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 FALL 2003

The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology is published SAUDI ARAMCO IMPLEMENTS ITS FIRST SCREENED, FRAC
quarterly by the Saudi Arabian Oil Company, Dhahran, Saudi PACK STIMULATION COMPLETIONS IN THE UNCONSOLIDATED
Arabia, to provide the company’s scientific and
‘UNAYZAH RESERVOIR TO ELIMINATE SAND AND ENHANCE
engineering communities a forum for the exchange of ideas
through the presentation of technical information aimed GAS PRODUCTION
at advancing knowledge in the hydrocarbon industry. Zillur Rahim, Mohammed Y. Al-Qahtani,
Complete issues of the Journal in PDF format are available on Adnan A. Al-Kanaan, Kirk M. Bartko, Christian J. Heine
2
the Internet at: http://www.saudiaramco.com
(click on “publications”). SEISMIC SURVEY LISTENS BENEATH THE ARABIAN GULF FOR
SUBSCRIPTIONS OIL AND GAS
Send individual subscription orders, address changes (see page 67) Diane Turnage Burgoyne 15
and related inquiries to:
Saudi Aramco Public Relations Department TECHNIQUE BOON FOR WELDING PIPELINE SECTIONS
JOT Distribution
Box 5000 Ahmed A. “Ted” Omar
18
Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia
Fax: +966/3-873-3336 REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC
Web site: www.saudiaramco.com
PIPE FOR OIL AND GAS
EDITORIAL ADVISORS O. Olabisi, Gasem M. Fallatah, Ahmed O. Somali,
Mahmoud Abdul-Baqi, Vice President, Exploration
Adel A. Badghaish, A. Geoff Gibson
20
Khaled G. Al-Buainain, Vice President, Refining
Mohammed S. Al-Gusaier, Vice President, Distribution
and Terminal Operations ABQAIQ ALARMS QUIETED
Abdulrahman F. Al-Wuhaib, Vice President, Engineering Services Helenka DeLuca
27
Ibrahim Y. Al-Naimi, Manager, Western Region Refining
Saad A. Al-Turaiki, General Manager, Petroleum Engineering
Abdullah M. Al-Ghamdi, Manager, Oil Supply SUCCESSFUL ACID FRACTURING STRATEGY AND
Planning & Scheduling OPTIMIZATION PROCESS IN HIGH-RATE, DEEP GAS WELLS
Jamal K. Al-Dabal, Administrator, Information Technology IN THE KHUFF CARBONATE RESERVOIRS, C&B, OF SAUDI
Planning ARABIA
Khalil A. Al-Shafei, Coordinator, Research and Technical 28
Development, Engineering Services Technology F. A. Al-Ghurairi, J. Ricardo Solares
Abdulmuhsen A. Al-Sunaid, Senior Engineering Consultant,
Environmental Protection SMART CHOICE FOR VALVE TESTS 36
Mustafa A. Jalali, Executive Director, Saudi Aramco Affairs
CONTRIBUTIONS NEW RIGLESS GAS LIFT TECHNOLOGY IN SAUDI ARAMCO
Relevant articles are welcome. Submission guidelines are printed 38
on the last page. Please address all manuscript and editorial
Shahid Hussain, Hussain AbuGrain
correspondence to: 42
INVENTORIED OIL SAVES MILLIONS
EDITOR
Dave Kaiser EVALUATING SOLUTIONS TO BTX DEACTIVATION OF CLAUS
The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology
CATALYSTS IN LEAN FEED SRUS
2201-B East Administration Building 43
Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia Pierre Crevier, Mohammad N. Al-Haji, Ismail A. Alami
Tel: +966/3-873-5423 Fax: +966/3-873-5132
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Unsolicited articles will be returned only when accompanied by a REMOTELY TRACK EVENTS
self-addressed envelope.
Helenka DeLuca
52
Abdallah S. Jum‘ah
President & CEO, Saudi Aramco
MODELING FLUID FLOW THROUGH SINGLE FRACTURES
Mustafa A. Jalali USING EXPERIMENTAL, STOCHASTIC AND SIMULATION
Executive Director, Saudi Aramco Affairs
APPROACHES
Nasser A. Al-Nafisee
Dicman Alfred, Erwin Putra, D.S. Schechter
54
Manager, Public Relations
Production Coordination: Henry Hayes, ASC
VELA TESTS NEW VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEM 63
Design: Pegasus Design, Inc., Houston, Texas U.S.A.
TECH HIGHLIGHTS
65

ISSN 1319-2388. COPYRIGHT © 2003 ARAMCO SERVICES COMPANY: All articles, including
art and illustrations, in The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology, except those from copyrighted
sources, may be reprinted in technical journals or used in technical presentations without further
permission, provided that The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology is credited.
The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology gratefully acknowledges the assistance, contribution
and cooperation of numerous operating organizations throughout the company.
 REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC
PIPE FOR OIL AND GAS

Olabisi holds a PhD and is a non-metallic engineering

specialist in the Consulting Services Department (CSD).
He has 29 years of experience, 16 in industry and 13 as a
university professor. He holds nine international patents,
has authored three books and several book chapters, and
has published extensively in international journals.
Olagoke Olabisi Fallatah has an MSc and is a non-metallic engineer in
the CSD. He has seven years of experience in Inspection,
Offshore Maintenance and Offshore Producing
Operation Engineering. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco,
for three years he was a research assistant with the King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Research
Institute. He is the section chairman of the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers - Saudi Arabia
Gasem M. Fallatah
Section.
Somali holds a BS and is a lead operation engineer in
Saudi Aramco’s South Ghawar Producing
Department/Central Arabia. He has 11 years of
experience, four in Technical Support and seven in
Operation Engineering.
Badghaish has an MS in mechanical engineering and is
Ahmed O. Somali a piping/pipelines engineer in the CSD. He has eight
years’ experience with Saudi Aramco solving and
troubleshooting various field problems in his area of
expertise.
Gibson holds a PhD and is the Roland Cookson Chair
of Composite Materials Engineering at the University of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, U.K. He is the director of the
Center for Composite Materials Engineering at the
Adel A. Badghaish

Not Pictured: A. Geoff Gibson

20 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2003

Fig. 1. The pipeline replacement program at Southern Area Oil Operation (SAOO): 2001 to the left and 2002 to the right
university and has published extensively
in international journals and conference
proceedings.
ABSTRACT
The year 2002 pipeline replacement program at Southern
Area Oil Operation (SAOO) consisted of replacing the
following carbon steel pipelines with reinforced
thermoplastic pipe (RTP): two trunklines, one flowline and
one water-injection lateral. This is primarily because RTP
technology is an engineered solution for the piping systems
operating in a corrosive oil field, where corrosion inhibition
of metallic pipes is unsustainable. As an emerging spoolable
piping technology, RTP combines the high strength of
kevlar reinforcing fiber with the outstanding chemical
resistance, ductility and impact resistance of thermoplastics.
Worldwide experience in the exploration and producing
industry confirms the integrity, durability and cost-
effectiveness of RTP. This paper summarizes the work
carried out by an industry consortium, of which Saudi
Aramco is a member, concerned with the development of an
industry-wide standard for the implementation of RTP.
INTRODUCTION
The first Saudi Aramco experience of using RTP piping
involved the successful installation of 61 m, 15 cm. (200 ft,
6 in) diameter product from Tubes d’Aquitaine (now part
of Wellstream) on September 10, 2000. In 2001, a 67 m
(220 ft.) carbon steel section of a trunkline was replaced
with a UV-resistant, 10 cm. (4 in.) SOLUFORCE RTP from
Pipelife. This installation is depicted in fig. 1.
At about the same time in 2001, an Engineering Services
Technology program funded a technology item to facilitate
joining an industry-wide consortium on the Implementation
of Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipes in the Oil and Gas
Industries. The consortium consisted of: BP-Amoco,
Advantica, Coflexip Stena Offshore, Gaz de France,
Halliburton Subsea, U.K. Health & Safety Executive (U.K.),
Petrobras, Pipelife Netherlands, Saudi Aramco and Shell
SIEP.
The goal of the consortium, which was jointly managed
by the Advanced Research Partnership and the University
of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, is the removal of barriers to the
use of RTP in three key application areas, (1) onshore
transport of oilfield fluids, (2) onshore transmission of
gaseous fuels, and (3) offshore applications. This was to be
achieved through the development of a documentation
framework within which RTP can be specified and
implemented with confidence.
This paper provides a summary of a suite of documents
demonstrating that RTP is an engineered solution for piping
systems operating in a very corrosive oil field, in which the
corrosion inhibition of metallic pipes is unsustainable. For
the RTP with PE100, namely, high density polyethylene
(HDPE) liners and covers, the recommended practice is:
• Diameter range: 7.6 cm. to 25.4 cm. (3 in. to 10 in.);
• Design temperature services: 150ºF (65ºC);.
• Working pressure range (water service, 20 years): 450 -
1,500 psi;
• Wellhead shut-in pressure range (water service, 1,000
hrs): 1,500 - 1,850 psi and
• Pressure de-rating factor for crude oil service: 0.82.
Since joining the consortium, additional applications of
SOLUFORCE RTP have taken place with significant further
savings. In particular, the 2002 pipeline replacement
program at SAOO consisted of replacing three trunklines,
two flowlines and one water-injection lateral. One such line
is depicted in fig. 1.
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2003 21
 candidates (Materials Qualification, Advanced
RT P D O C U M E N T S Research Partnership Publication, 2002).
• Condition Monitoring, Repair and Reparability of
The RTP performance-based documentation addresses
RTP: The greatest risk to the serviceability of RTP,
recommended practice for RTP qualification procedures,
especially in gas transmission service, is expected to
system design, condition monitoring and repair procedures,
arise from external interference damage. Work was
as well as a field trial for gas applications. It also includes
therefore carried out to quantify damage tolerance and
the results of an experimental program that addresses the
a survey was made of condition monitoring techniques
generic issues, fundamental to the qualification of RTP.
applicable to RTP. The issue of reparability was
Such issues include the principles underlying reparability,
considered, with effective techniques involving the
stress relaxation and the strain-ageing behavior of
placement of a metallic or composite sleeve around the
polyethylenes in oil. Specifically, the RTP performance-
damaged area of the pipe to support the pipe wall.
based documents are as follows:
This document contains the complete report of this
• Recommended Practices for the Qualification of RTP:
aspect of the investigations (Condition Monitoring,
This provides a framework for development to
Repair, and Reparability of RTP, Advanced Research
accommodate the upgrading of performance expected
Partnership Publication, 2002).
from improvements in design, materials and
• Results of Phase 1 Experimental Program: This is the
manufacturing processes. Experience in oil and gas,
report of the experimental work to investigate the
and with the qualification of thermoplastic and
aspects of the behavior of RTP components, namely,
fiberglass pipes, has contributed significantly to the
PE80 and PE100, relevant to the qualification issues.
philosophy of this document, which is also intended to
The work was conducted at the Center for Composite
be extendable to other classes of flexible non-metallic
Materials Engineering at the University of Newcastle-
piping (Recommended Practice for the Qualification of
upon-Tyne (Results of Phase 1 Experimental Program,
Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe, Advanced Research
Advanced Research Partnership Publication, 2002).
Partnership Publication, 2002).
• Natural Gas Field Trial for Reinforced Thermoplastic
• Design Guidelines for RTP: This provides pipeline
Pipe: This is a report (Natural Gas Field Trial for
engineers with design guidelines and calculation
Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe, Advanced Research
methods for RTP systems. It defines the maximum
Partnership Publication, 2002) on the gas transmission
requirements for design, calculations, installation, field
field trials at the Advantica Test Facility in Bishop
testing and inspections of RTP systems, with a view to
Auckland in northeast England, which lasted for about
the safety and durability of the system throughout its
12 months. The full scale trials involved 50-m (164 ft.)
entire service life under defined operating conditions. It
lengths of RTP pipes.
covers onshore, above ground, and buried pipelines for
• Reinforced Thermoplastic Piping Systems for Gaseous
oil and gas transportation, gas transmissions and
Fuels: It was decided very early that the JIP must begin
distribution. It applies strictly to the RTP, which fulfils
the drafting process for international industry
the requirements of the qualifications procedures,
standards to enable the rapid worldwide application of
(Design Guideline for Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipes,
RTP. This has commenced with ISO Technical
Advanced Research Partnership Publication, 2002).
• Materials Qualification: In qualifying potential liner
materials, the main considerations concern
compatibility with the contained fluids, the ability to
withstand the required strains and stresses, and the
ability to retain the necessary properties under the
influence of temperature and the environment. In
relation to qualifying the liner material, the properties
that have been identified as significant in determining
suitability include stress relaxation, creep, stress
rupture, time-temperature equivalence, strain-to-yield,
mode of plastic deformation and compatibility with
fluids. This document expands on these characteristics
Fig. 2. Regression analysis procedure for determining the long-term hydrostatic
as they apply to polyethylene. Data are also included pressure (LTHP) and the 97.5% lower confidence limit (LCL) for RTP
for PA11, PVDF and PEX as alternative liner

22 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2003

 Committees TC67 and TC138 for oil and gas
applications, respectively. An Ad-Hoc Group on
Reinforced Thermoplastic Piping Systems for Gaseous
Fuels was set up under the Chairmanship of T.
Meijering (Pipelife Netherlands), reporting to
ISO/TC/138/SC4. The final draft of the Ad-Hoc group
was transmitted to the International Standards
Organization on May 15, 2002.
GENERIC ISSUES
temperature DT, in excess of the qualification test
temperature, at the extrapolated long-term pressure,
corresponding to the required lifetime, for a test period,
test. Determination of test requires knowledge of the time-
temperature equivalence of relevant relaxation and failure
processes of the polymer in question. Each test spool is
required to survive the high temperature test without
leakage or failure. In practice, passing the elevated
temperature test is often more demanding than the
regression requirement.

Regression Analyses
S A F E T Y FA C T O R
The principles for the qualification of an RTP pipe body
A statistical analysis is used to determine the
and fitting combination are similar to those for fiberglass
recommended RTP safety factor, S. It is assumed that the
reinforced plastics pipe (FRP). The procedure for
extrapolated long-term pressure resistance is normally
establishing a design basis is shown schematically in fig. 2.
distributed with a mean of LTHP and variance, S. The
This example employs the same statistical procedure
probability of failure at the manufacturer’s nominal
used in many international standards for thermoplastic
pressure rating, PMNPR, is therefore given by the following
pipe, for instance in ISO TR9080. Constant pressure failure
equation:
tests with water, varying in duration up to over 10,000
hours, are used to acquire regression data (with 18 or more
(1)
data points), from which a statistical 97.5 percent lower
Where denotes the standard normal distribution. Re-
limit curve can be calculated and extrapolated to obtain the
arranging this gives
lower confidence limit (LCL) for the design life. A safety
factor is applied, depending on the application, so as to
(2)
obtain the manufacturer’s nominal pressure rating (MNPR).
Where is the inverse standard normal distribution.
Also, a design service factor relating to fluid type, cyclic
The LCL pressure, being the 97.5% statistical lower
operation, etc. is applied to obtain the maximum service
limit, is 1.96s lower than the PLTHP, so
pressure (MSP).
The qualification test temperature is the maximum design
(3)
temperature, which is 65ºC (150°F) for RTP with PE100
The coefficient of variation (COV), N , is related to the
liners and covers. The regression procedure requires that only
variance by:
one failure mode should be observed, namely, reinforcement
failure in the pipe wall, which must initiate at a point outside
(4)
the fitting. In addition to regression tests, it is necessary to
After some manipulation of equations (1)-(4), PMNPR/PMNPR
ensure that no other failure mode can occur between the end
is found to be:
of the qualification test period and the end of the design life,
as explained in the next section. An undesirable mode could
(5)
probably result from the time-dependent properties of the
Recently, it has been recommended that statistically
polymeric components of the RTP.
based safety factors for pipe systems should be augmented
by a further factor of 1.1, known as the ‘System Factor’.
E L E VAT E D T E M P E R AT U R E T E S T
This is to allow for the serial manner in which the stressed
An elevated temperature survival procedure is elements of a pipe are arranged. A simplified explanation
recommended, which relies on time-temperature for this is that while qualification tests are carried out on a
equivalence to shift the time scale of possible unwanted relatively short length of pipe, the ‘system’ comprises many
failure modes into a time domain where they would be such lengths in a series and failure in any length would
observed. One such undesirable process might arise from constitute failure of the system. The longer length of pipe
stress relaxation, resulting in loss of grip force on the would be statistically more likely to contain a significant
reinforcement within the fitting. Another might be liner flaw. Adding this factor, the overall safety factor for
strain rupture. The procedure involves subjecting spool calculating then becomes:
pieces with fittings to a constant pressure survival test, at a

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2003 23


(6)
Table 1 illustrates the safety factor values corresponding
to the failure probabilities for three commonly considered
safety classes, low, normal and high, along with the failure
probabilities normally associated with these classes. The
significance of the COV is evident. As might be expected,
the safety factor depends heavily on the demonstrated
consistency of the product. Currently available RTP
products have been shown to be very consistent in quality,
COV values of 0.05 or lower being typical. Table 1 also
shows the proposed classification of RTP applications in
terms of these factors.
Table 1. Determination of the Safety Factor from the COV at the design life
Fig. 3. Damage tolerance of RTP: Plot of normalized burst pressure vs.
dimensionless defect length
24 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2003
CONDITION MONITORING AND DAMAGE
TOLERANCE
A survey was made of condition monitoring techniques
applicable to RTP. It was found that external damage to the
reinforcement, of a level that would be sufficient to
endanger performance, produces significant localized
swelling of the pipe, large enough to be detectable by means
of a caliper or pressure drop measuring pig.
The greatest risk to the serviceability of RTP, especially
in gas transmission service, is expected to arise from
external interference damage. Work was therefore carried
out to quantify damage tolerance. Fig. 3 shows the effect of
damaging the reinforcing layer on short-term burst
pressure. The reinforcement was cut along the pipe axis, in
a manner that might be expected due to damage from
earthmoving machinery.
The dimensionless damage length is the ratio of the cut
length to the ID of the pipe. The burst pressure can also be
normalized, from a value of 1.0 for undamaged pipe, down
to zero for the burst pressure of the liner alone.
Interestingly, different types of RTP seem to produce the
same normalized plot when both reinforcing layers are cut.
One RTP was of bonded construction, with the
thermoplastic components welded together, while the other
was of non-bonded construction, with a different pressure
rating. This result implies that the distance required for
stress build-up in the reinforcement near to a region of
damage is similar for both bonded and non-bonded RTP.
While fig. 3 shows short-term burst data, the time-
dependence of deterioration following damage is also of
interest. Fig. 4 shows predicted burst data at a constant
pressure, for times up to 1,000 hours. It is interesting to
note that the slope of the lines does not appear to increase
very much as the damage level increases. This information
Fig. 4. Damage tolerance of RTP at 20°C (68°F): Plot of burst pressure vs. time, as
a function of dimensionless defect length
Fig. 5. Damage tolerance of RTP at 20°C (68°F): Plot of burst pressure vs. time, as a function of dimensionless defect length
is useful in determining what action to take in the event of
damage to an RTP. The ‘stress rupture’ results in fig. 4 were
obtained using the procedure in which the pipe is subjected
to a slowly increasing pressure up to burst. Miner’s Law is
used to determine the parameters of the stress rupture law.
At least two sets of measurements at different rates of
pressure increase were required for each damage level, the
longest tests giving failure times of the order of 300 hours.
A P P L I C A B L E R E PA I R O P T I O N S
The issue of reparability was considered and there appear
to be a number of viable methods of repairing damage of
the level corresponding to figs. 3 and 4. Effective techniques
all involve the placement of a metallic or composite sleeve
around the pipe, overlapping the damaged area, to support
the pipe wall. Saudi Aramco Engineering Report (SAER)
5850, Design Guidelines for Composite Repair, contains
extensive information on composite repair methodologies
(Olabisi, O., SAER 5850).
The applicable repair options are:
• Clock spring: Preformed spiral of unidirectional
composite wrapped around pipe and bonded in place.
• Epoxy shell: Half-shells are welded around pipe, and
the annulus is then filled with epoxy grout. There is a
non-welded version.
• Clamp: Bolted mechanical clamp.
• Composite laminates: Composite laminate wrapped
around pipe and cured in place (using resin infusion,
laminating, UV cure or water-cured urethane,
depending on system).
E X P E R I M E N TA L P R O G R A M
A program of experimental work was conducted to
investigate aspects of the behavior of RTP components
relevant to the qualification issues. Part of the study
involved stress relaxation of the liner material at a range of
strains up to 14 percent. In the majority of situations, the
proportion of the pressure load carried by the liner is small,
but not negligible, compared to that borne by the
reinforcement. The results indicate that, despite continuing
stress relaxation, the liner can carry a significant pressure
load, even at quite long times. PE100 bears significantly
greater load under stress relaxation conditions than PE80.
The situation changes when the liner undergoes oil
absorption. The effects of synthetic (simulated) crude are
two-fold. First, there is a significant volumetric swelling,
which increases rapidly with increasing temperatures. The
volume changes in PE100 and PE80 at 40°C (104°F) are 11
percent and 14 percent, respectively. Swelling tends to
counteract the expansion strain when the RTP is under
pressure. Second, there is a considerable change in
relaxation. At the maximum strain levels normally
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2003 25
 encountered in RTP liners, which are of the order of 2
percent, this combination of liner swelling and relaxation
will result in the liner bearing virtually none of the load.
F I E L D T R I A L F O R G A S A P P L I C AT I O N S
The gas transmission field trial at the Advantica Test
Facility in Bishop Auckland, in the U.K., lasted for just
under 12 months. Fig. 5 shows the 50 m (164 ft.) lengths of
RTP from different manufacturers. During the trial, these
were connected to form a part of an operating 50-55 bar
gas transmission network. The trial provided valuable
experience on the deployment and monitoring of RTP in
gas transmission service. Useful practical information on
gas permeation rates was acquired and utilized in
developing the documents.
Natural Gas Field Trial for Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe,
Advanced Research Partnership Publication, 2002.
Olabisi, O., 2002. SAER 5850, Design Guidelines for
Composite Repair, 24 June.
Recommended Practice for the Qualification of Reinforced
Thermoplastic Pipe, Advanced Research Partnership
Publication, 2002.
Reinforced Thermoplastic Piping System for Gaseous Fuels,
Advanced Research Partnership Publication, 2002
Results of Phase 1 Experimental Program, Advanced
Research Partnership Publication, 2002.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper describes a suite of documentation that covers

the recommended practices for RTP qualification
procedures, system design, condition monitoring and repair
procedures, field trials for gas applications, as well as an
experimental program that addresses the generic issues that
are fundamental to the qualification of RTP. The work
provides a framework that allows Saudi Aramco facilities to
utilize RTP with confidence and will form the basis of the
development of Saudi Aramco standards. The key
applications for RTP include water, oil and gas. In addition,
some of the principles outlined are applicable to the
qualification of other types of non-metallic flexible systems.

N O M E N C L AT U R E

Coefficient of variation COV

Fiberglass reinforced plastics pipe FRP
High density polyethylene HDPE
Lower confidence limit LCL
Manufacturer’s nominal
pressure rating MNPR (pMNPR)
Maximum service pressure MSP
Reinforced thermoplastic pipe RTP
Southern Area Oil Operation SAOO

REFERENCES

Condition Monitoring, Repair, and Reparability of FRP,

Advanced Research Partnership Publication, 2002.
Design Guideline for Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipes,
Advanced Research Partnership Publication, 2002.
Materials Qualification, Advanced Research Partnership
Publication, 2002.

26 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2003

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