 gal/ft2 • d
m3/m3 0.1337 7.4805 ft3/gal
m3/103 m3 133.6805 7.4805 x 10-3 ft3/Mgal
m3/m3 • min 133.6805 7.4805 x 10-3 ft3/103 gal • min
m3/m3 • min 1,000.0 0.001 ft3/103 ft3 • min
Mg/ha 0.4461 2.2417 ton/ac
mm 3.9370 x 10-2 25.4 in
ML/d 0.2642 3.785 Mgal/d
ML/d 0.4087 2.4466 ft3/s

A-2-2
A-3
ABBREVIATIONS FOR UNITS
Name Abbrev. Name Abbrev.
SI Units
centimeter cm kilojoules per kilogram kJ/kg
cubic meter m3 kilojoules per kilowatt-hour kJ/kW
cubic meter m3 kilometer km
cubic meters per second m3/s kilometers per hour km/h
degree Celsius °C kilometers per liter km/L
gram g kilowatt kW
grams per square meter g/m2 liter L
hectare ha liters per second L/s
joules per second per square meter J/s•m2 megajoule MJ
Kelvin K meter m
kilogram kg meters per second m/s
kilograms per capita per day kg/capita•d milligram mg
kilograms per cubic meter kg/m3 milligrams per liter mg/L
kilograms per hectare kg/ha Newton N
kilonewtons per square meter kN/m2 Newtons per square meter N/m2
kilosecond ks square kilometer km2
kilojoule kJ square meter m2
kilojoules per cubic meter kJ/m3
U.S. Customary Units
acre ac kilowatt kW
British thermaL unit Btu kilowatt -hour kWh
British thermal units per cubic foot Btu/ft3 pound (force) lbf
British thermal units per hour per Btu/hft pound (mass) lbm
British thermal units per kilowatt-hour Btu/kWh pounds per acre lb/acre
British thermal units per pound Btu/lb pounds per acre lb/acre
British thermal units per ton Btu/ton pounds per capita per day lb/capita • d
degree Celsius °C pounds per cubic foot lb/ft3
cubic foot ft3 pounds per cubic yard lb/yd3
cubic feet per minute ft3/min million gallons per day Mgal/d
cubic feet per second ft3/s miles mi
cubic yard yd3 miles per hour mi/h
day d miles per gallon mi/gal
degree Fahrenheit °F parts per million ppm
foot ft ounce oz
feet per minute ft/min pounds per square foot lb/ft2
feet per second ft/s pounds per square in lb/in2
gallon gal square foot ft2
gallons per minute gal/min square mile mi2
grain gr square yard yd2
horsepower hp ton ton
horsepower-hour hp-h watt-hour W-h
hour hr
yard yd
inch in.
A-3-1
A-4
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Acceleration due to gravity (standard),

g = 32.174 ft/s2 (9.806665 m/s2) (value varies with latitude)
Avogadro's number, N = 6.02283 x 1023 molecules/g-mole
Boltzmann's constant, k = 1.3805 x 10-23 J/°K
Faraday's constant, F = 96,487 C(abs)/g-equiv.
Latent heat of fusion of water (0 °C and 1 atm) = 333.6 J/g
Latent heat of vaporization of vater (100 °C and 1 atm) = 2258 J/g
Molecular mass of dry air = 28.97 lb/lb-mol (g/g-mol)
One acre = 43,560 ft2 (2.4698 hectare)
One angstrom, A = 10-10 m
One bar = 14.504 lbf/in2 (105 N/m2)
One pound per square inch = 2.31 ft of water
One torr = 1 mm Hg
Specific heat of water,
cp (32 °F) = ft • lb/lb • °F
cp (32 °F) = ft • lb/lb • °F
Specific weight of water (68 °F) = 62.31 lb/ft3 (see Table C- )
Standard atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in2 [101.325 kPa (kN/m2)]
= 33.899 ft (10.333 m) of water
= 760 mm Hg
Standard conditions
General scientific = 32 °F and 14.7 lb/in2
Compressors and blowers = 70 °F and 14.7 lb/in2
Natural gas industry = 60 °F and 14.7 lb/in2
Temperature (absolute)
Rankine, °R = 459.6 + °F
Kelvin, °K = 273.0 + °C
Universal gas law constant
R = 1543 ft • lb/(lb-mol) • °R (Universal)
R = 53.3 ft • lb/(lb-air) • °R (Engineering gas constant for air)
R = 0.729 ft3 • atm/(lb-mol) • °R
Velocity of light, c = (2.99776 x 108 m/s)
Volume occupied by an ideal gas [32 °F (0 °C) and 1 atm] = 359 ft3/lb-mol
= 22.4146 L/g-mol
A-4-1

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A GUIDEBOOK ON

TECHNICAL REPORTS, PAPERS,

12. ORAL PRESENTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

Example of Figure Listing

Example of Table Listing

HOW TO BECOME A BETTER WRITER

1. Recognize and embrace the importance of writing. Your success as an

2. Consider writing a subject of inquiry. Analyze writing, study writing, and

A fundamental part of the modern engineering profession is the preparation of

1-2 ORGANIZATION OF GUIDEBOOK

tabular form, preparation of figures to illustrate the interrelationship between two or

2. Report Types, Organization, and Formatting

In addition to the preparation of formal engineering reports, the preparation of

2-1 TYPES OF ENGINEERING REPORTS

2-2 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF FORMAL ENGINEERING REPORTS

Table 2-1 Continued

Table 2-1 Continued

Importance of the Executive Summary

 What was the task or project?

In preparing the ES it is important not to cut and paste random sentences or

2-3 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF TECHNICAL PAPERS

Table 2-2 Continued

2-4 REPORT FORMATTING

Hierarchical Number of Heading Levels Although any number of headings can be

to as flush-left, ragged-right. Based on numerous tests, it has been found that

Paragraph Set With Flush-Left, Flush-Right Justification

Paragraph Set With Flush-Left, Ragged-Right

2-5 MECHANICS OF REPORT PREPARATION

Spacing and Margins

Page Numbering and Placement Conventions

Report Outline Style - 1 With Section Numbering

CHAPTER 2 SETTING OF MASTER PLAN (Chapter title, text below)

To understand the development of the SSMP, it is important to understand the

2.1 THE SERVICE AREA

2.2 THE CURRENT SEWERAGE SYSTEM

Report Outline Style - 2 With Decimal Numbering

CHAPTER 2 SETTING OF MASTER PLAN (Chapter title, text below)

To understand the development of the SSMP, it is important to understand the

2.1 THE SERVICE AREA

2.1.1 Physical Characteristics

2.2 THE CURRENT SEWERAGE SYSTEM

Line, if used, either hairline

Line, either hairline or 3/4 pt placed

Chapter title, single space, all caps 18 pt

Upper margin formats

First page for chapter or section

Bottom margin formats

Page number (12 pt) is placed 0.5 in

Hairline, if used, is placed 3

Left margin formats Right margin formats

Bottom margin formats

Page number (12 pt) is placed 0.5 in

In reports and papers, tables are used frequently to present experimental,

3-1 DEVELOPMENT OF TABLES

3-2 CITATION OF TABLES

3-3 MECHANICS OF TABLE PREPARATION

Boxhead for Table number Boxhead for

Table 1 (Parts of a table)

Filtration rate Medium depth Estimated

Stub Field containing

Table title can be right

Single entries are placed on

Table 2 (Mechanics of table formatting)