CAST IRON

INOCULATION
THE TECHNOLOGY OF GRAPHITE SHAPE CONTROL

ISO/TS 16949 ISO 14001

CAST IRON INOCULATION
THE TECHNOLOGY OF GRAPHITE SHAPE CONTROL
Elkem manufactures and markets a
series of high quality inoculants to treat
cast iron and ensure the production of
an ideal graphite shape, distribution
and freedom from chill (cementite).
All inoculants are available in sizes
suitable for ladle or in-stream additions. casting. The mechanism of inoculation
This brochure describes some of the and graphite nucleation in cast iron
conditions in the production of cast iron during solidification is also described.
which call for the addition of an inoculant
to ensure the reliable production of
a sound, strong, tough, machinable

What is Inoculation of Cast Iron

Inoculation is a means of controlling
the structure and properties of cast
iron by minimizing undercooling and
increasing the number of nucleation
sites during solidification. An inoculant
is a material added to the liquid iron just
prior to casting that will provide a suitable
phase for nucleation of graphite during
the subsequent cooling. Traditionally,
inoculants have been based on
graphite, ferrosilicon or calcium silicide.
Almost exclusively, inoculants today
are ferrosilicon based containing small
quantities of active elements such as Al,
Ba, Ca, Sr, Zr and RE.
The purpose of inoculation is to assist in
providing enough nucleation sites for the
carbon to precipitate as graphite rather
than iron carbide (cementite, Fe 3C). This
is done by preventing undercooling down
to temperatures below the metastable
eutectic temperature where carbidic
(white) structures are formed. The iron
solidification mechanism is prone to
form chilled iron structures when the
inoculation is inadequate. There are
several reasons why chilled structures are
normally undesirable. Chilled structures
are hard and brittle and interfere with
machining, necessitate additional heat
treatment operations, resulting in non-
conformance with specifications and,
in general, increase the total cost of
production.
Inoculation changes the structure of cast
iron by altering the solidification process.
A look at the solidification process for
hypoeutectic grey iron (iron with a carbon
equivalent less than 4.3%) helps in
understanding the effect of inoculation:
The first metal to solidify in hypoeutectic
grey iron is primary austenite. As cooling
continues, the remaining iron grows richer
in dissolved carbon. Eventually, this
liquid reaches the eutectic composition
of 4.3% carbon equivalent, at which
final or eutectic solidification starts
under equilibrium condition However,
equilibrium solidification does not occur
under practical foundry conditions.
Due to variations in chemistry, pouring
temperature, solidification rate, section
thickness and other conditions, the metal
will cool below the eutectic temperature
before the start of final solidification.
If the undercooling is slight, random
graphite flakes form uniformly in the iron
matrix, see Figure 1. This is known as
Type A graphite. As the undercooling
increases, the graphite will branch,
forming abnormal patterns. This is known
as Types B, D and E graphite. A further
increase in undercooling will suppress
the formation of graphite and results in a
hard white iron carbide structure.
The role of the inoculant is to produce
nuclei in the liquid iron melt which
enhance the graphite nucleation with a
low degree of undercooling. This will in
turn, promote the formation of Type A
graphite structures in grey cast irons, and
a high number of small graphite nodules
in ductile cast irons.

1. Structure and Phases in Cast Iron

The structure of cast iron has a dominant

influence on strength and machinability,
and in order to obtain a machinable
grey iron structure for thin sections, the
addition of an inoculant to molten iron
is widely practiced and often absolutely
necessary. For convenience, potential
difficulties with machinability can be
determined by carrying out a hardness
test (Brinell hardness) on iron
castings and, in general, machinability
improves with decreasing hardness.
The cast iron structure can be influenced at
two distinct stages in the production route:

- during solidification
- during heat treatment

However, for economic reasons, the

desired structure should be achieved
during solidification without the necessity
for heat treatment. Figure 1: Graphite type versus undercooling

Foundrisil®, Superseed®, Superseed® Extra, Ultraseed®, Barinoc®, Zircinoc®, Reseed®, SMZ® and Vaxon®
inoculants are registered trademarks of Elkem AS
Preseed™ is a trademark of Elkem AS
The microstructure of an iron casting
consists of several phases, each having
varying levels of carbon, iron and other
elements present. Table 1 shows the
analysis and specific densities of the solid
and liquid phases which take part in the
solidification process. When solidification
is complete, the following combination of
phases may be found:
1) Austenite + Graphite
= GREY structure
2) Austenite + Graphite + Cementite
= MOTTLED structure
3) Austenite + Cementite
= WHITE structure
2. Structure Stability
A metastable white or mottled structure
can be transformed into a stable grey
structure by annealing, but the reverse
transformation is not possible as the stable
structure represents the lowest possible
energy level (at a given temperature and
composition). The graphite produced by
annealing will have a different structure
to that formed during solidification.
Cementite, austenite and liquid iron
have similar densities and all contain
carbon in solution, see Table 1. No
major redistribution of the atom species
is required for a white structure to be
produced during solidification. However,
the formation of a stable grey structure
containing graphite is quite different.
Graphite precipitated from molten iron is
virtually pure carbon, and since it has a
lower specific density than the alternative
phases; a major redistribution of atoms is
required to develop a stable structure. A
3. Influence of Elements on As-Cast Structure
Within the composition of cast iron,
graphitizing elements will promote the
carbon-carbon bond to produce graphite
in the as-cast structure, whereas carbide
stabilizing elements promote the carbon-
iron bond and cementite will appear in
the structure. Table 2 lists a number of
such stabilizing elements.
As an example, in malleable cast irons
the need for the as-cast structure to
solidify white determines that the silicon
level is much lower than in grey irons.
Also, since chromium is a carbide
promoting element, it has to be kept at
a low level to allow transformation to a
graphitic structure during subsequent
heat treatment. In normal furnace charge
materials, steel and external cast iron
scrap may be heterogeneous materials,
This review demonstrates that cementite and graphite, with austenite
solidification results in a minimum of playing only a minor role
two solid phases; and austenite is
present in all the phase combinations.
As the casting cools, the austenite
subsequently transforms to pearlite
and/or ferrite at a lower temperature
(eutectoid transformation).
Of all the solid phases listed above,
cementite has the highest hardness (~660 Table 1: Approximate analysis and specific
HB), whilst graphite is a relatively soft densities of phases in the solidification range
material of low density, which can act as of cast iron with 2.4% Si.
a lubricant. Hardness and machinability
of the as-cast structure are, therefore,
influenced by the relative amounts of
slow rate of solidification is therefore more
likely to produce a grey iron structure.
The precipitation of cementite, requiring
less atom redistribution than graphite, will
be more likely during solidification. This
can be demonstrated by examining a
typical wedge test specimen. The narrow
tip of the wedge solidifies at a faster rate
than the thicker section at the base of the
wedge, and will show a white structure
whilst the area of slow cooling at the base
will display a grey structure, see Figure 2.
Consequently, a slow rate of solidification
(slow cooling rate) and a small value of
undercooling encourages the formation of
a grey structure with good machinability
and discourages a hard white structure.
Figure 2: Chill Wedge with fast solidifying
‘white’ tip and slowly cooled ‘grey’ base.
especially on different deliveries, with undesirable effects of trace elements on
contents of Cr, Cu, Sn, Sb, V, Mo, Ti, microstructure and properties.
etc., depending on the original source
and ultimately on the ability of the scrap
dealer.
Pig iron produced from steel scrap can
also display a similar variable response
to inoculation due to fluctuating trace
element contents. A more consistent
response to inoculation is attainable
by adopting a charge containing a
reasonable proportion of ore-based pig
iron due to its low level of trace elements
of the carbide stabilising type.
Table 2: Graphitizing and carbide promoting
Controlling the concentration of trace elements
elements allows the foundryman a means
of promoting grey as-cast structures
and, also, helps in avoiding other
 4. Influence of Nuclei on Solidfication Structure
When crystallisation of eutectic cast iron
in chilled specimens is studied, a gradual
advance of the solidification front is
revealed. Transformation does not take
place instantaneously or uniformly over a
cross section. Initial solidification occurs
at the surface from distinct crystallization
centres and after some time a solid/
liquid interface forms. Other isolated
crystallisation centres are active in the
remaining melt and initiate the formation
of solid, see Figures 3 and 4. These
isolated areas are called eutectic cells.
Eventually, cells grow at the expense
of the liquid, and a solid cast structure
develops. Each eutectic cell consists of
graphite and austenite with graphite as
the primary phase.
Precipitation is initiated by randomly
distributed crystallisation centres, called
nuclei. These nuclei offer favourable sites
for the deposition of carbon atoms and,
subsequently, precipitation of graphite
and austenite onto existing graphite
continues. The morphology of these cells
for grey iron shows a marked difference
with that for nodular iron, as can be seen
from Figure 3.
5. Prerequisites for Successful Inoculation
5.1 Number of Nuclei
-Grey iron: graphite lamellae start oxide where X can be Ca, Ba, Sr, Ce, Zr
growing from a common centre and stays surrounded by the magnesium sulphide.
in contact with the melt as austenite fills
the spaces between the lamellae.
Lamellar
-Nodular iron: a graphite nodule forms
first and is surrounded by austenite at a
later stage.
In eutectic nodular iron, the nodule Nodular
number is virtually identical with the
number of eutectic cells.
The mechanism described is for eutectic
solidification and is not influenced by the
presence of kish (primary) graphite or Figure 3: Eutectic cells for lamellar and nodular graphite
austenite dendrites.
The nuclei substances can be more
easily observed in nodular graphite
iron than in grey iron, since it is easy to
locate the centre of a graphite spheroid.
Measurements have shown that the
nuclei are between 0.5 to 2.0 microns
in diameter, with a bulk chemical
composition of magnesium sulphide
and magnesium silicate.1 A similar
investigation of nuclei composition for
grey iron has shown that the nucleus Figure 4: Solidification of near eutectic iron 2
has a core of a complex aluminium-X-
About 2.4wt% graphite and 97.6wt% austenite are formed during the crystallization
of eutectic (nodular) cast iron, which corresponds to approximately 8 vol% graphite
and 92 vol% austenite. The mean diameter of graphite nodules is usually between
10-80 microns, although lower and higher values are possible. This leads to
about 3000 to 30,000 nodules per cubic millimetre depending on the section
size (cooling rate) of the casting. The total number of possible nuclei for graphite
(inclusions) will be at least one order of magnitude larger than this graphite nodule
density. This means that the number of inclusions or possible nuclei for graphite
is at least 100,000 per cubic millimetre and that only a small fraction of these
nuclei actually nucleates graphite during solidification1 . Table 3 gives examples of
number densities and mean particle sizes for nuclei and graphite nodules in ductile
cast iron under various inoculation conditions. As can be seen from the table, the
number and mean size of nuclei particles are unaffected by the inoculant addition,
although the nodule characteristics obtained after solidification are strongly
dependent on the type of inoculant used. These findings will be discussed below.
The calculations used to generate these figures contain certain assumptions, but
one can safely conclude that:
- the number of nuclei per volume of melt is extremely high, and approximately one
order of magnitude larger than the number of graphite nodules actually nucleated;
- the ability of the particles to nucleate graphite is strongly affected by the inoculant
addition.
In order to obtain a nucleation event, a certain degree of undercooling during
solidification is required. But since different nuclei phases initiate graphite nucleation
at different undercooling levels, it is preferable to have a large number of nuclei
particles which can initiate nucleation at very small undercooling. This is achieved by
the addition of an inoculant to the melt just prior to casting.
5.2 Constituents of an inoculant Most of the inoculant material is so-called ‘carrier’ material which is doped with a
minor additive (“nucleant”) which produces nucleating particles in the iron melt. These
particles will, in turn, initiate the crystallization of graphite. The carrier (e.g. silicon and
iron combined as ferrosilicon) should have the following characteristics:

-provide fast and homogeneous distribution of the nucleant in the melt

-have a composition which is compatible to the analysis of the melt
-form an alloy between the nucleant and the carrier
-be cost efficient

Trials using very pure ferrosilicon as an inoculant have demonstrated that it does not
have any nucleating effect for graphite 1,3,4 , as shown in Table 3.

The nucleant (e.g. Ca, Sr, Ba or Al) only needs a limited presence and it is beneficial
if the nucleant forms an alloy with the carrier. Also, the nucleant must have a limited
solubility in cast iron, and form stable compounds with the other elements forming the
nuclei particles (e.g. sulphur and oxygen). Good nucleation effect may be achieved if
the ferrosilicon contains small but controlled amounts of calcium, strontium or barium
in the range of 0.6 to 2.0%.

Table 3: Example of nuclei and

nodule number densities, average
diameters and volume fractions1)

5.3 Composition of the Nuclei in Laboratory test results are used in this section to explain the role of calcium as an
Ductile Iron example of a trace element behaving as the nucleant in ferrosilicon. Calcium will
occur in ferrosilicon as a silicide (CaSi 2 ). Calcium has virtually no solubility in iron, and
reacts with components in the melt to form sulphides and oxides.

In magnesium treated cast irons, the inclusions contain mainly magnesium, calcium,
sulphur, silicon and oxygen. These are primary reaction products of the magnesium
treatment. The inclusions are composed of a sulphide core and a faceted outer silicate
shell. The sulphide core contains both MgS and CaS, while the outer shell consists of
complex magnesium silicates (e.g. MgO•SiO2, 2MgO•SiO2). These phases will not act
as potent nucleation sites for graphite during solidification because of a large nucleus/
graphite interfacial energy barrier.

Figure 5: Transmission electron micrograph of duplex Figure 6: Schematic representation of

sulphide/oxide inclusion in ductile cast iron.1) an inclusion after inoculation with a
calcium containing ferrosilicon. The
surface layer of calcium silicates is the
effective phase for graphite nucleation.1)

Table 4: Elkem Inoculants
5.4 Composition of nuclei in grey
iron
The interfacial energy barrier is the controlling factor in heterogeneous nucleation
behaviour.
After inoculation with a Ca-containing ferrosilicon, hexagonal silicate phases of
the CaO•SiO2 and the CaO•Al 2O3• 2SiO2 type will form at the surface of the existing
oxide inclusions produced during nodularisation. These silicates will act as very
favourable nucleation sites for graphite during solidification, due to their hexagonal
crystal structure, which matches the graphite crystal lattice very well (i.e. low energy
interface).
Figure 5 shows a typical inclusion in ductile cast iron which is formed after nodularisation,
while Figure 6 gives a schematic representation of the inclusion composition after
inoculation. The surface shell contains hexagonal calcium silicates formed during
inoculant addition, while the bulk particle is a product of the nodularisation treatment.
Hence, the inoculation does not increase the total number of nuclei particles in the
melt, but rather modifies the surface of the already existing products from nodularisation.
This explains why the number density of particles in uninoculated and inoculated
ductile iron melts are the same (Table 3), while the resulting nodule numbers will differ
greatly due to the inclusion surface modification.
When inoculation is carried out with a strontium or barium containing ferrosilicon
inoculating hexagonal silicates equivalent to the calcium silicates (CaO•SiO2 and
CaO•Al2 O3• 2SiO2) will be formed (i.e. SrO•SiO 2 , SrO•Al2O3• 2SiO, BaO•SiO2 and
BaO•Al2 O3• 2SiO2)
Recent research results have identified a three step nucleation process for generating
graphite flakes in grey iron. By means of electron microscope investigations, it has
been revealed that a nucleus for a graphite flake consists of a particle with a body
of manganese- and calcium- sulphide surrounding a nucleus core of complex
Al 2 O3 –XO oxides, see Figure 7. The core oxide contains elements such as calcium,
barium, strontium, zirconium, and rare earth elements. Towards the surface of the
manganese/calcium-sulphide body, even more complex compounds have been
observed on which the graphite has grown.
The hypothesis is that the oxides form as stable elements in the iron melt first.
Secondly, manganese and calcium sulphides grow on these oxides until a desired
size and a more complex faceted compound appears on the surface. The third step
is that the graphite starts to grow on this faceted surface and grows along its base
planes of hexagonal structure.
One interesting observation was that aluminium seems to play a key role in the
nucleation process in conjunction with other elements. Testing of iron with very low
levels of aluminium showed poorer performance than iron with a certain level of
aluminium. It can be concluded that final content of aluminium in grey iron should
be between 0.005 and 0.010% in order to maximise eutectic cell count in grey iron.
This aluminium content range is and has to be less than the 0.015-0.25% Al, as this

5.5 Specification of Inoculants
5.5 Addition Technique
range for pin-hole susceptibility influenced by aluminium.
As a result of these detections, Elkem has invented the Preseed™ preconditioner
which contains zirconium and aluminium, to be added to the iron melt in the furnace or
well ahead of inoculation, in order to increase the potency of the melt for inoculation.
The chemical composition and reliability of the analysis from lot to lot is important if
a ferroalloy is to be considered as a good and consistent inoculant. Many foundry
men insist on silicon and phosphorus analyses in pig iron, but pay little attention to
the analysis of an inoculant, or vice versa . The preceding paragraphs indicate quite
clearly that the minor constituents in ferroalloys, not the major constituents (usually
silicon), are critical for the performance as inoculants. All the Elkem inoculants are
alloys that have been smelted and alloyed to the quoted specifications, and with the
exception of Ultraseed, no further additions have to be mechanically blended with
the alloy. The analysis guaranteed by the specification ensures consistent inoculant
properties from lot to lot.
The inoculants listed in Table 4 differ by analysis, price and application. The foundry
experts of Elkem can give detailed information on each inoculant and its individual
features, and also suggestions as to the most suitable alloy for a specific foundry
condition.
Chemical considerations alone will not ensure satisfactory results since equal attention
must be paid to addition technique. For ladle inoculation this means a continuous
addition of inoculant to the stream of iron (normally added between one third and two
thirds of ladle tapping) so that the high turbulence encourages fast and homogeneous
distribution of the alloy. Stream inoculation may be practised, in conjunction with
automatic pouring furnaces, using finer sized grades of the above inoculants at lower
addition rates. Similarly, inoculant fade can be overcome by reducing the time interval
between the inoculant addition and solidification by placing the inoculant piece, or
insert, into the gating system. The reaction with liquid iron occurs within the mould and
this is known as in-mould inoculation.
Fading is the decrease in inoculation effect with increasing time taken to pour
inoculated iron. Elkem inoculants have been assessed against untreated reference
melts and even after 10 minutes the inoculation effect of the treated melt proved to
be good. Provided ladle inoculation has been carried out in a satisfactory way and
the ladle is not delayed for an excessive period before pouring, the need for mould
inoculation can be avoided in most cases.
Figure 7: Transmission electron micrographs of complex sulphide/
oxide inclusion in grey iron and profile of chemical composition
through nucleus.
 6. Control of Inoculation
Although nuclei cannot be observed
directly at solidification temperatures,
they have an effect on some properties
which can be measured by:
-recording cooling curves
-measuring depth of chill in chill wedges
-counting the number of eutectic cells
-counting the number of graphite
nodules.

6.1 Cooling Curves
Cooling curves record the drop or increase in temperature with time as a consequence
of a change of energy within the system. A deviation from normal cooling indicates
the occurrence of a source of heat such as the heat of crystallization released by a
precipitating phase. The location of the inversion points on the generally S-shaped
cooling curve in the region of eutectic crystallization indicates the tendency of the
melt to solidify “grey” or “white”. A high level of nucleation promotes a higher arrest
temperature which, by avoiding the white eutectic, will result in less risk of carbide
formation.

Conversely, when the inversion point is at a low level on the cooling curve, there
will be a tendency for cementite to precipitate in place of graphite giving a “white”
structure. An increased cooling rate, as found in thin sections, will increase the degree
of undercooling which must be balanced by an increased number of active nuclei
to avoid the formation of white iron. In the iron-carbon system there is only a 7ºC
temperature interval between “grey” solidification and sufficient undercooling to cause
“white” solidification. In Figure 8 the cooling curve for an uninoculated reference melt
is compared with a curve from a melt inoculated with 0.25wt% inoculant addition.

The uninoculated melt shows inversion at 1145ºC whereas inversion occurs at 1162ºC
for the inoculated melt. This means that the uninoculated melt is undercooled by
20ºC and the inoculated melt by 3ºC, which gives “white” and “grey” solidification,
respectively.

Figure 8: Solidfication curves

for (a) uninoculated ductile cast
iron, and (b) inoculated ductile
1)
cast iron (30mm section size).

6.2 Chill Testing
6.3 Eutectic Cell Count
The traditional method to determine the tendency of a melt to solidify “grey” and
“white” is by examining chill wedges. The larger the zone of white iron, the fewer the
number of nuclei that were active in initiating a “grey” solidification. Figure 9 shows
chill wedges from a foundry which had an average 11.2mm of chill for a period of two
week on uninoculated cupola iron. By adding 0.2% FeSi (85% Si), the average chill
depth was reduced and with 0.125% Superseed addition, the chill depth was reduced
even further.
The number of eutectic cells in grey irons can be determined on etched micro-
specimens. If an effective inoculant has been added to the melt, there will be a large
number of active nuclei to promote graphite precipitation at low undercooling during
solidification. This will be represented on the micro-specimen by a high cell count
for grey irons and a high nodule count for ductile irons. Table 5 shows the result
of cell counts after inoculation. The eutectic cell number increases as the inoculant
addition to the base melt is increased. Other factors, such as over-inoculation leading
to shrinkage proprensity, will influence the optimum inoculant addition.
Table 5: Eutectic cell
(30mm round bars)
Figure 9: Cupola melted grey
cast iron (2.6X) ; no inoculation
(left) , inoculated with 0.2wt%
FeSi85% (centre), and inoculated
with 0.125wt% Superseed (right)
7. Fading of Inoculation
7.1 Principle Effects
count
The effects of inoculation are at a maximum immediately after the addition of the
inoculant. The rate of inoculant fading, which depends upon the composition of the
inoculant and the condition of the iron to which it is added, may be very rapid and
much of the inoculating effect may be lost in the first few minutes after the addition.
The principal effects of fading are:
1) to cause greater undercooling to take place during eutectic solidification and to
lead to a greater tendency to chilling in grey and ductile cast irons, particularly in thin
sections;
2) to reduce the number of nodules formed in ductile iron and to cause a deterioration in
their shape. If sufficiently severe, the deterioration in shape may affect the mechanical
properties of the casting;
3) to reduce the number of eutectic cells growing in flake graphite irons resulting in a
less uniform size distribution of graphite in the casting and a reduction in mechanical
properties.
There are some well established facts concerning fading which are of practical
significance:
1) all inoculants fade;
2) there is no period after inoculation during which fading does not occur. To obtain
the maximum effect, metal should be cast as soon as possible after the addition of
inoculant;
3) some inoculants fade more slowly than others;
4) inoculating effects vary according to inoculant composition. It is desirable that
foundries should carry out tests to determine which is the most suitable inoculant for
their purpose.
7.2 Coarsening of Inclusions
7.3 Effects of Various Inclusions
Figure 10: Coarsening behaviour
of inclusions in liquid cast iron
during holding.
Figure 11: Fading characteristics
for various inoculants in cast
iron.
8. Inoculation and Cast Iron Properties
8.1 Inoculation and Strength
8.2 Inoculation and Machinability
It has previously been discussed that graphite nucleation occurs from non-metallic
inclusions in the melt. A significant coarsening of these inclusions occurs within the
time interval between inoculation and solidification of the cast iron. This coarsening
of inclusions will result in a reduction in the inclusion number density, consequently
reducing the graphite nucleation frequency.
Hence, the fading of inoculation can be explained by this coarsening of the inclusion
population with time. Due to the coarsening, the total number of possible nucleation
sites for graphite during solidification is reduced. Figure 10 shows a plot of the number
density of inclusions in cast iron as a function of holding time after inoculation.
Inoculants lose their ability to reduce chill and nucleate graphite if the metal is held
for extended periods before casting. However, inoculants have different fading
characteristics. The barium-based inoculant Barinoc produces a high initial number of
nucleation sites throughout the holding period, thus making it an excellent inoculant
for ladle treatments. Foundrisil is an effective chill reducer for both low and high
sulphur grey irons as well as ductile irons. Another effective inoculant that maintains
the inoculation effect is the strontium-containing Superseed inoculant. Figure 11
shows the fading characteristics of some inoculants in cast iron.
Inoculation increases the number of eutectic cells (or nodules) which leads to a finer
structure of the iron, and in particular, this will cause an increase in tensile strength
in hypoeutectic irons. Figure 12 shows the increase in tensile strength by adding an
inoculant.
Inoculation increases the number of potent nuclei which will promote graphite
nucleation at low undercooling; Improved machinability is achieved by inoculation
suppressing the formation of hard un-machinable white iron structures.Inoculation
also reduces section sensitivity. While uninoculated irons will show a wide variation in
hardness, inoculated grey or nodular cast irons will show more consistent hardness
values over a wide range of sections, Figure 13.
Figure 12: Increasing inoculant
additions improve tensile
strength. The final analyses of
these trial melts are identical
after inoculation.
Figure 13: The wall thickness
sensitivity of (Brinell) hardness
can be reduced by an inoculant
(partley calculated from Rockwell
-B* and -C**)
9. Inoculation and Shrinkage
The solidification of “grey” cast iron
is characterized by the formation of a
skin type array of eutectic cells at the
mould/metal interface, followed by the
development of eutectic cells ahead of
the advancing solidification front. Newly
formed graphite compensates partly
or fully for the liquid iron contraction,
provided it precipitates within a relatively
rigid “skin” which is characteristic of
uninoculated “grey” cast iron. However,
if the mode of solidification is changed,
the good shrinkage characteristics can
be jeopardized, especially if a rigid skin
cannot be developed at the mould/metal
interface leaving the mould directly
exposed to ferro-static pressure.
Eventually, the mould may yield under
the ferro-static pressure from the
remaining liquid, and the increased
volume of the mould cavity becomes
too great for compensation by graphite
precipitation at the end of solidification.
Some shrinkage may occur as a result of
excessive dilation of the mould although
mould geometry will have an influence.
Unfortunately, inoculation changes the
mode of solidification in such a way that
the rigidity of the “skin” is decreased.
Inoculant additions should not become
excessive to avoid shrinkage and yet the
addition should be adequate to ensure
“grey” solidification. Test specimens,
Figure 14, show that for an equivalent
chill depth, the eutectic cell count will be
lower when using Superseed in place of
inoculating grade ferrosilicon. The
lower cell count reduces the ferro-static
pressure on the mould and improves the
tendency to avoid shrinkage defects.
Since the eutectic cell count for nodular
cast iron is much higher than for grey iron,
one would expect a greater shrinkage
tendency, and it is interesting to see that
the solidification pattern is in fact similar
to over-inoculated grey iron.
Ultraseed inoculant has proven highly
successful in providing fresh nucleation
sites to ductile irons of long holding time
where the base iron or magnesium treated
iron have been held for prolonged times
before addition of the post inoculant.
Such long hold times are well known to
reduce the overall capabilities of the iron
prior to inoculation resulting in so-called
“dead” iron. Ultraseed inoculant will thus
reinstall good nucleation effectiveness
from reactions with its sulphur and
oxygen content forming new nucleation
sites.
Due to the powerful effects of Ultraseed
inoculant on raising nodule count and
improving chill protection, it has been
found that the tendency to shrinkage
formation is also reduced with this
inoculant. Especially, the type of shrinkage
that often occurs as small porosities in
hot-spot sections of the complex castings;
appear to be effectively reduced or even
eliminated by Ultraseed inoculant. Figure
15 shows an example of micro-shrinkage
porosity that has been minimized by the
use of Ultraseed inoculant.
 Figure 14: Comparison of the eutectic cell Figure 15: Example of micro-shrinkage porosity in ductile iron casting that has been minimized by Ultraseed® inoculant (a)
count in 5mm sections at about equal chill compared to Manganese-Zirconium type inoculant (b)
depth (from BCIRA)

10. Product Development

Based on a comprehensive understanding
of the mechanisms of inoculation
described in this brochure,Elkem has,
over the years, evaluated many alternative
alloy analyses to develop the current
range of inoculants which includes the
well established Superseed, Ultraseed,
Reseed and Alinoc. Development of new
improved alloys goes on continuously.
Recently, Preseed has been added to provides a sound base for the foundryman
the portfolio as a novel preconditioner to to select the appropriate inoculant for his
enhance inoculation effect. foundry’s particular requirements.
For further information on Elkem’s
extensive range of inoculants, please
contact your local representative. The
success of Elkem products worldwide
justifies their elaborate development and

References:

1) Skaland, T.: Ph.D Thesis, The Norwegian Inst. of Tech., 1992

2) Engler, S.: Giesserei, techn.-wiss.Beih., 17(1965), p 169/202
3) Moore, A.: Brit.Foundrym. 68 (1974) March, p59/69 Patterson, V.H; Foundry 100 (1972) June, p 68/71
4) Riposan et al: Investigation of the Effect of Residual Aluminium on Solidification Characteristics of Un-inoculated
Ca/Sr-Inoculated Gray Irons. AFS 2004

Elkem AS
Foundry Products Division
Hoffsveien 65B
P.O. Box 5211
Majorstua
N-0303, Oslo, Norway

Telephone : +47 22 45 01 00
Telefax : +47 22 45 01 52
www.foundry.elkem.com
Revised May 2009 © Copyright Elkem AS