Orpehus and Eurydice in Western Literature

THE MYTH OF ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE
IN WESTERN LITERATURE
by
MARK OWEN LEE, C.S.B.
B.A., U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, 1953

M.A., U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, 1957
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY
i n t h e Department
of-
Classics
We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g
to the r e q u i r e d standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

September, i960
In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of
the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree a t the University
o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make
it f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I further
agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying of t h i s thesis
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g a i n s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n permission.
Department o f
The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
Vancouver 8 , Canada.
©he Pttttrerstt^ of ^riitsl} (Eolimtbta
FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
PROGRAMME OF THE
FINAL ORAL E X A M I N A T I O N
FOR T H E DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
of
MARK OWEN LEE, C.S.B.
B . A . University of Toronto, 1953
M . A . University of Toronto, 1957
S.T.B. University of Toronto, 1957
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 21, 1960 AT 3:00 P.M.
IN ROOM 256, BUCHANAN BUILDING

COMMITTEE IN CHARGE
D E A N G . M . S H R U M , Chairman
M. F. M C G R E G O R G . B. R I D D E H O U G H
W . L. G R A N T P. C . F. G U T H R I E
C. W . J. E L I O T B. S A V E R Y
G. W . M A R Q U I S A . E. B I R N E Y
External Examiner: T . G . R O S E N M E Y E R
University of Washington
THE MYTH OF ORPHEUS A N D EURYDICE IN WESTERN
Myth sometimes evolves art-forms in which to express itse
LITERATURE Politian's Orfeo, a secular subject, which used music to tell its story,
is seen to be the forerunner of the opera (Chapter I V ) ; later, the
ABSTRACT myth of Orpheus and Eurydice evolved the opera, in the works of
the Florentine Camerata and Monteverdi, and served as the pattern
This dissertion traces the course of the myth of Orpheus and for its reform, in Gluck (Chapter V ) .
Eurydice in classical and later Western literature. Three particulars
about myth serve to unify the discussion: myth evolves in literature; While the myth has meant something different to every age,
its meaning changes through the ages; some myths evolve art- there is a uniformity in its tradition: poets have always availed
forms in which to express themselves. themselves of one or more of its three themes—the victory of
death over life, the civilizing power of music, the problem of
Myth evolves in literature: Chapter I examines the twenty-one human emotion and its control.
references to or treatments of the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice
in Greek and Roman authors, and attempts to show that the tradi-
tional story of Orpheus' backward glance and the second loss of
Eurydice is a Hellenistic development of a story originally connected BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
with Orphic mysteries. T h e fully developed myth is seen to com-
bine elements of myth, legend and folklore.
Greek History .. M . F. McGregor
The meaning of myth changes through the ages: in the classical
period (Chapter II), the separate themes in the myth of Orpheus and Classical Archaeology C. W . J. Eliot
Eurydice, themes of death, music and love (stemming from the Herodotus and Thucydides . M . F. McGregor
mythical, legendary and folk elements, respectively), are stated in
Greek Lyric Poetry G . B. Riddehough
the Culex; but Orpheus for this age is primarily a great civilizing
influence, and this is the context in which V i r g i l places him in the Tacitus . P. C. F. Guthrie
Georgics. In the Middle Ages (Chapter III), the myth is allegorized
Aesthetics B. Savery
in Boethius and romanticized in the Middle English poem Sir
Orfeo. In the Renaissance (Chapter IV), Orpheus is once more a
symbol of the civilizing force, and the descent to Hades, though
often alluded to, is less important than other myths in the Orpheus- PUBLICATION
cycle. The Orpheus bequeathed to literature by the opera (Chapter
V ) is more human and fallible, and in the Romantic age (Chapter
The New Saint Basil Hymnal, Cincinnati, 1958
(associate editor)
VI) this figure is gradually fused with the mystical Orphic poet,
so that the contemporary Orpheus of Rilke and Cocteau (Chapter
VII) is again a symbol, but of man in his role of artist, seeking to
communicate with another world.
ABSTRACT
T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n t r a c e s t h e course of t h e myth of
Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i n c l a s s i c a l and l a t e r Western lit-
erature. Three p a r t i c u l a r s about myth serve t o u n i f y t h e
discussion: myth e v o l v e s i n l i t e r a t u r e ; i t s meaning changes
t h r o u g h t h e ages; some myths e v o l v e a r t - f o r m s i n w h i c h t o
express themselves.
Myth e v o l v e s i n l i t e r a t u r e : Chapter I examines t h e
twenty-one r e f e r e n c e s t o o r t r e a t m e n t s of the myth of Orpheus
and E u r y d i c e i n Greek and Roman a u t h o r s , and attempts t o
show t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s t o r y of Orpheus' backward glance
and t h e second l o s s of E u r y d i c e i s a H e l l e n i s t i c development
of a s t o r y o r i g i n a l l y connected w i t h Orphic m y s t e r i e s . The
f u l l y developed myth i s seen t o combine elements o f myth,
legend and f o l k l o r e .
The meaning o f myth changes t h r o u g h t h e ages: i n the
c l a s s i c a l p e r i o d (Chapter I I ) , t h e s e p a r a t e themes i n t h e
myth of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , themes of death, music and l o v e
(stemming from t h e m y t h i c a l , l e g e n d a r y and f o l k elements,
r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , a r e s t a t e d i n t h e C u l e x ; but Orpheus f o r t h i s
age i s p r i m a r i l y a g r e a t c i v i l i z i n g i n f l u e n c e , and t h i s i s
the c o n t e x t i n w h i c h V i r g i l p l a c e s him i n t h e G e o r g i c s . In
the M i d d l e Ages (Chapter I I I ) , t h e myth i s a l l e g o r i z e d i n
o
1
B o e t h i u s and r o m a n t i c i z e d i n the M i d d l e E n g l i s h poem S i r
Orfeo. I n the Renaissance (Chapter I V ) , Orpheus i s once
more a symbol of the c i v i l i z i n g f o r c e , and the descent t o
Hades, though o f t e n a l l u d e d t o , i s l e s s i m p o r t a n t than o t h e r
myths i n the O r p h e u s - c y c l e . The Orpheus bequeathed t o
l i t e r a t u r e by the opera (Chapter V) i s more human and fall-
i b l e , and i n the Romantic age (Chapter V I ) t h i s f i g u r e i s
g r a d u a l l y f u s e d w i t h the m y s t i c a l Orphic p o e t , so t h a t the
contemporary Orpheus of R i l k e and Cocteau (Chapter V I I ) i s
a g a i n a symbol, but of man i n h i s r o l e of a r t i s t , seeking to
communicate w i t h a n o t h e r w o r l d .
Myth sometimes e v o l v e s a r t - f o r m s i n which t o e x p r e s s
itself; P o l i t i a n ' s Orfeo, a s e c u l a r s u b j e c t which used music
to t e l l i t s s t o r y , i s seen t o be the f o r e r u n n e r of the opera
(Chapter I V ) ; l a t e r , the myth of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e e v o l v e d
the opera, i n the works of the F l o r e n t i n e Camerata and
M o n t e v e r d i , and s e r v e d as the p a t t e r n f o r i t s r e f o r m , i n
Gluck (Chapter V ) .
While the myth has meant something d i f f e r e n t t o
e v e r y age, t h e r e i s a u n i f o r m i t y i n i t s t r a d i t i o n : poets
have always a v a i l e d themselves of one or more of i t s t h r e e
themes - the v i c t o r y of d e a t h over l i f e , the c i v i l i z i n g power
of music, the problem of human emotion and i t s c o n t r o l .

iii
ORPHEUS IN THE NUCLEAR AGE
Why the f a s c i n a t i o n of s t a g e , s c r e e n , r a d i o and
t e l e v i s i o n w i t h the Orpheus legend? I s i t a symptom of
nuclear-age psychology?
T h i s has always been among the b e s t known of the
Greek myths, but s i n c e the war i t s a t t r a c t i o n seems t o have
become o b s e s s i v e . I t keeps c r o p p i n g up i n s e t t i n g s as
d i v e r s e as p l a y w r i g h t A n o u i l h ' s F r e n c h r a i l w a y j u n c t i o n and
movie d i r e c t o r M a r c e l Camus' c a r n i v a l i n R i o .
Orpheus, whose l u t e charms even the t r e e s , i s i n c o n -
s o l a b l e a t the d e a t h of h i s E u r i d i c e ; he goes down i n t o
Hades and, w i t h h i s music, s o f t e n s the f l i n t y h e a r t s of the
i n f e r n a l powers; they a l l o w her t o r e t u r n t o e a r t h , but on
the c o n d i t i o n t h a t she s h a l l w a l k behind him and he s h a l l not
l o o k back; he cannot r e s i s t the y e a r n i n g t o see the beloved
f a c e a g a i n ; he t u r n s - o n l y t o see her recede among the
shades .. . . .
A p o i g n a n t l y simple l i t t l e s t o r y of l o v e and d e a t h -
or something more?
I s i t perhaps t h a t i t g r a t e s on the nerve-ends of
man i n the n u c l e a r shadow?
He,, l i k e Orpheus, i s d e a l i n g w i t h a v a s t , dark and
malevolent power and t r y i n g t o c o n t r o l i t . He, like Orpheus,
i s a l o n e l y i n d i v i d u a l g r o p i n g h i s way through a world

iv
suddenly become u n f a m i l i a r and i n s e c u r e . He, l i k e Orpheus,
knows t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n of t h a t w o r l d can be i r r e v o c a b l e .
He dare n o t l o o k back.
- E d i t o r i a l , The Vancouver Sun
December 8, 1959.
V
FOREWORD
At the end of h i s e x h a u s t i v e a r t i c l e on Orpheus i n
P a u l y - W i s s o w a s R e a l - E n c y c l o p a d i e , Konrat Z i e g l e r
1
promised:
Uber Orpheus i n der L i t e r a t u r , b i l d e n e n Kunst

und Musik des M i t t e l a l t e r s , der Renaissance und der
N e u z e i t werde i c h i n der A n t i k e handeln.
I n 1950 the s t u d y f i n a l l y appeared, but as a b r i e f e n t r y
i n the g e n e r a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e F e s t s c h r i f t Otto S c h m i t t .
Other than t h i s , , t h e r e appears t o be no attempt to c o l l e c t
and a s s e s s the l i t e r a r y t r e a t m e n t s of the myth of Orpheus
and E u r y d i c e i n the West. The need f o r such a study was
v o i c e d by W a l t h e r Rehm:
Es f e h l t der Forschung b i s l a n g noch d i e Dar-

s t e l l u n g , d i e das Orpheus-Symbol d u r c h d i e s p a t a n t i k e n ,
c h r i s t l i c h e n J a h r h u n d e r t e d u r c h v e r f o l g t . S i e musste
d i e - b a l d e i n s e t z e n d e A l l e g o r e s e des Symbols a u s e i n -
a n d e r l e g e n . . . d i e Unwandlung des Orpheus In der m i t t e l -
a l t e r l i c h e n D i c h t u n g b e l e u c h t e n und dann v o r a l i e n
von der e i g e n t u m l i c h e n Neugeburt sprechen, d i e d i e
G e s t a l t des Orpheus n i c h t z u f a l l i g gerade im R e i c h
des Gesangs und der Tone,- i n der d r a m a t i s c h -
m u s i k a l i s c h e n Form der Oper gefunden h a t .
The myth, i n one form or a n o t h e r . I s more a l i v e today
than ever b e f o r e . I began t o w r i t e t h i s t h e s i s i n Vancouver
a t the c l o s e of i t s 1959 summer f e s t i v a l , the c e n t r a l event of
w h i c h was G l u c k ' s opera Orfeo ed E u r i d i c e ; a t the same t i m e ,
the r i v a l Canadian f e s t i v a l i n S t r a t f o r d , O n t a r i o , was pre-
s e n t i n g Offenbach's Orpheus i n the Underworld. E a r l y In the
w r i t i n g , the f i l m s o c i e t y on the campus of t h i s u n i v e r s i t y
h e l d as i t s i n i t i a l p r e s e n t a t i o n a s c r e e n i n g of Cocteau's
vi
s u r r e a l i s t i c f i l m Orphee; t h r e e more c i n e m a t i c treatments
of the myth, M a r c e l Camus' Orfeu Negro, Tennessee Williams.'
The F u g i t i v e K i n d , and Cocteau's Le_ Testament d' Orphee,
have j u s t been r e l e a s e d . The Stravinsky-Balanchine ballet
Orpheus was r e c e n t l y t e l e c a s t , w h i l e Jean A n o u i l h ' s p l a y
E u r y d i c e became a cause c e l e b r e when i t was r e f u s e d a showing
on CBC-TV.
An assessment of the l i t e r a t u r e of Orpheus and Eury-
d i c e i n the Western w o r l d seems, t h e n , t i m e l y as w e l l as
overdue.. T h i s d i s c u s s i o n d e a l s l a r g e l y w i t h the classical
p e r i o d , w i t h opera, and w i t h E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e . Only a
b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n seems n e c e s s a r y f o r t h i s emphasis: I am
a c a n d i d a t e f o r a degree i n C l a s s i c s ; the myth of Orpheus and
E u r y d i c e c a l l s the opera i m m e d i a t e l y t o mind; I am not
t h o r o u g h l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the languages of F r a n c e , Italy,
Germany and S p a i n , and t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e s were a v a i l a b l e t o
me i n s m a l l e r q u a n t i t y than were the E n g l i s h w r i t e r s - but,
as L . E i M a r s h a l l n o t e s , the myth of Orpheus "has appealed
more s t r o n g l y t o the E n g l i s h people than t o the o t h e r n a t i o n s
of modern Europe."
In the v a s t m a j o r i t y of c a s e s , the summaries and
e v a l u a t i o n s of the v a r i o u s works t r e a t e d are based on first-
hand i n s p e c t i o n of the b e s t a v a i l a b l e e d i t i o n s . When t h i s
was not p o s s i b l e , I have e i t h e r used a r e l i a b l e d i s c u s s i o n of
the work and noted t h i s i n a f o o t n o t e , or e l s e m e r e l y l i s t e d
and dated the works. I am e s p e c i a l l y i n d e b t e d t o the researches

vii
of Dr. J u l i u s Wirl,. who has examined little-known works on
Orpheus i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum.
I s h o u l d l i k e , f i n a l l y , t o thank t h e members of t h e
Department of C l a s s i c s o f the. U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia,
p a r t i c u l a r l y G e o f f r e y B. Riddehough, Malcolm P. McGregor,
W. Leonard Grant, and C.W.J. E l i o t , f o r t h e i r k i n d s u g g e s t i o n s
and a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s thesis.
vi'ii
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
L i s t of A b b r e v i a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Introduction Myth and L i t e r a t u r e . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter I The L i t e r a r y E v o l u t i o n of t h e Myth
of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e 6
Chapter II The C l a s s i c a l P e r i o d .. i . . . . . . 57
Chapter I I I The M i d d l e Ages . .. 81
Chapter IV The R e n a i s s a n c e . . 107
Chapter V The E v o l u t i o n of an A r t - f o r m ...... 151
Chapter ' V I The Romantic P e r i o d . . . . . . . . 175
Chapter V I I Contemporary L i t e r a t u r e ....... 207
Conclusions The Meaning of t h e Myth . . . . . . 232
Bibliography ................... 241
Index 294
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
General:
A. D. anno Domini
anon. anonymous
B. C. before Christ
•ca. circa
cf. confer.; compare
d. died
ed. e d i t o r , e d i t e d by, e d i t i o n
e. g. exempli g r a t i a
esp. especially
et a l . et a l i i
et p a s s i m and throughout
f . ., f f . the f o l l o w i n g page(s),. l i n e ( s )
fig.,, figs. figure(s)
fl. floruit
frag., frags.fragment(s)
ibid. ibidem
i. e. i d est
introd. introduction by
loc. c i t . ,
locc. c i t t . loco c i t a t o ( l o c i s c i t a t i s )
MSS. manuscripts
n.d.. no date (of p u b l i c a t i o n )
no., n.os. number(s)
n..p.. no p l a c e (of p u b l i c a t i o n )
op. c i t . opere c i t a t o
p., pp. page(s"J
pub.. published
rev. revised (by.)
St. Saint
st.. stanza
suppl. supplement
s.v. sub voce
tr. t r a n s l a t e d by
U. University
v o l . , vols.. ' volume(s)
Books and Periodicals:
AJA. American J o u r n a l of A r c h a e o l o g y
AJP American J o u r n a l of P h i l o l o g y
CJ C l a s s i c a l Journal
CQ, Classical Quarterly
CR C l a s s i c a l Review
CW C l a s s i c a l Weekly
X
JAFA . J o u r n a l of the American F o l k l o r e A s s o c i a t i o n

JEGP J o u r n a l of E n g l i s h and Germanic P h i l o l o g y
LCL Loeb C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y
LLI La L e t t e r a t u r a I t a l i a n a
MLN Modern Language Notes
MLR Modern Language Review
ODGR Our Debt t o Greece and Rome
PL P a t r o l o g i a Cursus, S e r i e s L a t i n a , ed.. J.-P. Migne
PMLA P u b l i c a t i o n s of the Modern Language A s s o c i a t i o n
of America
PW R e a l - E n c y c l o p a d i e der k l a s s i s c h e n A l t e r t u m s w i s s e n -
s c h a f t , ed. A. P a u l y , G. Wissowa, W. K r o l l
Rom. Mitt. M i t t e i l u n g e n des Deutschen A r c h a o l o g i s c h e I n s t i -
t u t S j R8mische' A b t e i l u n g
SATF S o c i e t e des a n c i e n s t e x t e s f r a n c a i s
*
INTRODUCTION
MYTH AND LITERATURE
Myth i s many t h i n g s . I t has been seen "as a
p r i m i t i v e , f u m b l i n g e f f o r t t o e x p l a i n t h e w o r l d of n a t u r e
( P r a z e r ) j as a p r o d u c t i o n of p o e t i c a l f a n t a s y from p r e h i s t o r i c
t i m e s , m i s u n d e r s t o o d by s u c c e e d i n g ages ( M u l l e r ) ; as a
r e p o s i t o r y of a l l e g o r i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n , t o shape t h e i n d i v i d u a l
t o h i s group (Durkheim); as a group dream, symptomatic of
a r c h e t y p a l urges w i t h i n t h e depths o f t h e human psyche ( J u n g ) ;
as t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v e h i c l e s of man's p r o f o u n d e s t i n s i g h t s
(Coomaraswamy); and as God's r e v e l a t i o n t o H i s C h i l d r e n ( t h e
Church)." 1
2
Myth i s a l l t h e s e t h i n g s and more. I n a f t e r t i m e s ,
i t has become m a t e r i a l f o r t h e p o e t . I n a sense, i t i s t h e
"'"Joseph Campbell, The Hero w i t h a Thousand Faces (New York,
1949), P. 382.
2
Myth i s here and a f t e r w a r d s used i n i t s w i d e s t sense, as
a t r a d i t i o n a l s t o r y , which may attempt t o e x p l a i n natural
phenomena (myth p r o p e r ) , o r t e l l of supposed happenings i n t h e
past (legend) or merely e n t e r t a i n ( f o l k l o r e ) . The t h r e e f o l d
d i s t i n c t i o n so o f t e n made i s more e a s i l y a p p l i e d t o more p r i m i -
t i v e p e o p l e s than t o t h e Greeks, whose myths move on a l l t h r e e
l e v e l s a t once. 1
2
poet who k e e p s myth a l i v e . He d i s c o v e r s new meanings, adds
meanings, o f h i s own t o myth, w h i c h can be said to l i v e only
as i t exists i n h i s w r i t i n g s and, over and over again, i n the
w o r k s o f men like him. Without the poet t o e n f l e s h the myth,
it m i g h t be said t o be only potential,, e x i s t i n g nowhere except
at second-hand, i n the summaries of the mythographers.
The m e a n i n g o f any g i v e n myth may be demonstrated
in two ways: by investigating i t s possible origin - i n nature,
in ceremony, i n the subconscious; o r by r e v i e w i n g its life as
it i s c o n s t a n t l y renewed i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f men of genius.
The former method s h i e s away f r o m the literary; i t s myths are
found, summarized and cross-indexed, i n standard reference-
works. The latter, t h e method of t h i s study, finds i t s
evidence i n the artistic c r e a t i o n s i n w h i c h myth, e l u s i v e and
potential, i s incarnated. For "drama, t h e lyric and fiction
live s y m b i o t i c a l l y w i t h myths, n o u r i s h e d by them, and nourish-
ing t h e i r flickering lives."
In p u r s u i n g the latter c o u r s e , we note in particular
three facts a b o u t myths. First, they evolve in literature.
After the n a t u r a l or c e r e m o n i a l or p s y c h o l o g i c a l meaning which
perhaps prompted t h e myth i s f o r g o t t e n , t h e myth becomes a
F r a n c i s Fergusson. The Human Image I n D r a m a t i c Literature
(New York, 1957). p . l6l.

3
s t o r y , t a k e s on f e a t u r e s from l e g e n d and from t h e v a s t s t o r e
of w o r l d f o l k l o r e . - We note how Greek myths In p a r t i c u l a r
change from Homer t o t h e A t t i c t r a g e d i a n s t o Ovid and A p o l l o -
dorus.
Second, as we move t h r o u g h l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , t h e
meaning of myth changes.- A Greek myth may be one t h i n g f o r
the Romans and q u i t e another f o r t h e M i d d l e Ages. I t may
f l o u r i s h o r i t may w i t h e r and d i e i n t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , i n t h e
Age o f E n l i g h t e n m e n t , i n t h e Romantic era. I t may be r e b o r n
w i t h an e n t i r e l y new meaning i n our own times.. I n a sense,
i t i s a t t h e mercy of w r i t e r s who endeavor t o Catch i t , t o
p i n i t down, t o d i s p l a y i t i n t h e i r own c r e a t i o n s .
T h i r d , some myths a r e so p o t e n t , so i m a g i n a t i v e , ,
so b e a u t i f u l t h a t t h e y make demands on t h e g e n i u s who t r i e s
t o grasp them, and, t o secure t h e i r adequate e x p r e s s i o n ,
t h e y generate new forms o f e x p r e s s i o n . So i t was, a t some
p o i n t i n t h e dark ages o f Greek h i s t o r y , t h a t some myth, more
than l i k e l y t h e v a s t , burgeoning s t o r y of t h e T r o j a n war,
demanded f o r i t s adequate e x p r e s s i o n a new a r t i s t i c form o f
v a s t scope; so myth begot t h e e p i c . Sometime a f t e r w a r d s , some
myth was b e i n g sung, perhaps by T h e s p i s h i m s e l f , which cried
out f o r d i a l o g u e ; so t h e drama was born of myth.
T h i s study i s concerned w i t h one such myth. The
s t o r y o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e e v o l v e d s l o w l y i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e
of c l a s s i c a l and p o s t - c l a s s i c a l t i m e s , and i t s e v o l u t i o n can

4
be t r a c e d w i t h some c e r t a i n t y . I t has a l s o l i v e d s y m b i o t i c a l l y
f o r t w e n t y - f i v e c e n t u r i e s w i t h t h e drama and the l y r i c ,
enflaming t h e i m a g i n a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t ages i n . d i f f e r e n t ways,
and whatever meaning i t h o l d s w i t h i n i t can be demonstrated
by a r e v i e w of i t s v a r i o u s i n c a r n a t i o n s . Finally, the myth
of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i s one of the few myths w h i c h has
c r e a t e d , f o r i t s adequate e x p r e s s i o n , a new a r t - f o r m , and
t h i s momentous event can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d , f o r i t came not

i n some e a r l y d a r k age we know n o t h i n g o f , but i n the f u l l
l i g h t of t h e R e n a i s s a n c e . .
T h i s study, then,, i s p r i m a r i l y a r e v i e w of the
Orpheus-Eurydice theme i n Western c u l t u r e . I n so f a r as i t
a t t e m p t s t o prove or demonstrate,, i t w i l l endeavor, first,
t o t r a c e t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e myth i n a n c i e n t literature;
second, t o e s t i m a t e the meaning t o be found i n the s u m - t o t a l
of t h e myth's i n c a r n a t i o n s ; t h i r d , , t o demonstrate how, t o
secure adequate e x p r e s s i o n , the Orpheus-Eurydice myth may be
s a i d t o have g e n e r a t e d a new a r t form.

Chapter I w i l l d e a l , then, w i t h the l i t e r a r y
evolution. Chapters I I - I V and V I - V I I w i l l t r a c e the myth
t h r o u g h l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y and endeavor t o . e x t r a c t t h e meaning
i t has h e l d f o r s u c c e s s i v e ages. Chapter V, c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y
p l a c e d , w i l l attempt t o show how t h e myth of Orpheus and
E u r y d i c e c r e a t e d and c o n t i n u e s t o l i e a t the h e a r t of an
a r t - f o r m of I t s own.
A rough c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r has seemed the b e s t •
manner of approach.. Hundreds of s l i g h t a l l u s i o n s t o Orpheus

5
and Eurydice,. from a u t h o r s g r e a t and s m a l l , are mentioned
as i n d i c a t i v e of t r e n d s i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the myth..
The dozen or so s i g n i f i c a n t works are d i s c u s s e d a t g r e a t e r
l e n g t h as t h e y occur i n the c h r o n o l o g i c a l scheme..

CHAPTER I
THE LITERARY EVOLUTION OP THE MYTH OP ORPHEUS AND- EURYDICE
Orpheus was many t h i n g s t o the a n c i e n t w o r l d .
Fundamentally he was a g r e a t s i n g e r and l y r e - p l a y e r , and 1
t h i s i s the g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r w i t h w h i c h he i s i n v e s t e d i n
a l l h i s appearances i n c l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . By f a r the
most f r e q u e n t s t o r y t o l d o f him i s t h a t he charmed a l l n a t u r e
by the power of h i s song, moving the rocks,, drawing the
f o r e s t s a f t e r him, changing the course o f r i v e r s , e n c h a n t i n g

2
a l l the a n i m a l kingdom. P i n d a r and o t h e r s d w e l l on the
1
See P l a t o , Ion 533b-c, Laws V I I I , 8 2 9 d - e ; Pausanias X,30,6.
See Simonides frag... 27 ( D i e h l ) ; A e s c h y l u s , Agamemnon

1629-30; E u r i p i d e s , Medea 543, I p h i g e n i a a t A u l i s 1211-4,
Bacchae 560-4, C y c l o p s 6 4 6 - 8 ; P l a t o , P r o t a g o r a s 315a;
A p o l l o n i u s Rhodius 1,26-31; Diodorus IV,25,2; Pseudo-
E r a t o s t h e n e s , C a t a s t e r i s m i 24; Conon 45; Culex 117-8; Horace,
Odes 1,12,7-12; Seneca, H e r c u l e s Oetaeus IO36-60, Hercules
Fur ens 572-4; A p o l l o d o r u s 1 , 3 . 2 ; Athenaeus XIV .632c; >
P h i l o s t r a t u s , A p o l l o n i u s o f Tyana V I I I , 7 , 1 6 2 ; C l a u d i a n ,
Carmina Minora., 18,9 .
6
p a r t he p l a y e d i n t h e A r g o - e x p e d i t i o n . Virgil and Ovid
t e l l how he descended t o t h e u n d e r w o r l d and c a s t h i s m u s i c a l
s p e l l over P l u t o and P r o s e r p i n e , over t h e shades and t h e s o u l
i n torment, and t h e r e b y won back h i s b r i d e , E u r y d i c e , o n l y t o
l o s e h e r by f a i l i n g t o observe t h e c o n d i t i o n s imposed by t h e
gods o f t h e dead. 4 A l o s t p l a y o f Aeschylus-^5 told..of h i s
dismemberment by t h e T h r a c i a n women, and l a t e r a u t h o r s have
adorned t h i s s t o r y w i t h f a n t a s t i c m i r a c l e s - how h i s head
c o n t i n u e d t o s i n g , and h i s l y r e t o p l a y , °" how they f l o a t e d
See P i n d a r , P y t h i a n Odes IV,176 w i t h s c h o l i a s t ; E u r i p i d e s ,

H y p s i p a l e f r a g s . 1 and 64; A p o l l o n i u s Ehodius 1,23-31 w i t h
s c h o l i a s t , e t p a s s i m ; Orphic A r g o n a u t i c a 1270-97; Seneca,
Medea 348-60; Hyginus, Fabulae 14; V a l e r i u s P l a c c u s I,186-7,
470-2, 11,426-7; A p o l l o d o r u s I , 9 , l 6 and 25:.
4
Treatments of t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e myth w i l l be d i s c u s s e d
in detail.
The Bassarae, mentioned i n P s e u d o - E r a t o s t h e n e s , l o c . c i t .
See a l s o I s o c r a t e s , B u s i r i s 11,38; Gonon 45; V i r g i l , Georgics
IV,520-7; O v i d , Metamorphoses XI,1-43; P a u s a n i a s I X , 3 0 , 5 .
F o r v a r y i n g d e t a i l s o f t h e death see P l a t o , Symposium 179d,
R e p u b l i c , X,.620a.; Pseudo-Alcidamas, U l i x e s 24; Diogenes
L a e r t i u s , Prologue 5.
^See Conon, V i r g i l , Ovid l o c c . . c i t t . ; L u c i a n , Against
the U n l e a r n e d 109-11.
8
downstream and out t o sea t o t h e I s l e of Lesbos, and were
e v e n t u a l l y g l o r i f i e d as s t a r s i n t h e heavens; how t h e Muses
b u r l e d t h e o t h e r l i m b s near Mt. Olympus, where t o t h i s day
the n i g h t i n g a l e s s i n g more s w e e t l y than i n any. o t h e r p l a c e

7
on e a r t h .
So t h e s t o r i e s c l u s t e r about t h e l e g e n d a r y figure
of t h e s i n g e r f r o m Thrace. Orpheus becomes more than a
mere m u s i c i a n . He has a c c e s s t o t h e s e c r e t s o f a l l knowledge.

Q
P l a t o p l a c e s him among t h e g r e a t c u l t u r e - h e r o e s . He i s
v a r i o u s l y c r e d i t e d w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of w r i t i n g and
q ' •
philosophy, o f p o e t r y and e s p e c i a l l y t h e d a c t y l i c hexa-
10 11 12
meter, of a g r i c u l t u r e , even of homosexual l o v e . He
becomes a g r e a t r e f o r m e r who s p i r i t u a l i z e s t h e D i o n y s i a c
'See Hyginus, Astronomica 11,7; P h i l o s t r a t u s , Heroicus
V,3, A p o l l o n i u s o f Tyana, I V , 1 4 ; P r o c l u s , On t h e R e p u b l i c of
P l a t o 1,174,27.
8
See.Laws I I I , 6 7 7 d .
^See Pseudo-Alcidamas, l o c . c i t .
1 0
S e e M a l l i u s Theodorus, De M e t r i s I V , 1 .
1 1
See Horace, A r s P o e t i c a 3 9 1 - 3 .
12
See P h a n o c l e s , E r o t e s 7-10; Ovid, Metamorphoses X,83-5,
Hyginus, Astronomica 11,17.

13 14
r i t e s , - a p r i e s t and prophet
1
whose w r i t i n g s a r e c a r e f u l l y -
p r e s e r v e d as t h e b a s i s o f a m y s t e r i o u s c u l t .
There seems t o have been l i t t l e doubt t h a t Orpheus

a c t u a l l y e x i s t e d , though no one was l i k e l y t o have b e l i e v e d
t h a t one man was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l h i s i n n o v a t i o n s . I t
i s perhaps a case s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e S p a r t a n L y c u r g u s :
a hero o f the d i s t a n t p a s t becomes a c o n v e n i e n t s a n c t i o n f o r
any i n n o v a t i o n ; o r of Homer: the works of many anonymous
p o e t s become absorbed i n a g r e a t l i t e r a r y tradition.
But whether Orpheus a c t u a l l y e x i s t e d as one man
or many, whether he was t h e s u n , ^ the wind,"*" " o r an e a r t l 0
17
d e i t y , ' a "faded god",
l 8 t h e human psyche, 19 o r a totem- y
13
J
S e e E u r i p i d e s ? , Rhesus 943-5; A r i s t o p h a n e s , F r o g s 1032;
P l a t o , P r o t a g o r a s 3 l 6 d , R e p u b l i c I I , 7 , 3 6 4 e ; D i o d o r u s V,64,4
e t p a s s i m ; A p o l l o d o r u s 1 , 3 , 2 ; P a u s a n i a s 11,30,2, IX,30,4
X,7,2.
l 4
S e e Horace, A r s P o e t i c a 391-3; S t r a b o V I I , frag.. 18;
Clement o f A l e x a n d r i a , Stromata 1,21,134..
- ^ A c c o r d i n g t o Max M u l l e r , Comparative Mythology (London,
1909), .p-.: 160.
^ A c c o r d i n g t o R a l p h Abercromby, "The Hermes and Orpheus
Myths", Academy 24(1883), pp. 316, 399.
c o r d i n g t o E r n s t Maass, Orpheus (Munich, 1895).
l 8 i scussed by W.K.C. G u t h r i e , Orpheus and Greek R e l i g i o n
D
(London, 1935), PP. 53-6.

c c o r d i n g t o Orphic b e l i e f s , . See R.W. Horton and V.F>. Hopper
Backgrounds of European L i t e r a t u r e (New York, 1954), p. 68..
10
fox, whether o r n o t he i n t r o d u c e d the Orphic m y s t e r i e s and
wrote t h e poems w h i c h bear h i s name - these do n o t a f f e c t
our purpose. For the sciences of mythology and comparative
r e l i g i o n have l i t t l e t o do w i t h the c r e a t i o n s o f p o e t s and
dramatists, " t o whom t h e s i m p l e s t elements of the myth have

21
given the greatest i n s p i r a t i o n . " I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of
Orpheus and Orphism, W.K.C. G u t h r i e says i n t h i s regard:
"His (Orpheus') s t o r y can be severed from a l l connexion'.
w i t h r e l i g i o n , and moreover t h e a r t i s t i s t h i n k i n g i n e v e r y
case o f h i s own c o m p o s i t i o n , h i s poem o r h i s vase, not of t h e

22
preservation of a c o n s i s t e n t t r a d i t i o n . " And t h e foremost
American a u t h o r i t y on Orphism adds: "Indeed, i t makes v e r y
l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e i n the h i s t o r y of human thought whether
the g r e a t and i n f l u e n t i a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s ever a c t u a l l y e x i s t e d
in human b o d i e s . P e r s o n a l i t i e s l i k e Zeus, Odysseus, and
Zoroaster, and even Hamlet and Don Q u i x o t e , have been more
important i n the world than m i l l i o n s o f men who have l i v e d
or d i e d . T h e i r r e a l i t y i s the. r e a l i t y of an i d e a , and t h e
b e s t t h a t we can know about them i s what men have thought
According t o Salomon R e i n a c h , C u l t e s , Mythes e t R e l i g i o n s
II (Paris, 1909), PP. 85-122,

2 1
L i l y E.. M a r s h a l l , "Greek Myths i n Modern E n g l i s h Poetry",
S t u d i d i F i l o l o g i a Moderna 5 (1912), p. 205.

22
Op. c i t . , p. 25.
11
about them. The r e a l i t y of Orpheus i s t o be sought i n what
men thought and s a i d about him." J
As we t r a c e t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e myth i n t h e Greek
and Roman w o r l d , our d i s c u s s i o n w i l l be determined by what
Greek and Roman w r i t e r s thought and s a i d about Orpheus-, h i s
b r i d e and h i s descent i n t o Hades.
Ibycus
The e a r l i e s t e x t a n t r e f e r e n c e t o Orpheus i s gener-

a l l y thought t o be t h e fragment "famous Orpheus"
^ ^ ^ / ^ l y / o f / 0/?f$>?i/ (frag.,17)'
of Ibycus.. There may be an e a r l i e r mention i n A l c a e u s . I n

h i s e d i t i o n o f A n t h o l o g i a L y r i c a Graeca, E r n e s t D i e h l was
tempted t o r e s t o r e a passage i n a. second c e n t u r y papyrus of
Alcaeus thus:
24
but i n t e r p o s e d an "ausus non sum" I n h i s f o o t n o t e . Ibycus'

two-word fragment i s , , however, c e r t a i n , quoted by P r i s c i a n ,
a grammarian o f t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y A.D., t o show how t h e
D o r i a n s once used t h e e n d i n g for - .. The two words
t e l l no s t o r y , but t h e y do a t t e s t t h e i m p o r t a n t f a c t t h a t
2 3
I v a n M. L i n f o r t h , The A r t s o f Orpheus ( B e r k e l e y , 194l),
pp. xii-xiii.
24
A n t h o l o g i a L y r i c a Graeca ( L e i p z i g , 1925), f r a g . 80, l i n e 8,.
p. 425.
12
Orpheus was "famous o f name" as e a r l y as t h e s i x t h century
B.C., f o r we know t h a t Ibycus was c o u r t m u s i c i a n t o t h e t y r a n t
P o l y c r a t e s o f Samos (533-522).
E a r l y Orphic w r i t i n g s
The e a r l i e s t Orphic w r i t i n g s a r e a l s o a s c r i b e d t o
the s i x t h c e n t u r y , and we have evidence f o r a t l e a s t f o u r
A<*&/$Jc(r6'J &S Atcfoc; } by P r o d i c u s of S a m o s , 25

Cecrops t h e
26 27
Pythagorean, Herodicus of P e r i n t h u s and Orpheus o f
28
Camarina.. Of t h e s e , P r o d i c u s a t l e a s t l i v e d as e a r l y as
29
the s i x t h c e n t u r y . ^ B u t we know n o t h i n g o f any o f these
poems o t h e r than t h e t i t l e s . They may or may not have been
concerned w i t h t h e descent o f Orpheus.
^See Clement o f A l e x a n d r i a , Stromata 1,21,134.
26 C .,
See i b i d i
27
See Suidas s.v. Orpheus
2
^See ibid.
2
^ S e e CM.. Bowra, "Orpheus and E u r y d i c e " , CQ, 4 6 ( 1 9 5 2 ) ,
pp. 123-4..
13
E a r l y a r c h a e o l o g i c a l monuments
30
The earliest a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r Orpheus -
a s c u l p t u r e d metope f r o m t h e S i c y o n i a n t r e a s u r y a t D e l p h i -
i s a l s o o f t h e s i x t h century.. A l t h o u g h t h e monument i s
f r a g m e n t a r y , t h e name i s c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e above one
of two m u s i c i a n s who a r e f l a n k e d by two mounted horsemen. As
the background g i v e s some i n d i c a t i o n o f b e i n g a s h i p , i t
may be c o n j e c t u r e d that t h i s i s a d e p i c t i o n of the expedition
of t h e A r g o n a u t s , and t h a t t h e two horsemen a r e C a s t o r and
Pollux. I t i s o f t e n thought t h a t Orpheus' descent was t h e
subject of the l o s t fiftfc-century fresco painted a t Delphi
by P o l y g n o t u s and d e s c r i b e d by P a u s a n i a s : Orpheus was shown

i n Hades, h o l d i n g h i s l y r e and a w i l l o w wand, w i t h P a t r o c l u s ,
32
Agax, Meleager, Marsyas and Charon grouped around him. But
on
D
The " l y r e p l a y e r o f P y l o s " , r e c e n t l y r e s t o r e d by P i e t de
Jong f r o m t h e fragments found i n t h e t h r o n e room, may be
Orpheus i n a much e a r l i e r age. See C a r l W. B l e g e n , "The
Palace of Nestor Excavations o f 1955", AJP 60 (1956), p. 95
and p l a t e 41, and Mabel Lang, " P i c t u r e P u z z l e s f r o m P y l o s " ,

A r c h a e o l o g y 13 ( i 9 6 0 ) , p. 56..
31
There i s a p h o t o g r a p h i n G u t h r i e , op. c i t . , p l a t e 2.
32
X , 3 0 , 6 . The w i l l o w i s Orpheus'- "golden bough", according
t o James G. F r a z e r , The Golden Bough (London, 1913), v o l . I I ,
p. 294..
14
t h e r e i s no E u r y d i c e here, Indeed, n o t h i n g t o i n d i c a t e t h a t
t h i s i s a n y t h i n g o t h e r than a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of Orpheus a f t e r
h i s death. I n f a c t , w h i l e Orpheus the m u s i c i a n , Argonaut and
m a r t y r becomes a f a i r l y common s u b j e c t f o r a r t i s t s and vase

33
p a i n t e r s i n the f i f t h c e n t u r y , Eurydice. i s always c o n s p i c -
u o u s l y absent . I t i s not u n t i l the end of the f i f t h century
t h a t she appears - i n a famous monument we s h a l l discuss
later. In extant l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e i s no r e f e r e n c e t o Orpheus'
descent t o r e c l a i m her u n t i l E u r i p i d e s .
Euripides
The A l e e s t i s t e l l s a s t o r y t h a t i s almost the
r e v e r s e of Orpheus : !|
A l c e s t i s o f f e r s t o d i e i n the p l a c e of
her husband Admetus. I n the d r a m a t i c scene where Death him-
s e l f comes t o take h e r , Admetus a s s u r e s h i s w i f e t h a t i f he
had the tongue and the song of Orpheus so as t o move Persephone
and her husband he would descend t o Hades - n e i t h e r Cerberus
nor Charon would p r e v e n t him - and r e s t o r e her t o life.
f —• " ^ /\ ' *y
^ ' — '
^See, e.g., J.D. B e a z l e y , A t t i c R e d - F i g u r e Vase P a i n t e r s ,
( O x f o r d , 1942), s.v. Orpheus.

15
60-/01/, "ft" <?vs if01/ x^r^rryfa/ ^, a ^ r 357-62) .
The passage, b r i e f as i t . i s , i s fraught with diffi-

^4
culties. I t i s objected t h a t t h e r e i s no b a s i s f o r any
descent of Orpheus here; Admetus does n o t a c t u a l l y say t h a t
Orpheus descended t o Hades, o n l y t h a t he h i m s e l f would be
r e a d y t o do s o , i f he had t h e eloquence o f Orpheus. The
cryptic Orphic poems a s i d e , l i t e r a r y r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus up
t o t h i s p o i n t concern themselves w i t h h i s consummate m u s i c i a n -
s h i p and h i s p e r s u a s i v e eloquence. A e g i s t h u s , i n t h e Agamemnon
of A e s c h y l u s , b e r a t e s t h e chorus f o r h a v i n g
Of jfet (fe yAujffpit/ Ty* 6><tYr/fit-is (1629),
and Simonides, i n t h r e e memorable l i n e s , g i v e s t h e c l a s s i c
p i c t u r e of t h e F r a n c i s c a n Orpheus, e n c h a n t i n g a l l nature w i t h
h i s music: - < * .'
/(f*ve*S ^Jof k^ôi/To /fc^f <//r' </.o/J<AS ( F r a g . 2 7 ) .
There i s a p o s s i b i l i t y , t h e n , t h a t t h i s i s a l l
Admetus had i n mind, and t h a t h i s r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e underworld
have no b e a r i n g on Orpheus, b u t o n l y on t h e imminent death of
- See Jane H a r r i s o n , Prolegomena t o t h e Study of Greek

J
R e l i g i o n (Cambridge 1 9 0 8 ) , pp. 6 0 1 - 5 .
16
h i s w i f e and the problem of how he would s e t about r e s c u i n g
her... I t i s p o s s i b l e , i n s h o r t , t h a t the e n t i r e s t o r y of
Orpheus and E u r y d i c e arose f r o m the m i s c o n s t r u i n g of a some-
what mock-heroic passage i n E u r i p i d e s , a i d e d by c u r r e n t r e p -
r e s e n t a t i o n s of Orpheus i n a r t , w h i c h indeed show him perform-
i n g f o r the d e n i z e n s of Hades, but may o n l y mean t h a t a f t e r
h i s death he c o n t i n u e d t o s i n g and t o p l a y . We r e c a l l that
S o c r a t e s expected t o meet him when he a r r i v e d among the

35
.dead.. T h i s may be a l l t h e r e i s t o the e a r l y t r a d i t i o n .
I t i s d i f f i c u l t , , however, t o accept any such t h e o r y ,
f o r s e v e r a l reasons. Admetus seems t o be r e f e r r i n g t o a
well-known s t o r y r a t h e r than i n d u l g i n g i n f a n c i f u l s p e c u l a -
t i o n ; the monument w h i c h f i r s t i n t r o d u c e s E u r y d i c e i s r o u g h l y
contemporary w i t h the A l c e s t i s ; a few y e a r s l a t e r P l a t o , i n
the Symposium ( l 7 9 d ) , t r e a t s the descent of Orpheus as com-
mon knowledge...
The r e a l d i f f i c u l t y i n the passage from the A l c e s t i s
i s t h a t i t seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t Orpheus was completely suc-
c e s s f u l i n r e g a i n i n g h i s Eurydice.. Otherwise Admetus 1

point
i n mentioning the s t o r y i s v e r y weak i n d e e d . He wants t o
i m p l y t h a t , g i v e n Orpheus' powers, he would r e s t o r e A l c e s t i s
even as Orpheus once r e s t o r e d E u r y d i c e . I f the s t o r y of
Orpheus' weakness and e v e n t u a l l o s s of E u r y d i c e was current,

we s h o u l d expect E u r i p i d e s t o have Admetus " r e f e r not t o
See P l a t o , Apology 4 l a .
1 7
Cerberus and Charon, whom Orpheus subdued, b u t t o t h e d i s -
obedience w h i c h r u i n e d him, and c l a i m t h a t he h i m s e l f would
not be so f e e b l e . " J
I t seems r a t h e r t h a t t h e s t o r y o f
Orpheus and t h e u n d e r w o r l d , as i t f i r s t e x i s t e d i n t h e c l a s s i -
cal age o f Greece, was one o f s u c c e s s , a t r i u m p h over t h e
f o r c e s o f d e a t h , a t r a g i - c o m e d y somewhat a k i n t o t h e A l c e s t i s -
story i t s e l f . We know t h a t t h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y comedian
A n t i p h a n e s t r i e d h i s hand a t an Orpheus ; the "successful"
v e r s i o n of t h e s t o r y may have been h i s subje.ct. There was an
e a r l i e r Orpheus by t h e f i f t h - c e n t u r y t r a g e d i a n Aristias,
but t h i s p r o b a b l y d e a l t w i t h t h e d e a t h of Orpheus, as d i d t h e
l o s t Bassarae o f A e s c h y l u s . ^ The death o f Orpheus i s a
r i c h l y s y m b o l i c s u b j e c t f o r t r a g e d y ; h i s descent seems t o be
viewed almost as comedy..
It seems b e s t t o r e g a r d t h e passage i n t h e A l c e s t i s
as r e f e r r i n g n o t m e r e l y t o a descent b u t t o a s u c c e s s f u l
descent. The s c h o l i a s t on t h e passage mentions E u r y d i c e by
name and s t a t e s t h a t Orpheus brought h e r out of Hades:
36
C.M. Bowra, op. c i t . , 4 6 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p.. 1 1 9 -
See J.M. Edmonds, The Fragments of A t t i c Comedy (Leyden,
1 9 5 7 ) , vol. 2, p. 2 5 0 .
o o
See August Nauck, T r a g i c o r u m Graecorum Fragmenta (Leipzig,
1 8 5 6 ) , p. 5 6 2 .
3 9
S e e i b i d . , p. 7 .
aKof-^v ^V^/^/vi/ ^| AHTOV (^jn A l c e s t i n , 357).
I n f a c t we must w a i t more than f o u r c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e we find
any remains i n l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h i n d i c a t e t h a t Orpheus l o s t
Eurydice on h i s j o u r n e y upwards t o the w o r l d of light.
The A t t i c relief
There i s , however, one p i e c e of e v i d e n c e , contem-

40
porary with Euripides, w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t Orpheus might
have f a i l e d . T h i s i s a famous A t t i c r e l i e f w h i c h d e p i c t s
Orpheus, w i t h l y r e and T h r a c i a n cap, removing the v e i l from
Eurydice's f a c e ; she l o o k s I n t o h i s eyes and l a y s her left
hand on h i s s h o u l d e r , w h i l e her r i g h t hand i s f i r m l y clasped
41
by Hermes, the winged e s c o r t of the dead.
Âccording to Beazley (in'Bowra, -op. . c i t . , p. 121, note l ) ,

the r e l i e f cannot be dated more e x a c t l y than between 430 and
400 B.C.. Heinz G8tze, "Die A t t i s c h e n D r e i f i g u r e n r e l i e f s " ,
Rom. M i t t . 53(1938), p..243, i n v e s t i g a t i n g the s t y l e , suggests
420 as a t e r m i n u s p o s t quern.
4l
There are c o p i e s i n the Museo N a z i o n a l e i n N a p l e s , i n the
L o u v r e , and i n the V i l l a A l b a n i i n Rome. There i s a l s o a
fragment of the Hermes i n the P a l a t i n e Museum i n Rome. Gotze
g i v e s photographs of t h e s e , op. c i t . , p l a t e s 32 and 33. The
N a p l e s copy i s a l s o reproduced i n G u t h r i e , op_. c i t . , p l a t e 3.
19
The i n s c r i p t i o n s over t h e heads o f t h e f i g u r e s i n

42
the N a p l e s copy make t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n q u i t e c e r t a i n , hut
t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e debate as t o what p o i n t i n t h e s t o r y i s
illustrated. There i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t , as t h e s t o r y of
Orpheus' second l o s s o f E u r y d i c e i s n o t found i n f i f t h - c e n t u r y
l i t e r a t u r e , t h e r e l i e f d e p i c t s t h e moment when E u r y d i c e first
goes- o f f t o Hades. But t h i s moment i s never t r e a t e d i n
c l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ; we a r e never t o l d t h a t Orpheus bade
E u r y d i c e a sad f a r e w e l l a f t e r she was b i t t e n by t h e snake.

43
And Jacques Huergon remarks t h a t i t i s Orpheus, n o t E u r y d i c e ,
who i s t a k i n g l e a v e and has a l r e a d y t u r n e d t o go.
44
Ernst Curtius, a l s o i n s i s t i n g that the s t o r y of

the second l o s s o f E u r y d i c e d i d n o t e x i s t i n t h e f i f t h century,
42
The a u t h e n t i c i t y of these i n s c r i p t i o n s , q u e s t i o n e d by
Jahn, M i c h a e l i s and F u r t w a n g l e r , i s now a c c e p t e d . See Gtttze,
op. c i t . , pp. 198-200. I n t h e Louvre copy-the f i g u r e s a r e
i d e n t i f i e d as Amphion - A n t i o p e - Z e t u s ; b u t t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s
a r e modern,, and o n l y a few p a r t i c u l a r s of t h e Amphion-myth
correspond t o t h e scene on t h e r e l i e f . This identification
has n o t been a c c e p t e d s i n c e Zo&ga d i s p r o v e d i t i n 1808; see
0. Gruppe, "Orpheus" i n W.H. Roscher, L e x i c o n , v o l . 3,
p. 1194.
^ " O r p h e e e t E u r y d i c e avant V i r g i l e " , Melanges d A r c h e o l o g i e

1
et d ' H i s t o i r e 4 9 ( 1 9 3 2 ) , P. 36.
44
See Gruppe, op_. c i t . , pp. 1195-6.
20
h o l d s t h a t the scene r e p r e s e n t s the moment when Orpheus has
p l a y e d f o r the gods of the u n d e r w o r l d and won h i s Eurydice
back; thus he l e t s h i s l y r e s i n k down, w h i l e E u r y d i c e draws
her v e i l a s i d e and r e v e a l s h e r s e l f t o her "bridegroom-hero.
A s i d e from the obvious d i f f i c u l t y t h a t i t appears t o be
Orpheus who i s d r a w i n g the v e i l a s i d e , t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n fails
t o c o n s i d e r Hermes' l e f t arm, e n c i r c l i n g Eurydice's r i g h t i n a
manner t o i n d i c a t e t h a t he i s about t o l e a d her away. And
the a t t i t u d e of b o t h Orpheus and E u r y d i c e seems t o be one of
r e s i g n a t i o n and farewell.
45
A t h i r d p o s s i b i l i t y , a d m i r a b l y p r e s e n t e d by Huergon,
i s t h a t , f i f t h c e n t u r y or no, t h i s i s the famous moment when
Orpheus, f o r g e t f u l of the gods' command, t u r n s and l o o k s upon
the f a c e of E u r y d i c e ; the p a n e l shows Hermes a l r e a d y come t o
e s c o r t her back t o the w o r l d p f the dead. The objection often
r a i s e d a g a i n s t t h i s i s t h a t t h e r e i s , i n Bowra's words,
"too l i t t l e d i s t r e s s f o r so t r a g i c a c a t a s t r o p h e " . ^4
But i f
the c l a s s i c a r t i s t seems t o have s t r e s s e d the t e n d e r n e s s and
r e s i g n a t i o n of the moment, R a i n e r M a r i a R i l k e notes that

47
"power i s t h e r e i n the t o r s o e s " . A more c o n v i n c i n g argu-
ment a g a i n s t t h i s t h i r d p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t , as has been

45
-\0p_. c i t . , pp. 6-60.
46
Op . c i t . , p. 121..
47
Noted i n Jane Davison R e i d , " E u r y d i c e Recovered?",
Comparative L i t e r a t u r e 5 ( 1 9 5 3 ) , p. 217.
21
mentioned, t h e r e i s no l i t e r a r y support f o r i t , n o t h i n g ,
indeed, f o r four centuries.. And even t h e n , no l i t e r a r y account
i n t r o d u c e s Hermes.
There a r e almost a dozen o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s of t h e
scene, v a r y i n g as the i n t e r p r e t e r c o n s i d e r s the o r i g i n a l t o
have been a p a r t of a f r i e z e , from the a c r o p o l i s or elsewhere

48
i n Athens, or a grave-marker. Michaelis, doubting the
a u t h e n t i c i t y of t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s on the N a p l e s copy, argues
t h a t t h e f i g u r e s a r e n o t m y t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r s , but r a t h e r
idealized representations of the dead t h e y commemorate, and
49
Jahn J
e x p l a i n s t h e a c t i o n as d e p i c t i n g t h e d e s i r e of t h e
l i v i n g t o l o o k once more upon t h e dead. More r e c e n t l y . , how-
e v e r , t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s have been t a k e n as genuine: Heinz
Go'Vzer'' " has attempted t o show t h a t the r e l i e f i s one of a

0
s e r i e s of f o u r t h r e e - f i g u r e r e l i e f s , t h e o t h e r s representing
Medea and t h e daughters of P e l i a s , H e r a c l e s and t h e
Hesperides, and Theseus, P i r i t h o u s and H e r a c l e s . The Orpheus-
r e l i e f may w e l l b e l o n g i n t h i s s e r i e s ; c e r t a i n l y the composi-
t i o n and e x e c u t i o n of a l l f o u r p a n e l s , even i n t h e c o p i e s , a r e
strikingly similar. But t h i s does n o t s o l v e any i n t e r p r e t a t i v e
problems. Homer Thompson, i n an attempt t o demonstrate how
Gtitze's s e r i e s can be f i t t e d t o t h e p a r a p e t of t h e a l t a r of
48
See Gruppe, op_. c i t . , pp. 1 1 9 5 - 7 .
49
^See ibid.
5
°0p_. c i t . , pp. 189-280.
22
51
p i t y a t Athens, suggests t h a t the f o u r p a n e l s a r e t h e m a t i -
c a l l y r e l a t e d , t h a t each i n c i d e n t " i l l u s t r a t e s a p i t e o u s .
5P
s i t u a t i o n i n d u c e d by a r e v e r s a l of f o r t u n e " . But he does
not make i t c l e a r how t h e H e s p e r i d e s - p a n e l i s a piteous
s i t u a t i o n , or how t h e Medea and P i r i t h o u s - p a n e l s a r e r e v e r s a l s
of f o r t u n e . As f o r Orpheus, Thompson makes no defense f o r h i s
assuming t h a t t h e moment when "he g l a n c e d back and l o s t h i s

CO
beloved forever" would be known i n f i f t y - c e n t u r y Athens.
54
A c t u a l l y , as Zuntz p o i n t s o u t , i t i s u n l i k e l y that the a l t a r
i n q u e s t i o n i s the a l t a r of p i t y , and p i t y i s h a r d l y a c h a r a c t e r -
55
i s t i c theme f o r a f i f t h - c e n t u r y A t h e n i a n a r t i s t . v
But t h e r e is
r e a l l y no c o m p e l l i n g r e a s o n why f o u r s t y l i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d
p a n e l s must be t h e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t e d as w e l l .
51
" T h e A l t a r of P i t y i n t h e A t h e n i a n Agora", Hesperia
21(1952), pp. 47-82.

52
O p . c i t . , p. 69.
-Ôp. c i t . , p. 68.
54
" T h e A l t a r of Mercy", C l a s s i c a e t M e d i a e v a l i a , 14(1953),
pp. 71-85. 'v
more l i k e l y r e l a t i o n s h i p , i f one must be found, may be
sought i n some d e a t h - m o t i f : two of t h e p a n e l s a r e concerned
w i t h d e s c e n t s t o the u n d e r w o r l d ; t h e t w e l f t h l a b o r of H e r a c l e s
i s o f t e n thought of as such (see H.J. Rose, A Handbook of
Greek Mythology, [London, 1 9 5 8 ] p. 2 1 4 ) ; d e a t h i s imminent i n
the Medea-panel.
23
Thus t h e r e a r e no r e a s o n s w h i c h compel us t o accept
any of t h e many t h e o r i e s . The p r e s e n t consensus of o p i n i o n ,
however, a c c e p t s Huergon's.view - t h a t the r e l i e f d e p i c t s
the backward l o o k of Orpheus and the second l o s s of E u r y d i c e .
I f t h i s I s t r u e , then t h e r e a r e two v e r s i o n s of the s t o r y
as e a r l y as t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y t one a l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n found
i n E u r i p i d e s , w h e r e i n Orpheus I s s u c c e s s f u l i n b r i n g i n g back
h i s w i f e from the dead] the o t h e r a t r a d i t i o n found i n the
A t t i c r e l i e f and e v e n t u a l l y i n l a t e r l i t e r a t u r e , w h e r e i n
Orpheus l o o k e d upon, h i s w i f e and l o s t h e r .
Plato
The second treatment of the s t o r y i n l i t e r a t u r e
r a i s e s some new d i f f i c u l t i e s . I n a way, i t combines the
happy w i t h t h e unhappy e n d i n g i n what s t r i k e s modern readers
as a most unhappy t h i r d v e r s i o n . T h i s i s the b r i e f passage
i n P l a t o ' s Symposium where Phaedrus i s s p e a k i n g about l o v e
b e i n g s t r o n g e r than death. I n some I n s t a n c e s , he argues,
the gods of the u n d e r w o r l d have a c t u a l l y been so moved by
the power of l o v e t h a t t h e y have r e l e a s e d c e r t a i n s o u l s
from Hades. Alcestis i s a s h i n i n g example. B u t , as f o r
Orpheus,
Ofde^- eft- row J^r^Ci s./r//F6/nfs.i/ /(/Jou,
fatT/f^tt- Jt/ fat//'&( 7 yi yui/^////of

r
&f -y?/C£i/ i <fe O <J
24
AX
- ' ' " /<- ' /I 1 >

'
/^.ufpL 4/6*71/ o<<//~oy &//6 £/60*1/ j c2/7v'
T8\, âtrs-roi/ et^r* '

2
*ff# yws/<rPv ycis&a-^/ (179).
To anyone who has ever been touched by t h e s t o r y o f
Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , this i shighly unsatisfactory. Instead
of overcoming Hades by t h e power o f h i s l o v e and h i s music,
Orpheus "produces a v e r y bad i m p r e s s i o n on t h e gods; i n t h e i r
o p i n i o n he i s a p o o r - s p i r i t e d c r e a t u r e , as one might expect
a l y r e - p l a y e r t o be; i n s t e a d of d y i n g courageously f o r h i s
l o v e , he has moved heaven and e a r t h t o g e t i n t o Hades a l i v e .
C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e y do n o t g i v e him h i s w i f e , b u t o n l y show.him
a phantom o f her. He r e t u r n s t o t h e w o r l d w i t h o u t h a v i n g
a c c o m p l i s h e d h i s purpose, and t h e whole d i s c r e d i t a b l e i n c i d e n t
was t h e cause o f t h e g o d s 1
punishing him w i t h an i g n o m i n i o u s
death." 5 6
Though Phaedrus' f e l l o w banqueters apparently
a c c e p t e d h i s v e r s i o n as orthodox, t h e tendency today i s t o

regard P l a t o ' s v e r s i o n as a minor example of h i s own p r i v a t e
myth-making, t o say t h a t P l a t o merely t i n k e r e d w i t h t h e myth,
i n f l u e n c e d perhaps by h i s own s u s p i c i o n of music and m u s i c i a n s
and by S t e s i c h o r u s 1
p o p u l a r v e r s i o n o f t h e s t o r y o f Troy,
L i n f o r t h , op. c i t . , p. 1 9 .
w i t h i t s phantom Helen. G u t h r i e r e f u s e s t o c o n s i d e r .the
passage s e r i o u s l y because f o r h i m t h e Symposium i s "a d i a l o g u e
f u l l o f f a n c i e s which i t would be absurd t o r e g a r d as s i m p l y
t a k e n over from e x i s t i n g mythology".-^ -Others d i s m i s s i t f o r
the s i m p l e reason t h a t i t i s b a r r e n of progeny.
We s h a l l have t o r e t u r n t o P l a t o and t o t h e r e l i e f
later. The next f i v e a u t h o r s who t o u c h on t h e s t o r y w r i t e as
i f n e i t h e r ever e x i s t e d ; they are a l l i n the E u r i p i d e a n
"comic" tradition.
Isocrates
Isocrates i s the f i r s t of these.. In. t h e B u s i r i s
he c r i t i c i s e s t h e s o p h i s t P o l y c r a t e s f o r w r i t i n g an encomium
on t h e b r u t a l B u s i r i s , who used t o devour shipwrecked sailors,
k i l l i n g l i v i n g men b e f o r e t h e i r time.. I s o c r a t e s c o n t r a s t s
B u s i r i s w i t h A e o l u s , who used t o send t h e shipwrecked safely
back t o sea, and Orpheus, who used t o b r i n g t h e dead back
from Hades:
65 A,<fo<j -This 7(Bl/(£>frS efusy/f-l/ (XI, 8 ) .

The use of an i m p e r f e c t v e r b and a p l u r a l o b j e c t
here suggest t h a t Orpheus made a r e g u l a r p r a c t i c e o f r e s t o r -
ing t h e dead. But on o n l y one o c c a s i o n i s A e o l u s known t o
have sent s a i l o r s back t o sea; so we may suppose t h a t o n l y
once d i d Orpheus b r i n g the dead back t o l i f e . Isocrates i s
g e n e r a l i z i n g , as encomiasts a r e wont t o do. But t h e impres-
s i o n i s g i v e n t h a t Orpheus was s u c c e s s f u l i n what he d i d .
Op . c i t . , p. 3 1 .
26
Palaephatus (pseudo-Heraclitus)
Fragments of a ascribed to a cer-
t a i n P a l a e p h a t u s and p r o b a b l y d a t i n g t o the l a t e fourth
c e n t u r y , g i v e r a t i o n a l i z e d a c c o u n t s of v a r i o u s myths, among
them the d e s c e n t s of H e r a c l e s and Orpheus:
However u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t h i s i s as an e x p l a n a t i o n , i t c l e a r l y
i n d i c a t e s t h a t the a u t h o r thought of E u r y d i c e as s u c c e s s f u l l y
restored to l i f e .
Hermesianax
We pass now t o the A l e x a n d r i a n s . The s t o r y . g e t s
i t s f u l l e s t t r e a t m e n t thus f a r i n a fragment from the Leontlum.
of Hermesianax, p r e s e r v e d i n the t h i r t e e n t h book of Athenaeus 1
Deipnosophistae. Hermesianax s 1
work appears t o have been a
c a t a l o g u e of amorous s t o r i e s i n w h i c h l o v e r s e v e n t u a l l y meet
w i t h punishment; • i t was d e d i c a t e d t o the c o u r t e s a n Leontium^
58,
Quoted from K o n r a t Z i e g l e r , ."Orpheus", PW 18(1939),
P. 1309.
27
presumably w i t h t h e p l e a t h a t , i f t h e famous p e o p l e i n t h e
c a t a l o g u e were s m i t t e n w i t h l o v e ' s arrows, s u r e l y t h e w r i t e r
may be f o r g i v e n h i s p a s s i o n .
Orpheus i s t h e f i r s t l o v e r d i s c u s s e d i n t h e l o n g
fragment.- H i s s e c t i o n may be quoted i n f u l l .
/////&6V • £/?\tufgi/ c/c U /7(-i &6c< Jtfooi/ >
6l/C7<* A^fcuV sS/COTji/ G/\/C£/j(- 6/S tf/d^fai/
l/s^X^S c")(cj/".evt<Ji/, A'P-vyi cl 6/7/ jUext/ois {*<//'£<
/eo/u* /f'C'/c /UC'/SAUJV j/co/utu-yi; tfoi/sJî/.
o<~\\' er\<q /cu/tM- p.oi/0 SvoTof /Ct fa?t
Offers, /Ui/7o/ouf cf ^lî/ifV/?v <f6 (9eo<sS •
/7co/Cv/0l/ ?' T.U6f*.l(Trov <//f o<jt>fo><rs ^Kyi/i û/"c/~
> t > ' /7 \ ' ? - '
6:1/ /7i/ft ftfi/ (^favyy /~£ Qo oo ft C i/° v, 61/ /7^L J' b uju<<- / )
6l/&6l/ fiAe/tfio'w ^ty/A'ouf yvc-/7e/<r6l/ î/^/cfaS
'Atfioffyiv j^-UfaC /TKU^ A^/V fi/o'rou (xill,597b-c).

I t i s n o t o n l y t h e presence of Charon and Cerberus
that places t h i s i n the Euripidean t r a d i t i o n ; the i n i t i a l
tAi/xyot ei/
y and t h e f i n a l #d>/-//£/ <f(-i/ c l e a r l y suggest t h a t
Orpheus was s u c c e s s f u l . . The a u t h o r seems never t o have seen
the A t t i c r e l i e f , n o r t o have read t h e Symposium; h i s Orpheus
dares t o sound h i s l y r e a c r o s s t h e l a w l e s s , r a v i n g Cocytus,
and bears up under t h e g l a n c e of t e r r i b l e C e r b e r u s .

28
Hermesianax I s t h e o n l y a u t h o r t o g i v e a v a r i a n t
name f o r Orpheus' w i f e . She i s t h e T h r a c i a n A g r i o p e , "she

,, 50
of t h e w i l d f a c e . ^ I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s was t h e
o r i g i n a l name of Orpheus - w i f e . l
We know o f a nymph named
A g r i o p e who l i v e d i n Thrace and was t h e mother o f Thamyris.^^
There a r e a good dozen E u r y d i c e s i n Greek mythology, b u t no
a u t h o r , u n l e s s we a c c e p t P a l a e p h a t u s as genuine, a p p l i e s t h e
name t o Orpheus 1
w i f e u n t i l t h e second c e n t u r y B.C.^ 1
62
Gruppe suggests t h a t i t was adapted from t h e C y p r i a , where
Aeneas' w i f e , whose ghost fades away i n h e r husband's embrace,
i s c a l l e d n o t Creusa b u t E u r y d i c e . A t any r a t e , A g r i o p e i s
not mentioned a g a i n . The name E u r y d i c e appears i n our next
a u t h o r , Moschus, and from then on i s s o l i d l y r o o t e d i n t h e
tradition o f t h e myth. .
-'"zoe'ga amends Afyosf-*? , "she of t h e gleaming f a c e " .
^°See A p o l l o d o r u s 1,3,3 and P a u s a n i a s IV,33,3.
^ A - t h i r d - c e n t u r y vase a t t a c h e s t h e name t o Orpheus' w i f e ;
see August W i n k l e r , "Die D a r s t e l l u n g d e r U n t e r w e l t " , B r e s l a u e r
P h i l o l o g i s c h e Abhandlung 5(1888), pp. 27-30. F o r a thorough
treatment o f t h e problem o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e name i n view o f
the a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e , see Huergon, ojo^ c i t . , pp. 1 3 - 2 7
and 5^-6.
pp_. c i t . , p. 1162.
29
Moschus
The p a s t o r a l p o e t Moschus may a l s o be p l a c e d i n t h e
"successful" t r a d i t i o n . I n t h e E p i t a p h i o s f o r t h e departed
Bion, he l o n g s t o descend t o Hades, as Orpheus and o t h e r s
had done, t o see h i s comrade once more:
flAour&os- ( i n , 1 1 5 - 8 ) . :
And he b i d s t h e shade o f B i o n p l a y a S i c i l i a n a i r ( f o r
Persephone i s a S i c i l i a n and l o v e s music),, and so w i n h i s way
back t o t h e upper w o r l d . F o r even as Persephone gave Orpheus
back h i s E u r y d i c e , so s h a l l she r e s t o r e B i o n t o his. n a t i v e
hills:
cr& 3/<"*- /ftyrfet ron c^fe<r, \s ( 1 1 1 , 1 2 3 - 5 ) .
•^The poem i s o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o Moschus and i s c e r t a i n l y
by some s e c o n d - c e n t u r y d i s c i p l e o f B i o n .
30.
Diodorus S i c u l u s
Next i n time i s D i o d o r u s , who d e a l s w i t h Orpheus
i n t h e f o u r t h book of h i s L i b r a r y o f H i s t o r y . A f t e r mention-
i n g t h e hero's b i r t h , p a r e n t a g e , m u s i c a l prowess, l e a r n i n g and
s e r v i c e aboard t h e Argo, D i o d o r u s c o n t i n u e s :
i . i ' ? - ' i i i „
AU.' Oft7< /CU fyCAJ(<£. Tot/ /ffOi /<S/~S/?1? IS<?-/
yxe^ <7<foo Tfys (fr %c*>j efoAftife, 7>?u cfe pfffc-
fiol/>?v ôyteA C-/7[ fp^^y^ ft <r^ s t7c/y-
tffifctt /s/i 6/7r eye,* /<*< c7"yjffrjyqtTsd. fi<? 1/ y~u i/(< //(K
s('(/7~eo> /£ XCA 6 o 7+) A?v/ens i/^/Sft/1/ £ Z? rtc7av /Y<7fb< 77A {7~/oo<f
A/oi/otftf • y^y d/de/you y*o<6>o,\oyovts
/vc/ysyai/ />?v /A.2f/eyt< y_ 6% /&•<•
^c-7^- <fo'i/7*. />/ *<t4t i/df/scf $uo~> i/7j t/ /Ke7~oi/oy+*trs.c (IV, 25,4).
The r e f e r e n c e t o Dionysus i s welcome t o those who see t h e myth

64
as an a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e Dionysus-Semele s t o r y . Important
f o r o u r purposes i s t h a t a g a i n t h i s i s t h e E u r i p i d e a n
65
" s u c c e s s f u l " v e r s i o n . Bowra t h i n k s i t non-committal, but
D
D i o d o r u s , when he g e t s thus f a r i n t o the s t o r y , p l a i n l y
considers I t f i n i s h e d :
./Jê/s J' e/re) f7£y\ Offers Jet X^Ô*ptv, per*-
ft^croê&ot /tZAIV e/fi fbi/ /-ly^/cAe^- (ibid.).
64 r
Jane H a r r i s o n , op_. c i t . , p. 6 0 3 . E o r a summary of t h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n see Gruppe, " E u r y d i k e " , i n Roscher, op. c i t . ,
v o l . 1, p. 1 4 2 1 .
65
Ôp. c i t . , p. 120, note 1.
31
Orphic. "Argonautica"
I t i s impossible t o date the A r g o n a u t i c a ascribed
t o Orpheus w i t h any c e r t a i n t y , though I t seems t o d e r i v e from
A p o l l o n i u s Rhodius and was i n t u r n used by V i r g i l i n the
Ae-neid. I t t o o seems t o I n d i c a t e t h a t Orpheus was success-
f u l i n regaining h i s wife. "Orpheus" p r o m i s e s t o r e v e a l the
s e c r e t s of the u n d e r w o r l d , and says:
•yi/n$r£f>) /T/<rui/of J</$Jf->7, dd tyvr* ôyo/o (4o-42).
Thus from E u r i p i d e s t o the end of the f i r s t century
we have c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e f o r a v e r s i o n o f the s t o r y t h a t
d i d n o t s u r v i v e Graeco-Roman t i m e s - t h a t Orpheus was success-
f u l .not o n l y i n w i n n i n g E u r y d i c e from the powers o f death,
but i n r e s t o r i n g h e r t o l i f e as w e l l .
32
" L o s t A l e x a n d r i a n poem"
A f t e r Diodorus and the Orphic " A r g o n a u t i c a " , we do

not r e a d o f t h e descent o f Orpheus i n l i t e r a t u r e u n t i l t h e
f o u r t h Georgic, of V i r g i l and the p s e u d o - V i r g i l i a n C u l e x . In
b o t h of t h e s e , t h e s t o r y has been f u r t h e r developed: on the
j o u r n e y t o the w o r l d above, Orpheus i s u n e q u a l . t o t h e c o n d i -
t i o n s imposed upon him by t h e gods of the u n d e r w o r l d , and he
l o s e s E u r y d i c e a second t i m e . Many s t r i k i n g similarities
between t h e two poems i n d i c a t e , n o t so much i d e n t i c a l a u t h o r -
s h i p ( t h a t i s l a r g e l y d i s c o u n t e d on s t y l i s t i c grounds), but
66
a common s o u r c e . P a r t i c u l a r l y n o t a b l e i s the s y m m e t r i c a l
67
arrangement of b o t h poems, more than v a g u e l y A l e x a n d r i a n i n
appearance. I t i s l i k e l y t h a t , a t some time i n the H e l l e n i s t i c
p e r i o d , a poet t o l d t h e v e r s i o n o f the s t o r y which i s f a m i l i a r
68
to us today." Bowra demonstrates how V i r g i l and Ovid, i n
t e l l i n g the s t o r y , worked i n d e p e n d e n t l y of one another,, u s i n g
the same H e l l e n i s t i c poem as a model, and suggests Philetas,
N i c a n d e r and Euphorion as p o s s i b l e a u t h o r s . But the i m p o r t a n t
f a c t i s t h a t t h e famous v e r s i o n of t h e s t o r y , which may date
back i n a r t t o the f i f t h c e n t u r y , has a t l a s t appeared i n
l i t66
erature. The E u r i p i d e a n v e r s i o n , , however, g i v e s evidence
See e s p e c i a l l y D.L. Drew,. Culex: Sources and t h e i r b e a r i n g
on t h e problem of a u t h o r s h i p , pp. 75 9. _
6
^To be a n a l y z e d i n Chapter I I .
6
^0p.. c i t . , pp..113-8 and 125-6.
33
of d y i n g hard: i t reappears i n t h r e e more a u t h o r s , each •
s e p a r a t e d from t h e o t h e r by a generation.. We s h a l l c o n s i d e r
them as t h e y occur i n our c h r o n o l o g i c a l sequence.
The "Culex"
In t h i s poem from t h e Appendix V e r g i l i a n a , the
phantom gnat t e l l s o f t h e s o u l s he has seen i n Hades, and
r e p e a t s the s t o r y he heard from E u r y d i c e s l i p s .

1
This
account makes s e v e r a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the t r a d i t i o n of the
myth: i t i s Persephone who e f f e c t s t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of E u r y -
d i c e ; b o t h l o v e r s a r e informed of t h e c o n d i t i o n ; Eurydice
p l a y s h e r p a r t w e l l , k e e p i n g h e r eyes on t h e path,, not d i s -
t r a c t i n g h e r husband by s p e a k i n g t o him; i t i s Orpheus who
fails, suddenly overcome w i t h p a s s i o n , o s c u l a c a r a petens
(293) .
A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e l i t e r a r y q u a l i t y and s i g n i f i -
cance of the Culex must be r e s e r v e d f o r the next chapter.
34
Virgil
The myth of Orpheus and Eurydice i s b e a u t i f u l l y
t o l d i n the c l o s i n g p o r t i o n of the f o u r t h G e o r g i c of Virgil.
More d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s famous t r e a t m e n t of the story
w i l l a l s o be g i v e n i n the next c h a p t e r . , Here l e t i t o n l y be
s a i d t h a t t h i s of course i s the t r a g i c v e r s i o n , t h a t Orpheus
f a i l s because he i s s e i z e d by s u b i t a dementia (488); he i s
immemor and v i c t u s animi (491); V i r g i l ' s outstanding contri-
bution t o the t r a d i t i o n i s h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n of the shepherd-
god A r i s t a e u s , whose advances E u r y d i c e was f l e e i n g when she
was b i t t e n by the snake. By introducing this figure, V i r g i l
l o c a t e s the s t o r y i n Thrace, near Mount Rhodope. He makes
o t h e r g e o g r a p h i c c o n t r i b u t i o n s : the e n t r a n c e t o Hades i s a t
Taenarus; the e x i t , a c c o r d i n g t o the b e s t I t a l i a n tradition,,
i s a t Lake A v e r n u s .
Virgil also gives passing mention t o the descent
i n the s i x t h book of the Aeneid:
s i p o t u i t manis a c c e r s e r e c o n i u g i s Orpheus
Threicia fretus cithara fidibusque canoris
(VI,119-20),
and T h r a c i a n Orpheus and h i s mother C a l l i o p e a are referred

69
t o i n the Eclogues.
111,46; IV,55-7; VI,30.

35
Horace
V i r g i l ' s contemporary Horace never t e l l s the s t o r y
of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i n d e t a i l , but i n one of the Odes he
addresses the l y r e t h a t charmed Charon, Cerberus and the
tormented s o u l s i n Hades:
c e s s i t immanis t i b i blandienti
i a n i t o r aulae
l u r i d a e , quamvis f u r i a l e centum
muniunt angues caput aestuatque
s p i r i t u s t a e t e r saniesque manat
ore t r i l i n g u i .
quin et I x i o n Tityosque v o l t u
r i s i t i n v i t o , s t e t i t urna paulum
s i c c a , dum g r a t o Danai p u e l l a s
carmine mulces ( I I I , 1 1 , 1 5 - 2 4 ) .
Horace then goes on t o t e l l , , not of E u r y d i c e , but of Hyper-
mnestra.
In another Ode, when Horace laments t h a t no musical
power can b r i n g Q u i n t i l i u s V a r u s back t o l i f e , , he h i n t s a t
the s t o r y of the descent;
quid? s i T h r e i c i o b l a n d i u s Orpheo
a u d i t a m moderere a r b o r i b u s f i d e m ,
num vanae r e d e a t s a n g u i s i m a g i n i ,
quam v i r g a semel h o r r i d a
non l e n i s precibus fata recludere

nigro compulerit Mercurius gregi? (1,24,13-8).
In n e i t h e r poem are we t o l d t h a t Orpheus l o s t E u r y d i c e after
w i n n i n g h e r by the power of h i s song, but the f a c t t h a t V i r g i l ' s
G e o r g i c was a l r e a d y p u b l i s h e d , as w e l l as the sentiment of the

36
second passage here quoted, seems t o p l a c e Horace i n the

70
tragic tradition.
Con on
The mythographer Conon, whose N a r r a t l o n e s were
p r e s e r v e d i n P h o t i u s , p r o b a b l y s h o u l d come n e x t , as he d e d i -
c a t e d h i s work t o A r c h e l a u s P h i l o p a t e r , . who r u l e d over
Cappadocia from 36 t o 17 B.C.. Most of Conon's account o f
Orpheus i s concerned w i t h t h e hero's d e a t h , but he devotes a
c o n c i s e sentence t o t h e s t o r y o f the d e s c e n t :
f^rt&jcc; cfc- C/O^CL. uî &/r 'Arcfou /(<<rJ,/$oc (yon
I t i s t h e t r a g i c version.. Conon's seems t o f o l l o w the f o u r t h

Georgic: h i s cjêvou r e c a l l s V i r g i l ' s immemor.
For r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus the m u s i c i a n i n Horace, see
Odes 1,12,7-12 and A r s P o e t i c a , 391-3-

37
Manilius
I t may seem u n l i k e l y t h a t anyone would r e v e r t t o
the "happy e n d i n g " a f t e r V i r g i l ' s f o u r t h G e o r g i c , but t h e
Augustan poet M a n i l i u s appears t o have t h e o l d E u r i p i d e a n
v e r s i o n i n mind when he speaks o f Orpheus b r i n g i n g s l e e p t o
the b e a s t s , s e n s a t i o n t o t h e r o c k s and p l a n t s ,
e t D i t i lacrumas e t m o r t i denique f i n e m (V,328).
L e s s f i n a l than t h e f i n e m i n t h i s passage, but more E u r i p i d e a n
than V i r g i l i a n i s an e a r l i e r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d e s c e n t :
e t L y r a d i d u c t i s p e r caelum c o r n i b u s i n t e r
s i d e r a c o n s p i c i t u r , qua quondam c e p e r a t Orpheus
omne quod a t t i g e r a t c a n t u , manesque p e r i p s o s
f e c i t i t e r domuitque i n f e r n a s carmine l e g e s ( I , 3 2 4 - 7 ) .
Ovid
W i t h Ovid we a r e f i r m l y i n t h e main t r a d i t i o n . But
the s e v e n t y - e i g h t l i n e s w h i c h b e g i n t h e t e n t h book of t h e
Metamorphoses a r e crammed w i t h new, i m a g i n a t i v e details:
A r i s t a e u s i s n o t mentioned; i n s t e a d Hymen s e r v e s t o connect
the myth w i t h t h e r e s t of t h e poem, and E u r y d i c e i s strolling
w i t h a band o f nymphs when she s t e p s on t h e snake; t h e words
of Orpheus' song b e f o r e P l u t o a r e g i v e n , and t h e s t o c k u n d e r -
world f i g u r e s - Tantalus, Sisyphus, I x i o n , T i t y u s and. t h e
Danaids - a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n d e t a i l , and f o r e v e r a f t e r
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s t o r y ; Orpheus asks t h a t E u r y d i c e ' s life-
t h r e a d be u n r a v e l l e d , and a new reason i s given f o r h i s

38
failure:
h i e , ne d e f i c e r e t , metuens avidusque videndi
f l e x i t amans o c u l o s (X,56-7) •
Though t h e p a s s i o n of t h e Culex i s here, Orpheus a l s o appears
t o have doubted P l u t o ' s word.
The descending Orpheus i s a l s o mentioned i n t h e
Tristia:
b i s amissa coniuge moestus ( I V , 1 , 1 7 ) ,
and i n t h e A r s A m a t o r i a , where he has power over
Tartareosque l a c u s , tergeminumque canem ( i l l , 3 2 1 - 2 ) .
We s h a l l have more t o say about Ovid's use of t h e myth i n t h e
next chapter.^
Seneca
The myth i s o u t l i n e d i n two c h o r a l passages i n
Seneca. I n t h e Hercules, Fur ens t h e chorus, a w a i t i n g t h e
a r r i v a l of H e r c u l e s from Hades, a r e c o n f i d e n t t h a t he s h o u l d
be a b l e t o overcome t h e lower kingdom by s t r e n g t h i f Orpheus
was a b l e t o do so by song:
Quae v i n c i p o t u i t r e g i a carmine,
haec v i n c i p o t u i t r e g i a v i r i b u s (590-1).
Orpheus, however, l o s e s E u r y d i c e i n the s t o r y t h e chorus tells,
and t h i s i s due t o the i m p a t i e n c e of h i s p a s s i o n :
' F o r o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus i n Ovid, see Metamorphoses
XI,1-66; Amores 111,9,21-2; E p i s t u l a e , ex Ponto 11,9,53 and
III,3,41.
39
o d i t v e r u s amor nec p a t i t u r moras:

munus dum p r o p e r a t c e r n e r e , p e r d i d i t (588-9).
In the H e r c u l e s Oetaeus Seneca I s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y
philosophical. As the end n e a r s f o r H e r c u l e s the chorus
s i n g t h a t the song of Orpheus, Aeternum f i e r i n i h i l (1035),
i s t r u e , and prove i t "by t e l l i n g Orpheus 1

s t o r y . o n c e more.
The u n d e r w o r l d f i g u r e s are d e a l t w i t h a g a i n , most n o t a b l y
Charon, who f o r g e t s t o row, w h i l e h i s b o a t , as i f i t too were
enchanted by the song, comes t o shore n u l l o r e m i g i o (107^).
The gods are overcome,, and the F a t e s b e g i n t o s p i n the t h r e a d
of Eurydice-'-s l i f e anew. But n o t h i n g escapes death;
. . . dum r e s p i c i t immemor
nec credens s i b i r e d d i t a m
Orpheus E u r y d i c e n s e q u i ,
cantus praemia p e r d i d i t ( 1 0 8 5 - 8 ) .
Orpheus t u r n s because, as i n Ovid, he i s not c o n v i n c e d t h a t
72
E u r y d i c e i s r e a l l y f o l l o w i n g him.
' F o r o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus i n Seneca's t r a g e d i e s ,
see Medea 228-9, 3^8-60 and 625-33.

40
Lucan
Seneca's nephew Lucan wrote a t r a g e d y on t h e
descent of Orpheus, t h e o u t l i n e of w h i c h can be r e c o n -
s t r u c t e d from f r a g m e n t s ^ i n S e r v i u s , t h e L i b e r
1
Monstrorum
and Aldhelmus. E u r y d i c e i s wounded by a hydra a n g u i s
armatus. 74 Orpheus descends l i k e H e r c u l e s ,75 and, as a
r e s u l t of h i s s i n g i n g ,
nunc p l e n a s posuere c o l o s e t stamina Parcae

multaque d i l a t i s haeserunt s a e c u l a f i l l s . 7 6
But Orpheus l o s e s E u r y d i c e , much t o t h e j o y of Hades:
...gaudent a l u c e r e l i c t a m 7 7
E u r y d i c e h i t e r u m s p e r a n t e s Orphea manes.
The shades a p p a r e n t l y hope t o be charmed by Orpheus' music

once more. When t h e t r a g i c hero r e t u r n s t o t h e upper w o r l d ,
rj O
fauni silvicolae' come t o hear h i s lament, and he enchants

79
even t h e p a n t h e r a s 1 y
on t h e banks o f Strymon.
Lucan a l s o r e f e r s t o t h e descent i n t h e B e H u m
Civile:
Cerberos Orpheo l e n i v i t s i b i l a c a n t u ( I X , 6 4 3 ) .
7S
' ^ C o l l e c t e d in. J.P. P o s t g a t e , Corpus Poetarum L a t i n o r u m
(London,. 1905), p. 145.
7 4
L i b e r Monstrorum III,3.
75servius, I n Aeneidos VI,392.

^ A l d h e l m u s , p_e_ M e t r i s 283.
f ^ S e r v i u s , In_ Georgicon IV, 492,
7
®Liber Monstrorum 1,6.
7 9
I b i d . , . 1.1,8.
41
Statius
I n S t a t i u s ' Thebaic!., when t h e augur Amphiaraus
appears b e f o r e P l u t o i n t h e u n d e r w o r l d , t h e L o r d o f Hades
r u e f u l l y r e c a l l s t h e v i s i t s o f P i r i t h o u s , Theseus, H e r c u l e s
i
and e s p e c i a l l y Orpheus: - <
O d r y s i i s e t i a m pudet heul p a t u i s s e q u e r e l l i s
T a r t a r a : v i d i egomet blanda i n t e r carmina t u r p e s
Eumenidum l a c r i m a s i t e r a t a q u e pensa Sororum;
' me quoque - sed durae m e l i o r v i o l e n t i a l e g i s
(VIII,57-60).
P l u t o i s ashamed t h a t he was moved t o p i t y Orpheus, but

80
c o n s o l e s h i m s e l f t h a t he, i n t h e end, won t h e v i c t o r y .
Apollodorus
The myth i s c o n c i s e l y n a r r a t e d i n the d u l l

but orthodox e n c y c l o p e d i a of mythology compiled by t h e
o t h e r w i s e unknown A p o l l o d o r u s :
... Of 06
A\/ P'OVS ft /c~7i dei/Jfc< . <y/7o d/.i/o</tr^C eft- 6rufvd,/C>jr
y(/t////(o$ rfu/duj J^^^(/if7fS ty/ft o0eo S l

i ^f^k <Z/(
/Accfbu (AeAwi/ fi/Syr'tV yoryi/ /for fjA
/if 0yL . 6> <fe i//fGc7)(£yo TciuTo y7o/if CT£/1/^ J*is îrj
yyo/gvofeyoS ufêuf £/7, cryy*f^ yy^y &s oA/CMis
stcsfou y f a f t * • # ifc-, y/F <rru't/

t f 6/7i6~/f<70irS £t9fa<r-.
s(7o /A? is /wrf/rf^^ 77 c% /7kA~/y w76ry/6y>6l/ (1,3,2).
F o r o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus i n S t a t i u s , see S i l v a e
II,7,40; V,l,23-8; 3 , l 6 - 8 ; 5,53-5; Thebaid V,343-5.
42
A p o l l o d o r u s f o l l o w s Ovid i n h i s e x p l a n a t i o n of the t r a g i c
story: Orpheus i s at/7t o~ fu; v .
Our l a s t group of a u t h o r s are not l i t e r a r y Romans
but t r a v e l e d and s o p h i s t i c a t e d Greeks. I n one way of
another, they c o n t r a d i c t V i r g i l ' s t r a g i c story.
Pseudo-Plutarch
In one of the works a s c r i b e d t o P l u t a r c h , De Sera
Numinis V i n d i c t a , the a u t h o r mentions o n l y t h a t Orpheus went
seeking h i s wife:
fî/ nyuyvji/ />/ yot/oi/zcac, yeryt/ • (22,566c).

In a n o t h e r , the A m a t o r i u s , he n o t e s t h a t Hades was vanquished
by l o v e i n the t h r e e cases of A l c e s t i s , P r o t e s i l a u s and
Eurydice:
Inasmuch as A l c e s t i s was r e s t o r e d l i v i n g t o Admetus, and
P r o t e s i l a u s and Laodamia were u n i t e d f i r s t I n l i f e and
then i n d e a t h , we may conclude t h a t the p s e u d o - P l u t a r c h
r e f e r s t o some form of the s t o r y i n which E u r y d i c e i s
r e s t o r e d t o Orpheus, and l o v e triumphs over d e a t h . This
seems t o f a l l i n w i t h the E u r i p i d e a n r a t h e r than the

43
V i r g i l i a n t r a d i t i o n , though from t h e b r i e f a l l u s i o n i t i s
i m p o s s i b l e t o be c e r t a i n .
Pausanias
P a u s a n i a s r a t i o n a l i z e s t h e myth: among t h e u n t r u t h s
t h a t t h e Greeks b e l i e v e about Orpheus i s t h e s t o r y

6 \ @6t\/ <fc- /'pit es 7ov A'CTT^/ rfis/'ov TTsfk
^CMV /•(U/'c-J iêC'U 7*7? 1/ yw^/C* rf/SOv 1, ~vL ( I X , 3 0 , 4) .
A c t u a l l y , P a u s a n i a s e x p l a i n s , Orpheus was a v e r y skillful
poet who came t o h o l d g r e a t power over h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s
because he c o u l d cure d i s e a s e and was b e l i e v e d t o know
e f f i c a c i o u s formulae f o r a v e r t i n g d i v i n e wrath. When h i s
w i f e d i e d he went t o Aornum i n T h e s p r o t i s t o c o n s u l t t h e
oracle there. He f e l t t h a t E u r y d i c e ' s ghost was f o l l o w i n g
him, but when he t u r n e d he c o u l d see n o t h i n g , whereupon he
k i l l e d himself f o r g r i e f . A t l e a s t t h i s i s the common way
of i n t e r p r e t i n g P a u s a n i a s 1
words:
foi. eft- ot £/7('CT / ^ > / cû/ud/'/c>j c,
i/c/fv ^(fsL <7<cf~ov £y/fo A"//"*] )

1
c/ou yfis(-<r 67^/ ^ 6)
44
Lucian
8l
Our l a s t author i s L u c i a n of Samosata. I n one
of t h e D i a l o g u e s of t h e Dead, P r o t e s i l a u s asks P l u t o f o r
p e r m i s s i o n t o v i s i t h i s w i f e i n t h e w o r l d above, so as t o
persuade h e r t o come down t o Hades and l i v e w i t h him t h e r e .
When P l u t o o b j e c t s t h a t t h e r e i s no p r e c e d e n t f o r t h i s -
O uoe yt/ove //UJ/70/6
- P r o t e s i l a u s reminds him:
yT/i/tcfvft 0/*L>yty-Tj /AOU AX/cyicrr/u- (XXIII,2).

L u c i a n seems t o r e g a r d t h e O r p h e u s - s t o r y as a
s u c c e s s f u l one.. I t i s t r u e t h a t P r o t e s i l a u s was g i v e n
o n l y t h r e e hours w i t h Laodamia, b u t i n h i s p l e a he a s s o c i a t e s
•Eurydice w i t h A l c e s t i s > who was f u l l y r e s t o r e d . Again, i t i s
i m p o s s i b l e t o be s u r e . B u t i t seems t h a t t h i s l a s t reference
t o t h e s t o r y r e v e r t s t o t h e v e r y f i r s t we have, and bears
w i t n e s s t o t h e continuance of t h e E u r i p i d e a n t r a d i t i o n of
a " s u c c e s s f u l " Orpheus.
The account In Hyginus (Pabulae 164) was a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n

by P u l g e n t i u s i n the s i x t h c e n t u r y , and i n c l u d e d i n t h e
e d i t i o n of Hyginus p u b l i s h e d a t B a s e l i n 1535. See t h e
e d i t i o n , of H.J. Rose (Leyden,. 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 1 1 5 .
4 5
In t r a c i n g the e v o l u t i o n of the myth i n a n c i e n t
t i m e s , we note t h a t the f a m i l i a r " t r a g i c " form of the s t o r y
of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e may date back as f a r as the fifth-
c e n t u r y A t t i c r e l i e f , but t h a t i n e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e i t does
not appear u n t i l the f i r s t c e n t u r y B.C., w i t h V i r g i l and the
Culex. Then i t becomes the s t a n d a r d v e r s i o n , and appears
i n Conon, Ovid, Seneca>. Lucan, S t a t i u s and A p o l l o d o r u s ,
w h i l e P a u s a n i a s , .in a t t e m p t i n g t o e x p l a i n away the s t o r y ,
t e s t i f i e s t o i t s prominence i n h i s day.
We note' t h a t t h e r e i s a "comic" or " s u c c e s s f u l "
form as w e l l , one w h i c h was the s t a n d a r d v e r s i o n i n f i f t h
and f o u r t h c e n t u r y Greece, but w h i c h y i e l d e d t o the o t h e r
t r a d i t i o n i n H e l l e n i s t i c and Roman t i m e s . We may place
E u r i p i d e s , I s o c r a t e s , P a l a e p h a t u s , Hermesianax> Moschus,
Diodorus and the Orphic A r g o n a u t i c a i n t h i s tradition.
In l a t e r t i m e s , i t i s found, p o s s i b l y , i n M a n i l i u s , and
then not a g a i n u n t i l the p s e u d o - P l u t a r c h and L u c i a n .
F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s a s e p a r a t e v e r s i o n found only
i n P l a t o ' s Symposium.
A c h r o n o l o g i c a l l i s t i n g of the e v i d e n c e , grouped
a c c o r d i n g t o the t r a d i t i o n s , , p r e s e n t s a r a t h e r s t r a n g e
appearance:
46
"Tragic" form "Comic" form Other forms
5 t h B.C. (Attic relief)
Euripides
Plato
4th B.C. Isocrates

Palaephatus
3rd B..C. Hermesianax
2nd B.C. Moschus
1st B.C. Diodorus

Argonautica
Culex
"Virgil
Horace
Conon
1st A.D. Manilius

Gvid
Seneca
Lucan
Statius
Apollodorus
2nd A.D. Pseudo-Plutarch
Pausanias
Lucian
The c u r i o u s appearance p r e s e n t e d by t h i s scheme -

with Plato traditionless, the A t t i c r e l i e f s e p a r a t e d by cen-
t u r i e s from the C u l e x , and the " t r a g i c " form s u c c e e d i n g and
a l l but r e p l a c i n g the "comic" - i m m e d i a t e l y suggests t h a t
the a c c e p t e d t h e o r y of two s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . e x i s t i n g traditions
f o r t h i s myth of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i s i t s e l f a myth, and
prompts us t o re-examine P l a t o and the r e l i e f i n the l i g h t
not of l a t e r but of e a r l i e r e v i d e n c e .
47
The f i r s t r e f e r e n c e s to. Orpheus mention o n l y the
g r e a t s i n g e r w i t h s t r a n g e powers over n a t u r e . But t h i s i d e a
was soon extended. We noted t h a t s t o r i e s of a descent t o
Hades may date back as f a r as the s i x t h c e n t u r y . Certainly
i n the f i f t h i t was g e n e r a l l y h e l d t h a t Orpheus had descended
t o Hades t o p l a y f o r the dead and t h e i r gods. Polygnotus 1
f r e s c o t e l l s us t h i s much, and such a s t o r y i s o f t e n t o l d
of the founder of a r e l i g i o u s c u l t w h i c h c l a i m s knowledge
of the a f t e r l i f e ; i t s s e c r e t s are then s a n c t i o n e d as h a v i n g
come from the . l i p s of the founder h i m s e l f , r e t u r n e d from the
dead t o r e v e a l them. But i n the f i f t h c e n t u r y t h e r e i s as
yet no c o n j u g a l motive f o r Orpheus' d e s c e n t . Jane H a r r i s o n
observes " I t may be t a k e n as an axiom i n Greek mythology

82
t h a t p a s s i o n a t e l o v e r s are always l a t e " , and i n d e e d i t i s
not t i l l E u r i p i d e s > or even P l a t o , t h a t Orpheus the l o v e r
appears, w h i l e we w a i t f o u r more c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e he becomes
a tragic lover.
By the l a t e f i f t h c e n t u r y , when we are fairly
c e r t a i n the A t t i c r e l i e f was e x e c u t e d , t h e r e were s e v e r a l
c u r r e n t t a l e s of d e s c e n t s t o and r e s c u e s from Hades.
Some of these are complete v i c t o r i e s over Hades: Dionysus
b r a v e s the w r a t h of Death t o t a k e h i s mother Semele t o
Op. c i t . , p. 603.
48
heaven; H e r a c l e s r e s c u e s A l c e s t i s ' - 3
and c a r r i e s off.
84
Cerberus. I n o t h e r , i n most cases older,, s t o r i e s , some
concession i s g i v e n t o t h e r i g h t s of Hades over t h e dead:
-Heracles i s a b l e t o r e c l a i m Theseus, but P i r i t h o u s must
remain below; Persephone, P o l y d e u c e s and Adonis spend h a l f
the y e a r i n Hades; P r o t e s i l a u s i s a l l o w e d o n l y t h r e e hours
above, and Odysseus does not descend, but o n l y commands a
view o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d as he i n t e r v i e w s some o f i t s i n h a b i t -
ants.
The only underworld-story comparable t o t h e
" t r a g i c " form o f t h e Orpheus myth, w i t h a r e v e r s a l due t o
human f r a i l t y and, i n f a c t , t h e same c u r i o s i t y o f t e n a s s o -
c i a t e d w i t h Orpheus, i s t h e episode i n t h e s t o r y of Cupid
and Psyche where Venus g i v e s t h e h e r o i n e a box and sends
her o f f t o t h e w o r l d of t h e dead t o b r i n g back some
of P r o s e r p i n e ' s beauty; on t h e r e t u r n j o u r n e y , Psyche can
not r e s i s t t a k i n g a f u r t i v e l o o k a t t h e charm and i s o v e r -
come w i t h l e t h a l s l e e p . T h i s s t o r y i s o f course q u i t e l a t e ,
found o n l y i n A p u l e i u s .
T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . of descent-myths i n t o t h e e a r l y
s u c c e s s - s t o r y , the s t i l l e a r l i e r compromise-solution and t h e

O o
I n e a r l y v e r s i o n s ( P h r y n i c u s and E u r i p i d e s ) he m e r e l y
w a i t s a t t h e tomb t o f i g h t w i t h Death: l a t e r (Apollodorus)
he descends..
84
A complete v i c t o r y , as i t i s E u r y s t h e u s , n o t Hades, who
asks t h a t Cerberus be r e s t o r e d .
49
l a t e r o m a n t i c t r a g e d y suggests t h a t one myth, t h e most famous
of them a l l , r e c u r r i n g as i t does from t h e f i f t h century
t h r o u g h t h e l a t e Roman empire, may have e v o l v e d a c c o r d i n g
t o t h i s p a t t e r n - from a myth i n w h i c h Hades o n l y compromises,.
t o a s t o r y of triumphant s u c c e s s , t o a r o m a n t i c t a l e of
t r a g i c f a i l u r e p i v o t i n g on human weakness.. F o r man's e a r l y
myths attempt t o e x p l a i n n a t u r e and t h e mystery of. l i f e and

death; l a t e r he g a i n s c o n f i d e n c e i n h i m s e l f ; s t i l l l a t e r he
85
romanticizes, and, we might add, as h i s c u l t u r e d i e s , he
r a t i o n a l i z e s and lampoons.
W i t h t h e Orpheus-myth we have t h e e a r l y t r i u m p h a l
v e r s i o n ( E u r i p i d e s ) , the r o m a n t i c - t r a g i c v e r s i o n ( V i r g i l ) , ,
the l a t e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n ( P a u s a n i a s ) , and t h e lampoon
(Lucian). What we have f a i l e d t o l o o k f o r i s t h e f i r s t stage,
where some compromise i s made w i t h Hades. The most common
compromise-story i s t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e pageant of t h e
y e a r , i n w h i c h Hades a l l o w s the dead t o r e t u r n t o e a r t h f o r
a time and t h e w o r l d i s g i v e n b o t h summer and w i n t e r months.

It i s p o s s i b l e t o imagine t h a t t h e r e e x i s t e d a v e r s i o n of
the Orpheus-myth wherein t h e hero was a l l o w e d t o take h i s
w i f e t o t h e upper w o r l d f o r a s p e c i f i e d t i m e , a t t h e end o f
86
w h i c h he was t o r e l i n q u i s h h e r . Bowra had attempted t o
show t h a t t h e A t t i c r e l i e f can be i n t e r p r e t e d i n p r e c i s e l y
t h i s way.. He c i t e s t h e s t o r y o f P r o t e s i l a u s as a p a r a l l e l ,
85
^Thus t h e d i v i s i o n , made by F r a z e r and o t h e r s , of myth
i n t o myth p r o p e r , l e g e n d , and f o l k l o r e .
8 6
0 p . c i t . , . pp. .121-2.
50
r e m i n d i n g us t h a t P l u t a r c h a s s o c i a t e s t h e two s t o r i e s . '
88
But he p r e f e r s t o i n s e r t t h i s compromise-story between t h e

"comic" and " t r a g i c " t r a d i t i o n s where t h e r e i s no room f o r i t
chronologically.
I t i s e a s i e r t o imagine a compromise Orpheus-
s t o r y somewhat a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f Odyssey X I . Both.Odysseus
and Orpheus t r a d i t i o n a l l y descended t o Hades t o d i s c o v e r i t s
secrets. Odysseus used magic t o f o r c e Hades t o h i s w i l l ,
and he was g r a n t e d a v i s i o n and an o p p o r t u n i t y t o speak t o
the g r e a t men who l i v e d below, e s p e c i a l l y t o T i r e s i a s , who
knew h i s f u t u r e . Orpheus overcame t h e u n d e r w o r l d by v i r t u e
of h i s music, w h i c h was magic of a s o r t , and Orphic l i t e r a t u r e
a s s u r e s us he was g r a n t e d a v i s i o n . Why n o t , then a s t o r y
w h i c h g i v e s h i m a v i s i o n - and o n l y a v i s i o n - o f h i s w i f e ?
She i s n o t g i v e n him t o t a k e back; she i s o n l y shown t o him.
We r e c a l l now t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l name o f Orpheus' w i f e was,
i n a p o s s i b l e r e n d e r i n g , Af°"V - "she of t h e g l e a m i n g
face". We r e c a l l t o o t h a t P l a t o ' s phantom does n o t r e t u r n
to the world j she i s shown ( cfe'%p< r/df) t o Orpheus, and he
i s sent back c^/eAî . T h i s i s p r e c i s e l y t h e scene we have
But i n e x p l i c a b l y n o t m e n t i o n i n g L u c i a n . And i f E u r y -
d i c e was t h e o r i g i n a l name f o r t h e queen o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d ,
as Robert Graves s u g g e s t s , I n The Greek Myths (Harmondsworth,
1955), v o l . 1, p. 128, h e r a s c e n t w i t h Orpheus may be a v a r -
i a n t o f t h e myth o f Persephone.
00
I n The Greek E x p e r i e n c e (New York, 1 9 5 9 ) . PP. 1 3 2 - 3 .
51
In the A t t i c r e l i e f . Orpheus has f i n i s h e d s i n g i n g ; he drops
h i s l y r e and t u r n s t o l o o k i n t o the f a c e of E u r y d i c e , who
i s brought t o him by Hermes. I t i s o n l y a momentary con-
c e s s i o n , and the psychopompos has a f i r m h o l d on E u r y d i c e ,
now t h e b r i d e of d e a t h . The hero t e n d e r l y brushes a s i d e t h e
v e i l and she g i v e s him a s o r r o w f u l g r e e t i n g . Thus d i d the
g r e a t Orpheus l e a r n t h e s e c r e t s of the a f t e r - l i f e .
Unless some e a r l y fragment of Orphic literature
t u r n s up t o c o n f i r m t h i s , i t i s a t b e s t a v e r y t e n t a t i v e
suggestion. But l e t us r e c a l l t h e o n l y e x i s t i n g Orphic
t e x t t h a t mentions the s t o r y :
c*-\\c<- cfi- (Tot. /<o<7'e\£'^\ UCT/cfoy ^J' ivo^f^,
Tifiertfvi fft'fi/vos cf' ifar' rfloxo/o ( A r g o n a u t i c a 40-42) .
I t i s p r o b a b l y q u i t e l a t e , but i t i s i n t h e mainstream of
Orphic t r a d i t i o n and i t f i t s the compromise s t o r y v e r y w e l l .
The most famous of t h e Orphic t a b l e t s , from P e t e l i a ,
E l e u t h e r n a i , T h u r i i and Rome ( v a r y i n g from the f o u r t h
c e n t u r y B.C. t o t h e second A.D.), " d e s c r i b e t h e a r r i v a l of
the s o u l a t a p l a c e i n Hades where i t i s g i v e n a d r i n k from
the w e l l of Memory,, and g r e e t s and i s welcomed by the
guardians of t h e w e l l , as t h e y appear t o be. No doubt
the Descent i n t o Hades, w h i c h t r e a t e d of Orpheus' s e a r c h

52
for Eurydice,. handled some of t h i s m a t e r i a l . " ^ And. perhaps
i n the l o s t Descent E u r y d i c e s 1
o n l y r o l e was t o welcome
Orpheus on h i s a r r i v a l .
We may now s k e t c h a p o s s i b l e e v o l u t i o n of the myth
in l a t e r times. Once E u r y d i c e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the mystic
Orpheus who l e a r n e d the s e c r e t s of the a f t e r - l i f e , the
v a r i o u s rescue-myths prompt the f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n t h a t , i n
addition to '-his b e i n g p e r m i t t e d t o see h i s w i f e In Hades,
Orpheus was a c t u a l l y granted permission t o t a k e her back t o
l i f e w i t h , hirru The speech w h i c h E u r i p i d e s p u t s i n the mouth
of Admetus may or may not say t h i s , but the O r p h e u s - s t o r y i s
a t l e a s t connected w i t h t h a t of A l c e s t i s , and w r i t e r s from
the f o u r t h c e n t u r y t o the f i r s t c o n s i s t e n t l y regard the
myth as a s o r t of A l c e s t i s - s t o r y , w i t h a happy e n d i n g . The
r e f e r e n c e s are more f r e q u e n t now because Orpheus' descent i s
no l o n g e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h myths known o n l y t o i n i t i a t e s ; i t
has become a f a m i l i a r t a l e of rescue.
I n l a t e H e l l e n i s t i c and e a r l y Roman times the myth
undergoes a n o t h e r change. The A t t i c r e l i e f w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y
d e p i c t e d Orpheus l e a r n i n g the s e c r e t s of the dead now exists
in c o p i e s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of the w o r l d , and i s everywhere
°^H.J.. Rose, A Handbook of Greek L i t e r a t u r e (New York, 1 9 3 4 ) ,
p. 7 3 , n. 5 4 . F o r t r a n s l a t i o n s of the t a b l e t s see Guthrie,
op., cit..,. pp. 172-4.

53
s u b j e c t t o new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a t t h e v e r y time o f t h e i n f l u x
of those r o m a n t i c and f o l k t a l e elements I n l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h
gave us t h e s t o r y o f Cupid and Psyche. I f E u r y d i c e must
d e p a r t w h i l e Orpheus removes h e r v e i l , s u r e l y i t i s because
Orpheus has won h e r back under t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t he would
not l o o k upon h e r . T h i s t a b u a g a i n s t l o o k i n g back,
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a j o u r n e y t o t h e w o r l d o f t h e dead, i s a
wide-spread f o l k - m o t i f t h a t i s found i n t h e Old Testament
( L o t ' s w i f e ) , i n Japan ( i z a n a g i ) , i n v a r i o u s A s i a t i c r a c e s ,
i n t h e South Sea i s l a n d s , and, e s p e c i a l l y , i n l i t e r a l l y
hundreds o f v e r s i o n s , among t h e I n d i a n s of N o r t h America.
A g l a n c e i n t o S t i t h Thompson's..: i n d e x o r any f a i r - s i z d d
world-mythology w i l l i m m e d i a t e l y bear out t h e f a c t t h a t
the f i n a l " t r a g i c " Orpheus s t o r y i s one o f t h e u n i v e r s a l
folk-stories. That a myth d e a l i n g w i t h a husband's r e s c u e
of h i s w i f e f r o m t h e dead would e v e n t u a l l y be r e m o d e l l e d
a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f Weltmarchen was almost i n e v i t a b l e , once
the Graeco-Roman w o r l d e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e f o l k
t a l e s and legends o f d i s t a n t l a n d s . In this connection,
G u t h r i e s a y s : "The element of t a b u might seem a t f i r s t t o
argue a p r i m i t i v e o r i g i n f o r t h i s p a r t of t h e s t o r y , b u t
not o n l y d i d t h e b e l i e f i n i n j u n c t i o n s o f t h i s s o r t never
die out; i t had a v i g o r o u s r e c r u d e s c e n c e i n the s u p e r s t i t i o u s
H e l l e n i s t i c and Graeco-Roman ages.. The s t o r y o f f a i l u r e
t h r o u g h l o o k i n g back, t h e r e f o r e , may w e l l be an a d d i t i o n
by no means u n i v e r s a l l y adopted u n t i l A l e x a n d r i a n t i m e s , i f
54
not invented by the A l e x a n d r i a n s . I t was at a l l events a
s t o r y w e l l s u i t e d f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n i n the r o m a n t i c and
p a t h e t i c s p i r i t w h i c h t h e y were the f i r s t t o b r i n g i n t o
literary favour."^^
The f i n a l stage i n the e v o l u t i o n of the myth i n
C l a s s i c a l t i m e s i s the rough t r e a t m e n t i t r e c e i v e s at the
hands of s k e p t i c s and u n b e l i e v e r s . P a u s a n i a s , not knowing
t h a t he i s d e a l i n g w i t h a s t o r y known a l l over the w o r l d ,
a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n i t away.as a h a l l u c i n a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e
of the h i s t o r i c a l Orpheus, w h i l e L u c i a n and the pseudo-
P l u t a r c h bend i t t o s u i t t h e i r own s o p h i s t i c a t e d purposes..
I t i s p o s s i b l e now t o re-group our a u t h o r s a c c o r d -
i n g t o the changes the myth underwent.
1. Orpheus i s a_ famous m u s i c i a n w i t h power over a l l n a t u r e

[ e a r l i e s t references)
2. Orpheus descends t o Hades and learns.its secrets
("Polygnotus f r e s c o ; e a r l y Orphic A V / ^ /3*0-&/<. )
1
3. Orpheus i s g r a n t e d a_ v i s i o n of h i s w i f e i n Hades
("the A t t i c r e l i e f ; P l a t o . T h i s i s a compromise
s t o r y s i m i l a r t o Odyssey XI)
4. Orpheus wins E u r y d i c e , w i t h n o c o n d i t i o n a t t a c h e d
-
( E u r i p i d e s , I s o c r a t e s , P a l a e p h a t u s , Hermesianax,
Moschus, D i o d o r u s , A r g o n a u t i c a , Manilius... T h i s
i s a " s u c c e s s f u l " s t o r y s i m i l a r t o the
Alcestis)
9
°0p. c i t . , p. 31
55
5. Orpheus l o o k s upon E u r y d i c e and l o s e s h e r ( l o s t

A l e x a n d r i a n poem, Culex, V i r g i l , Horace,
Conon, Ovid, Seneca, Lucan, S t a t i u s ,
Apollodorus. T h i s i s a romantic s t o r y
s i m i l a r t o Cupid and Psyche)
6. Orpheus' story, i s r a t i o n a l i z e d or' t r e a t e d l i g h t l y

("Pausanias, p s e u d o - P l u t a r c h , Lucian)
The s t o r y o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e can t h u s be
s a i d t o be p a r t l e g e n d ( f o r i t began w i t h t h e l e g e n d a r y ,
q u a s i - h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e of Orpheus), p a r t myth ( f o r i t seems
to f o l l o w t h e g e n e r a l l i n e s of v a r i o u s sun o r v e g e t a t i o n
myths), p a r t f o l k l o r e ( f o r i t was e v e n t u a l l y combined w i t h
one of t h e most p o p u l a r s t o r i e s of the w o r l d ) .
It i s hardly correct to c a l l i t , i n i t s familiar
v e r s i o n , a Greek myth. We do n o t r e a d of i t u n t i l H e l l e n -
i s t i c times. Some d e t a i l s - t h e t r a g e d y o f t h e wedding
night,- t h e r o m a n t i c i z i n g of Hades and i t s d e n i z e n s - are
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y H e l l e n i s t i c ; others, p a r t i c u l a r l y the
punishment o f c u r i o s i t y , b e l o n g t o t h e whole w o r l d . The
myth was never developed by t h e A t h e n i a n d r a m a t i s t s , though
i t might have p r o v i d e d s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l , f o r E u r i p i d e s i n
particular.. I t s main l i n k w i t h t h e g r e a t age o f Greece i s
a Roman copy, and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h a t remains a
puzzle.
The Important t h i n g i s , however, t h a t t h e myth
has e v o l v e d - a complete, s a t i s f y i n g s t o r y d e a l i n g w i t h
l i f e and death, w i t h d i v i n e j u s t i c e , w i t h l o v e and i t s

56
p r o p e r c o n t r o l , w i t h t h e a l l - p e r v a d i n g power of music, w i t h
the mystery o f t h e w o r l d beyond. I t has become p o t e n t
m a t e r i a l f o r a r t i s t i c treatment.
I t now becomes our concern t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e
meaning of those t r e a t m e n t s .
CHAPTER I I
THE CLASSICAL PERIOD
Orpheus s y m b o l i z e s , i n a l l t h e myths connected

w i t h him, t h e m y s t e r i o u s power of music; i n t h e myth of t h e
descent he I s a l o v e r as w e l l , and he comes f a c e t o f a c e
w i t h death.
The t h r e e themes o f l o v e , death and music which

g i v e t h e descent-myth i t s u n u s u a l r i c h n e s s a r e f i r s t brought
i n t o c o n f l i c t i n t h e Culex. When t h e poet beholds E u r y d i c e
among t h e o t h e r s o u l s i n Hades, he a p o s t r o p h i s e s h e r , and
sounds one o f t h e p e r e n n i a l Orpheus themes - t h a t t h e r e i s
no c h e a t i n g death, f o r a l l t h e courage a man may show i n
the f a c e o f i t :
q u i d m i s e r a E u r y d i c e t a n t o maerore r e c e s t i ?
poenane r e s p e c t u s e t nunc manet Orpheos i n t e ?
audax i l l e quidem, q u i mitem Cerberon umquam
c r e d i d i t a u t u l l i D i t i s p l a c a b i l e numen,
nec t i m u i t P h l e g e t h o n t a furentem a r d e n t i b u s u n d i s ,
nec maesta o b t e n t a D i t i s f e r r u g i n e regna
ecfossasque domos ac T a r t a r a nocte c r u e n t a
o b s i t a nec f a c i l i s l t D i t i s , s i n e I u d i c e , sedes,
i u d i c e , q u i v i t a e p o s t mortem v i n d i c a t a c t a (268-76).
A second s e m i n a l theme i s then s t a t e d - t h e wondrous
power o f music, which h o l d s sway over b e a s t , r i v e r , forest
57
58
and moon:
sed f o r t u n a v a l e n s audacem f e c e r a t a n t e .
iam r a p i d ! s t e t e r a n t amnes e t t u r b a f e r a r u m
b l a n d a voce sequax regionem i n s i d e r a t O r p h e i ;
iamque imam v i r i d i r a d i c e m moverat a l t e
quercus humo, t s t e t e r u n t amnest, s i l v a e q u e sonorae
sponte sua cantus r a p i e b a n t c o r t i c e a v a r a .
l a b e n t i s b i i u g i s e t i a m p e r s i d e r a Luna
p r e s s i t equos: e t t u c u r r e n t i s , menstrua v i r g o ,
a u d i t u r a l y r a m t e n u i s t i n o c t e r e l i c t a (277-85).
The t a l e reaches a peak of i n t e n s i t y as music
conquers even death:
haec eadem p o t u i t D i t i s t e v i n c e r e c o n i u n x ,
Eurydicenque u l t r o ducendam reddere (286-87).
But d e a t h i s i n e x o r a b l e , and e f f e c t s i t s w i l l
not over music, f o r i t i s p o w e r l e s s t h e r e , but over
love:
non f a s ,
non e r a t t i n v i t a m d i v a e t e x o r a b i l e . m o r t i s .
i l i a quidem nimium manis e x p e r t a severos
praeceptum s i g n a b a t i t e r , nec r e t t u l i t i n t u s
lumina nec d i v a e c o r r u p i t munera l i n g u a ,
sed t u c r u d e l i s , c r u d e l i s t u magis, Orpheu..
o s c u l a c a r a p e t e n s . r u p . i s t i i u s s a deorum (287-93).
A f i n a l theme i s now woven i n t o the poem - the

problem of the c o n t r o l of p a s s i o n , and the n o b i l i t y of human
l o v e , even i n d e f e a t :
dignus amor v e n i a , gratum, s i T a r t a r a n o s s e n t ,
peccatum; meminisse g r a v e s t (294-5).
D e s p i t e the harshness of i t s language, the Culex
sounds and s c o r e s i t s t h r e e themes i n a most a r t i s t i c
fashion. I t s s t o r y seems t o t r a v e l upward t o a c l i m a x ,
then downward u n t i l a t the c l o s e i t has come f u l l . c i r c l e .

59
3) death
hound by
2)
r
love
music
4) death
uses uses
music love
l ) love
hound by
death
We first see E u r y d i c e bound by d e a t h because of Orpheus'
backward l o o k ; death, i t seems, i s s t r o n g e r t h a n l o v e . We
pass then t o a d e s c r i p t i o n o f Orpheus t h e l o v e r , who in
his anger at death a s p i r e s t o r e c l a i m h i s b r i d e ; this he
attempts t o do through music, and we hear a t some length
o f t h e power o f m u s i c o v e r a l l n a t u r e , a power t h a t i s
even personified as one of the elemental f o r c e s , Fortuna.
The c l i m a x i s r e a c h e d as we see how music has power over
death i t s e l f ; But the laws of death are f i x e d , and the
pardon e x a c t e d by m u s i c must be revoked. The poem now
begins i t s downward m o t i o n . Death i s able to reclaim i t s
v i c t i m by v i r t u e o f i t s 'power o v e r love-.. The conditions
it l a y s down a r e k e p t by E u r y d i c e , b u t p r o v e t o o much
for the passion-swayed Orpheus; i n the v e r y e x p r e s s i o n of
l o v e he loses to death. We return, i n the l a s t three
words, t o the sorrowing Eurydice, love i n the g r i p of
eternal death.
No classical writer has grasped the universal
themes i n t h e myth and woven them t o g e t h e r so artistically

6o
as the a u t h o r of the Culex has done. I f h i s poem has not
the c l a s s i c p e r f e c t i o n of V i r g i l ' s f o u r t h G e o r g i c or the
urbane n a r r a t i v e s k i l l of Ovid's a c c o u n t . i n the Meta-
morphoses, i t does seem t o have the deepest awareness of
the v a r i o u s l e v e l s of the s t o r y . I t a l s o has the b e s t
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n : b r i e f as the t r e a t m e n t i s , b o t h Orpheus
and E u r y d i c e remain i n the memory, he f o r r i s i n g i n god-
l i k e f u r y a g a i n s t the f o r c e s of d e a t h and f o r f a l l i n g
v i c t i m , i n an e x c e s s of human p a s s i o n , t o h i s enemy; she
f o r her u n a v a i l i n g f i d e l i t y t o the laws imposed and f o r
the e t e r n i t y of sorrow she must endure.
The l o c u s c l a s s i c u s f o r the s t o r y of Orpheus and
E u r y d i c e i n a n c i e n t , perhaps i n any l i t e r a t u r e , i s the
f o u r t h G e o r g l c of V i r g i l . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of the myth
here i s , however, q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of the C u l e x .
I t i n v a r i a b l y comes as a s u r p r i s e , i f n o t a d i s -
appointment, f o r those who p i c k up V i r g i l a f t e r r e a d i n g
B u l f i n c h or h e a r i n g G l u c k t o d i s c o v e r t h a t the f i f t y lines
V i r g i l devotes t o Orpheus a r e f i t t e d i n t o i n the l a r g e r
s t o r y of A r i s t a e u s the shepherd-god, and t h a t t h i s whole
seems t o be somewhat a r b i t r a r i l y s t i t c h e d on t o - a l a r g e r
poem d e a l i n g w i t h the c a r e o f bees. We a r e t o l d by S e r v i u s
t h a t an encomium on G a l l u s w h i c h was i n t e n d e d t o c o n c l u d e
the poem was suppressed by V i r g i l when h i s f e l l o w - p o e t

61
f e l l from i m p e r i a l f a v o r , and t h e A r i s t a e u s - O r p h e u s p i e c e
substituted:
Sane sciendum, ut. supra d i x i m u s , u l t i m a m

partem h u i u s l i b r i esse mutatam: nam l a u d e s
G a l l i h a b u i t l o c u s i l l e , q u i nunc Orphei c o n t i n e t
f a b u l a m , quae i n s e r t a e s t , postquam i r a t o Au-
gust© G a l l u s o c c i s u s e s t ( i n G e o r g i c o n , I V , l ) .
and a g a i n :
f u i t autem ( G a l l u s ) amicus V e r g i l i i adeo, u t

q u a r t u s g e o r g i c o r u m a medio usque ad f i n e m
e i u s l a u d e s t e n e r e t : quas p o s t e a i u b e n t e
Augusto i n A r i s t a e i fabulam commutavit ( i n
Bucolicon X , l ) .
There a r e reasons f o r d o u b t i n g S e r v i u s ; we need
not go i n t o them h e r e . 1
But we must, i n o r d e r t o grasp
the meaning t h e myth had f o r V i r g i l , d e c i d e whether
Orpheus b e l o n g s i n t h i s c o n t e x t . Many c r i t i c s , citing
S e r v i u s , have argued t h a t t h e Greek myth has no s i g n i f i c a n c e
at t h e c o n c l u s i o n of f o u r books on I t a l i a n husbandry, that
"the l i n k s are purely formal", t h a t V i r g i l was w o r k i n g
on book V I o f t h e A e n e i d when G a l l u s was d i s g r a c e d , and.
n a t u r a l l y s u b s t i t u t e d an u n d e r w o r l d - s t o r y i n p l a c e o f t h e
There i s an e x c e l l e n t summary of t h e l i t e r a t u r e on
the s u b j e c t , and a case a g a i n s t S e r v i u s , i n George E..
Duckworth, " V e r g i l ' s G e o r g i e s and t h e Laudes G a l l l " ,
AJP 80 (1959), PP. 225-37.

E.A. Havelock, " V i r g i l ' s Road t o Xanadu, ( l ) The poet
of t h e O r p h e u s - f a n t a s y " , Phoenix l ( l 9 ^ 6 ) , p..5.

former ending. S e l l a r has even gone so f a r as t o say-
t h a t the A r i s t a e u s - O r p h e u s a d d i t i o n i s "an undoubted blot
on the a r t i s t i c p e r f e c t i o n of the w o r k " . 4
The answer t o t h i s c r i t i c i s m i s V i r g i l ' s long-
s t a n d i n g r e p u t a t i o n f o r b e i n g a c a r e f u l and consummate
artist.. Even i n the e p i c poem w h i c h never r e c e i v e d h i s
f i n i s h i n g touches he i s always i n the l i t e r a r y r a t h e r than
the o r a l t r a d i t i o n , i.e.., he i s never a rhapsode, a
s t i t c h e r - t o g e t h e r of poems. And the G e o r g i c s a r e h i s most
p o l i s h e d work. Whether o r i g i n a l l y composed as i t stands
or c a r e f u l l y i n s e r t e d l a t e r , the Orpheus s t o r y belongs i n
.the l a r g e r c o n t e x t of the G e o r g i c s and d e r i v e s i t s s i g n i -
f i c a n c e from them. T h i s s h o u l d become c l e a r a f t e r we have
i n s p e c t e d the poem.
V i r g i l ' s account of bee-keeping c o n c l u d e s a t
l i n e 3 1 5 w i t h the c u r i o u s statement t h a t l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s -
of bees w i l l i s s u e from the b o d i e s of dead c a t t l e . Then
b e g i n s the q u a i n t t a l e of A r i s t a e u s , whose bees were
touched w i t h i n f e c t i o n and d i e d . He had r e c o u r s e i n t e a r s
t o h i s mother, the goddess Cyrene, who l i v e d on the ocean
floor. She t o l d him t h a t o n l y P r o t e u s , the o l d man of the
'A.. C a r t a u l t , mentioned i n Duckworth, op_. c i t . , p. 2 3 4 .
'W..Y. S e l l a r , V i r g i l (Oxford, 1 8 9 7 ) , p. 188."*..

sea, eould d i s c l o s e t o him the cause of his loss. So
A r i s t a e u s had t o outwit the cunning o l d w i z a r d , who t r i e d
to evade him b y a s s u m i n g v a r i o u s d i s g u i s e s . F i n a l l y he
revealed the s e c r e t : t h e gods have p u n i s h e d Aristaeus with
the l o s s o f h i s bees because he h a s , however unwittingly,
brought about the deaths o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e . I t was
f l e e i n g h i s advances t h a t she trod on t h e f a t a l serpent:
i l i a quidem, dum t e f u g e r e t p e r f l u m i n a p r a e c e p s ,
immanem a n t e p e d e s hydrum m o r i t u r a p u e l l a
servantem r i p a s a l t a non v i d i t i n h e r b a .
a t c h o r u s a e q u a l i s Dryadum c l a m o r e supremos
implerunt m o n t i s j f l e r u n t Rhodopeiae a r c e s
a l t a q u e Pangaea e t R h e s i M a v o r t i a t e l l u s
a t q u e Getae a t q u e H e b r u s e t A c t i a s O r i t h y i a (457-63).
Orpheus b e w a i l e d h i s l o s s a n d d e s c e n d e d :
i p s e c a v a s o l a n s aegrum t e s t u d i n e amorem
t e , d u l c l s c o n i u n x , t e s o l o i n l i t o r e secum,
te v e n i e n t e d i e , t e decedente canebat.
Taenarias etiam fauces, a l t a ostia D i t i s ,
et c a l i g a n t e m n i g r a f o r m i d i n e lucum
i n g r e s s u s , manisque a d i i t regemque tremendum
n e s c i a q u e humanis p r e c i b u s m a n s u e s c e r e c o r d a (464-70)
The shadowy f o r m s o f H e l l surged around him:
a t c a n t u commotae E r e b i de s e d i b u s i m i s
umbrae i b a n t t e n u e s s i m u l a c r a q u e l u c e c a r e n t u m ,
quam m u l t a I n f o l i i s a v i u m s e m i l i a c o n d u n t ,
v e s p e r u b i a u t h i b e r n u s a g i t de m o n t i b u s Imber,
matres atque v i r i defunctaque c o r p o r a v i t a
magnanimum heroum, p u e r i i n n u p t a e q u e p u e l l a e ,
i m p o s i t i q u e r o g i s i u v e n e s a n t e o r a p a r e n t u m (471-7),
and were h e l d s p e l l b o u n d by h i s song:
quos c i r c u m l i m u s n i g e r e t d e f o r m i s h a r u n d o
C o c y t i t a r d a q u e p a l u s i n a m a b i l i s unda
a l l i g a t e t novies Styx i n t e r f u s a c o e r c e t .
q u i n i p s a e s t u p u e r e domus a t q u e i n t i m a L e t i
T a r t a r a caeruleosque implexae c r i n i b u s anguis
Eumenides, t e n u i t q u e I n h i a n s t r i a Cerberus o r a ,
a t q u e I x i o n i i v e n t o r o t a c o n s t i t i t o r b i s (478-84).
64
But h i s v i c t o r y was short-lived:
iamque pedem r e f e r e n s casus e v a s e r a t omnis,

r e d d i t a q u e E u r y d i c e superas v e n i e b a t ad auras
pone sequens (namque hanc dederat P r o s e r p i n a legem),
cum s u b i t a incautum dementia c e p i t amantem,
ignoscenda quidem, s c i r e n t s i i g n o s c e r e Manes:
r e s t i t i t , Eurydicenque suam iam l u c e sub i p s a
immemor heuJ. v i c t u s q u e a n i m i r e s p e x i t (485-91).
H e l l reclaimed i t s spellbound v i c t i m :
i b i omnis
e f f u s u s l a b o r atque i m m i t i s r u p t a t y r a n n i
f p e d e r a , t e r q u e f r a g o r s t a g n i s a u d i t u s Averni.*
i l i a 'quis e t me 1
i n q u i t 'miseram e t t e p e r d i d i t , Orpheu,
q u i s t a n t u s f u r o r ? en i t e r u m c r u d e l i a r e t r o
f a t a v o c a n t , c o n d i t q u e n a t a n t i a lumina somnus.
iamque v a l e : . f e r o r i n g e n t i c i r c u m d a t a nocte
i n v a l i d a s q u e t i b i tendens, heu non t u a , palmas' (491-8).
A l r e a d y her shadowy form was d r i f t i n g back a c r o s s the mere
in Charon's boat:
d i x i t e t ex o c u l i s s u b i t o , ceu fumus i n auras

commixtus t e n u i s , f u g i t d i v e r s a , neque i l i u m
prensantem nequiquam umbras e t multa volentem
: d i c e r e p r a e t e r e a v i d i t j nec p o r t i t o r O r e l
amplius obiectam passus t r a n s i r e paludem...
q u i d f a e e r e t ? quo se r a p t a b i s coniuge f e r r e t ?
quo f l e t u manis,. quae numina voce moveret?
i l i a quidem S t y g i a nabat iam f r i g i d a cumba (499-506).
Whereupon Qrpheus ascended, and b e w a i l e d h i s l o s t E u r y d i c e
for seven f u l l months on a l o n e l y n o r t h e r n c l i f f (507-15),
till he was t o r n l i m b from l i m b by C i c o n i a n matrons, who
f l u n g i n t o the windswept Hebrus h i s severed head, still
c a l l i n g upon i t s "miseram E u r y d i c e n " (516-27).
Such was the s t o r y P r o t e u s t o l d young A r i s t a e u s ,
who then r e p a i r e d t o h i s mother a g a i n t o l e a r n how he might
p r o p i t i a t e Orpheus' shade. Cyrene c o u n s e l e d him t o s a c r i f i c e
f o u r b u l l s and f o u r h e i f e r s , and on the n i n t h day, I f he

65
r e t u r n e d w i t h f u n e r a l o f f e r i n g s t o Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , he
would b e h o l d a s i g n of h i s f o r g i v e n e s s . A l l this Aristaeus
d u t i f u l l y performed, and l o l ' o n the n i n t h day the decaying
c a r c a s s e s were a l i v e w i t h swarming bees.
I t i s an a l t o g e t h e r charming e p i s o d e , an A l e x a n d r i a n
e p y l l i o n a l o n g the l i n e s of the s i x t y - f o u r t h - p o e m of C a t u l l u s .
The Orpheus-section bears s e v e r a l s t r i k i n g resemblances t o
the Culex. Excess of p a s s i o n i s once more Orpheus' undoing,
and a g a i n t h i s i s
ignoscenda quidem, s c i r e n t s i i g n o s c e r e Manes ( 4 8 9 ) .
The t h r e e themes .are a l l d e t e c t a b l e , and, as i n the Culex,
s e v e r a l p i v o t a l p o i n t s of the a c t i o n are o n l y suggested:
In n e i t h e r poem are we r e a l l y t o l d t h a t E u r y d i c e d i e d , or
shown P l u t o i s s u i n g h i s o r d e r . Rather we are p r e s e n t e d w i t h
a s e r i e s of p i c t u r e s ; i n the e a r l i e r poem these v a r y i n
l e n g t h , but i n the f o u r t h G e o r g i c t h e y seem t o be c o n s c i o u s l y
arranged i n p a n e l s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y seven l i n e s each. The

c l i m a x of b o t h O r p h e u s - s t o r i e s comes w i t h a sharp break at
the f i f t h f o o t of the hexameter l i n e . F i n a l l y , b o t h poems
are s y m m e t r i c a l l y , even s p i r a l l y , c o n s t r u c t e d . Indeed, f o r
a l l the v e r b a l p e r f e c t i o n of the e p y l l i o n i n the f o u r t h
^ I t s h o u l d be n o t e d , however, t h a t t h i s l i n e i s v a s t l y
s u p e r i o r , s t y l i s t i c a l l y , t o the c o r r e s p o n d i n g passage i n the
Culex ( 2 9 4 - 5 ) ..
66
G e o r g i c , i t s most n o t a b l e f e a t u r e • i s i t s u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e .
V i r g i l has g i v e n us more than a mere e p y l l i o n . Working
w i t h the i d e a of a s t o r y w i t h i n a s t o r y , he has unearthed
l a y e r upon l a y e r i n the myth, and ended w i t h an intricate
concentric structure. I t w i l l be t o our purpose now to
a n a l y z e t h i s s t r u c t u r e , i f we can do so w i t h o u t d o i n g too
much v i o l e n c e t o V i r g i l .
The e p y l l i o n n e c e s s i t a t e s t r e a t i n g a s t o r y w i t h i n
a s t o r y thus:
A r i s t a e u s - Orpheus - A r i s t a e u s .
But we s h o u l d note t h a t a s i x - l i n e e p i l o g u e completes the
f o u r t h G e o r g i c and r e s t a t e s the major themes of a l l f o u r
poems. Thus the e p y l l i o n i s i t s e l f e n c l o s e d i n the larger
c o n t e x t of the f o u r a g r i c u l t u r a l poems. T h i s g i v e s us the
structure:
Georgics-Aristaeus-Orpheus-Aristaeus-Georgics.
Moreover, w i t h i n the A r i s t a e u s - s t o r y , a s y m m e t r i c a l arrange-
ment i s p l a i n l y d i s c e r n i b l e . A r i s t a e u s l o s e s h i s bees, appeals
t o h i s mother Cyrene and i s sent by h e r t o Proteus.. Then we
have the Orpheus story.. P r o t e u s d i v e s i n t o the sea, A r i s t a e u s
a p p e a l s a g a i n t o Cyrene and, p e r f o r m i n g the s a c r i f i c e , regains
his bees. The s t r u c t u r e may, t h e n , be viewed as
Georgics-Aristaeus-Cyrene-Proteus-Orpheus-
P r o t e u s -Cyrene - A r i s t a e u s - G e o r g i c s .
I t i s a c o n c e n t r i c p a t t e r n - w i t h the Orpheus s t o r y a t i t s
h e a r t - and l a y e r a n s w e r i n g t o s y m m e t r i c a l layer. 6
But i t
i s p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e the p a t t e r n s t i l l f u r t h e r , w i t h i n the
central story i t s e l f . I f we r e r e a d the poem w i t h t h i s i n
mind i t g r a d u a l l y becomes c l e a r t h a t V i r g i l has constructed
his O r p h e u s - s t o r y symmetrically,, i n c i d e n t a n s w e r i n g t o
Incident.
The s t o r y opens w i t h the sudden d e a t h of Eurydice
n e a r the r i v e r bank, amid the w a i l i n g c r i e s of her companion
nymphs, and c l o s e s w i t h the v i o l e n t d e a t h of Orpheus, w h i l e
the banks of a n o t h e r r i v e r resound w i t h h i s c r i e s of
"Eurydice". G i l b e r t Norwood, who f i r s t saw some of these .
d e t a i l s , adds t h a t b o t h Orpheus and E u r y d i c e meet t h e i r f a t e
"owing t o r e j e c t i o n of l o v e " . I t i s t o u c h i n g t o note t h a t
each i n death was f a i t h f u l t o the other.
After Eurydice s 1
death, Orpheus b r e a k s i n t o lamen-
t a t i o n , then descends alone t o the lower world.. Later,
b e f o r e h i s own death, he ascends a l o n g from the u n d e r w o r l d
and resumes h i s lamentation.
Between these I n c i d e n t s l i e s the descent itself,
An almost e q u a l l y e l a b o r a t e arrangement i s t o be found i n
C a t u l l u s 68b: Allius-Lesbia-Laodamia-Troy-fraterna mors-Troy-
Laodamia-Lesbia-Allius.
7
G i l b e r t Norwood "Notes: V e r g i l , G e o r g i c s IV,453-27", CJ 36
(1941) p. 354.
68
and i t i s even p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e a s y m m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n f o r
the events i n t h e lower w o r l d . Norwood has g i v e n a s t r u c t u r e
emphasizing thematic m a t e r i a l . More s t r i k i n g s t i l l i s the
s e r i e s o f s e v e n - l i n e p i c t u r e s , w h i c h seem t o answer each t o
each. Thus l i n e s 471-7 d e s c r i b e t h e c o u n t l e s s shades advanc-
ing t o hear Orpheus s i n g , and t h e p r e v a i l i n g mood i s one o f
pathos. V i r g i l borrows some o f t h e most s e a r c h i n g l i n e s
from h i s . A e n e i d f o r t h i s c o n t e x t . T h i s p i c t u r e i s answered
by t h e p a t h e t i c p i c t u r e of t h e shade o f E u r y d i c e r e t r e a t i n g
f r o m t h e grasp o f Orpheus i n l i n e s 499-505, where a n o t h e r
scene from t h e Aeneid i s v i v i d l y r e c a l l e d .
F u r t h e r , w h i l e t h e power o f music over death i s t h e

theme o f t h e p i c t u r e i n l i n e s 478-84, t h e answering p a n e l
shows t h e power o f death over l o v e . I n t h e one, H e l l i s
e n t h r a l l e d ; i n t h e o t h e r , i t e x a c t s i t s vengeance.
W i t h i n t h e s e two scenes, w h i c h serve t o r e p r e s e n t
the b a s i c themes o f t h e Orpheus-myth, i s enacted.the tragic
story i t s e l f , t h e h e a r t o f t h e whole s t r u c t u r e . This i s
a g a i n a s e v e n - l i n e p i c t u r e , b r e a k i n g o f f , w i t h an a r t f u l l y
dramatic e f f e c t , i n the c r u c i a l f i f t h foot of i t s l a s t line.
^ V i r s ; i l had a l r e a d y demonstrated h i s s k i l l i n c o n s t r u c t i n g
p a t t e r n - r e p e t i t i o n i n t h e f i f t h E c l o g u e , i n which t h e speech
of Mopsus answers t h e speech of Menaleas t h u s : l i n e s 56-9
answer l i n e s 20-3; 60-4, 24-8; 65-71, 29-35; 72-5,36-9;
76-80, 40-4. The arrangement i s p a r a l l e l , however, n o t
symmetrical.
69
We may attempt t o r e p r e s e n t t h e whole symmetrical
a r r a n g e m e n t / w h i c h i s i t s e l f almost a descent and a s c e n t , t h u s :
1. 281-316 Georgic proper; t r a n s i t i o n t o the

epyllion
2.. 317-319 A r i s t a e u s l o s e s h i s bees
3. 320-418 Cyrene a d v i s e s him
4. 4l8-456 he c a p t u r e s P r o t e u s , who t e l l s t h e
s t o r y o f Orpheus
5. 457-463 E u r y d i c e ' s death near a r i v e r f o r

r e j e c t e d love', amid l a m e n t a t i o n ;
g e o g r a p h i c a l names (7 l i n e s )
6. 464-470 Orpheus' lament and descent t o Hades

(7 l i n e s )
— 7. 471-477 t h e shades approach; p a t h o s ; t h e

Aeneid (7 l i n e s )
8. 478-484 Hell i s enthralled - music's power over

death (7 l i n e s )
9. 485-491 t h e t r a g e d y o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e

(7 l i n e s , b r e a k i n g o f f so as t o com-
mence t h e a s c e n d i n g movement)
10. 492-498 H e l l e x a c t s i t s vengeance - death's

power over l o v e (7 l i n e s )
•11. 499-'506 t h e shade o f E u r y d i c e r e t r e a t s ; pathos;

the Aeneid (8 l i n e s )
12. 507-515 Orpheus' ascent from Hades and lament

(9 l i n e s )
13. 516-527 Orpheus' death near a r i v e r f o r r e j e c t e d
l o v e , amid l a m e n t a t i o n ; g e o g r a p h i c names
14. 528-529 the s t o r y f i n i s h e d , Proteus dives i n t o
the sea
~ 15-. 530-547 Cyrene's a d v i c e
—16. 548-558 A r i s t a e u s r e g a i n s h i s bees
17. 559-566 r e t u r n t o t h e s u b j e c t matter of t h e

Georgics proper
T h i s s c h e m a t i z a t i o n i s perhaps a c r u e l i m p o s i t i o n
on V i r g i l ' s e p y l l i o n . That i t i s not w h o l l y satisfactory
even as a scheme' i s e v i d e n c e d by the f a c t t h a t i t f a i l s to
a l l o w f o r one obvious answering m o t i f i n the Orpheus episode
the two b i r d - s i m i l e s , the f i r s t of w h i c h d e s c r i b e s the mul-
titudes of shades w h i c h f l o c k t o l i s t e n t o Orpheus, the other
the n i g h t i n g a l e - s a d n e s s of Orpheus' song a f t e r he has lost
h i s E u r y d i c e a second time.- But t h a t t h e r e i s such a
s t r u c t u r e i s undeniable. Norwood, who traces a thematic

Q
p a t t e r n , has a l r e a d y been mentioned. Havelock, i n an
e x t r a o r d i n a r y essay r e l a t i n g the poem t o C o l e r i d g e ' s Kubla
Khan, i s s e n s i t i v e t o r e c u r r e n t Images, sounds and espec-
i a l l y g e o g r a p h i c a l names. But t o f i n d the meaning V i r g i l
saw i n the myth, h i s Orpheus-story must be r e l a t e d , n o t t o
any o t h e r poem, but t o the Georgic f o r w h i c h i t was con-
c e i v e d , or i n t o w h i c h i t was c a r e f u l l y worked.
The p a t t e r n we have t r a c e d i s the t r a d i t i o n a l
s t o r y - w i t h i n - a - s t o r y technique of the A l e x a n d r i a n epyllion
a r t f u l l y extended t o an u n u s u a l degree. I t may r i g h t l y be
c o n s i d e r e d a p a t t e r n of descent and a s c e n t ; a descent from
the q u a s i - i n s t r u c t i v e l e v e l of the Georgies t o the deeper
interpretative l e v e l of myth-making; a descent from the
Op. c i t . , pp.. 4-8.

adventurous s t o r y of A r i s t a e u s t o the more f u n d a m e n t a l l y
t r a g i c one of Orpheus; a descent which comes t o an end as
Orpheus reaches Hades i t s e l f , where a r e v e r s e upward movement
i s begun.
Now Smith Palmer B o v i e , i n an a r t i c l e i n the

American J o u r n a l of P h i l o l o g y , has shown t h i s v e r y imagery
of a s c e n t - d e s c e n t t o be a dominant p a t t e r n i n a l l f o u r
G e o r g i c s . Of the f o u r t h G e o r g i c In p a r t i c u l a r he i s a b l e t o
say, "The book i s a s e t p i e c e f o r the imagery of a s c e n t -
descent. The c a r e e r of the bees d e s c r i b e s a p a r a b o l a of
f o r w a r d f l i g h t s , r e t u r n s , withdrawals. I n t o the h i v e , and
the a s c e n t - d e s c e n t p a t t e r n i s c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g adapted to
the exposition.""'"^ V i r g i l t e l l s how the a c t i v e bees swarm
f o r t h i n the s p r i n g behind t h e i r l e a d e r s (21-4) w h i l e the
l o i t e r e r s are plunged i n t o the stream by the E a s t Wind
(27-9); a f t e r t u n n e l i n g deep i n t o pumice stones or decayed
t r e e s (42-4), t h e y f l o a t once more towards the s t a r r y sky
t h r o u g h the c l e a r a i r of a summer n i g h t (58-60); a g a i n , t h e y
r i s e i n b a t t l e , h i g h i n the a i r , u n t i l , m i n g l e d i n a g r e a t
s w i r l i n g mass, t h e y plunge headlong, t h i c k as a r a i n of h a i l
or acorns from a shaken oak (78-81).
V i r g i l ' s Orpheus-Eurydice s t o r y i s not out of p l a c e

i n t h i s atmosphere of a s c e n t s and d e s c e n t s . I t belongs i n
"The Imagery of Ascent-Descent i n V e r g i l ' s Georgics",
A J P _ 7 7 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , P. 3 5 3 .
72'
t h e G e o r g i e s , and i t s meaning i s d e d u c i b l e from i t s form
and c o n t e x t . I t i s t o be sought w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o b o t h
the A r i s t a e u s - s t o r y and t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f t h e G e o r g i c s
i n which i t appears-..
The A r i s t a e u s - O r p h e u s epyllion i s not.instructive,
f o r the " f a c t " which serves t o introduce i t , t h a t bees a r e
generated from t h e b o d i e s of s l a i n oxen, would w i n scant
c r e d i t i n V i r g i l ' s day. Nor i s t h e e p y l l i o n merely decorat-
i v e , f o r such l e n g t h y d e c o r a t i o n a f t e r almost two thousand
l i n e s o f c a r e f u l l y p l a n n e d i n s t r u c t i o n would be i n t o l e r a b l e .
Rather, i t i s i n t e r p r e t a t i v e . . V i r g i l has g i v e n t h e r e a d e r
hundreds o f f a c t s about t h e f a r m e r ' s l i f e and work; now he
g i v e s him, n o t a m o r a l , as a m e d i e v a l poet might do, b u t a
myth.. The s o p h i s t i c a t e d Roman r e a d e r may have been as b a f f l e d
by t h i s as t h e modern r e a d e r sometimes I s . Myth f o r b o t h
means mere- l i t e r a r y adornment.. But V i r g i l was w r i t i n g f o r
the r e a d e r who was a l i v e t o the v a l u e o f myth as an e x p r e s -
s i o n of u n i v e r s a l t r u t h , as t h e A e n e i d bears o u t . H i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e Orpheus-myth becomes c l e a r i f we keep
the whole c o n t e x t o f t h e G e o r g i c s In mind, and see t h e
f i g u r e s as u n i v e r s a l t y p e s .
A r i s t a e u s i s the u n i v e r s a l farmer. He i s b l e s s e d
by heaven w i t h t h e goods of t h i s w o r l d . A t t i m e s he meets
w i t h d i f f i c u l t i e s , even c a t a s t r o p h e s w h i c h t h r e a t e n h i s
livelihood. But he has d i v i n e h e l p of w h i c h t o a v a i l h i m s e l f ,
and he i s a b l e t h r o u g h human i n g e n u i t y t o adapt h i m s e l f t o

the changing seasons, bend Nature t o h i s - w i l l and wrest i t s
secret's from i t .
Beneath t h i s success l i e s the t r a g i c f a i l u r e of
Orpheus. T h i s i s the h e a r t of the I n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t o r y ;
i t i s c a r e f u l l y p r e p a r e d a t some l e n g t h , and, once i t i s
t o l d , the r e m a i n i n g d e t a i l s f a l l r a p i d l y i n t o p l a c e . Orpheus
i s not the w o r k e r ; he i s the u n i v e r s a l a r t i s t who knows l i f e
at a deeper l e v e l and i n f a c t comes f a c e t o f a c e w i t h d e a t h .
In a m a t e r i a l sense, the farmer i s c l o s e t o r e a l i t y and
comes t o know many of i t s s e c r e t s , but the a r t i s t i n h i s work
e x p l o r e s the v e r y meaning of l i f e and l o v e . Moreover the
r e s t of men, the c i v i l i z e d w o r l d , depend on h i s a c t i v i t y .
The b e a u t y t h a t .eludes the embrace of the o r d i n a r y man is
his b r i d e , and i t i s h i s b u s i n e s s t o seek t h a t beauty even
from the g r e a t s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d w h i c h c l a i m s i t . In t h i s
he i s o n l y p a r t l y s u c c e s s f u l . H i s a r t g i v e s him great
power, but he i s a f t e r a l l human and cannot hope t o h o l d
beauty w i t h i n h i s grasp f o r e v e r ; The a r t i s t ' s l i f e i s touched
with failure. But he comes c l o s e r t o beauty and t r u t h than
any man, and o t h e r men b u i l d t h e i r s u c c e s s e s on h i s success
and failure.
F a i l u r e f o r V i r g i l i s i m p l i c i t i n every success:
for the b r e e d i n g of bees, t h e r e must be s l a u g h t e r and sacri-
f i c e ; the voyage t o I t a l y i s strewn w i t h the t r a g e d i e s of
P r i a m , Dido, even P a l i n u r u s ; the b u i l d i n g of Rome r e q u i r e s
t h a t Turnus, N i s u s and E u r y a l u s and c o u n t l e s s o t h e r s be slain.

74
But i n t h e wake o f t r a g e d y come peace, o r d e r , p r o s p e r i t y .
Orpheus' t r a g e d y , w h i c h was i n d i r e c t l y caused by A r i s t a e u s , 1
y o u t h f u l p a s s i o n , f i r s t brought t h e young farmer c l o s e t o
sorrow, but h i s r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s t r a g e d y e n a b l e d him t o
s p r i n g w i t h c o n f i d e n c e t o h i s own r e s c u e . To be t r u l y
s u c c e s s f u l , E v e r y m a n - A r i s t a e u s must acknowledge h i s debt t o
the n o b l e r Orpheus, who i s t h e r e a l symbol of c i v i l i z a t i o n ,
whose descent i s t h e r e a l adventure o f t h e human s p i r i t .
Thus i n d i r e c t l y does V i r g i l i m p l y t h a t t h e Orpheus-
s t o r y i s h i s own, t h a t - t h i s i s h i s defence f o r w r i t i n g a
poem on a g r i c u l t u r e - as an a r t i s t he i s a t t h e h e a r t o f a l l
culture, a l l c i v i l i z a t i o n .
Ovid p r o v i d e s t h e n e a t , p r e t t y t r e a t m e n t of t h e
myth t h a t we expect from him. Where V i r g i l gave us a s e r i e s
of e x q u i s i t e s t i l l s , Ovid g i v e s t h e whole f i l m , rapidly
paced, n i c e l y c o l o r e d , complete w i t h d i a l o g u e .
Hymen i s i n v i t e d t o Orpheus' wedding, but t h e
omens a r e bad: he b r i n g s no r e j o i c i n g , no l a u g h i n g f a c e s ; h i s
t o r c h s p u t t e r s out and i t s smoke b l i n d s t h e eyes o f t h e
guests. Then, d u r i n g t h e c e l e b r a t i o n s , t h e b r i d e i s b i t t e n
by a snake and d i e s .
How f r e s h , how i n g e n i o u s a r e t h e s e d e t a i l s ! Indeed,
as t h e n a r r a t i v e proceeds t h e r e a r e many charming new t o u c h e s .
Orpheus dares, ( l e t P l a t o note t h e e s t ausus) t o descend t o
Hades, and Ovid dares t o g i v e us t h e v e r y song he sang. Only .

a f t e r we have f i n i s h e d l i s t e n i n g do we n o t i c e t h a t others
have l i s t e n e d too. . . T a n t a l u s and Ixion, Tityus 1

vultures,
the daughters- of B e l e u s . S i s y p h u s has h a l t e d h i s stone and
i s s i t t i n g upon i t . Tears are s t r e a m i n g down the cheeks of
the Eumenides.. Then E u r y d i c e i s l e d f o r t h , l i m p i n g from her
f r e s h wound.. P l u t o ' s commands, are imposed and the upward
journey begins:
c a r p i t u r a d c l i v i s per muta s i l e n t i a trames,

arduus, o b s c u r u s , c a l i g i n e densus opaca (53 5^) -
and Orpheus, t o r e a s s u r e himself that his bride i s s t i l l
b e h i n d him, t u r n s , and l o s e s her f o r e v e r . She speaks the
one l o n e l y word " v a l e " , and d r i f t s backward, downward t o
resume her p l a c e i n the w o r l d of the dead.
Wilmon Brewer, i n h i s g e n e r a l l y h e l p f u l s u r v e y of
12
the i n f l u e n c e of the Metamorphoses, d e t a i l s the dozens
of new f e a t u r e s Ovid has managed t o i n c o r p o r a t e into his
s t o r y w i t h o u t f l y i n g i n the f a c e of V i r g i l ' s famous account.
But not a l l of these are on the same l e v e l of excellence.

How d u l l i t i s of Ovid t o say:
quam s a t i s ad superas postquam Rhodopeius auras
d e f l e v i t v a t e s , ne non t e m p t a r e t et umbras,
ad Styga T a e n a r i a e s t ausus descendere p o r t a
(11-13),
''"Lines R i l k e was t o p a r a p h r a s e w i t h t e r r i f y i n g e f f e c t
1
twenty c e n t u r i e s l a t e r .
" 0 v i d s Metamorphoses i n European C u l t u r e

L 2 1
(Francestown,
N.H., 194T), v o l . 2, pp. 3H-5.
How i r r i t a t i n g o f Orpheus t o remark, i n h i s song,
v i c i t Amor, supera deus h i e bene notus i n ora e s t ;
an s i t e t h i e , d u b i t o (26-7).
I n f a c t , a l t h o u g h Ovid deserves c r e d i t f o r a t t e m p t i n g t o g i v e
us Orpheus' song, and a l t h o u g h h i s h o l d i n g o f f mention o f
the o l d c l i c h e s 3
about I x i o n and T a n t a l u s and the r e s t
u n t i l a f t e r we have heard the song i s a most t e l l i n g effect,
the song i t s e l f i s not c o n v i n c i n g . I t i s constructed like
a m i n i a t u r e o r a t i o n , w i t h arguments n e a t l y m a r s h a l l e d in
order-, w i t h p a s s i o n r e s t r i c t e d t o the a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e s ,
w i t h the i n e v i t a b l e noble r e s o l v e a t the c l o s e . And l a t e r
he compares the stunned Orpheus ( u s i n g the inevitable
s t u p u i t ) t o the u n i d e n t i f i e d man who t u r n e d t o stone when
he l o o k e d on Cerberus, t o Olenus and t o Lethaea, a l s o turned
t o stone, the one f o r l o v e , the o t h e r f o r p r i d e . These
p e d a n t i c c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s have no b e a r i n g on the Orpheus-
myth, and as s i m i l e s they are f a r i n f e r i o r t o V i r g i l ' s
e x c e l l e n t n i g h t i n g a l e I n the c o r r e s p o n d i n g p l a c e i n h i s
version.
In s h o r t , Ovid's treatment i s blessed with his

customary v i r t u e s and marred by h i s customary v i c e s . The
Orpheus-myth i s no mere, no l e s s meaningful than any other
-"Already found i n V i r g i l ' s a c c o u n t ; i n Horace Odes

11,13,29-36-and 111,11,17-29; i n P r o p e r t i u s IV,11,23-6,
and elsewhere.
myth. I t i s apt m a t e r i a l f o r a c l e v e r and g i f t e d poet t o
use as he p l e a s e s . Orpheus has no p e r s o n a l i t y : a t one and
the same time he i s s a t e d w i t h mourning i n the upper w o r l d
and dares t o descend t o Hades. He r e p r e s e n t s n o t h i n g . But
many p r e t t y t h i n g s can be s a i d of him, and n o t h i n g need be
taken too seriously.
Prom Seneca, S t a t i u s and the fragments of Lucan,
we can deduce a. S t o i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the myth. A l l three
mention how the F a t e s must r e - s p i n the t h r e a d of E u r y d i c e ' s
l i f e , and the p h i l o s o p h i c musings i n Seneca's H e r c u l e s
Oetaeus,
a.eternum f i e r i n i h i l (1035),
are c e r t a i n l y S t o i c i n f l a v o r . A f t e r Orpheus' s t o r y i s t o l d ,
the chorus i n f o r m us t h a t ever a f t e r the burden of h i s song
was:
T h i s seems t r u e d e s p i t e Wade C. Stephens who, in a
d o c t o r a l t h e s i s w r i t t e n a t P r i n c e t o n i n 1957, r e l a t e s Ovid's
account t o the Orphic t r a d i t i o n and h o l d s t h a t Book X, with
i t s themes of the b e l i e f i n p e r s o n a l i m m o r t a l i t y and the
supremacy' of l o v e ( e x p r e s s e d b o t h i n Orpheus' descent and
the song he s i n g s ) i s the key t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g how the
Metamorphoses i t s e l f marks a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n the inter-
p r e t a t i o n of mythology.
78
Leges i n superos d a t a s
et q u i tempora d i g e r i t
q u a t t u o r p r a e c i p i t e s deus
anni disposuit v i c e s ;
n u l l i non a v i d i c o l u s
P a r c a s stamina n e c t e r e :
quod natum e s t , p o t e r i t m o r i (1093-9)•
Even the gods are bound by l a w s , and no m o r t a l escapes d e a t h .
These are r e a l l y the themes of the Culex r e i t e r -
ated. S t a t i u s i s even more r e m i n i s c e n t :
O d r y s i i s e t i a m pudet heuj p a t u i s s e q u e r e l l i s
T a r t a r a : v i d i egomet b l a n d a i n t e r car.mina t u r p e s
Eumenidum l a c r i m a s i t e r a t a q u e pensa Sororum;
me quoque - sed durae m e l i o r v i o l e n t i a l e g i s
(Thebaid V I I I , 5 7 - 6 0 ) .
15
The commentator, L a c t a n t i u s . P l a c i d u s , ^ a s s u r e s us t h a t
l e g i s here r e f e r s t o P l u t o ' s c o n d i t i o n , w h i c h i s m e l i o r ,
s t r o n g e r than l o v e ; the god h i m s e l f admits t h a t he was over-
come by'the power of music, t h a t even the P a t e s wept inter
b l a n d a carmina.
Thus, i n the end, i t i s the Culex w h i c h crystal-
l i z e s the meaning of the myth f o r Greek and Roman, poet and
p h i l o s o p h e r , S t o i c and S c e p t i c . B o r r o w i n g from the s e p a r a t e
s t r a n d s of E u r i p i d e s and P l a t o and the o t h e r s , i t s t a t e s
c l e a r l y the c o n f l i c t i n g themes of l o v e , d e a t h and music i n
the myth. I t i s t h i s t r e a t m e n t and these themes w h i c h con-
t i n u e i n the l a t e r a u t h o r s . I f i t seems h a r d l y c r e d i b l e that
a poem i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s q u i t e unremarkable s h o u l d serve as a
p a t t e r n f o r l a t e r p o e t s , perhaps the f a c t of the m a t t e r i s
Commentarius i n L i b r u m V I I , 6 0 .
79
t h a t t h e passage i n t h e Culex d e a l i n g w i t h Orpheus i s a
l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e l o s t A l e x a n d r i a n poem w h i c h f i r s t
t o l d of t h e second l o s s of E u r y d i c e , t h a t l a t e r poets were
u s i n g , n o t t h e C u l e x , but t h e A l e x a n d r i a n o r i g i n a l . . This
16
may w e l l be t h e reason f o r the "curious i n f e l i c i t y " -which
most c r i t i c s f i n d i n t h e Culex - that i t i s a l i t e r a l trans-
l a t i o n from H e l l e n i s t i c Greek.
Ovid's s t o r y i s w e l l - t o l d , b u t f o r a l l i t s w e a l t h
of d e t a i l , i t adds n o t h i n g t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e
myth, w h i l e t h e S t o i c s seem t o have imposed a meaning on i t .
Virgil stands a l o n e . He uses t h e C u l e x ; i t may,
a f t e r a l l , be h i s own. But he touches o n l y b r i e f l y on i t s
themes, t r a n s c e n d i n g them t o make Orpheus i n h i s own image,
i d e n t i f y i n g t h e m y t h i c a l f i g u r e w i t h . h i m s e l f as M i l t o n ,
R i l k e and Cocteau were t o do l a t e r . I t i s i r o n i c , perhaps
d i s a p p o i n t i n g , t h a t i n the great c l a s s i c a l v e r s i o n of the
myth, i t s b a s i c themes a r e n o t e x p l o r e d ; t h e s t o r y i s
s t y l i z e d , i t s meaning i s s a c r i f i c e d t o produce an Orpheus-
f i g u r e , t h e u n i v e r s a l poet and a r t i s t , the c i v i l i z e r . But
it i s t h i s f i g u r e , not the l o v e r , that i s , a f t e r all,the
Orpheus of t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . V i r g i l has g i v e n him t o us
more p o w e r f u l l y , but more s u b t l y , than any o t h e r author,
and G u t h r i e p r o b a b l y d i d n o t even have V i r g i l i n mind when
he summed up t h e a n c i e n t Orpheus, but i t i s V i r g i l ' s Orpheus
'W.R. H a r d i e , "The C u l e x " , C_Q_ l 4 ( 1 9 2 0 ) , p. 3 7 .

8o
t h a t we t h i n k of when we r e a d h i s summary:
"The i n f l u e n c e o f Orpheus was always on t h e
s i d e of c i v i l i z a t i o n and t h e a r t s of peace... He
taught men...the a r t s of a g r i c u l t u r e and i n t h i s ,
way i n c l i n e d t h e i r n a t u r e s towards peace and g e n t l e -
ness. Themistios...writes 'Even t h e i n i t i a t i o n s and
r i t e s of Orpheus were not unconnected w i t h the a r t
of husbandry. That i s i n f a c t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of
the myth when i t d e s c r i b e s him as charming and s o f t e n -
i n g t h e h e a r t s of a l l . The c u l t i v a t e d f r u i t s w h i c h
husbandry o f f e r s us have a c i v i l i z i n g e f f e c t on
human n a t u r e i n g e n e r a l and on the h a b i t s o f b e a s t s ;
and t h e animal p a s s i o n s i n our h e a r t s i t e x c i s e s

17
and r e n d e r s harmless'."
Op. c i t . , pp. 40-41.

CHAPTER I I I
THE MIDDLE AGES
Orpheus s u r v i v e d the c o l l a p s e of the a n c i e n t

w o r l d w i t h conspicuous ease. As e a r l y as 225 he appears w i t h
C h r i s t and Abraham i n the L a r a r i u m o f the emperor Severus
Alexander;"'" the f i g u r e of Orpheus charming the b e a s t s i s
one of the few m o t i f s from c l a s s i c a l mythology w h i c h r e c u r
w i t h any frequency i n the catacombs and s a r c o p h a g i , where i t

2
becomes i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the Good Shepherd; another d e v i c e ,
the f i s h , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Orpheus as the v i c t o r over death,
becomes a w i d e s p r e a d C h r i s t i a n symbol.
The F a t h e r s of the Church r e f e r f r e q u e n t l y t o
Orpheus. U s u a l l y i t i s the Orphic poet who i s meant; but

E u s e b i u s mentions the m y t h i c a l Orpheus who charmed the
4
beasts; and Clement of A l e x a n d r i a , i n condemning Orpheus
See H i s t o r i a Augusta, Severus A l e x a n d e r , 29,2.
See G u t h r i e , op_. c i t . , pp. 264-7 and f i g s . l8a-c.

•o
"'See J e s s i e L. Weston, From R i t u a l t o Romance (Cambridge,
1920), p. 120. B u t t h e r e may be no more c o n n e c t i o n between
t h i s symbol and Orpheus than the v e r b a l s i m i l a r i t y between
Orpheus and orphos, the sea-perch, whence a pun by the A t t i c
comedian A l e x i s . See Edmonds, op_. c i t . , v o l . 2, p. 427.

4
O r a t i o n i n p r a i s e of_ C o n s t a n t i n e 14,5.
81
82
and Amphion as d e c e i v e r s , and e x t o l l i n g C h r i s t as t h e hea-
v e n l y m u s i c i a n who tames savage men and makes i n a n i m a t e
n a t u r e s come t o l i f e , marks t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a l o n g - l i v e d
5
t r a d i t i o n w h i c h a s s o c i a t e s C h r i s t and Orpheus.
The E u r y d i c e - s t o r y s u r v i v e d c h i e f l y because i t
was g i v e n b r i e f b u t c l a s s i c t r e a t m e n t by one o f t h e g r e a t
minds i n t h e h i s t o r y o f European thought, one w h i c h
b e s t r i d e s t h e c l a s s i c a l and medieval", p e r i o d s . A n i c i u s
M a n l i u s S e v e r i n u s B o e t h i u s ( c . 480-524) was "the l a s t o f t h e
Romans whom Cato o r T u l l y c o u l d have acknowledged f o r t h e i r

6
countrymen" and " f o r a thousand y e a r s one o f t h e most
i n f l u e n t i a l w r i t e r s i n Europe". H i s most famous work,
The Consolation of Philosophy, I s a powerful synthesis of
Greek thought, Roman e x p r e s s i o n and C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s i n
a l t e r n a t i n g p r o s e ( a p p r o x i m a t i n g t h a t o f C i c e r o ) and p o e t r y
(modeled a f t e r Seneca).
Among t h e most famous o f t h e p o e t i c passages i s t h e
s t o r y o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e w h i c h c l o s e s Book I I I . B o e t h i u s
h a s b e e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e summum bonum, and now, l e s t h i s r e a d e r
^ E x h o r t a t i o n t o t h e Heathen 1,4.
6
Edward Gibbon, The D e c l i n e and F a l l o f t h e Roman Empire,
XXXIVj i n The Modern L i b r a r y e d i t i o n (New York, n.d.), v o l . 2,
p. 468.
^ G i l b e r t H i g h e t , The C l a s s i c a l T r a d i t i o n (New York, 1957),
p. 41.
83
be tempted t o l o o k back on l e s s sublime m a t t e r s , he adds a
t a l e of warning:
F e l i x qui potuit boni

Fontem v i s e r e l u c i d u m ,
F e l i x qui potuit gravis
Terrae s o l v e r e v i n c u l a .
Quondam f u n e r a c o n u i g i s
V a t e s T h r e i c i u s gemens
Postquam f l e b i l i b u s modis
S i l v a s currere mobiles,
Amnes s t a r e c o e g e r a t ,
Iunxitque intrepidum latus
Saevis cerva l e o n i b u s ,
Nec visum t i m u i t l e p u s
Iam c a n t u p l a c i d u m canem,
Cum f l a g r a n t i o r i n t i m a
Fervor p e c t o r i s ureret,
Nec q u i cuncta subegerant
M u l c e r e n t dominum modi,
I n m i t e s superos querens
•Infernas a d i i t domos.
I l l i c blanda sonantibus
C h o r d i s carmina temperans
Q u i d q u i d p r a e c i p u i s deae
Matrix f o n t i b u s hauserat,
Quod l u c t u s dabat impotens,
Quod l u c t u m geminans amor,
D e f l e t Taenara commovens
E t d u l c i veniam p r e c e
Hmbrarum dominos r o g a t .
S t u p e t tergeminus novo'
Captus carmine i a n i t o r ,
Quae sontes a g i t a n t metu
U l t r i c e s s c e l e r u m deae
Iam maestae l a c r i m i s madent.
Non I x i o n i u m caput
Velox p r a e c i p i t a t rota
E t longa s i t e p e r d i t u s
Spernit flumina Tantalus.
V u l t u r dum s a t u r e s t modis,
Non t r a x i t T i t y i i e c u r .
Tandem, 'Vincimur,' a r b i t e r
Umbrarum miserans a i t ,
1
Donamus comitem v i r o
Emptam carmine coniugem.
Sed l e x dona c o e r c e a t ,
Ne, dum T a r t a r a l i q u e r i t ,
Fas s i t lumina f l e c t e r e . '
Quis legem det amantibus?
Maior l e x amor e s t s i b i . .
Heu, n o c t i s prope t e r m i n o s
84
•Orpheus Eurydicem suam
Vidit, perdidit, occidit.
The famous m o r a l i s ' t h e n added:
Vos haec f a b u l a r e s p i c i t
Quicumque i n superum diem
Mentem ducere q u a e r i t i s . .
Nam q u i Tartareum i n specus
V i c t u s lumina f l e x e r i t ,
Quid'quid praecipuum t r a h i t
Perd.it, dum v i d e t i n f e r o s ( l l l , m e t r u m 1 2 ) .
Though Boethius' moral i s somewhat m i s a p p l i e d -

1
for Orpheus h a r d l y t u r n e d t o l o o k hack on the H e l l he had
l e f t b e h i n d - i t proved t o have a s t r o n g a p p e a l f o r a t h o u s -
and y e a r s t o come. W i t h Boethius-' Orpheus we e n t e r i n t o a
new age. Orpheus i s no l o n g e r the c i v i l i z e r ; he i s the
c e n t r a l f i g u r e of a f a s c i n a t i n g story,, and a s t o r y w h i c h
w i l l admit of many i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
The a l l e g o r i z i n g of c l a s s i c a l myth, so p o p u l a r
i n t h e ' M i d d l e Ages, began as e a r l y as the s i x t h c e n t u r y w i t h
the grammarian. F u l g e n t i u s . I n h i s Mythology, the Muse
' C a l l i o p e r e v e a l s t o him the t r u e sense of the famous myths
of antiquity. The O r p h e u s - s t o r y i s modeled a f t e r Virgil,
but t o l d i n the b r i e f e s t , . p l a i n e s t l a n g u a g e . Then f o l l o w s
the allegory:
Haec i g i t u r . f a b u l a a r t l s e s t musicae
d e s i g n a t i o . . Orpheus enim d i c i t u r o r e a f o n e ,
i d e s t optima vox, E u r i d l c e v e r o p r o f u n d a d i -
i u d i c a t i o (111,10,731-3)..
E v e r y a r t , P u l g e n t i u s c o n t i n u e s , i s comprised of a p r i m a r y
and a secondary a r t . W i t h music the p r i m a r y a r t I s

85
p e r s u a s i v e - t h e e f f e c t u s tonorum v i r t u s q u e verborumj i n t h e
myth t h i s m y s t e r i o u s power o f music i s embodied, I n E u r y d i c e .
The secondary a r t of music i s s c i e n t i f i c - t h e armonia
ptongorum, sistematum e t diastematum; i n t h e myth t h i s
t h e o r e t i c a l s i d e o f music is. embodied i n Orpheus. Thus t h e
l o v e of Orpheus f o r E u r y d i c e becomes t h e d e l i g h t o f t h e
optima vox - t h e t a l e n t e d and t r a i n e d m u s i c i a n - i n t h e
I n t e r n a l s e c r e t s o f t h e a r t o f music, so as t o sound t h e
m y s t i c a l power o f t h e words. But t h e more t h i s h i g h e r ,
m y s t e r i o u s a r t o f music i s p u r s u e d , even by t h e b e s t men
( A r i s t a e u s ) , t h e more she eludes, them. Rational investigation
(the s e r p e n t ) a l l b u t d e s t r o y s h e r , and she t a k e s r e f u g e i n
the s e c r e t undergrounds. Only Orpheus, t h e vox c a n o r a ,
w i t h h i s thorough grasp of t h e a r t of music can seek h e r out
and l e a d h e r back - and even he u n w i s e l y seeks t o d i s c o v e r
the s e c r e t power o f h e r e f f e c t u s ; though f o r b i d d e n t o
l o o k upon h e r , he t u r n s and l o s e s h e r . F o r no one, n o t
P y t h a g o r a s h i m s e l f , can e x p l a i n t h e e f f e c t u s , t h e power of
music.
The s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y a n t i q u a r i a n , I s i d o r e o f
Seville, i n deriving lyra otffo ^ Auy&/v (Etymologiarum
(111,22,8-9), t e l l s o f Orpheus r e c e i v i n g t h e l y r e from
Mercury, and e n c h a n t i n g n a t u r e w i t h i t , b u t makes no men-
t i o n of Eurydice.
86
B o e t h i u s , P u l g e n t i u s and I s i d o r e l i v e d i n the
v i o l e n t age of t r a n s i t i o n when L a t i n was r e f a s h i o n e d i n a
p r o f u s i o n of new languages and d i a l e c t s , was p r e s e r v e d i n
the m o n a s t e r i e s , was developed i n the l i t u r g y of the Church.
What Greek s u r v i v e d was l i t t l e u n d e r s t o o d , w h i l e myth was
o f t e n p r e s e r v e d as h i s t o r i c a l f a c t - i r o n i c a l l y enough, as
i n some cases a t l e a s t i t o r i g i n a t e d as such.. As the raw
m a t e r i a l s f o r the new culture settled into place, V i r g i l ,
Horace and Ovid l a y o n l y t h i n l y b u r i e d beneath the s u r f a c e
d e b r i s ; the g l o r i e s of Greece l a y deeper, and were con-
cealed f o r centuries. Much was l o s t f o r e v e r , but what was
r e d i s c o v e r e d was f i r e d by the heat of new ideals, treated in
fresh i f unsophisticatedfashion. E v e n t u a l l y the Orpheus
of a n t i q u i t y was r e b o r n i n the mazes of a l l e g o r y and the
aura of romance, h a l f u n d e r s t o o d perhaps, but w i t h new vigor
and meaning.
I t i s p o s s i b l e , but not t o o l i k e l y , t h a t Orpheus'
s t o r y was told in early oral literature. The s c a n t remains
of o l d German, S p a n i s h and I t a l i a n show no t r a c e o f him.
There are two e x t a n t fragments of o l d F r e n c h which d e a l

8
w i t h Orpheus and h i s descent i n t o Hades. One of t h e s e ,
i n a m a n u s c r i p t from Geneva, p u t s Orpheus i n the power of
the f i e n d , who g u i d e s him down t o H e l l and causes h i s r u i n on
h i s .return by making a sudden n o i s e behind him. This i s
°See George L. K i t t r e d g e , " S i r Orfeo", AJP 7(1886),

pp. 171-202.
87
p r o b a b l y a m i s t a k e n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t e r q u e f r a g o r of
Virgil. 9
T h i s and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e two fragments probably
date o n l y as f a r back as t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y seem t o i n d i c a t e
a l i t e r a r y r a t h e r than an o r a l antecedent.
I t w a s , i n E n g l a n d , of c o u r s e , t h a t t h e l a r g e s t amount
of vernacular l i t e r a t u r e was w r i t t e n and p r e s e r v e d d u r i n g
these times. Anglo-Saxon p o e t r y c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l q u a s i -

i
Orphean d e s c e n t s , such as Beowulf's j o u r n e y t o t h e bottom o f
the s e a t o f i g h t t h e monster G r e n d e l . The myth i t s e l f came
to B r i t a i n w i t h V i r g i l and Ovid and e s p e c i a l l y w i t h B o e t h i u s .
When t h e k i n g o f .the West Saxons, A l f r e d t h e Great (848-901),
had s t a v e d o f f t h e Danes from h i s i s l a n d , he t r a n s l a t e d into
the common tongue t h e f o u r books - of r e l i g i o n , of p h i l o s o p h y ,
of E n g l i s h and o f Church h i s t o r y - w h i c h b e s t p r e s e r v e d t h e
t r a d i t i o n s and c u l t u r e of h i s p e o p l e . So B o e t h i u s ' C o n s o l a -
t i o n was t r a n s l a t e d , expanded and expounded f o r n i n t h - c e n t u r y
B r i t o n s , n o t w i t h t h e s c h o l a r s h i p Bede c o u l d have l a v i s h e d
upon i t ( f o r a c e n t u r y of war had wrought a d e c l i n e i n l e a r n -
ing), b u t w i t h t h e care of a p i o u s monarch who kept i n mind
the i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t i e s and s p i r i t u a l needs o f h i s sub-
jects. A l f r e d , a m u s i c i a n h i m s e l f , was t h e f i r s t t o i n t r o d u c e
Orpheus t o Anglo-Saxons - and i n a C h r i s t i a n s e t t i n g :

I t happened f o r m e r l y t h a t t h e r e was a h a r p e r
i n t h e c o u n t r y c a l l e d Thrace, w h i c h was i n Greece.
The h a r p e r was i n c o n c e i v a b l y good. H i s name was
Orpheus. He had a v e r y e x c e l l e n t w i f e who was
c a l l e d E u r y d i c e . . . . Then s a i d t h e y , t h a t t h e
k m i s c o n c e p t i o n t h a t can be t r a c e d even t o M o n t e v e r d i ' s

y
Orfeo..
88
h a r p e r ' s w i f e s h o u l d d i e , and h e r s o u l s h o u l d be
l e d t o h e l l . , . . T h e n thought he, t h a t he would
seek t h e gods of h e l l , and endeavour t o s o f t e n
them w i t h - h i s harp,, and p r a y t h a t t h e y would
g i v e him back h i s wife....When he l o n g and l o n g
had harped, then spoke t h e k i n g of t h e i n h a b i -
t a n t s of h e l l , and s a i d : L e t us g i v e t h e man
h i s w i f e , f o r he has earned h e r by h i s h a r p i n g .
He then commanded him, t h a t he s h o u l d w e l l
observe t h a t he never l o o k e d backwards a f t e r he
d e p a r t e d t h e n c e , and s a i d t h a t i f he l o o k e d
backwards he s h o u l d l o s e t h e wife... B u t men can
w i t h great d i f f i c u l t y , i f at a l l , r e s t r a i n love.
Welaway! what! Orpheus then l e d h i s w i f e w i t h
him, t i l l he came t o t h e boundary o f l i g h t
and d a r k n e s s . Then went t h e w i f e a f t e r him.
When he came f o r t h i n t o the l i g h t , then l o o k e d
he backwards towards t h e w i f e . Then was she
i m m e d i a t e l y l o s t t o him. - T h i s f a b l e teaches
e v e r y man who d e s i r e s t o f l y t h e darkness o f
h e l l , and t o come t o t h e l i g h t of t h e t r u e
good, t h a t he r e g a r d n o t h i s o l d v i c e s , so
t h a t he p r a c t i s e them a g a i n as f u l l y as b e f o r e
he d i d . F o r whosoever w i t h f u l l w i l l t u r n s h i s
mind t o t h e v i c e s w h i c h he had b e f o r e f o r s a k e n ,
and p r a c t i s e s them, and t h e y then f u l l y p l e a s e
him, and he n e v e r t h i n k s o f f o r s a k i n g them;
then l o s e s he a l l h i s former good, u n l e s s he
a g a i n amend i t ( X X X V , 6 ) . 1 °
The C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s n a t u r a l and
a t t r a c t i v e : where B o e t h i u s had a d v i s e d a g a i n s t l o s i n g t h e
c o n s o l a t i o n s of p h i l o s o p h i c a l , t r u t h , A l f r e d advises against
f a l l i n g back i n t o s i n .
T r a n s l a t e d by J.S. C a r d a l e , i n K i n g A l f r e d ' s Anglo-Saxon
V e r s i o n of Boethius (London, 1 8 2 9 ) , pp.. 2 6 1 - 5 .

W i t h t h e dawn o f t h e M i d d l e Ages, t h e c e n t e r of
the w o r l d o f l e t t e r s s h i f t e d t o P r a n c e . Orpheus was c e r -
t a i n l y well-known t o t h e C a r o l i n g i a n R e n a i s s a n c e : Boethius
was one of i t s f a v o r i t e t e x t b o o k s , and V i r g i l ' s p o p u l a r i t y
was so g r e a t t h a t t h e p e r i o d i s o f t e n c a l l e d t h e a e t a s
Vergiliana. I n an a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f V i r g i l ' s
Orpheus-episode, by Remigius o f A u x e r r e , 1 1
Eurydice
t y p i f i e s earth-bound d e s i r e , enmeshed i n v i c e and unable
t o r i s e even a t t h e e l o q u e n t p e r s u a s i o n of Orpheus..
By.;the t e n t h c e n t u r y i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e s t o r y
of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e has made i t s way i n one form or
a n o t h e r t o most of t h e c o u n t r i e s o f Europe. Thus t h e
monk Proumond complains t o t h e abbot of Tegernsee t h a t
the people a r e more a t t r a c t e d t o p r o f a n e and mendacious
mimes such as t h a t o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , than t o

12
d e v o t i o n a l and m e t r i c a l l y c o r r e c t works..
In t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y t h e r e dawned, w i t h t h e
"'""'"Recorded by t h e t h i r d V a t i c a n mythographer ( A l b e r i c u s ) .
See Kern, Orphic orum Fragment a, p. 20..
"1 ?
Froumundi Poemata XX, 36-42., i n P a t r o l o g i a e L a t i n a e ,
ed. J.-P. Migne, v o l . l 4 l , p. 1300d.

90
M e d i e v a l R e n a i s s a n c e , the a e t a s O v i d i a n a . J
Again, Prance
was the c e n t e r from w h i c h l i t e r a r y thought was communicated
t o the r e s t of Europe. The Chanson de Roland i n a u g u r a t e d a
g r e a t era of romance, i n w h i c h c l a s s i c a l s u b j e c t s were t o
f i n d t h e i r way back i n t o the mainstream of European l i t e r a r y
tradition. The s t o r y of Troy was r e t o l d , and Aeneas'
wanderings; the m y t h i c a l Oedipus and the h i s t o r i c a l Alexander
b o t h became heroes of l e n g t h y q u a s i - h i s t o r i c a l poems, and
i n the' Lay of A r i s t o t l e the v e n e r a b l e p h i l o s o p h e r was
t r i c k e d and c a j o l e d by an o r i e n t a l maiden. These f a n t a s t i c
p e r v e r s i o n s , w i t h the c l a s s i c a l f i g u r e s t r i c k e d out i n
medieval::, armor, are the h a r b i n g e r s of " l e Moyen-Age. . .
un grand e n f a n t q u i , comme tous l e s e n f a n t s , demande sans

„14
cesse qu'on l u i conte du n o u v e l l e s h i s t o i r e s . I t was
t h i s p e r i o d w h i c h r e d i s c o v e r e d Ovid,, one of the g r e a t s t o r y
t e l l e r s of the p a s t , and Orpheus - a l o n g w i t h N a r c i s s u s and
A r i a d n e and the l o v e r s Pyramus and Thisbe - becomes one of the
s t o c k f i g u r e s of the romance. W i t h V i r g i l and B o e t h i u s
a l r e a d y w e l l known, not the l e a s t reason f o r Orpheus'
p o p u l a r i t y i n the M i d d l e Ages i s the f a c t t h a t these t h r e e
°For the terms see L.K. Born, "Ovid and A l l e g o r y " , Speculum
9(1934), p. 363.and C h a r l e s Homer H a s k i n s , The. Renaissance of
the T w e l f t h Century (New York, 1957),. p. 6.
14
A. J o l y , quoted i n K i t t r e d g e , op. c i t . , p. 183.
91
f a v o r i t e a u t h o r s had a l l t o l d h i s s t o r y . Thus i n the
Flamenca, a P r o v e n c a l roman d'aventure of t h e e a r l y
t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , we r e a d t h a t the w e l l - t r a i n e d t r o u b a d o r
s h o u l d s i n g , b e s i d e s the s t o r i e s o f the B i b l e and the legends
of K i n g A r t h u r and Aeneas,
de P l u t o con emblet
sa b e l l a m o l l i e r ad Orpheu (648-9)•
15
In t h e Roman de l a Rose, Orpheus' u n n a t u r a l v i c e i s d e c r i e d .
Orpheus i s a l s o a l l u d e d t o i n some v e r s i o n s o f t h e Romance
of t h e Seven Sages,, a p o p u l a r c o l l e c t i o n o f t a l e s w h i c h
came from the E a s t t o Prance and spread thence t o I t a l y ,
Sweden, Wales, E n g l a n d , the Lowlands, Germany and S p a i n ;
i n l a t e r t i m e s i t i s found from I c e l a n d t o the S l a v i c countries

16
and Russia..
T .
The O r p h e u s - s t o r y i t s e l f was thus absorbed by France
and b r o a d c a s t t o the r e s t o f a k e e n l y a t t u n e d and u n i f i e d
Europe i n .several romances, o n l y one of w h i c h , the M i d d l e
E n g l i s h S i r Orf eo,. has come down t o u s . T h i s much admired
1 5
L i n e s . 19651-4.
16
See L a u r a A. H i b b a r d , M e d i e v a l Romance i n England (New
York, 1924), pp. 174-8'. I n the L a t i n v e r s i o n o f t h e romance,
Orpheus i s mentioned i n t h e passage quoted from Horace,
A r s P o e t i c a , 391-2,. i n t h e s e c t i o n P u t e u s .
92
poem owes something t o a n t i q u i t y , but f o l l o w s V i r g i l and
Ovid l e s s c l o s e l y than i t does any number of f o l k - t a l e s which
were c r o s s i n g Europe d u r i n g the e a r l y M i d d l e Ages - s t o r i e s
of j o u r n e y s t o the o t h e r w o r l d and r e t u r n s t h e r e f r o m . I r e l a n d ' s ,
l e g e n d of M i d e r and E t a i n , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o l d how a fairy
p r i n c e s s m a r r i e d a C e l t i c k i n g , was reclaimed by the fairies
u n t i l her m o r t a l husband and h i s w a r r i o r s l a i d s i e g e t o the
fairy h i l l and r e s c u e d h e r . The t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Welshman
W a l t e r Map, i n h i s De_ Nugis C u r i a Hum, wove a R i p Van Winkle-
l i k e story- around- the a n c i e n t B r i t i s h k i n g H e r l a , and told
a n o t h e r t a l e of an anonymous k i n g who sought and r e g a i n e d his
dead w i f e . I t i s l i k e l y t h a t one of these C e l t i c t a l e s , a l l
of w h i c h had happy e n d i n g s , merged at some p o i n t w i t h the
Orpheus-myth, f o r S i r Orfeo has a C e l t i c f l a v o r : the world
of the dead becomes o n l y a f a i r y w o r l d , e n t e r e d t h r o u g h the
s i d e of a h i l l , e n c h a n t i n g , y e t p o w e r f u l and e v i l ; the new
Eurydice f a l l s a s l e e p under a f a i r y t r e e , and the new Orpheus
moves the k i n g of f a i r y l a n d t o make a r a s h p r o m i s e , w i n n i n g
his w i f e back forever-.. But d e s p i t e a l l the r o m a n t i c changes
and a d d i t i o n s , Orpheus' c l a i m t o the s t o r y was stronger than
t h a t of h i s C e l t i c r i v a l s , and h i s name and the name of h i s
w i f e were preserved.
It seems l i k e l y , too., t h a t some such C e l t i c - c l a s s i c
v e r s i o n of the myth made i t s way t o Prance,, f o r S i r Orfeo
shows many s i g n s of o l d F r e n c h a n c e s t r y , and Indeed, a l a y
o£ Orpheus was p o p u l a r at the F r e n c h c o u r t s ; t h i s f a c t i s

w i t n e s s e d t h r e e times i n t h e l a t e t w e l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h
c e n t u r i e s : i n the L a i de l ' E s p i n e , t h e Prose T a l e o f L a n c e l o t
and i n F l o i r e e t B l a n c h e f l o r , t h e k i n g s and t h e i r r e t i n u e
are moved by t h e m i n s t r e l s i n g i n g of Orpheus and h i s

17
Eurydice, 1
The passages seem t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e poem i n
q u e s t i o n was a B r e t o n l a y , w h i c h i s not s u r p r i s i n g , as t h i s
18
was t h e u s u a l way i n w h i c h such t a l e s come t o P r a n c e .
Thus i t i s p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e a development of Or-
pheus' s t o r y from t h e w r i t i n g s of V i r g i l and Ovid t o a
C e l t i c f o l k t a l e t o a B r e t o n l a y t o a F r e n c h romance, and,
f i n a l l y , t o a Middle E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n .
We have t h r e e v e r s i o n s o f t h e E n g l i s h S i r Orfeo,
as i t i s c a l l e d . The e a r l i e s t o f t h e s e , i n the f o u r t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y A u c h i n l e c k m a n u s c r i p t , may be c o n s i d e r e d t h e s t a n d -
a r d v e r s i o n ; t h e o t h e r two, c o n t a i n e d i n MSS. H a r l e i a n 38IO
(Orpheo and H e u r o d i s ) and Ashmolean ( K i n g Orfew), a r e
" M i n s t r e l v a r i a n t s of a second v e r s i o n d e r i v e d from t h e

,, i q
same source as t h e A u c h i n l e c k . The o r i g i n a l poem i s
a s c r i b e d t o the l a t e t h i r t e e n t h century.
17
•See'Sir Orfeo, e d , A . J . B l i s s , p. x x x i .
18
F o r a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n of t h e problem, see i b i d . , x x v i i -
x x x i x , and compare t h e romances of Marie de F r a n c e , who used
as h e r sources many B r e t o n lays.
19
^Hibbard-, op. c i t . , p.. 195.
94
The A u c h i n l e c k S i r Orfeo opens w i t h a f i f t y - s i x

20
l i n e prologue, in. w h i c h we are p l a i n l y t o l d t h a t t h i s i s
a v e r s i o n of an o l d B r e t o n l a y - the s t o r y of Orfeo, a noble
k i n g and s k i l l f u l h a r p e r , descended from P l u t o and from Juno,
who l i v e d i n Thrace ( f o r so was W i n c h e s t e r y c l e p t i n those
days) w i t h h i s l o v e l y queen H e u r o d i s .
The f i r s t s e c t i o n of t h e poem t e l l s of H e u r o d i s 1
a b d u c t i o n by the f a i r i e s . On a warm May morning she falls

a s l e e p i n her o:orchard, and a f t e r an u n u s u a l l y l o n g slumber
she awakes h a l f c r a z e d - f o r a m y s t e r i o u s k i n g and a company
of k n i g h t s have appeared t o her i n a dream and marked her
for taking. Orfeo i s g r e a t l y d i s t r e s s e d , and surrounds her
w i t h h i s own men, but t o no a v a i l - a t the a p p o i n t e d time
she suddenly v a n i s h e s :
Ac j e t e amiddes hem f u l r i 3 t
pe quen "was oway y - t v i ^ t (191-2) .
The most s t r i k i n g and perhaps the most e s s e n t i a l
f e a t u r e here and, indeed, throughout the e n t i r e poem i s the
c o n t r a s t between the goodness of the m o r t a l world', w i t h i t s
warm human r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and the c r a w l i n g e v i l o f the o t h e r
20
The f i r s t l i n e s of the p r o l o g u e are almost i d e n t i c a l w i t h
those o f the M i d d l e E n g l i s h Lay l e F r e i n e , and P o u l e t b e l i e v e s
t h e y were a p a r t of the l o s t F r e n c h Orpheus ( c f . MLN- 21 [1906],
pp. 46-50). But he i s e f f e c t i v e l y answered by Guillaume
(MLN 26 [1921], pp. 458-64) and B l i s s (op_. c i t . , p . x l v i i ) .

w o r l d w h i c h reaches out t o c l a i m i t s v i c t i m . Thus goodness,
o r d e r l i n e s s and v i r t u e predominate as Orfeo c a l l s a
"parlement", a p p o i n t s a steward t o r u l e i n h i s absence,
c l o t h e s h i m s e l f as a p i l g r i m and s e t s out t o f i n d Heurodis;
w h i l e the e e r i e , m a g i c a l atmosphere i s a g a i n evoked as Orfeo
wanders f o r t e n y e a r s throughout the f o r e s t s of f a i r y l a n d ,
charming the w i l d b e a s t s , then f o l l o w i n g the f a i r y h u n t e r s -
b l o o d l e s s c r e a t u r e s whose hounds and horns can make o n l y
muted sounds, who abduct m o r t a l s but cannot k i l l them.. Some
human f i g u r e s are hunting., t o o : f o r a moment the sense of
goodness and r e a l i t y r e t u r n s as Orfeo notes t h a t the
l a d i e s hawking by the r i v e r are a b l e t o c a t c h and kill
t h e i r prey. Among them i s H e u r o d i s h e r s e l f , and she gives
him a p a t h e t i c glance b e f o r e the o t h e r s sweep her away.
O r f e o . f o l l o w s them on t h r o u g h a passage i n the r o c k s t o a
p a l a c e of c r y s t a l and g o l d w i t h a hundred jeweled towers.
Here he beholds w i t h h o r r o r the unmasked e v i l of t h i s magi-
cal w o r l d - f o r c o u n t l e s s abducted m o r t a l s are h e l d c a p t i v e ,
f i x e d i n the a t t i t u d e s of t h e i r enchantment. Orfeo f o r c e s
an entrance i n t o the f a i r y - c o u r t , and t h e r e he p l a y s so b e a u t i -
f u l l y t h a t t h e . k i n g b i d s him name h i s own reward. When he
asks f o r H e u r o d i s the k i n g r e f u s e s t o keep h i s word, u n t i l
Orfeo reminds him;
'Gentil King!
3ete were i t a wele f o u l e r f>ing
To here a l e s i n g of p i moupe:
So, S i r , as j e seyd noupe
What i c h wold a s k i haue y schold.,
& nedes pou most p i word h o l d . ' (463-8).
When t h e e v i l k i n g succumbs t o a p o i n t of honor t h e mount-
ing sense o f e v i l i s d i s s i p a t e d , and t h e r e s t of t h e s t o r y i s
p l a y e d i n W i n c h e s t e r a g a i n i n an aura o f goodness t r i u m p h a n t :
though t h e c o u r t does n o t r e c o g n i z e Orfeo t h e y r e c e i v e him
as a h a r p e r i n memory o f t h e l o n g l o s t . k i n g ; i n a r e c o g n i -
t i o n - s c e n e the f a i t h f u l n e s s of t h e steward i s t e s t e d and
borne o u t ; Orfeo rewards them a l l . a n d l i v e s h a p p i l y e v e r
a f t e r w i t h h i s queen.
S i r Orfeo may be r e g a r d e d .as a t r u e h e i r o f t h e
Orpheus-poems o f a n t i q u i t y , f o r i t s theme i s a f t e r a l l t h e
power of t r u e l o v e and music over t h e f o r c e s of e v i l . But
it owes much more t o t h e r i c h sources of m e d i e v a l romance:
what i s u n i v e r s a l l y admired i n t h e poem i s t h e charming
naivete which i n v e s t s the c l a s s i c a l s t o r y w i t h medieval
t o w e r s , G o t h i c d r e s s , C e l t i c f a i r i e s and o l d E n g l i s h customs.
I t s g r e a t e s t debt, however, i s t o t h e c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n t h e
M i d d l e Ages made between good and e v i l . For i t i s the

a r t f u l s u g g e s t i o n of these two opposing w o r l d s , w i t h t h e
t h r e a t of e v i l mounting to' a c l i m a x , then b e i n g f o r e v e r dis-
p e r s e d , t h a t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e a u t h o r was touched w i t h
genius. H i s t h o r o u g h l y m e d i e v a l Weltanschauung e n a b l e d him
t o t e l l h i s s t o r y w i t h c o n v i c t i o n and l o v i n g a t t e n t i o n . If
i t f o r b a d e h i s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e second l o s s o f Eurydice,.
so much t h e b e t t e r ; S i r Orfeo has r e v i v i f i e d , even recreated-,

97
the myth i n new terms, and t h a t i s the i m p o r t a n t f a c t . -The
t r a g i c e n d i n g of the myth i s u n t h i n k a b l e i n r o m a n t i c
•Christendom; Orpheus' s t o r y must be a h a p p y - e v e r - a f t e r
t r i u m p h of good over evil.
There may w e l l have been an I t a l i a n S i r Orfeo,
j u d g i n g from the I t a l i a n form of the name i n the E n g l i s h

poem, and from the l i k e l i h o o d t h a t a famous F r e n c h l a y would
m i g r a t e t o I t a l y as w e l l as t o E n g l a n d . We may be sure t h a t
m e d i e v a l I t a l y knew Orpheus i n one form or a n o t h e r . Virgil's
G e o r g i c was c e r t a i n l y w e l l known, though the immense p r e s t -
ige of the "maestro e a u t o r e " r e s t e d more on h i s a v a i l a b i l i t y
as a t e x t b o o k of grammar 'and r h e t o r i c , on the r o m a n t i c
A e n e i d and the " M e s s i a n i c " Eclogue than on h i s Orpheus-
story. And a l t h o u g h a c e l e b r a t e d c r i t i c can d e s c r i b e Dante
as "more f o r t u n a t e than Orpheus" f o r he " r e l e a s e d out of the
s t r u g g l i n g n i g h t of i m p u l s e s an i d e a l shape, the h e a v e n l y
21
Beatrice", i t i s the l e a r n e d Orpheus, not the Orpheus who
l o s t E u r y d i c e , t h a t we meet i n the Limbo of the I n f e r n o .
F o r the age knew no Greek and w i t h i t s s t r o n g and v i b r a n t
f a i t h i n C h r i s t i a n i t y had no need f o r Greek myth. I n the
I t a l y of the t w e l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s - the t i m e s of
the g r e a t F l o r e n t i n e , S t . F r a n c i s and S t . Thomas Aquinas,
K a r l V o s s l e r , M e d i e v a l C u l t u r e (New York, 1929), Vol.. 1,
p. 318.
98
G i o t t o and the c o u n t l e s s anonymous w r i t e r s and a r t i s t s - •
when the - slow p r o c e s s of c i v i l i z a t i o n was suddenly accelerated
and the knowledge o f L a t i n and o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s deepened
and expanded, the d r i v i n g f o r c e was not a d e s i r e t o emulate
a n t i q u i t y - t h a t was t o come soon enough - but t o p e n e t r a t e
t o the u n i v e r s a l s , the t r u e , good and b e a u t i f u l , i n l i f e and
belief. When t h i s i d e a l was t u r n e d on c l a s s i c myth, the
i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t was a l l e g o r y . Always a p o p u l a r l i t e r a r y
form i n the C h r i s t i a n e r a , a l l e g o r y became i n the t w e l f t h
and t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s "the u n i v e r s a l v e h i c l e of p i o u s
22
expression", "the bone, muscle, and n e r v e s of serious
2^
medieval l i t e r a t u r e " , J
and one of i t s g r e a t source-books
24
was Ovid. Of the many a l l e g o r i e s d e r i v e d from h i s account
of the s t o r y of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , those i n the Ovide
M o r a l i s e , p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n by C h r e t i e n Legouais Saint-Maure,
s h o u l d be o u t l i n e d as b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and
influential.
Henry Osborn T a y l o r , The M e d i e v a l Mind (Cambridge, Mass.,
1959), vol.. 2, p. 395.

2S
Douglas Bush, Mythology and the R e n a i s s a n c e T r a d i t i o n
i n E n g l i s h P o e t r y (New York, 1957), p. 15.
24
V i r g i l was a c c e p t e d e a r l y as a C h r i s t i a n p r o p h e t ; Ovid
appeared b e l a t e d l y as a s a i n t and m a r t y r who wrote p o e t r y
for a moral purpose: a V i e de Saint. Ovide M a r t y r was written
i n P a r i s i n 1667.
99
In the account of the myth i t s e l f , Ovide M o r a l i s e
f o l l o w s Ovid i n almost a l l i t s d e t a i l s , but d i v e r g e s n o t a b l y
in i n t r o d u c i n g A r i s t a e u s ( l i n e s 1-195)- Then i s g i v e n
(196-219) the " h i s t o r i c a l sens" of the s t o r y : Orpheus, a f t e r
l o s i n g E u r y d i c e , t u r n e d t o u n n a t u r a l l o v e , thus l o s i n g b o t h
body and s o u l . Two separate a l l e g o r i e s f o l l o w * The first
(220-443), v e r y d e t a i l e d and e l a b o r a t e , b e g i n s :
Par Orpheus p u i s d r o i t e m e n t
N o t e r r e g n a b l e entendement,
E t p a r E u r i d i c e sa fame
La s e n s u a l i t e de 1' ame.
Ces deus choses p a r mariage
Sont j o i n t e s en 1 'umain l i g n a g e (220-5)*
While Orpheus and E u r y d i c e thus s i g n i f y two p a r t s of the
s o u l , A r i s t a e u s I s " n o t e r v e r t u de b i e n v i v r e " (228) and
the s e r p e n t " m o r t e l v i c e " (242). S e n s u a l i t y , having foolishly
s e p a r a t e d h e r s e l f from r e a s o n , runs b a r e f o o t t h r o u g h the
g r a s s of w o r l d l y d e l i g h t s , r e s i s t i n g the advances of v i r t u e ,
until, f a l l i n g i n t o m o r t a l s i n , she b r i n g s the s o u l down
i n t o darkness. The r i v e r s and the tormented f i g u r e s of
Hades are then g i v e n a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . At last
the r a t i o n a l p a r t of the s o u l attempts t o t u r n s e n s u a l i t y
from i t s s i n f u l p a t h , and the sound of i t s harp i s a movement
of grace. S e n s u a l i t y i s moved and begins t o f o l l o w , but
when reason g i v e s way and l o o k s back upon s e n s u a l i t y the
soul i s lost forever:
Et p i r e est l ' e r r e u r desreniere

Que l a premeraine ne f u (435-6).
100
The t h i r d a l l e g o r y (444-577) makes no attempt t o
f o l l o w t h e o u t l i n e s o f t h e myth, but views i t as i l l u s t r a -
t i v e , i n various details, of c r e a t i o n , the f a l l , t h e I n c a r n a -
tion-, t h e Redemption and the f i n a l damnation of t h e o b s t i n a t e
soul.
Ovide M o r a l i s e was n e i t h e r t h e f i r s t n o r the l a s t

of t h e a l l e g o r i c a l t r e a t m e n t s o f t h e Metamorphoses, and the
v e r y names of t h e a u t h o r s o f some o t h e r v e r s i o n s - A r n o u l
d'Orleans (fl_..ca;i. 1175), John o f G a r l a n d (ca_. 1234), A l f o n s o
e l S a b i o (ca_. 1270), P e t e r B e r c u i r e (ca_.; 1342), G i o v a n n i d e l
V i r g i l i o , Robert H o l k o t and Thomas Wal.eys(l4th c e n t u r y ) -
show how widespread t h e p r a c t i c e was. Thus Ovid's Orpheus
c r o s s e d and r e - c r o s s e d Europe, i n t e r p r e t e d anew f o r p h i l o s -
ophers, d o c t o r s , p r e a c h e r s , nuns, tradesmen and s c h o o l -
boys. Dante uses Orpheus t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e v e r y n o t i o n of
25
allegory: i n a c l a s s i c passage i n the C o n v i v i o , he demon-
s t r a t e s v a r i o u s a l l e g o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s by t r a c i n g d i f f e r e n t
meanings i n Ovid's account o f Orpheus taming t h e b e a s t s . And
the dean o f f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y l e t t e r s , Guillaume de Machaut,
r a i s e d t h e Orpheus-Eurydice allegory t o true l i t e r a r y
respectability when he r e t o l d and i n t e r p r e t e d t h e myth i n
T r a t t a t o . Secondo, 1,2.
101
26
his C o n f o r t d'ami, addressed t o C h a r l e s o f N a v a r r e .
Another i n f l u e n t i a l F r e n c h v e r s i o n o f t h e myth i s
i n L e p i s t r e Othea a_ H e c t o r , by C h r i s t i n e de P i s a n . Here i t
i s one o f a hundred h i s t o r i e s , each o f w h i c h i s t o l d i n .a
q u a t r a i n , then used t o i l l u s t r a t e some c h i v a l r i c v i r t u e , and
finally allegorized. The v i r t u e a k n i g h t may l e a r n from
Orpheus' descent i s t h e v i r t u e o f prudence, t o seek n o t t h e
i m p o s s i b l e ; t h e moral t o be drawn i s t h a t man ought n o t
p r e s u m p t u o u s l y t o a s k God f o r e x t r a o r d i n a r y f a v o r s , f o r
27
t h e s e may be h a r m f u l t o h i s s o u l .
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t w h i l e t h e r i s i n g
c u l t u r e o f the West was a l l e g o r i z i n g t h e Orpheus-myth, t h e
B y z a n t i n e polymath Joanne T z e t z e s was r a t i o n a l i z i n g i t . I n
the C h i l i a d e s we r e a d t h a t E u r y d i c e was n o t r e a l l y dead, b u t
o n l y i n a s o r t o f t r a n c e from w h i c h Orpheus awakened h e r by
28
his singing.
26
L i n e s 2277-2674-. . Machaut a l s o uses t h e myth i n h i s
P r o l o g u e 135-46, and i n t h e P i t de l a Harpe.
27
'LXX: Texte 1-7, Glose and A l l e g o r i e . In i t s English
t r a n s l a t i o n t h e E p i s t r e was c a l l e d A L y t i l B i b e l l o f
Knyghthod.
28
11,54,847, summarized i n Konrat Z i e g l e r , "Orpheus",
PW I 8 ( l 9 3 9 ) , . p. 1310. T z e t z e s a l s o r e f e r s t o Orpheus i n
1,12,305-16.
102
Unmoralized Ovid found a k i n d r e d s p i r i t i n E n g l a n d
i n G e o f f r e y Chaucer, and d e e p l y i n f l u e n c e d much of h i s work.
The r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus i n Chaucer a r e few-, however, and
most o f these - i n The Book of t h e Duchess (568), The House
of Fame ( i l l , 1 1 3 ) and The Merchant's T a l e (1716) - are only
b r i e f a l l u s i o n s t o Orpheus t h e s k i l l e d musician-. But t h e
heroine^ of T r o i l u s and C r i s e y d e evokes t h e pathos o f t h e
Eurydice story:
F o r though i n e r t h e ytwyned be we tweyne,

Yet i n the f e l d o f p i t e , out of peyne,
That h i g h t e E l i s o s , s h a l we ben y f e e r e ,
As Orpheus w i t h E r u d i c e , h i s f e r e (IV,788-91).
As we e x p e c t , t h e s t o r y i s r e t o l d i n Chaucer's Boece, a
t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e C o n s o l a t i o n of P h i l o s o p h y , but i n l i t e r a l
and u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d p r o s e . Chaucer a l s o knows S i r Orfeo,
f o r t h e poem l e a v e s i t s i m p r i n t on t h e opening l i n e s of
The Wyfe of B a t h ' s T a l e , w i t h i t s w a r n i n g t o women t o beware
the f a i r i e s i n t h e morning hours, e s p e c i a l l y under t r e e s ,
and The F r a n k l i n ' s T a l e b e a r s many r e s e m b l a n c e s ; i t p u r p o r t s
t o be a B r e t o n l a y ; i t s heroine i s approached i n a garden
by an unwelcome l o v e r ; i t s hero wins t h e l a d y back by i n s i s t -
i n g on a p o i n t " o f honor.
Chaucer's d i s c i p l e John Lydgate,. t h e "monk of B u r y " ,
t e l l s t h e Orpheus-Eurydice s t o r y i n some s e v e n t y - s i x l i n e s
i n h i s enormous F a l l o f P r i n c e s . H i s v e r s i o n l e a n s h e a v i l y on
-Ovid f o r t h i s as f o r c o u n t l e s s o t h e r myths. I t i s not
without charm,, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e c e l i b a t e a u t h o r ' s humorous
remarks on m a r r i a g e :
103
Y i f f summe husbondis hadde stonden In t h e cas

Ta l o s t h e r wyves f o r a l o o k sodeyne,
The! wolde (ha(ve) s u f f r e d and n a t s e i d a l i a s ,
But p a c i e n t l i endured a l t h e r peyne,
And thanked God, t h a t broken was t h e cheyne
Which hath, so longe hem i n p r i s o u n bounde,
That t h e i be grace han such a fredam founde
' (1,5804-10).
In f i v e "other works - Temple of G l a s s (1308-9), Troybook
( P r o l o g u e 47-53), Assembly of Gods ( 4 0 0 - 1 ) , Reson and
S e n s u a l l y t e ('5604) and Albon and Amphabel — t h e voluminous
Lydgate t e l l s o f t h e marvelous prowess o f Orpheus t h e musi-
c i a n , and i n t h e Testament he invokes h i s L o r d I e s u as
Our Orpheus t h a t from c a p t i u y t e

F e t t e E r u d i c e t o h i s c e l e s t i a l l t o u r (158-9).
Boethius 1
C o n s o l a t i o n was t r a n s l a t e d e n t i r e l y into
E n g l i s h v e r s e by Lydgate's contemporary John Walton
(Johannes C a p e l l a n u s ) , w i t h even l e s s success than Chaucer's
a l l prose t r a n s l a t i o n a c h i e v e d , a l t h o u g h i t s s t a n z a s on
Orpheus a r e on the' whole f e l i c i t o u s .
Meanwhile S i r Orfeo had passed into oral tradition
and was r e v i v e d as" the S h e t l a n d b a l l a d of K i n g Orfeo,
s u r v i v i n g n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y fragments of w h i c h suggest that
i t h a r d l y s t o o d on t h e same l e v e l as i t s s o u r c e . E u r y d i c e
becomes t h e Lady I s a b e l i n t h e t w o - l i n e s t a n z a s , w h i c h s t r e s s
the m u s i c i a n s h i p o f Orpheus, t w i c e n a r r a t i n g how
f i r s t he p l a y e d da notes o noy
an dan he p l a y e d da notes o j o y .
An dan he p l a y e d da g6d gabber r e e l

Dat meicht ha made a s i c k h e r t h a l e . 9 2
Quoted i n B l i s s , op. c i t . , pp..l-ll.

S i r Orfeo i s b e l i e v e d t o be the o n l y m e d i e v a l romance t h a t
has s u r v i v e d i n p o p u l a r b a l l a d form.
An o t h e r w i s e unknown Orpheus, kyng of P o r t i n g a l
i s l i s t e d among the p o p u l a r s t o r i e s i n The Complaynt of S c o t -

30
l a n d 1549.. Concurrent w i t h t h i s i s the work of the S c o t t i s h
B i s h o p Gavin Douglas, who mentions Orpheus the h a r p e r i n h i s
P a l i c e of Honour ( l i n e 398), w h i l e i n the p i o u s p r o l o g u e to
h i s famed t r a n s l a t i o n of the A e n e i d he c a l l s C h r i s t " t h a t
h e v e n l i e Orpheus" ( l i n e 9)•
The l a s t l a r g e - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t of the s t o r y of
Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i n the M i d d l e Ages i s a l s o from
Scotland,, and a f a i r i n d e x t o the use and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
the myth from the s i x t h t o the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y : the Orpheus
and E u r y d i c e o f " t h e S c o t t i s h Chaucer, Robert Henryson, mixes
classical with fairy-tale elements and concludes w i t h an
a p p r o p r i a t e a l l e g o r y d e r i v e d from a t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y monk.
I t i s Henryson's l o n g e s t and most e l a b o r a t e work, but not
h i s b e s t , f o r the complex mythico-moral structure almost
d e f e a t s the g r a c e f u l music of h i s s e v e n - l i n e d rhymed s t a n z a s .
The s t o r y f o l l o w s V i r g i l and Ovid, but has many o r i g i n a l
details: i t t a k e s Orpheus i n h i s s e a r c h f o r E u r y d i c e through
30
^ Recorded by D a v i d L a i n g , S e l e c t Remains of the A n c i e n t
P o p u l a r and Romance P o e t r y of S c o t l a n d ( E d i n b u r g h , 1885),
p. 117.
105
the s p h e r e s , where he l e a r n s t h e s e c r e t s o f m e d i e v a l music,,

though Henryson h i m s e l f confesses " I n my l y f e I cowth n e v i r
s i n g a n o i t " ( l i n e 242); i t i n f o r m s us t h a t Orpheus' song
before t h e i r majesties o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d had a bass l i n e i n
the Hypodorian, a descant i n t h e H y p o l y d i a n mode. The most
memorable p o r t i o n s o f t h e poem a r e Orpheus' lament f o r
Eurydice,. w i t h i t s r e c u r r i n g r e f r a i n :
q u h a i r a r t thow gone, my l u v e e w r i d i c e s s ? (l43).

and t h e Dantesque v i s i o n o f a h e l l p e o p l e d w i t h t h e v i l l a i n s
of a n t i q u i t y - c e s a r , herod, nero and p i l o t and
mony p a l p and c a r d y n a l l (338).
Henryson's poem,, b l e n d i n g as i t does t h e c l a s s i c a l

form of t h e s t o r y w i t h t h e m e d i e v a l atmosphere of S i r Orfeo,
marks t h e end o f t h e Orpheus-romances of t h e Middle Ages: t h e
2 4 0 - l i n e m o r a l i t a s appended might be d i s m i s s e d as an u n f o r t -
unate a f t e r t h o u g h t , d i d we n o t know t h a t t h i s , f o r t h e
m e d i e v a l man,, i s t h e r a i s o n d'etre o f t h e poem, and i n
Henryson s case may be thought t o c l i m a x t h e c e n t u r i e s o f
I:
a l l e g o r i z i n g t o w h i c h Orpheus and E u r y d i c e were subjected.

As an a l l e g o r y i t i s no b e t t e r , no worse than many o t h e r s :
Orpheus i s r e a s o n , E u r y d i c e affection, Aristaeus virtue,
the s e r p e n t s i n , three-headed Cerberus death i n c h i l d h o o d ,
middle and o l d age; i t i s a l l a s t o r y o f man's a f f e c t i o n
f l e e i n g v i r t u e , f a l l i n g i n t o s i n , b u t almost redeemed by
r e a s o n , w h i c h p r o v e s t o o weak f o r t h e t a s k . I t seems a
v a r i a n t of t h e a l l e g o r y i n Ovide M o r a l i s e , but Henryson
106
s t a t e s (414-24) t h a t he found i t i n the commentaries on the
C o n s o l a t i o n of P h i l o s o p h y w r i t t e n by the p a i n s t a k i n g and
v e r s a t i l e Dominican N i c o l a s T r i v e t . So does the l o n g shadow
of B o e t h i u s cover the O r p h e u s - t r a d i t i o n of the Middle Ages.
H a l f romance, w i t h - V i r g i l and Ovid r e c r e a t e d i n
m e d i e v a l terms,, h a l f a l l e g o r y , i n an attempt t o p e n e t r a t e t o
the meaning of the s t o r y ,as B o e t h i u s : once had done,. Henryson's
poem marks the c l o s e of an era' of Orpheus r o m a n t i c i z e d and
allegorized.
CHAPTER IV
THE RENAISSANCE
Orpheus r e b o r n w i t h the Renaissance i s a new

.symbol. He i s no l o n g e r the r o m a n t i c f i g u r e who braved the
s u p e r n a t u r a l t o r e s c u e h i s b e l o v e d from d e a t h ; f o r such an
Orpheus the. new e r a had l i t t l e sympathy. The R e n a i s s a n c e
Orpheus i s r a t h e r the embodiment of human wisdom, the symbol
of a g r e a t c i v i l i z i n g f o r c e , w i t h power t o bend a l l the
h a r s h , c o n t r a d i c t o r y elements of the u n i v e r s e t o the humaniz-
i n g s p e l l of h i s art.. The f i g u r e of Orpheus taming the
savage b e a s t s i s thus i n v e s t e d w i t h some of i t s o r i g i n a l
meaning. 1
H i s death a t the hands of the Bacchantes and the
new l i f e of h i s harp and s i n g i n g head are seen as the
p e r i o d i c a t t a c k s made on human wisdom by b a r b a r i s m , and the
p r o v i d e n t i a l c o n s e r v a t i o n of i t s elements i n more a p p r e c i a t i v e
2
surroundings. Orpheus the a u t h o r of the Orphic w r i t i n g s
See N a t a l i s Comes, M y t h o l o g i a e VII,14; Erasmus, Adversus

B a r b a r o s 89-96; George Chapman, The Shadow of N i g h t 140-4;
the masques of Ben Jonson and Thomas Campion, and especially
the Orfeo of Angel.o P o l i z i a n o .

2
See Bacon, l o c . c i t . , John M i l t o n , L y c i d a s 56-63..
107
108
g a i n s i n importance,, and i s h e l d as a p r o p h e t of the t r u e
God, while m y s t i c a l w r i t e r s continue t o a s s o c i a t e him with
C h r i s t , the "new Orpheus".
The E u r y d i c e - s t o r y was too r o m a n t i c , too p e r s o n a l l y
t r a g i c t o support the w e i g h t of t h i s symbolism. In R e n a i s s a n c e
E n g l a n d , where we s h a l l begin our d i s c u s s i o n ^ i t d i d not
t h r i v e as i t had i n the M i d d l e Ages. This i s true despite
the tremendous l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t i o n of the age; w r i t e r s were
s i m p l y out of sympathy w i t h i t . When i t i s used by a g r e a t
w r i t e r who i s convinced of the new 'Orphean symbolism -
Chapman or M i l t o n - i t comes t o l i f e w i t h s t r i k i n g beauty.
But too o f t e n i t i s used as a mere l i t e r a r y adornment, w i t h
little o r i g i n a l i t y and still l e s s t a s t e , a t the c a p r i c e of
men who a v a i l e d themselves of a w e a l t h of m y t h o l o g i c a l lore,
but c o u l d no l o n g e r a l l e g o r i z e or r o m a n t i c i z e and lacked
the a b i l i t y t o m a n i p u l a t e symbols. The inevitable result i s
the a c c u m u l a t i o n of symbols, most of them c l a s s i c a l — a s i n

4
one of Thomas Watson's sonnets, w h i c h a l l u d e s not o n l y t o
J
S e e W a l t e r R a l e i g h , H i s t o r y of the W o r l d I ; M i c h a e l
D r a y t o n , n o t e s t o P o l y o l b i o n , song 1; Giles Fletcher,
C h r i s t ' s V i c t o r i e and Triumph 5 9 , 7 , 6 - 8 ; - C a l d e r o n de l a Barca,.
E l Divino Orfeo.
4
Sonnet 3 0 , esp. l i n e s 13-14-.
109
Orpheus and E u r y d i c e and C e r b e r u s , but t o Hero and Leander,
Pyramus and T h i s b e , Haemon and A n t i g o n e as w e l l . When Watson
r e f e r s t o Orpheus i n Amintas, f o r h i s P h y l l i s (31-2), the hero
i s s i n g i n g "neere the E l i z i a n s p r i n g s " , but the emphasis i s
on the ready symbol of the s i n g i n g , not on the t r a g i c story
of the u n d e r w o r l d . - Orpheus' harp and song s h o u l d be e x c e l -
l e n t symbols of the power of human wisdom, but w i t h Drummond
of Hawthornden,
5
Barnabe Barnes,
6 R i c h a r d B a r n e f i e l d 7 and
o
John D a v i e s t h e y are a t most a r t i f i c i a l t a g s , though
D a v i e s ' g u s t y humour redeems him i n h i s In Philonem,where an
E n g l i s h Orpheus " t o the v u l g a r s i n g s an Ale-house story"
( l i n e 8) and draws a P o r t e r , an O y s t e r - w i f e , a C u t - p u r s e , a
Countrey c l y e n t , a C o n s t a b l e and a whore t o l i s t e n t o him.
But t h e r e i s no E u r y d i c e i n t h i s u n d e r w o r l d , W i l l i a m Bark-
s t e a d p r e f e r s , i n t r e a t i n g t h e Orpheus of Ovid, t o t e l l the
s t o r y of Myrrha, expanding Ovid's 220 l i n e s t o almost 900.
In John Skelton's- G a r l a n d of L a u r e l l
Orpheus, the T r a c i e n e , herped. m e l e d y o u s l y (272),
and the r e f e r e n c e s i n M i c h a e l D r a y t o n 9
and S i r P h i l i p
^Sonnet t o W i l l i a m A l e x a n d e r , i n Commendatory V e r s e s , 13-14.
^ P a r t h e n o p h i l and Parthenophe, Sonnet 52,1-12.

7
T h e P r a i s e of Lady P e c u n i a , 217-9.
o
Orchestra 80,1,
^Sonnets 45,12-4; Shepheards G a r l a n d ; Eclogue 4,69; Ode
t o H i m s e l f and h i s Harp.
110
Sidney *" 1 1
a r e l i k e w i s e concerned w i t h Orpheus' m u s i c a l skill,
though t h e E u r y d i c e - s t o r y i s b r i e f l y a l l u d e d t o i n Thomas
Nashe's p r e f a c e t o t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f A s t r o p h e l and S t e l l a .
Orpheus was u n d e r s t a n d a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
g r e a t m u s i c i a n s o f t h e day. P u r c e l l ' s songs were c o l l e c t e d
under t h e t i t l e Orpheus B r l t t a n l c u s , and W i l l i a m Byrd's
"Come w o e f u l Orpheus w i t h t h y charming l y r e " c a l l e d forth
f r o m t h e c o m p i l e r t h e d e l i g h t f u l comment t h a t t h i s Orpheus
"not o n l y moved i n a n i m a t e n a t u r e , but even p l a y e d so w e l l ,
t h a t he moved O l d N i c k " . 1 1
Words o f wisdom were g i v e n t o
the a s p i r i n g m u s i c i a n i n Roger R a w l i n s ' t r a n s l a t i o n Cassius

12
of Parma, h i s Orpheus, by A n t o n i u s T h y l e s s i u s (1587).
1^
Three o t h e r c u r i o u s v e r s i o n s o f t h e myth ^ b e l o n g t o t h e
same p e r i o d : A Womans Woorth,. defended a g a i n s t a l l t h e men
In t h e w o r l d ( 1 5 9 9 ) , a t r a n s l a t i o n by Anthony Gibson from t h e
F r e n c h o f t h e C h e v a l i e r de l ' E s c a l e ; Of Loves c o m p l a i n t ;
w i t h t h e l e g e n d o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e (anon.., 1597), and
Orpheus h i s j o u r n e y t o h e l l and h i s music t o t h e ghosts'
('1595), s i g n e d R.B-. T h i s l a s t poem f o l l o w s Ovid and t e l l s t h e
1 0
Sonnets; Defense of Poesy; T h i r d Song 1-2; Two P a s t o r e l s
12-3.
1 1
Q u o t e d i n J u l i u s W i r l , "Orpheus i n d e r E n g l i s c h e n L i t e r a -
t u r e " , Wiener B e i t r a g e z u r E n g l i s c h e n P h i l o l o g i e 4o(l9l4),
p. 48.
12
L i s t e d i n Bush, op, c i t . , p. 307.
1 3
L i s t e d i b i d . , p p . 309, 311, 312.
Ill
s t o r y w i t h a minimum o f ornament: Orpheus' homely complaint
b e f o r e t h e monarchs o f Hades i s :
For my E u r y d i c e was dead ^

B e f o r e I c o u l d e n j o y h e r bed..
Somewhat s i m i l a r t r e a t m e n t i s g i v e n t h e myth i n
W i l l i a m .Warner s A l b i o n ' s England,

1
but Warner has t h e s t o r y
wrong: Orpheus i s t h e husband o f P r o s e r p i n e , whom he wins
from P l u t o because h i s music makes h e r l a u g h j i t i s Cerberus
who d e t e c t s t h e backward g l a n c e and shuts Orpheus out o f

15
Hades once f o r a l l .
To come t o t h e g r e a t w r i t e r s , Thomas More, a l l u d e s

t o t h e myth i n a L a t i n epigram.. A d v i s i n g Candidus t o choose
a w i f e who I s s k i l l e d i n t h e a r t s o f c o n v e r s a t i o n , he says:
Talem o l i m ego putem
Et v a t i s Orphei
F u i s s e coniugem.
Nec unquam ab i n f e r i s
C u r a s s e t improbo
Lahore foeminam
R e f e r r e r u s t l c a m (Epigram 125,74-80).
Edmund Spenser's b e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e l i t e r -
a t u r e o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i s an e f f e c t i v e c o u p l e t i n
Quoted i n W i r l , op_. c i t . , p. 63. Charles Crawford,
"Greenes F u n e r a l l s , 159^, and N i c h o l a s B r e t o n " , Studies
i n P h i l o l o g y , e x t r a s e r i e s (May, 1929)., p. 26, g i v e s
N i c h o l a s B r e t o n c r e d i t f o r t h i s poem.
15
I,6,35-85.
112
An Hymne of Love w h i c h s h o u l d o b l i t e r a t e f o r e v e r the memory
of P l a t o ' s w e a k l i n g Orpheus:
Orpheus d a r i n g t o prouoke the y r e

Of damned f i e n d s , t o get h i s l o v e r e t y r e (234-5).
Another f i n e r e f e r e n c e t o the myth i s i n The Ruines of Time:
And t h e y , f o r p i t y of the sad wayement,

Which Orpheus f o r E u r y d i c e d i d make,
Her back againe t o l i f e sent f o r h i s sake (390-2).
E l s e w h e r e , Spenser i s d i s a p p o i n t i n g . The o n l y a l l u s i o n t o
the r e c o v e r y of E u r y d i c e i n T h e . F a e r i e Queene i s a b r i e f
16
quote from The Shepheardes Calender. The r e f e r e n c e t o
E u r y d i c e i n the Daphnaida (464) i n e x p l i c a b l y connects her
w i t h Demeter. Then t h e r e i s Spenser's i n d i f f e r e n t translation
of the Culex.. The 4 l 4 L a t i n l i n e s are expanded t o 688;
Dan Orpheus and L a d i e E u r y d i c e have l o s t t h e i r p e r s o n a l -
i t i e s ; the themes of l o v e , d e a t h and music so memorably
s k e t c h e d i n the L a t i n poem are submerged i n the rhymed
s t a n z a s of a busy E l i z a b e t h a n poet who e n t i r e l y omits the
crucial line:
Non e r a t f i n v i t a m d i v a e t e x o r a b i l e m o r t i s -, 7
(Culex 288). Ll
W h i l e Spenser c o n c e n t r a t e s on the Culex> Robert

B u r t o n quote.s two l i n e s from V i r g i l ' s f o u r t h G e o r g i c i n
"^Compare The F a e r i e Queene IV,10,58,4 and October 28-31.

17
For Orpheus the Argonaut and m u s i c i a n i n Spenser, see
the F a e r i e Queene 111,2,1; A m o r e t t i 44,1-4; Epitha1amion 16;
R u i n e s of Rome 25,1; Ruines of Time 333,607..

113
The Anatomy of M e l a n c h o l y .
F r a n c i s Bacon sees the myth as a l l e g o r y , but a
R e n a i s s a n c e a l l e g o r y of human wisdom:
S e n t e n t i a f a b u l a e ea v i d e t u r e s s e . Duplex
e s t Orphei C a n t i o : a l t e r a ad p l a c a n d o s Manes;
a l t e r a ad t r a h e n d a s f e r a s et s y l v a s . P r i o r ad
natural-em p h i l o s o p h i a m , p o s t e r i o r ad moralem
et c i v i l e m aptlssime r e f e r t u r .
But Bacon's attempt t o i n t e r p r e t Orpheus' quest f o r Eurydice
as the i n q u i r y of n a t u r a l i s p h i l o s o p h i a seems f o r c e d and
out of t o u c h w i t h the s p i r i t of the myth:
O p u s . . . n a t u r a l i s p h i l o s o p h i a e longe n o b i l -
issimum e s t i p s a r e s t i t u t i o et i n s t a u r a t i o
rerum c o r r u p t i b i l i u m , et (hujusce r e i tanquam
gradus minores) corporum i n s t a t u suo c o n s e r -
v a t i o n et d i s s o l u t i o n i s et p u t r e d i n i s r e t a r d a t i o .
Hoc s i omriino f i e r i d e t u r , c e r t e non a l i t e r
e f f i c i p o t e s t quam p e r d e b i t a e t e x q u i s i t a na-
t u r a e temperamenta, tamquam per harmoniam l y r a e ,
et modos a c c u r a t o s . Et tamen cum . s i t r e s omnium
maxime ardua, e f f e c t u p l e r u n q u e f r u s t r a t u r ;
idque (ut v e r i s i m i l e e s t ) non magis a l i a m ob
causam, quam per c u r i o s a m e t i n t e m p e s t i v a m
s e d u l i t a t e m et i m p a t i e n t i a m (De S a p i e n t i a Yeterum, X I ) .
The sense of mystery i s l o s t h e r e ; E u r y d i c e i s no longer
the s o u l t o be r e s t o r e d t o the l i f e of g r a c e ; she i s only
the body t o be r e s t o r e d t o h e a l t h by s c i e n t i f i c knowledge.
Much more s u c c e s s f u l i s Bacon's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Orpheus'
l a t e r l i f e as the v i c t o r y of p h i l o s o p h i a m o r a l i s et civilis,
and of h i s d e a t h as the p e r i o d i c d e s t r u c t i o n of the fruits
of human wisdom by b a r b a r i s m . T h i s second p a r t of the
a l l e g o r y became s t a n d a r d i n the R e n a i s s a n c e ; the f i r s t did
'Lines 4 5 5 6 are quoted i n Anatomy of M e l a n c h o l y 1 1 1 , 2 , 3 .

-
114
not.
George Chapman, f o r example, uses Bacon's second
allegory. When Orpheus charms the r o c k s , f o r e s t s , f l o o d s
and w i n d s ,
i t bewrayes the f o r c e
H i s wisedome had, t o draw men growne so rude
To c i u i l l l o u e of A r t , and F o r t i t u d e
(The Shadow of N i g h t 1 4 2 - 4 ) .
But i n e x p l a i n i n g the E u r y d i c e - s t o r y , he reaches p a s t Bacon
t o the M i d d l e Ages:
And t h a t i n c a l m i n g the i n f e r n a l l e k i n d e ,
To w i t , the p e r t u r b a t i o n s of h i s minde,
And b r i n g i n g h i s E u r y d i c e from h e l l ,
(Which I u s t i c e s i g n i f i e s ) i s proued w e l l .
But i f i n r i g h t s obseruance any man
Looke backe, w i t h b o l d n e s s e l e s s e then Orphean,
Soone f a l l s he t o the h e l l from whence he r o i s e
(ibid. 149-55).
The c l o s i n g l i n e s of t h i s passage echo B o e t h i u s , and the
burden of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n comes from the m y t h o l o g i c a l
handbook of Renaissance w r i t e r s , the M y t h o l o g i a e of N a t a l i s
19
Comes. ^
Two o t h e r a u t h o r s , a g e n e r a t i o n l a t e r , use Comes
and B o e t h i u s . The f i r s t of these i s Thomas Heywood, who
a l l u d e s t o the myth i n h i s D i a l o g u e of E a r t h and Age:

19r i
LOrpheusJ i g i t u r p l a c a t i s i n f e r i s , animo p e r t u r b a t i o n i b u s
s c i l i c e t , Eurydicen i n lucem adducere conatus e s t , quae, u t
nomen ipsum s i g n i f i c a t , n i h i l a l i u d e s t quam i u s t i t i a et
equitas. F u i t r u r s u s ad i n f e r o s i l i a r e t r a c t a ob nimium
O r p h e i amorem, q u i a neque i u s t i t i a e quidem opus e s t n i m i s
esse cupidum, cum p e r t u r b a t i o n e s a n i m i p l a c a r e n t u r r a t i o n e
(Mythologiae VII,4).
115
What sorrow, m u s i c a l l Orpheus, d i d s t thou f e e l e ,

When t h y E u r i d i c e , stung i n t h e h e e l e ,
And d y i n g , h o m e unto t h ' i n f e r n a l l e shade,
Thou w i t h t h y harp t h r o u g h h e l l f r e e passage made?
(1533-6).
Heywood's a n n o t a t i o n t o t h i s passage g i v e s an a l l e g o r y N a t a l i s
Comes a t t a c h e d t o t h e myth:
E u r y d i c e s i g n i f i e t h t h e s o u l e o f man, and
Orpheus t h e body t o w h i c h t h e s o u l e i s m a r r i e d . . .
a c c o r d i n g t o Natal.. Comes ( A n n o t a t i o n s 9720-31) . 2 0
The second a u t h o r , Phineas F l e t c h e r , i n c l u d e s i n
h i s works t h i r t e e n t r a n s l a t i o n s f r o m B o e t h i u s ' C o n s o l a t i o n ,
no l e s s than f o u r of w h i c h a r e r e n d e r i n g s i n v e r s e o f t h e
Orpheus - E u r y d i c e s t o r y w i t h i t s m o r a l : A Father's Testa-
ment (22), The P u r p l e I s l a n d (V, s t a n z a s 6 l - 8 ) , Poeticall
M i s c e l l a n i e s (A_ T r a n s l a t i o n of B o e t h i u s ) , and t h e chorus t o
Act IV. o f S i c e l i d e s . I t i s s a f e t o s a y t h a t B o e t h i u s ' moral
i s one of h i s maj;or themes. But F l e t c h e r ' s work i s always
an odd m i x t u r e o f t h e sensuous and t h e s a i n t l y , and i n t h e
S i c e l i d e s t h e sensuous p r e v a i l s , as F l e t c h e r i s induced by
the p a s t o r a l atmosphere of h i s s u b j e c t t o m i s t r a n s l a t e h i s
favorite meditation:
Heywood uses Comes' second a l l e g o r y , w h i c h i s a c t u a l l y
t h a t o f Ovide Moralise', Orpheus a l s o f i g u r e s i n the e a r l y
The S i l v e r Age, and i n a pageant Heywood composed i n I638.
See W i r l , op., c i t . , pp. 56-7.

US
Thus s i n c e l o v e h a t h wonne t h e f i e l d ,
Heaven and H e l l , t o E a r t h must y e e l d ,
B l e s t s o u l e t h a t dyest i n l o v e s sweete sound,
That l o s t i n l o v e i n l o v e a r t found (35-8).
Phineas' younger b r o t h e r , G i l e s , s t i l l more m y s t i -
c a l l y i n c l i n e d , sees t h e Orpheus-myth as an obscure pagan
type of C h r i s t ' s v i c t o r y : h i s s e n s u o u s l y devout, o f t e n beau-
t i f u l poem C h r i s t ' s V i c t o r i e , and Triumph i s a c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c a l l y Renaissance product, i t s Christianity resplendent
with Classical figures.
Another F l e t c h e r w i l l serve t o i n t r o d u c e us t o
the somewhat s c a n t , s u p e r f i c i a l t r a c e s o f t h e Orpheus-myth

21
i n E l i z a b e t h a n drama. Ope o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n The Mad
L o v e r o f Beaumont and F l e t c h e r d r e s s e s as Orpheus i n a masque
i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the p l a y , and persuades t h e l o v e r n o t t o
attempt death u n t i l he has t a s t e d o f l o v e :
Orpheus I am, come from the deeps below,
To thee fond man t h e p l a g u e s o f l o v e t o show
(IV,1,27-8).
The masque a l s o i n c l u d e s a d i a l o g u e w i t h Charon and a song
t o tame t h e b e a s t s .
22
F l e t c h e r may a l s o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the l o v e l y
and j u s t l y famous song sung by Queen K a t h e r i n e ' s maid i n
Before t h e E l i z a b e t h a n age t h e r e i s o n l y an anonymous
The S t o r y of Orpheus (1547) l i s t e d i n A l f r e d Herbage's A n n a l s
of E n g l i s h Drama 975-1700 ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1940).

22
The authorship o f K i n g Henry V I I I was q u e s t i o n e d by
James Spedding and Samuel Hlckson i n 1850. See The London

117
Shakespeare's K i n g Henry V I I I :
Orpheus w i t h h i s l u t e made t r e e s ,
And t h e mountain tops t h a t f r e e z e .
Bow themselves when he d i d s i n g .
To h i s music p l a n t s and f l o w e r s
E v e r sprung, as sun and showers
There had made a l a s t i n g s p r i n g .
E v e r y t h i n g t h a t heard him p l a y ,
Even t h e b i l l o w s o f t h e s e a ,
Hung t h e i r heads and then l a y by.
In sweet music i s s u c h . a r t ,
K i l l i n g care and g r i e f of h e a r t
F a l l asleep, or hearing d i e (III,1,3~l4).
T h i s p i c t u r e o f p l a n t s and f l o w e r s s p r i n g i n g up under
Orpheus' i n f l u e n c e may suggest M u l l e r ' s t h e o r i e s t o mytho-
logical scientists. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s i s as much s i g n i -
f i c a n c e as one i s l i k e l y t o f i n d i n any o f Shakespeare's
o t h e r a l l u s i o n s t o Orpheus. The T h r a c i a n m u s i c i a n i s only
-a p a r t o f h i s ''classical s t o c k - i n - t r a d e , though no mention
of him i s w i t h o u t i t s beauty: I n Two Gentlemen Of Verona
we hear o f t h e power of h i s music:

For Orpheus l u t e was s t r u n g w i t h p o e t s ' sinews;
1
Whose golden t o u c h .could s o f t e n s t e e l and s t o n e s ,

Make t i g e r s tame, and huge l e v i a t h a n s
F o r s a k e unsounded deeps t o dance on sands
(111,2,78-81).
A s i m i l a r r e f e r e n c e i n The Merchant of V e n i c e i s p a r t of t h e
c l a s s i c t r i b u t e t o music i n t h e E n g l i s h language:
Shakespeare (New York, 1957), v o l . 4, p. 1145. Hickson
a s s i g n e d 111,1 t o F l e t c h e r , and indeed a passage i n The
C a p t a i n o f Beaumont and F l e t c h e r ( I I I , 1 , 3 3 ~ 9 ) i s similar
t o t h e Orpheus-song.
118
T h e r e f o r e the poet
Did f e i g n t h a t Orpheus drew t r e e s , stones and f l o o d s ;
S i n c e nought so s t o c k i s h , hard and f u l l of r a g e ,
But music f o r the time d o t h change h i s n a t u r e
(V,79-82).
All these are i n the Renaissance t r a d i t i o n of Orpheus as .a
civilizer. The E u r y d i c e - s t o r y i s p o s s i b l y a l l u d e d t o i n
T r o i l u s and C r e s s i d a (V,2,151-3) and i n the scene from T i t u s
A n d r o n i c u s where the maddened T i t u s e n j o i n s h i s kinsmen t o

descend t o h e l l and w r e s t J u s t i c e from P l u t o ' s r e g i o n (IV,9,34).
There i s a much more d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e e a r l i e r i n T i t u s
Andronicus:
Or- had he heard the h e a v e n l y harmony
Which t h a t sweet tongue h a t h made,
He would have d r o p p d h i s k n i f e , and f e l l a s l e e p ,
1
As Cerberus a t the T h r a c i a n p o e t ' s f e e t

(11,4,48-51),-
and i n The Rape of Lucrece> where
moody P l u t o winks w h i l e Orpheus p l a y s (553).
A k i n t o Shakespeare's maddened T i t u s i s the g r i e f -
s t r i c k e n Hieronimo of Thomas Kyd's A S p a n i s h Tragedy, who
r e s o l v e s on a s i m i l a r l y . Orphean descent (III;, 13,114-22) .
But the s t o r y i s o n l y h a l f - h e a r t e d l y a l l u d e d t o , and In
M a s s i n g e r (The C i t y Madam V, 3,50)> F o r d (The Sun's D a r l i n g
I I , l ) and Dekker ( O l d F o r t u n a t u s 11,1,55-9) i t i s p r a c t i -
c a l l y reduced t o a c a t c h - p h r a s e - " t o f e t c h E u r i d i c e from
hell". However, Massinger i n t r o d u c e s a mime i n t o h i s p l a y ,
i n w h i c h Orpheus, Charon and Cerberus a c t out the s t o r y i n
dance and g e s t u r e .
119
Many o f t h e p l a y w r i g h t s t u r n t o t h e myth i n moments
of l e i s u r e , Dekker g i v e s a d e l i g h t f u l p r o s e b u r l e s q u e o f
the tale:
A s s i s t mee, t h e r e f o r e , thou Genius o f t h a t

v e n t r o u s b u t j e a l o u s M u s i c i o n of Thrace ( E u r i d i c e ' s
husband), who, b e i n g b e s o t t e d on h i s w i f e , ( o f
w h i c h s i n none b u t c o c k o l d e s s h o u l d be g u i l t i e )
went a l i u e ( w i t h h i s f i d d l e a t s backe) t o see
1
i f hee c o u l d b a i l h e r out o f t h a t Adamantine

p r i s o n ; t h e f e e s he was t o pay f o r h e r were j i g s
and c o u n t r y daunces: he p a i d them: t h e f o r f e i t s ,
i f he p u t ~.on y e l l o w s t o c k i n g s and l o o k ' t back
vpon her, was h e r e u e r l a s t i n g l y i n g t h e r e w i t h o u t
b a y l e o r mayne-prize: t h e l o u i n g coxcomb c o u l d
not choose b u t l o o k e backe, and so l o s t h e r ,
(perhaps hee d i d i t , because he would be r i d o f
her.) The m o r a l l o f w h i c h i s , t h a t i f a man
leaue h i s owne b u s i n e s and haue an eye t o h i s
wiues dooings, s h e e l e g i u e him t h e s l i p though
she runn.e t o t h e D i u e l l f o r h e r l a b o u r „~
(A K n i g h t ' s C o n j u r i n g ) . ^
John Marston, another d r a m a t i s t who n e g l e c t s

24
Orpheus i n h i s p l a y s , does w e l l by t h e Orpheus-Eurydice
story i n a rather Juvenalian s a t i r e :
But l e t some Cerberus

Keep back t h e w i f e of sweet-tongued Orpheus,
Gnato applauds t h e hound ( S a t i r e s V,91-3).
L a t e r , i n d e f i a n c e o f t h e s p i r i t o f h i s day, he c l a i m s t h a t
i t was a "bouzing Bacchus" who sent t h e Bacchantes t o t e a r
Orpheus l i m b from l i m b , and m e r e l y because t h e m u s i c i a n
f o r g o t t o mention one of t h e gods i n h i s s.ongs ( i b i d . 111-20)
23
-Êarly E n g l i s h F.oetry, B a l l a d s and P o p u l a r L i t e r a t u r e o f
the M i d d l e Ages (London: The P e r c y S o c i e t y , l84l), p. 24,
24
There i s a humorous r e f e r e n c e i n What You W i l l 1,1,94-9,
120
Ben Jons on,, t o o , makes o n l y the most u n i n s p i r e d

r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus i n h i s p l a y s and masques, constantly
25
grouping him w i t h L i n u s , but i n a minor work, On the Famous
Voyage, he i s f r e e t o g i v e a h i l a r i o u s i f overworked contem-
p o r a r y p a r a l l e l of the Orphean d e s c e n t .
I t i s much the same case w i t h Thomas Campion.
I t i s t r u e t h a t the R e n a i s s a n c e Orpheus i s an important
f i g u r e i n The L o r d ' s Masque: he c o n j u r e s up Mania and her
f u r i e s , charms them w i t h h i s music, then r e l e a s e s Entheus so
as t o g i v e t h e wedding c e l e b r a t i o n s some b r e a t h o f p o e t i c
inspiration. But Campion uses the s t o r y of E u r y d i c e ina
L a t i n poem of h i s l e i s u r e moments; i n the Ad_ Thame s i n ,
(205-10), the l e a d e r s of the S p a n i s h Armada are e n t e r t a i n e d
i n Hades by D i s , and among the p e r f o r m e r s i s Orpheus, who
s i n g s the song he once poured f o r t h on Rhodope, when he l o s t
his Eurydice.
F i n a l l y , Robert Greene, who put F r i a r Bacon and
F r i a r Bungay on the stage, p r e s e n t s the Orpheus s t o r y
s e r i o u s l y as a l y r i c i n h i s n o v e l Orpharion. In h i s v e r s i o n ,
Eurydice i s i n l o v e w i t h P l u t o and though Orpheus, a i d e d
^Bartholomew F a i r 11,59; Masque of B e a u t y 139; Masque

of Augurs 286; The F o r t u n a t e I s l e s 526; The P o e t a s t e r IV,1,
447; V,1,502; Underwoods; E p i s t l e t o E l i z a b e t h R u t l a n d .
121
by Theseus(J), wins h e r w i t h h i s song, on t h e r e t u r n

journey
26
She s l i p t a s i d e backe t o h e r l a t e s t loue (19).
G e n e r a l l y speaking we must say t h a t t h e E l i z a b e t h a n
d r a m a t i s t s found t h e s u b j e c t o f Orpheus' descent uncongen-
ial; i t might serve f o r more l e i s u r e l y e f f o r t s , but o t h e r -
w i s e i t was o n l y a s t a n d a r d literary motif:.
The myth f a r e d b e t t e r a t t h e hands of t h e l y r i c

w r i t e r s o f t h e next generation.. I n When Orpheus S w e e t l y
D i d Complain, W i l l i a m Strode adds n o t h i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n ,
but a t l e a s t he g i v e s us a s e r i o u s poem about Orpheus w i t h
some genuine f e e l i n g , u n c l u t t e r e d by s t o c k p h r a s e s .
27
Abraham Cowley makes a g r a c e f u l r e f e r e n c e in•The M i s t r e s s .
Richard Lovelace has. Orpheus lament the l o s s o f E u r y d i c e i n
two b r i e f and melodious p i e c e s , Orpheus t o B e a s t s and
28
Orpheus t o Woods. Robert H e r r i c k ' s Orpheus t e l l s the
s t o r y w i t h such a d m i r a b l e b r e v i t y t h a t i t may be quoted i n
full:
26
An i d e a which.was t o occur t o Offenbach's l i b r e t t i s t s
and, i n a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t way, t o R a i n e r M a r i a R i l k e .
2 7
S e e The S p r i n g , 4 , 1 - 8 .
28
Lovelace's poems a r e p r a i s e d as worthy o f Orpheus by
John P i n c h b a k e , John N e e d i e r and S, O g n e l l : see W i r l ,
op. c i t . , p. 66.
122
Orpheus he went (as Poets t e l l )

To f e t c h E u r i d i c e from H e l l ;
And had h e r ; but i t was upon
T h i s s h o r t but s t r i c t c o n d i t i o n :
Backward he s h o u l d not l.ooke w h i l e he
Led her t h r o u g h H e l l s o b s c u r i t i e ;
But ah.' i t hapned as he made
H i s passage t h r o u g h t h a t d r e a d f u l l shade:
R e v o l v e he d i d h i s l o v i n g eye;
( F o r g e n t l e f e a r e , or j e l o u s i e )
And l o o k i n g back, t h a t l o o k d i d s e v e r
Him and E u r i d i c e f o r e v e r .
John M i l t o n sums up the Orphean t r a d i t i o n of the
E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e : f o r him the s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of
29
the myth was not t h e E u r y d i c e - s t o r y ^ but the hero's
dismemberment.. The p i c t u r e of a g r e a t c i v i l i z i n g p r o p h e t ,
who harmonizes a l l the c o n f l i c t i n g elements of n a t u r e through
the power of h i s a r t , the poet w i t h o u t honor t o r n a p a r t by
the u n a p p r e c i a t i v e s o c i e t y he had h e l p e d t o form - t h i s was
r i c h i n meaning f o r M i l t o n . . T h i s theme appears most n o t a b l y

30
i n L y c i d a s , where i t i s the f o c a l p o i n t of the e n t i r e poem,
and i n the opening t o Book V I I of P a r a d i s e L o s t . Orpheus
becomes f o r M i l t o n a symbol of h i s own turbulent artistic
life - i n Ad Patrem (52), S i x t h Elegy (70) and the S i x t h and

2Q
^ I n Sonnet 23, A l c e s t i s , not E u r y d i c e , i s the l o s t vision
f r o m the w o r l d beyond.
30
According t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of C a r o l i n e W. Mayerson
"The Orpheus Image i n ' L y c i d a s ' " , PMLA 64(1949), pp. 189-
207.
Seventh P r o l u s i o n s . Milton a l s o knew and quoted the Orphic
31
poems and recommended t h e i r study.
But Milton r e f e r s t o the Eurydice-story as well,
and i n the classic phrases:
T h a t Orpheus s e l f may heave h i s h e a d

Prom g o l d e n s l u m b e r on a bed
Of h e a p t E l y s i a n f l o w r e s , and h e a r
S u c h s t r e i n s as w o u l d have won t h e e a r
Of P l u t o , t o have q u i t e s e t f r e e
His h a l f regain'd Eurydice. ( L ' A l l e g r o 1 4 5 - 5 0 ) .
If the myth has been g i v e n any more famous t r e a t m e n t i n
English letters, then i t can only be:
Or b i d t h e s o u l o f Orpheus s i n g
S u c h n o t e s as w a r b l e d t o the s t r i n g ,
Drew I r o n t e a r s down P l u t o ' s cheek, .
And made H e l l g r a n t what L o v e d i d s e e k
( l l Penseroso 1 0 5 - 8 ) .
There are two other a l l u s i o n s : i n the L a t i n Ad_ P a t r e m
Milton claims Orpheus b r o u g h t tears t o the departed shades
not by the music of h i s lyre but by his poetry, and in the
opening l i n e s o f Book I I I o f P a r a d i s e Lost a mention of
"th' Orphean L y r e " p r o m p t s an identification of Milton's
poetic journey with Orpheus,
T a u g h t by t h e h e a v ' n l y Muse t o v e n t u r e down

The d a r k d e s c e n t , and up t o r e a s c e n d ,
Though h a r d and r a r e ( 1 9 - 2 1 ) .
^Pirst Prolusion; S o n n e t s 11,10; E l e g y V,11; Of' E d u -
cation.
124
M i l t o n ' s a r t i s t i c m i s s i o n i s thus e x e m p l i f i e d by
Orpheus d e s c e n d i n g as w e l l as by Orpheus r e j e c t e d and
martyred. I f the a n c i e n t m u s i c i a n d i d not f a r e w e l l a t the
hands of R e n a i s s a n c e Englishmen, i n M i l t o n he was clothed at
l a s t i n g l o r i o u s language and I n v e s t e d w i t h s y m b o l i c s i g n i -
ficance.
The sources f o r c l a s s i c a l mythology were of course
much more numerous and much more a c c e s s i b l e I n the
R e n a i s s a n c e , and though the b e s t v e r s i o n s of Orpheus' descent
- Virgil, Ovid and B o e t h i u s - had been a v a i l a b l e a l l t h r o u g h
the M i d d l e Ages, R e n a i s s a n c e w r i t e r s a l s o used the new mytho-
l o g i c a l handbooks. We have n o t e d how Chapman and Heywood
use N a t a l i s Comes' M y t h o l o g i a e (1551), as Henryson had used
N i c h o l a s T r i v e t (ca_. 1350) . Other p o p u l a r source-books w i t h
moral o v e r t o n e s were the voluminous books of Lydgate and the
E p i s t r e s of C h r i s t i n e de P i s a n , b o t h of w h i c h , as we have
seen, d e a l t w i t h Orpheus and E u r y d i c e . The f i r s t new trans-
l a t i o n s of the Metamorphoses - by W i l l i a m Caxton (l480)
and the house of C o l a r d Mansion (l484) - a c t u a l l y contained
b i t s of a l l e g o r i z e d Ovid i n the t e x t s . And V i r g i l ' s Orpheus,
too, came complete w i t h sermon i n the f i r s t F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n
of the G e o r g i e s , by M i c h e l G u i l l a u m e de Tours ( 1 5 1 9 ) . But
l a t e r t r a n s l a t i o n s , and i n p a r t i c u l a r the i n f l u e n t i a l Meta-
morphoses of Boner i n German ( 1 5 3 4 ) , Habert i n F r e n c h ( 1 5 5 7 ) ,
Bustamante (ca_. 1546) and V i a n a (1589) i n S p a n i s h , G o l d i n g

(1567) and Sandys (1632) i n E n g l i s h , l e f t t h e r e a d e r t o draw
his own. m o r a l .
In time t h e R e n a i s s a n c e began t o produce i t s own
handbooks, Robert Stephanus' Thesaurus Linguae L a t l n a e
(1531) i n f l u e n c e d the Orpheus of Ben Jonson's masques;
C h a r l e s Stephanus' D i c t i o n a r i u m H i s t o r i c u m ac p o e t i c u m
(1553) made N a t a l i s Comes' Orpheus a c c e s s i b l e t o Thomas
Heywood and f a t h e r e d the Orpheus i n Mystagogus Foeticus
(1647) o f a n o t h e r c o m p i l e r , A l e x a n d e r Ross. I n England
the most i n f l u e n t i a l of a l l was t h e Thesaurus Linguae
Romanae e t B r i t t a n i c a e (1565) o f Thomas Cooper, from w h i c h
Spenser and the E l i z a b e t h a n s d e r i v e d t h e i r Orpheuses and
other mythological f i g u r e s .
The g i a n t o f t h e S p a n i s h R e n a i s s a n c e , M i g u e l de
C e r v a n t e s , i s , i n h i s approach t o mythology, n o t u n l i k e t h e
l i t e r a r y men of R e n a i s s a n c e E n g l a n d . He uses t h e Orpheus -
myth i n a p e r f u n c t o r y way. One o f the l y r i c s i n Don Quixote
w i l l serve as an example:
c a n t a r e su b e l l e z a y su d e s g r a c i a ,
con mejor p l e c t r o que e l c a n t o r de T r a c i a
.(11,69).
Cervantes indulges i n c l a s s i c a l a l l u s i o n s t o the
32
minimum e x t e n t expected of a w r i t e r o f t h e p e r i o d . Other

f i g u r e s o f t h e S i g l o do Pro, l e s s u n i v e r s a l i n scope and
more d i r e c t l y concerned w i t h m y t h o l o g i c a l s u b j e c t s , use t h e
Orpheus-myth and use i t v e r y w e l l . E a r l i e s t o f these i s
G a r c i l a s o de l a Vega, who "when he touches a c l a s s i c theme.-.,
i s o f t h e g r e a t age: he stands f o r t h e b e s t o f t h e f u l l y
•DO
developed Renascence."- 30
S t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by the I t a l i a n s ,
and e s p e c i a l l y by P o l i t i a n and Sannazaro, b o t h o f whom d e a l t
w i t h Orpheus, G a r c i l a s o attempted t o t r a n s f e r t h e i r d e l i c a t e
m u s i c a l s t y l e t o h i s own language. H i s sonnet on Orpheus i s
among h i s most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e work:
^ F o r a l l u s i o n s t o Orpheus, see E l C e l o s o Extremeno ( p . 908),

La Casa de l o s C-elos ( p . 259), La G a l a t e a (pp. 613, 624, 7^7),
i n Obras ed. A.V. P r a t ( M a d r i d , 1956).

33
Rudolph S c h e v i l l , Ovid and t h e Renascence i n S p a i n
( B e r k e l e y , 1913), p. 226.
127
S i quexas y lamentos pueden t a n t o ,

Que e n f r e n e r o n e l c u r s o de l o s r i o s , .
Y en l o s d e s i e r t o s . montes y sombrios
Los a r b o l e s movieron con su canto:
S i c o n v i r t i e r o n a escuchar su l l a n t o
Los f i e r o s t i g r e s , i penascos frios;>.
S i en f i n con menos c a s o s , que l o s mios
Baxaron a l o s r e i n o s d e l espanto;
i Porque no a b l a n d a r a mi t r a b a j o s a
V i d a , en m i s e r i a , i lagrymas passada,
Un coracon conmigo endurecido?
Co mas p i e d a d d e v r i a s e r escuchada
La voz d e l que se l l o r a p o r p e r d i d o
Que l a d e l que p e r d i o , i l l o r a o t r a cosa. >. 0
(4,5,1-14).. 3 4
Another p o e t i c t r e a t m e n t o f t h e myth, much more
s y m p a t h e t i c than a n y t h i n g t o be found i n R e n a i s s a n c e England,
i s t h e c l o s i n g p o r t i o n o f t h e e l e g y " S i no puede r a z o n , "
by Diego Hurtado de Mendoza. A f t e r t e l l i n g the s t o r y of the
d e s c e n t , Mendoza a d d r e s s e s t h e s o r r o w i n g Orpheus:
Tu v a s ahora p o r T r a c i a d e s t e r r a d o ,
Hinchendo t i e r r a y c i e l o s con t u q u e j a ,
Y s u s p i r o s mezclando con c u i d a d o .
E l l a , y u e l t a en e s p i r i t u , se a l e j a
Por e x t e n d i d o campo o yerba v e r d e ,
Aunque no s i n d o l o r porque t e d e j a j '
Pero no que t o r n a a t i se acuerde: . • >;
Porque e l que pasa e l agua d e l o l v i d o ,

En vano l o desea q u i e n l o p i e r d e ( 2 0 8 - 1 6 ) .
•Orpheus i s a l s o t h e s u b j e c t o f f o u r sonnets by Juan de

35
Arguijo.
3 4
H e r r e r a ' s commentary on G a r c i l a s o a p p l i e s t o t h i s sonnet
the O r p h e u s - a l l e g o r y from Ovide m o r a l i s e . Another r e f e r e n c e
•
t o Orpheus i n G a r c i l a s o i s i n Cancion 5 , 1 - 1 0 .
^Sonnets 2 4 and 2 5 , . and, d e a l i n g w i t h t h e d e s c e n t ,
sonnets 48 and 49.

128
In 1624 t h e r e appeared two n a r r a t i v e poems on the

myth of the d e s c e n t , one a long,, a r t i f i c i a l Orfeo by Juan
/ . . . . . . . .
de J a u r e g u i , the o t h e r , E l Orfeo en lengua c a s t e l l a n a , of
a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same l e n g t h and i n the same meter, attri-
buted t o Juan P e r e z de Montalban. These two poems mark the
famous d i v i s i o n of s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y S p a n i s h p o e t r y i n t o
c u l t e r a n i s m o and conceptismo, "the g r e a t e s t storm ever known

36
i n the h i s t o r y of S p a n i s h l i t e r a t u r e . . ' The s t i r was
i n i t i a t e d by L u i s de Gongora, whose c u l t o s t y l e e f f e c t e d by
a r t i f i c i a l p h r a s i n g and u n u s u a l word o r d e r a new poetic
language.. Though J a u r e g u i b i t t e r l y r e s e n t e d Gongora' s 1
i n n o v a t i o n s , h i s Orfeo i s a c t u a l l y an attempt t o r i v a l
Gongora's P o l i f e m e u T y p i c a l i s t h e passage i n w h i c h Orfeo
and E u r i d i c e are b e s e t by sad f o r e b o d i n g s on t h e i r wedding
night:
C a u t e l a r pudo a l a d v e r t l d o esposo
(mas e l amor l a p r o v i d e n c i a i m p l i c a )
de a z a r e s e l o c u r s o temeroso,
que ya en sus bodas breve l l a n t o i n d i c a :
no a s i s t e Iuno; no l o q u a z I a i r o s o
e l D i o s n u p c i a l su' ceremonia e s p l i c a ;
de o s c u r a a n t o r c h a , con desorden c i e g o ,
arde en su mano r e l u c h a n d o e l fuego.
"3
G e r a l d Brenan, The L i t e r a t u r e of the S p a n i s h P e o p l e
(Cambridge, 1935), p. 224..

Despues quando^la d u l c e , p r e v e n i d a
ora noturna. a l talamo l o s l l a m a ;
1 a o c u l t o s r e g o z i j o s encendida
l u z g r a t a admiten e l amante, y dama;
de causa p r o c e d i d o no a d v e r t i d a
subito incurso arrebato l a llama:
n i e l d i s c u r r i r contra e l anuncio f i e r o
h a l l o e v a s i o n a d e s m e n t i r su aguero ( i , 5 7 - 7 2 ) ,
T h i s i s not o n l y representative culteranismo; i t i s also a
t y p i c a l l y Spanish extension of a c l a s s i c idea.. Ovid's e v i l
omens become agueros - f a t a l f o r c e s w h i c h many S p a n i s h

37
authors a f t e r J a u r e g u i use t o m o t i v a t e the s t o r y .
The opponents of c u l t e r a n i s m o used c l e a r , i d i o m a t i c
S p a n i s h and sought t h e i r e f f e c t s i n more or l e s s t y p i c a l l y
R e n a i s s a n c e c o n c e i t s - hence t h e i r name conceptismo, and
the en lengua c a s t e l l a n a p o i n t e d l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e i r Orfeo.

38
Menendez y P e l a y o n o t e s t h a t t h e i r s i s a h a s t i l y composed
work, a mere t o u r de f o r c e h u r r i e d i n t o p u b l i c a t i o n t o r i v a l
y ' 39
Jauregui. But we need not c r e d i t the statement t h a t i t was
a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n by Lope de Vega, and i n f o u r days.
Thus R e n a i s s a n c e Spain produced more f u l l - s c a l e
treatments of the myth than E n g l a n d , and a t l e a s t as many
37
'Pablo Cabanas, i n El_ Mi t o de Orfeo en l a L i t e r a t u r a
Esparlola ( M a d r i d , 19^8) t r a c e s t h i s theme t h r o u g h the S p a n i s h
treatments of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , See pp. 53 6l.

-
In E s t u d i o s Sobre e l Teatro de Lope de Vega, ed.. E.S..
Reyes (Madrid, 19^9), v o l , 2, p. 241.

39
^Found by La B a r r e r a i n a copy of the f i r s t e d i t i o n of the
poem.
130
hundreds of r e f e r e n c e s t o the "Orphean l y r e " and "Orpheus'
song". To d e t a i l these i s t o l i s t almost a l l the names of

40
an amazing p e r i o d i n l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t i v i t y . .
From, a l i t e r a r y c l i c h e , Orpheus became a s u b j e c t
of s a t i r e - i n Gongora's c l e v e r r e p l i e s t o J a u r e g u i and
' 4l '
Montalban, and i n two p l a y s , B e r n a l d o de Q u i r e s Marido1
h a s t a e l i n f i e r n o and Can celt?'s V a i l e f amoso de l a f a b u l a de

42
Orfeo. I t seems t h a t the h e l l - b r a v i n g c o n s t a n c y of
Orpheus c o u l d e a s i l y be made r i d i c u l o u s t o a people who
s e r i o u s l y c u l t i v a t e d a sense of honor.. Lope's p l a y about
Orpheus and Eurydice,. e n t i t l e d KL Marido Mas F i r me, is
s e r i o u s , as b e f i t s the comedia m i t o l o g i c a , and does not
s t a n d out i n the v a s t corpus of i t s a u t h o r ' s work. More •
"noteworthy i s the comedy E r u d i c e y_ Orfeo by A n t o n i o de Soils.,

43
w h i c h t r e a t s the myth "as a c l o a k and dagger comedy": as the
l o v e r s r e a c h the upper w o r l d , E u r y d i c e i s c a r r i e d o f f a g a i n
by A r i s t a e u s , w h i l e Orpheus, m i n d f u l of P l u t o ' s i n j u n c t i o n ,
does not t u r n h i s head. One of the most s u c c e s s f u l b u r l e s -
ques of the myth i n any language i s the poem C a l i f i c a a_
Orfeo p a r a i d e a de maridos d i c h o s a s , by F r a n c i s c o de
Quevedo, w h i c h b e g i n s :
^ S e e Cabanas, op. c i t . , pp. 87-114.
^ S o n n e t s 8 l and 82...
42
D i s c u s s e d i n Cabanas, op_. c i t . , pp. 139-44.
ho
Como una comedia de capa y espada." Mene'ndez y P e l a y o ,
op-, c i t . , p . 2 4 l .
Orfeo p o r su mujer
cuentan que b a j o a l I n f i e r n o ;
y p o r su mujer no pudo
b a j a r a .otra p a r t e Orfeo (1-4)...
T h i s s a t i r e i s the source of La_ Descente d' Orphee, by the
p r e c i e u s e p o e t e s s H e n r i e t t e de C o l i g n y ; the Orphee of
A n t o i n e Beauderon de Senece (1717); the Orpheus of Lady
Monck (1716); t h e anonymous "Pond Orpheus -went as p o e t s
tell" (1724)j Robert D o d s l e y ' s "When Orpheus went down";
B r o o k e s ' "Urn s e i n e F r a u von neuen zu e r l a n g e n " (1725) and
J . W i e d e r i c h G r i e s ' "Orpheus s t i e g zum H o l l e n s c h l u n d e n "
(1824).^ But d e s p i t e the p o p u l a r i t y of t h i s s a t i r e , Que-
vedo's b e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the l i t e r a t u r e o:f Orpheus i s t h e
m a d r i g a l C o n t r a p o s i c i o n Amorosa:
S i f u e r a s t u mi E u r i d i c e , oh senora,
ya que soy yo e l Orfeo que t e adora.,
t a n t o e l poder m i r a r t e en mx p u d i e r a ,
que s o l o p o r m i r a r t e t e perdiera.:
pues s i p e r d i e r a l a o c a s i o n de v e r t e ,
p e r d e r t e f u e r a a s x , p o r no p e r d e r t e (1-6).
We a r e not s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d s e v e r a l d e e p l y
45
r e l i g i o u s t r e a t m e n t s of t h e myth i n S p a i n : ^ B a l t a s a r
G r a c i a n , i n A r t e de i n g e n i o , c a l l s C h r i s t " e l v e r d a d e r o
Orfeo", drawing a l l t h i n g s t o H i m s e l f as He hangs w i t h arms
44 n l!
See La Bajada de Orfeo a l o s I n f i e r n o s , Obras Completas
de Quevedo, ed.. L.A.. M a r i n ( M a d r i d , 1952), v o l . 2, pp. 1467-
78..
45
"\For f u l l t r e a t m e n t of the works mentioned i n t h i s p a r a -
graph,, see Cabanas, op. c i t . , pp. 153-76 and 239-87.

132
o u t s t r e t c h e d on the l y r e of the C r o s s ; t h e r e i s a s i m i l a r
r e f e r e n c e i n Lope's Corona. T r a g i c a ; S e b a s t i a n de Cordoba
" c h r i s t i a n i z e s " two m y t h o l o g i c a l p o e t s i n a work whose t i t l e
speaks b e s t f o r i t s e l f - Obras de. Bos can y_ G a r c i l a s o
t r a n s l a d a d a s en m a t e r i a s c r i s t i a n a s y_ r e l i g i o s a s ; John the
B a p t i s t i s compared t o Orpheus i n the V e r s o s Sacros of
Bocangel. Pre-eminent among those who t r e a t Orpheus i n t h i s
m y s t i c l i g h t i s the f i g u r e who marks the end of S p a i n ' s
g r e a t l i t e r a r y e r a , Pedro C a l d e r o n de l a Barca.. In E l auto
d e l D i v l n o J a s o n , the c l a s s i c a l f i g u r e s aboard the Argo f o r e -
shadow New Testament personages: Jason i s C h r i s t ; H e r c u l e s ,
S t . P e t e r ; Theseus, S t . Andrew, and Orpheus, a g a i n , i s John
the B a p t i s t . Orpheus and E u r y d i c e are the s u b j e c t of a n o t h e r
auto - El_ d i v i n o Orfeo. Here the s e r p e n t s y m b o l i z e s s i n ;
Orpheus' t a k i n g up h i s l y r e and d e s c e n d i n g t o h e l l signi-
f i e s man t a k i n g up h i s c r o s s and d y i n g t o s i n ; the r e t u r n
of E u r y d i c e s i g n i f i e s redemption. A second E l d i v i n o Orfeo
i d e n t i f i e s Orpheus w i t h C h r i s t and P l u t o w i t h the d e v i l and
ends w i t h an a p o t h e o s i s of the E u c h a r i s t - . I n t h e s e e x t r a -
o r d i n a r y p l a y s of C a l d e r o n the a l l e g o r i z e d myth reaches i t s
l i t e r a r y apex.
Orpheus and E u r y d i c e are among the many c l a s s i c a l
f i g u r e s who f i n d t h e i r way i n t o the n a t i o n a l e p i c of
P o r t u g a l , the L u s i a d s of Camoens:
133
Qual se a j u t a u a em Rodope o aruoredo

So por o u u l r o amante da d o n z e l l a
E u r i d i c e , tocando a l i r a de ouro,
T a l a gente se a j u n t a a . o u u i r o Mouro
(Vl-l,29,5-8)-..46
In Germany the s p i r i t of the Renaissance e x p r e s s e d
i t s e l f more i n r e l i g i o u s r e v o l t than i n a r t i s t i c creation.;
Orpheus w i l l not loom l a r g e i n German l e t t e r s f o r c e n t u r i e s
still. But the M e i s t e r s a n g e r r e v e r e d h i s name: one of the
tones t h e y p r a c t i s e d was an "Orphei s e h n l i c h e K l a g w e i s " .
In the Lowlands, Erasmus and C o r n e l i u s Gerard

exchange r e f e r e n c e s t o the myth i n the d i a l o g u e Adversos
B a r h a r o s (89-96; 97-120), Here a g a i n Orpheus p l a y s h i s
R e n a i s s a n c e r o l e : he i s the poet whose song c i v i l i z e s a l l
47
the elements b o t h above and below the e a r t h .
4 6
S e e also III,st.1-2; X,st.5-6,
47 -
^'Erasmus a l s o compares John S k e l t o n t o Orpheus i n the
Carmen extemporale, 14-20; t h e r e i s a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e . i n the
Encomium M o r i a s , 26.
134
France y i e l d e d t o I t a l y the l i t e r a r y and c u l t u r a l
r u l e i t had h e l d over Europe when, a t the b e g i n n i n g of t h e
f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Dante, P e t r a r c h and B o c c a c c i o emerged
in swift succession. France was slow t o a s s i m i l a t e t h e new
spirit. F r a n c o i s V i l l o n , w r i t i n g a f u l l century a f t e r the
t h r e e g r e a t I t a l i a n s , i s s t i l l v e r y much a poet of t h e
M i d d l e Ages. H i s Orpheus i s almost a f i g u r e from a t r o u b a d o r
lay:
Orpheus, l e doux m e n e s t r i e r ,
Jouant de f l e u s t e s e t musetes,
En f u t en d a n g i e r de m u r t r i e r
Chiefr Cerberus a q u a t r e t e s t e s (Testament 633-6).
R a b e l a i s b e s t r i d e s t h e two ages. H i s r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus

a r e more l e a r n e d , b u t d e l i b e r a t e l y confused: Rantagruel,
aboard G a s t e r ' s s h i p i n the G l a c i a l Sea, suggests a s e a r c h
48
f o r t h e head and l y r e of Orpheus; i n another passage, he
t e l l s Panurge how E u r y d i c e l e a r n e d of h e r impending death i n
49
a dream, and c i t e s Ennius as h i s a u t h o r i t y .
F i n a l l y , i n the g e n e r a t i o n o f Ronsard, t h e s p i r i t
of t h e I t a l i a n Renaissance reached F r a n c e . I n Guillaume
C r e t i n ( d . 15 5) Orpheus i s c a l l e d upon t o s u p p l y a rondeau
2
50
of l a m e n t a t i o n , and does so i n t r u e Renaissance style.

The g r e a t P i n d a r i c l y r i c i s t h i m s e l f a l l u d e s t o Orpheus a
4 8
P a n t a g r u e l IV,56.
4 9
Ibid. Ill,14.
~ ^ D e p l o r a t i o n D u d i t C r e t i n 149-63. See a l s o poems 32,41,46

for brief allusions.
135
s c o r e of t i m e s , o f t e n w i t h the same Renaissance thoughtless-
ness we marked i n E n g l i s h p o e t r y , but many t i m e s too w i t h
loving attention: Orpheus the m u s i c i a n i s g e n e r a l l y g i v e n

51 52
only passing n o t i c e ; Orpheus aboard the Argo^ and
53
Orpheus dismembered are t r e a t e d a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h . The
j o u r n e y a f t e r E u r y d i c e i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y used i n the
E p i t a p h e s , t r e a t e d s e r i o u s l y f o r "Claude de 1 A u b e s p i n e " ,
1
and humorously i n the i n s c r i p t i o n f o r " A l b e r t , l o u e r de luth
du Roy", as a p r i e s t and a p a s s e r - b y engage i n c o n v e r s a t i o n
b e f o r e the tomb. Ronsard's l o n g e s t t r e a t m e n t of the Orpheus •
E u r y d i c e s t o r y i s i n e p i c s t y l e , v e r y s e r i o u s and very
beautiful,. I t l e a n s h e a v i l y on Ovid, b o r r o w i n g the songs of
b o t h C h i r o n and Orpheus from the Metamorphoses, as w e l l as
the f o l l o w i n g passage, perhaps the h i g h p o i n t of the poem:

Un s e n t i e r e s t la. bas. t o u t obscur e t t o u t sombre,
Entremesle de peur e t d e f r a y e u r -et d' ombre:
;
Par ce chemin i e s o r s , e t j a presque i 'auois

Passe l e p o r t d ' E n f e r , l e s r i v e s e t l e s b o i s ,
Quand, l a s i v e i n c u d'amour i e regarde en a r r i e r e ,
E t mal-caut i e i e t t a y s u r e l l e ma l u m i e r e ,
F a u t t e assez pardonnable en amour, s i P l u t o n
S c a u o i t h e l a s l que c ' e s t que de f a i r e pardon
(L. Orphee 285-92)
1
^ S e c o n d e L i v r e des Amours, " E l e g i e " ; Odes I,10,V,5; Hymnes
"de L ' E t e r n i t e " , "de C a l a y s " ; Poems 2; E p i t a p h e s "Marguerite
de F r a n c e " , Hugues S a b e l " ; Response aux i n j u r e s ; A sa
g u i t e r r e ; A son l u t ; Sonnet "Quel l u t h " ; P r e f a c e au Roy
C h a r l e s IX; De L ' A r t P o e t i q u e F r a n c a i s .
52
Poems I, "L'Hylas".
-Âmours D i v e r s e s " E l e g i e l " .

136
Other p o e t s of the P l e i a d e mention Orpheus, but

54
the r e f e r e n c e s a r e n e g l i g i b l e . The t r a d i t i o n was r e v i v e d
a g e n e r a t i o n l a t e r i n Malherbe, whose e l e g y A.M. C o l l e t e t ,
55
sur l a mort de sa soeur contains a graceful reference to
the myth, r e m i n i s c e n t of Moschus 1

lament f o r B i o n . Less
s e r i o u s t r e a t m e n t was g i v e n Orpheus by the pre'cieux poet
Benserade, i n h i s Metamorphose Si - d' Ovide en Rondeaux,. and
by H e n r i e t t e de C o l l g n y i n her t r a n s l a t i o n of Quevedo's
satire
Whatever p e r s o n a l i t y the R e n a i s s a n c e i n Prance
sought t o g i v e Orphee was, however, l o s t when I t a l y ' s Orfeo
began h i s conquest of Europe. The f i r s t s i g n s of t h i s a r e
e v i d e n t i n the Orphee' of T r i s t a n L'Hermite (l639), p l a i n l y

57
i n f l u e n c e d by the gay, f r i v o l o u s Orfeo of M a r i n o , ' Then
the Orfeo of I t a l i a n opera was i m p o r t e d i n t o P r a n c e ,
u n f o r t u n a t e l y amid such o v e r - e l a b o r a t e s p e c t a c l e t h a t
e v e n t u a l l y Orphee became a s t o c k f a r c i c a l c h a r a c t e r . The
s u c c e s s of the P a r i s p r e m i e r e of R o s s i ' s opera on Orpheus
prompted the l a v i s h , (and s i m i l a r l y c o n s t r u c t e d ) Andromede e t
54 /
D
E,g. d'Aubigne, Sonnet 4-5J Les T r a g i q u e s I I I , 3 l 4 .
5 5
F o e s i e s 110,4-8.,
5 6
S e e Quevedo, Oibras, p.. .1470.
D
See C e c i l i a R i z z a , - "L Orphee d i T r i s t a n e L'Orfeo d e l
1
C a v a l i e r M a r i n o " , Convivium 26(1954), pp. 429-39,

137
Persee of C o r n e i l l e , and Racine i s s a i d t o have o f f e r e d t o

/ 59
w r i t e an Orphee t o mark the marriage of L o u i s XIV. ^ But we
g a t h e r t h a t n e i t h e r d r a m a t i s t found the s t o r y , i n i t s I t a l i a n
v e r s i o n , c h a l l e n g i n g m a t e r i a l , and La F o n t a i n e appears t o have
been r e v o l t e d by it.^° We might suppose t h a t , i f M o n t e v e r d i ' s

Orfeo_, r a t h e r than R o s s i ' s , had been i m p o r t e d , Orpheus might
have found h i s way on t o the F r e n c h c l a s s i c a l s t a g e . As i t
happened, he j o i n e d company w i t h M e z z e t i n , A r l e q u i n and
5o '
^ Orphee appears as a c h a r a c t e r i n C o r n e i l l e ' s La Toison
D' Or, and i s mentioned by the h e r o i n e i n Me dee ( l l , 2 . , 4 4 0 ) .
In Poesies_ D i v e r s e s 26, the s o u l of Orphee i s s a i d t o be
r e i n c a r n a t e d i n the French, p o e t .
59 /
-^See Henry C a r r i n g t o n Lancaster-, French Tragedy ( B a l t i m o r e ,
1950), Vol.. 1, p. 163, note '35. F o r o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus
i n R a c i n e , see La_ Re nominee aux Muses 81—2; Le_ Banquet de P l a t o n .
^ I n Poe^sies D i v e r s e a 12, "Sur L'Opera". For other r e f -
erences t o Orpheus i n La F o n t a i n e , see P o e s i e s 21, 57 70; -
L e t t r e s 23) Le Songe de Vaux IV; Contes 111,13,194. It is

perhaps s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i n a l l her l e t t e r s Mme. de Sevigne
a l l u d e s o n l y once t o Orpheus, and then t o the dismemberment:
774 "A Madame de Grignan" ( a c c o r d i n g t o the index i n the
e d i t i o n of M. Monmerque', P a r i s , 1862) .
138
6l '
Columbine f o r a romp t h r o u g h Hades. A s e r i o u s Orphee
by La Grange-Chancel (pub. 1727), w r i t t e n f o r the marriage
of L o u i s XV, never saw a s i n g l e performance; Orphe'e was,
after a l l , a clown.
We may now t u r n from Orphee t o the flamboyant
Renaissance Orfeo.
The Renaissance was born i n I t a l y , and Italian
literature i s the key t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t . A discussion
of the p e r i o d s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h P e t r a r c h and B o c c a c c i o ,
but I t a l y has been r e s e r v e d f o r the end of t h i s c h a p t e r
because i t s Orpheus has had the g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on later
ages..
The e x c i t i n g d i s c o v e r i e s of Poggio Bracciolini
and o t h e r m a n u s c r i p t - f i n d e r s u n e a r t h e d no r e a l l y new Orphean
l i t e r a t u r e ; we have seen t h a t the c l a s s i c t r e a t m e n t s of the
myth were a c c e s s i b l e t o the M i d d l e Ages. The I t a l i a n Orfeo
i s the hero of V i r g i l and Ovid c l o t h e d i n the new robes of
6l
E.g_., i n Regnard's La_ Descente de M e z z e t i n aux E n f e r s
(1689), i n w h i c h M e z z e t i n seeks Columbine i n Hades; Orpheus
i s p r e s e n t and speaks i n I t a l i a n . See L a n c a s t e r , A' H i s t o r y
of F r e n c h Dramatic L i t e r a t u r e , p a r t 4, ( B a l t i m o r e , i 9 6 0 ) ,
pp. 65O-I. An anonymous f a r c e , Orphee ou A r l e q u i n aux
e n f e r s , appeared i n 1711.
R e n a i s s a n c e humanism; he i s a b l o o d - b r o t h e r t o the Orpheus of
F r a n c i s Bacon and John M i l t o n . As the c l a s s i c embodiment of
art, music, wisdom and human achievement, as a new mystery
beyond the p a l e of m e d i e v a l G h r i s t i a n i t y , Orfeo became t o

62
I t a l y "the h e r a l d of the R e n a i s s a n c e " , "the g r e a t p r o t a g o n -
i s t of t h i s new.reign of c u l t u r e " . J
The foremost h i s t o r i a n
of I t a l i a n l e t t e r s e x p l a i n s why Orpheus a p p e a l e d t o the

humanists: "He was the founder of the h u m a n i t i e s , f o r he
s o f t e n e d the n a t u r e s of b e a s t s and men w i t h the sound of h i s
l y r e , he s o f t e n e d the h e a r t of Death and threw h i s enchant-'
ment over H e l l ; he was the t r i u m p h . o f a r t and c u l t u r e over
the rude i n s t i n c t s of N a t u r e . And the t r i u m p h was made h o l y
by martyrdom, when Orpheus was t o r n t o p i e c e s by the
bacchantes i n t h e i r drunken f u r y , f o r h a v i n g v i o l a t e d the
laws of N a t u r e . And now, a f t e r the l o n g , d a r k n i g h t of the
second b a r b a r i s m , Orpheus was r e b o r n amid the f e s t i v a l s of the
new civilization , 1
and i n a u g u r a t e d the r e i g n of the h u m a n i t i e s ,
or t o put i t b e t t e r , of humanism. T h i s was the mystery of the
c e n t u r y , the i d e a l of the R e n a i s s a n c e " . ^ I n I t a l y as i n
England i t i s the t r i u m p h a n t Orpheus t h a t the Renaissance
adopts: De S a n c t i s a l l u d e s t o the s t o r y of the descent o n l y
b r i e f l y , and never h i n t s t h a t i t i s a s t o r y of f a i l u r e and
F r a n c e s c o de S a n c t i s , H i s t o r y of I t a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e t r .
Joan R e d f e r n (New York, 1931')., v o l . I , p. 384..

6 3
I b i d . , p. 382.
6 4
Ibid.
i4o
tragedy.
Yet the I t a l i a n s , w i t h t h e i r i n g r a i n e d m y s t i c a l
sense and t h e i r p a s s i o n a t e l o v e of music, were n o t t o n e g l e c t
t h i s p a r t of t h e myth, and i n f a c t i t gained i n I t a l y the
p o p u l a r i t y i t l o s t i n England.
We know we have passed from the M i d d l e Ages t o the
R e n a i s s a n c e when P e t r a r c h ' s v i s i o n of t h e dead, u n l i k e
Dante's, encompasses t h e m y t h i c a l Orpheus:.
Mentre i o v o l g e v a g l i o c c h i i n .:.ogni p a r t e
s' i ' ne v e d e s s i a l c u n d i c h i a r a fama
o p e r a n t i c h e o p e r moderne c a r t e ,
v i d i c o l u i che s o l a E u r i d i c e ama, •
e l e i segue a l l ' i n f e r n o , e p e r l e i morto,
con l a l i n g u a g i a f r e d d a anco l a chiama ^
( T r i o n f o d'Amore I V , 1 0 - 5 ) •
With Boccaccio's Amorosa V i s i o n e we a r e s t i l l
f a r t h e r i n t o t h e Renaissance. T h i s i s y e t another v i s i o n o f
the a f t e r l i f e - but now the s u p e r n a t u r a l i s nowhere i n
evidence; a l l i s c o m p l e t e l y human. W i t h Dante, Orpheus was
a prophet i n Limbo; w i t h P e t r a r c h he was the m y t h i c a l f i g u r e ,
f.f.
but p a r t of a w o r l d of shadows; i n B o c c a c c i o ' s Visione
he i s c o m p l e t e l y a l i v e , s i n g i n g the p r a i s e s o f l o v e .
B o c c a c c i o a l l u d e s t o the myth s e v e r a l t i m e s : i n the e a r l y
67
Filocolo, a debate on q u e s t i o n s o f l o v e ; i n t h e
65
-\For o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus i n P e t r a r c h , see A f r i c a V,
675-8; Secretum; De Rebus F a m i l i a r l b u s I,9; Eclogue 1,123;
Rime 28,68; 187,9; 3 3 2 , 5 1 - 2 . .
°°XXIII,4-30.
^ B o o k 4. See p.. 873 i n v o l . 8 of L a L e t t e r a t u r a Ital.iana.,
ed. E. B i a n c i e t a l . ( M i l a n , n.d.)
141
68
Fiammetta where t h e h e r o i n e compares h e r l o v e pangs t o
69
E u r y d i c e ' s s n a k e - b i t e , and i n t h e L a t i n Carmina. The
predominant O v i d i a n tone i s e s p e c i a l l y n o t a b l e i n t h e open-
i n g l i n e s o f t h e N i n f a l e d'Ameto, where t h e s t o r y i s used
thus:
Q u e l l a v e r t u , che gia, l ' a r d i t o Orfeo
mosse a c e r c a r l e case d i P l u t o n e ,
a l l o r che f o r s e l i e t a g l i rendeo
l a cercata E u r l d i c e a condizione,
e d a l suon v i n t o d e l l ' a r g u t o l e g n o
e d a l l a n o t a d e l l a sua canzone,
per f o r z a t i r a i l mio debole ingegno
a c a n t a r l e tue l o d e , o C i t e r e a ,
insieme con l e f o r z e d e l t u o regno (Proemio, 1.-9).
70
B o c c a c c i o t h e s c h o l a r knows t h e O r p h i c w r i t i n g s .
But s t r a n g e t o say, t h e f o l k - t a l e element of Orpheus' myth
does n o t t u r n up i n t h e Decameron, and i s c o n s p i c u o u s l y
71
absent from t h e s u b j e c t m a t e r i a l o f t h e I t a l i a n n o v e l l e .
The p a s t o r a l p o e t s r e p r e s e n t Orpheus as the i d e a l
72 73
shepherd. B u t t h e a r t i f i c e s of Sannazaro 1
and B o i a r d o ' ^
do n o t prepare us f o r the wonder t h a t i s P o l i z i a n o ' s Orfeo.
6 8
B o o k 1.. See p. 1064, ibid.
^ C a r m i n a quae supersunt I I , 118.
7 Q
D e Gen. Deorum XIV,8.
71
A c c o r d i n g t o D.P. Rotunda., M o t i f - I n d e x o f t h e I t a l i a n
N o v e l l a i n Prose (Bloomington, 1942).
7 0rpheus i s mentioned i n Egloga XI,74.
2
73
-Êc.loga X, i n p r a i s e of t h e Duke o f Calabria., i s supposed
t o be spoken by Orpheus.
142
In 1472 C a r d i n a l F r a n c e s c o Gonzaga r e t u r n e d t o
Mantua a f t e r a p r o l o n g e d absence, and t o mark the o c c a s i o n
an e n t e r t a i n m e n t was g i v e n - the F a v o l a d' Orfeo.. The text
was by Angelo A m b r o g i n i of M o n t e p u l c i a n o , known as A n g i o l o
P o l o z i a n o , .or P o l i t i a n . Only seventeen y e a r s of age a t the
time,. P o l i t i a n wrote the Orfeo i n two days and, by h i s own
admission,, " i n the m i d s t of c o n t i n u o u s d i s t u r b a n c e s , and i n
v u l g a r s t y l e , so t h a t i t might be b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d by the
it 74
spectators... '
From what we know of him, young P o l i t i a n , the
p r o t e g e of Lorenzo de 1
Medici,, was t o t a l l y d e v o i d of any
religious or m o r a l f e e l i n g . His professed r e l i g i o n was
humanism. "The w o r l d of a n t i q u i t y t o o k easy p o s s e s s i o n of a
s o u l from w h i c h e v e r y remainder of the M i d d l e Ages had
completely vanishedi . .Theology, scholasticism, symbolism,,
the M i d d l e Ages w i t h t h e i r forms and t h e i r content...was
a w o r l d c o m p l e t e l y e x t r a n e o u s t o h i s c u l t u r e and h i s f e e l i n g ;
he saw i t as b a r b a r i s m . " ' 9

A humanist by v o c a t i o n , he became
i n time a p r o f o u n d scholar,, an eminent t e a c h e r and the a u t h o r
of many g r a c e f u l works i n Greek and Latin.. I n s h o r t , he
e p i t o m i z e d the s p i r i t of h i s age.
The s p e c t a t o r s a t the Orfeo were cut from a similar
p a t t e r n ; t h e y were a new k i n d of a u d i e n c e . I n the past.,, drama
74
L o u i s E. L o r d , A T r a n s l a t i o n of the Orpheus of Angelo
P o l i t i a n ( O x f o r d , 1931), p. 71..
75
1
-\De S a n c t i s , op. c i t . , p. 38I-
143
In Europe had always been r e l i g i o u s i n c h a r a c t e r : t h e l i t u r -
g i c a l p l a y s of t h e e a r l y M i d d l e Ages stemmed from t h e
d r a m a t i c element of a r i c h c e r e m o n i a l , and appealed v i v i d l y
to a l i v i n g f a i t h ; t h e s a c r e r a p p r e s e n t a z i o n i of l a t e r times
were more complex, m u s i c a l l y and s c e n i c a l l y , and much more
s o p h i s t i c a t e d , but t h e audience t h e y reached was s t i l l a t t u n e d
to t h e r e a l i t i e s of m y s t i c i s m and a s c e t i c i s m . B u t by P o l i t i a n ' s
day a l l t h i s was c h a n g i n g . The forms of r e l i g i o u s drama still
e x i s t e d , b u t t h e v i t a l i t y had gone out o f them. The f i f t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y o l i g a r c h , a proud c i t i z e n o f a f l o u r i s h i n g , self-
c o n t a i n e d c i t y - s t a t e , had l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n t h e p r o p h e t s
of t h e O l d and t h e s a i n t s o f t h e New Testament. He l a c k e d a
sense o f t h e t e r r i b l e , t h e s p i r i t u a l , one might almost say of
the dramatic. H i s i d e a l w o r l d was t h e w o r l d of the Theo-
c r i t e a n i d y l l , f o r t h e r e i n were combined t h e c l a s s i c i s m and
s e n s u a l i t y w h i c h were t h e two p o l a r f o r c e s of t h e new s p i r i t .
P o r such an audience P o l i t i a n was commissioned t o
compose a new e n t e r t a i n m e n t . -It was a c r u c i a l moment i n t h e
h i s t o r y o f t h e drama. D e p r i v e d of i t s r e l i g i o u s r a i s o n
d e t r e , drama might have d i e d a l i n g e r i n g d e a t h ; t h e new

1
a u d i e n c e , b r i l l i a n t but s u p e r f i c i a l , might have hastened i t s
demise. I t was a t t h i s moment t h a t P o l i t i a n saved t h e drama
by e f f e c t i v e l y s e c u l a r i z i n g i t . He found a s u b j e c t i n pagan
mythology w h i c h f i t t e d n e a t l y i n t o t h e framework of t h e
s a c r a r a p p r e s e n t a z i o n e but had r i c h s y m b o l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r
the new age: Orpheus t h e l o v e r who c o n f r o n t e d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l ,

144
Orpheus t h e m a r t y r , was a l s o Orpheus t h e c i v i l i z e r . , the a l l -
c o m p e l l i n g a r t i s t , t h e god of the shepherd w o r l d .
I t i s g e n e r a l l y reckoned P o l i t i a n ' s great a c h i e v e -
ment t h a t he s u c c e s s f u l l y t r a n s f e r r e d t h e drama from t h e
mystique t o t h e mondain; h i s Orfeo i s t h e f i r s t s e c u l a r drama
i n a modern language. B u t , almost a c c i d e n t a l l y , i t i s s t i l l
more than t h i s . I t i s t h e p r o t o t y p e o f a c o m p l e t e l y new a r t -
form.. And f o r t h i s P o l i t i a n i s l e s s r e s p o n s i b l e than t h e myth
itself. A b r i e f e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e Orfeo s h o u l d enable us t o
see t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y p l a c e i t h o l d s i n t h e h i s t o r y of
Western culture..
The Orfeo b e g i n s w i t h a p r o l o g u e , a resume of t h e
s t o r y , spoken by Mercury, whose coming from heaven i s seen
by t h e shepherds as a good omen. I n the opening scene,
Aristaeus t e l l s Mopsus of h i s p a s s i o n f o r a nymph he has seen
only yesterday f o r the f i r s t time. He urges Mopsus t o take
his p i p e and accompany him as he s i n g s t o h i s b e l o v e d . The
Orfeo then b u r s t s i n t o melody, a f o u r - s t a n z a t e x t of t h e most
s a v o r y I t a l i a n , p l a i n l y marked by i t s a u t h o r as a canzona:
U d i t e , s e l v e , mie d o l c e p a r o l e ,
Poi che l a n i n f a mia u d i r non v S l e (54-5).
The second scene d i s c l o s e s A r i s t a e u s p u r s u i n g t h e maiden..
Then we a r e shown, i n P o l i t i a n ' s words, "Orfeo, cantando sopra
i l monte i n su l a l i r a e' s e g u e n t i v e r s i l a t i n i " , and we hear
a l o n g L a t i n hymn i n p r a i s e o f Mantua's c a r d i n a l . A shepherd

145
then announces t h a t E u r y d i c e i s dead, b i t t e n by a s e r p e n t as
she f l e d from A r i s t a e u s . Orpheus s i n g s a song of l a m e n t a t i o n .
Then we see him s i n g i n g b e f o r e the gates of Hades:
P i e t a , p i e t a ! d e l m i s e r o amatore
P i e t a v i prenda, o s p i r i t ! i n f e r n a l ! .
Qua g i u m'ha s c o r t o solamente Amore;
V o l a t o son qua g i u con l e sue a l l (214-7).
I t i s the f i n e s t s i n g l e moment of the p l a y , when the dramatic
end. i s s e r v e d by the l y r i c element. Minos a d v i s e s P l u t o not
to l i s t e n t o the d e c e i t f u l song,, but P r o s e r p i n a , d e l i g h t e d
w i t h the music, persuades her husband t o r e s t o r e E u r y d i c e .
P l u t o a g r e e s , but w i t h the c o n d i t i o n
Ch'el.la t i segua p e r l a c i e c a v i a ,
Ma che t u mai l a sua f a c c i a non v e g g i
P i n che t r a ' v i v i p e r v e n u t a s i a (295 7)• -
On the upward j o u r n e y Orpheus s i n g s f o u r L a t i n l i n e s adapted
from Ovid:
I t e t r i u m p h a l e s c i r c u m mea tempora l a u r i i
Vicimus Eurydicen r e d d i t a v i t a mihi e s t .
Haec e s t p r a e c i p u o v i c t o r i a d i g n a triumpho: ^ 7
Hue ades, o cura p a r t e triumphe mea! (302-5).
Suddenly, E u r y d i c e laments t h a t h i s t o o g r e a t l o v e has des-
t r o y e d them b o t h . She d i s a p p e a r s , and the way back t o Hades
i s b a r r e d by a F u r y . Orpheus' lament now t a k e s the form of
a f o r s w e a r i n g of the l o v e of womeni He launches i n t o the
p r a i s e s of male companionship, c o u n s e l s m a r r i e d men to
d i v o r c e t h e i r w i v e s and a l l men t o f l e e the company of the
o t h e r sex, whereupon the f i n a l c a t a s t r o p h e ensues, and the
p l a y ends i n a bacchanal.e.
C f . Ovid, Amores 11,12,1-2,5,16,

146
What i s t h i s Orfeo? I n i t s e x t e r n a l form i t i s
s a c r a r a p p r e s e n t a z l o n e , w i t h t h e o l d meter - t h e o t t a v a ,
and t h e o l d f e a t u r e s - t h e angel-messenger, t h e shepherd •
p r o l o g u e , heaven opening, h e l l g a p i n g , t h e hero m a r t y r e d .
But a l l t h i s i s s e c u l a r i z e d . " I n s t e a d of k n e e l i n g i n
s a i n t l y p r a y e r , as would t h e hero of a mystery, Orpheus
appears:, l y r e i n hand, s i n g i n g i n L a t i n s a p p h i c s t h e
p r a i s e s - o f t h e guest of t h e o c c a s i o n . " P r i m a r i l y , the
Orfeo i s s e c u l a r drama. I t i s h a r d l y g r e a t drama, and
P o l i t i a n h i m s e l f would be t h e l a s t t o c a l l i t tragedy.. He
r e g a r d e d i t .as i n f e r i o r t o h i s Greek and L a t i n w r i t i n g s ,
as a c h i l d he would have p r e f e r r e d t o expose. Yet i n
g l o r i f y i n g man i n h i s r o l e o f a r t i s t , man t r a g i c i n h i s
living, l o v i n g and d y i n g , P o l i t i a n p r o v i d e d t h e Renaissance
i n I t a l y w i t h a r i c h symbol, and came c l o s e r t o c l a s s i c
t r a g e d y than any o f h i s countrymen had come f o r c e n t u r i e s .
The Orfeo i s most o f t e n r e g a r d e d as a d r a m a t i c
e c l o g u e , and l i t t l e more. T h i s e s t i m a t e h a r d l y does i t
justice. I t i s t r u e t h a t P o l i t i a n , t o p l e a s e h i s audience.,
p l a c e d h i s t r a g i c Greek s t o r y i n a p a s t o r a l setting;
p a s t o r a l poems were t o t h e Renaissance what romance was
t o t h e M i d d l e Ages. But t o r e g a r d t h e Orfeo o n l y as a
77
J e f f e r s o n B. F l e t c h e r , L i t e r a t u r e o f t h e I t a l i a n
R e n a i s s a n c e (New York, 1 9 3 4 ) , p. 1 3 7 .
See P o l i t i a n ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Orfeo, "A Messer
Carlo Canale".
147
p a s t o r a l i s t o be b e w i t c h e d by the opening scenes and
v a r i o u s b u c o l i c elements w h i c h have c l u n g t o the myth from
V i r g i l to Gluck. The f a c t i s , no p a s t o r a l poem b e f o r e the
Orfeo had encompassed t h r e e t r a g i c elements, embraced heaven,
e a r t h and h e l l i n t e l l i n g the s t o r y of a hero, a l l o w e d f o r
d r a m a t i c a c t i o n , b a c c h i c dithyrambs and s e t m u s i c a l pieces..
I s the Orfeo an opera, indeed the f i r s t opera?
I t s music has not s u r v i v e d , and we a r e not even sure who
composed i t . But t h i s does not r e a l l y m a t t e r ; the Orpheus-
myth demanded music, once i t was put on the stage,, and music
t h a t was not i n c i d e n t a l but e s s e n t i a l t o p l a y i n g out the
story. The stage d i r e c t i o n s i n the t e x t p l a i n l y indicate

79
t h a t p o r t i o n s of the p l a y were sung, and W.J. Henderson
d e t e c t s a t l e a s t f o u r d i s t i n c t m u s i c a l t y p e s i n what many
commentators have been p l e a s e d t o c a l l a l i b r e t t o .
J.A. Symonds n o t e s t h a t the c h i e f charm of the t e x t l i e s i n
i t s m u s i c a l language, i t s m u s i c a l movement, i t s " l i m p i d i t y
of thought and f e e l i n g , i n w h i c h the v e r y words evaporate

Ro
and l o s e themselves i n f l o o d s of sound".
Thus, a t one s t r o k e , P o l i t i a n s Orfeo.1

secularized
the drama and i n i t i a t e d two new a r t - f o r m s . The l e s s e r of
t h e s e , the p a s t o r a l drama or d r a m a t i c e c l o g u e , became a
s t a n d a r d d i v e r t i s s e m e n t i n s i x t e e n t h - and s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
79 / \
^Some F o r e r u n n e r s of I t a l i a n Opera (London, 1 9 1 1 ) , p. .101.
8o
R e n a i s s a n c e i n I t a l y : I t a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e (London, 1912),
vol.. 1, p. 360,
148
Italy. Tasso's Amlnta and G u a r i n i ' s I l _ P a s t o r F i d o are the
outstanding instances of t h i s genre, w h i c h i n c l u d e s new
Orfeos by such c e l e b r a t e d I t a l i a n s as A r i o s t o and Marino.
The s p i r i t of the p a s t o r a l drama stems, however, not from the
O r p h e u s - E u r y d i c e s t o r y but o n l y from a few e x t r a n e o u s p a s t o r a l
details in Politian's Orfeo.
The g r e a t e r a r t - f o r m , and the t r u e s p i r i t u a l des-
cendant of the f i r s t d r a m a t i z e d O r f e o , i s t h a t secular
dramma per musica w h i c h a l l o w s f u l l scope t o the h e r o i c and
the t r a g i c , w h i c h uses music t o t e l l i t s s t o r y . Whether
or not the. Orfeo i s an opera we need not d i s c u s s ; t o the
extent t h a t P o l i t i a n depended on music t o t e l l Orpheus'
s t o r y d r a m a t i c a l l y he may be s a i d t o be the f o r e r u n n e r of
the g r e a t o p e r a t i c composers who drew t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n from
the myth.. The f i r s t operas g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d as such,
the E u r i d i c e s of P e r i and C a c c i n i and the Orfeo- of Monte-
verdi.,. are more than a • c e n t u r y l a t e r , but t h e y r e t u r n
i n s t i n c t i v e l y to P o l i t i a n ' s material f o r t h e i r inspiration..
A l s o s i g n i f i c a n t i s the f a c t t h a t opera has always been
secular i n s p i r i t . S a c r e d s u b j e c t s are invariably

8l
sensationalized;, sentimentalized or l e f t t o the o r a t o r i o .
8l
The r e l i g i o u s backgrounds i n V e r d i ('Tr ova t o r e , La Forza
d e l D e s t i n o ) and the o t h e r I t a l i a n s are s e n s a t i o n a l ; the F r e n c h
(Gounod i n F a u s t , Massenet In Le_ J o n g l e u r ) p r e f e r t o senti-
mentalize; Wagner's P a r s i f a l i s a t b e s t pseudo-religious;
Moussorgsky i s genuine, but h a r d l y i n the European t r a d i t i o n .

149
Opera seems t o breathe" the a i r of the s e c u l a r drama i n t r o -
duced by Politian.
In 1494 the Orfeo was t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a Senecan
Orphei T r a g e d i a by A n t o n i o Tebaldeo. I t i s a dramatic

82
improvement, s t r e s s i n g the t r a g i c l e v e l i n P o l i t i a n . We
have a l r e a d y mentioned A r i o s t o and M a r i n o . A r i o s t o ' s Orfeo
ed A r i s t i o f o l l o w s V i r g i l . , and i s one of i t s a u t h o r ' s minor
works.: ^ M a r i n o ' s poem, one of s e v e r a l i d i l l i favolosi in
his Sampogna, i s c l o s e r t o Ovid's account,- and Ovid's gay,
superficial spirit as w e l l permeates t h i s Orfeo, w i t h i t s
carefree voluptuousness, conventional myth-making and
f l u e n t musical grace. T h i s i s Orfeo of the decadence,
82
A t r a n s l a t i o n i s included i n Lord, op. c i t . . , on odd-
numbered pages. I t was f i r s t published i n 1776 by F a t h e r
Irene.o A f f o . F i v e a c t s are I n d i c a t e d ; the occasional
a l l u s i o n s i n P o l i t i a n , ' i n c l u d i n g the L a t i n v e r s e s i n p r a i s e
of C a r d i n a l Gonzaga,. are d e l e t e d ; the announcement of E u r y -
d i c e ' s d e a t h i s more s k i l l f u l l y p r e s e n t e d by the introduction
of a new c h a r a c t e r , M n e s i l l u s ; Orpheus i s g i v e n a motive f o r
t u r n i n g - u n c e r t a i n t y ; the p r a i s e of homosexual l o v e and the
c o u n s e l l i n g of d i v o r c e are eliminated.
O o
See a l s o the p r o l o g u e t o I I Negromanto, 1-3; Satires
VI,86; Orlando F u r i o s o XLIII.,.83-,.8 f o r o t h e r references.

150
P o l i t i a n ' s symbol i s so soon d i s s i p a t e d ; Marino marks the
t r a n s i t i o n , i n I t a l y , from R e n a i s s a n c e t o Baroque.
Orpheus' d e c l i n e i n l i t e r a t u r e was coincident
w i t h , and p o s s i b l y caused by, h i s phenomenal r i s e as the
p r o t a g o n i s t of the dramma p e r musica. In the t o w e r i n g musi-
c a l f i g u r e who spans the R e n a i s s a n c e and the Baroque,
C l a u d i o M o n t e v e r d i , drama was r e - a n i m a t e d by the s p i r i t of
music, and Orpheus a g a i n was the f i g u r e h e a d of the movement.
But the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h i s w i l l r e q u i r e a sep-
arate chapter^
CHAPTER V
THE EVOLUTION OF AN ART-FORM
Orpheus i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r i n
the h i s t o r y o f opera. H i s s t o r y l i e s at the heart of the
s e c u l a r music-drama and might be s a i d t o c o n s t i t u t e t h e
operatic ideal. I n P o l i t i a n , M o n t e v e r d i and Gluck t h e myth

of Orpheus seems t o have suggested, e v o l v e d and p e r f e c t e d
an a r t - f o r m o f i t s own.
I f t h e opera d i d n o t develop i m m e d i a t e l y from
Politian's Orfeo, i t was n o t f o r want o f any o p e r a t i c germ
i n t h a t work; i t was because Renaissance m u s i c i a n s were
absorbed i n t h e m u s i c a l l e g a c y l e f t them by t h e M i d d l e Ages.
Politian's e r a was f o l l o w e d by t h e golden age o f polyphony,
and i t i s hard t o c o n c e i v e o f any music l e s s s u i t e d t o
d r a m a t i c purposes than t h a t o f P a l e s t r i n a and h i s contem-
poraries. Some attempts were made t o adapt polyphony t o t h e
drama, w i t h t h e a c t o r s mouthing words sung by a m u l t I - v o i c e d
chorus i n t h e wings. The f i r s t o f these was i n 159^, t h e v e r y
y e a r of P a l e s t r i n a ' s d e a t h . But no polyphony, however I n t e n s e
or e x p r e s s i v e , c o u l d d e l i n e a t e c h a r a c t e r o r develop a s i t u a -
tion. There i s no d r a m a t i c l o g i c i n any of t h e m a d r i g a l
151
152
comedies, and the most famous of them, Y e c c h i ' s
L'Amfiparnasso (1597), was never even i n t e n d e d as a drama.
P o l y p h o n i c music was of course s u c c e s s f u l l y adapted t o
q u a s i - d r a m a t i c b i b l i c a l and m o r a l i t y plays," " but t o f i t

1
music i n t o the drama something c l o s e r t o o r d i n a r y speech
was required..
T h i s musico-dramatic p r o b l e m l i e s between the two
Orfeos of P o l i t i a n and M o n t e v e r d i . The s o l u t i o n came i n
two E u r i d i c e s and, s t r a n g e l y enough, from men who were,
s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , n e i t h e r m u s i c i a n s nor d r a m a t i s t s , but
c l a s s i c a l e n t h u s i a s t s - a group of F l o r e n t i n e s c h o l a r s
c a l l e d the Camerata (from the v a u l t e d h a l l i n the house of
'Giovanni B a r d i , where t h e y h e l d t h e i r meetings) . Among
t h e i r number were the p o e t s Marino, Chiabrera and
R i n u c c i n i and the m u s i c a l t h e o r e t i c i a n V i n c e n z o Galilei
( f a t h e r '-of the a s t r o n o m e r ) , whose D i a l o g o d e l l a Musica
A n t i c a . e d e l l a Moderna (1581) p r o v i d e d a p a r t i a l summary of

2
ancient musical theory. M u s i c i a n s appear t o have shown
E.g., the works w r i t t e n by P a l e s t r i n a and o t h e r s f o r the
o r a t o r y of S t . P h i l i p N e r i ' s h o s p i t a l of San Girolamo della
Car i t a, and the Rappre sen t a z lone d e l l ' Anima e_ d e l Corpo of

:
E m i l i o de 1
Cavalieri.
2
T h i s t r e a t i s e c o n t a i n e d , as examples of Greek music, the
f o u r hymns a s c r i b e d t o Mesomedes,
153
little interest i n G a l i l e i ' s researches, but the p o e t s and
s c h o l a r s of the Camerata were c o n v i n c e d t h a t something
beautiful c o u l d be b u i l t on the i d e a l , i f not on the a c t u a l
remains, of Greek music. The grandeur of the legendary-
Greek m u s i c i a n s - Orpheus and Amphion and Terpander, not to
mention A p o l l o h i m s e l f , the h i g h r e g a r d and deep concern f o r
music e x p r e s s e d by P l a t o and A r i s t o t l e , above a l l the indis-
putable f a c t t h a t Greek l y r i c s and certainly a large part
of Greek t r a g e d y were sung - a l l t h i s c o n s p i r e d t o t u r n the
c l a s s i c i z i n g s p i r i t of humanism towards music as, e a r l i e r ,
i t had t u r n e d t o a r t and literature.
The Camerata drew t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s from what
G a l i l e i t o l d them, r i g h t l y or w r o n g l y , about Greek t r a g e d y -
t h a t i t c o n s i s t e d of monophonic music t h r o u g h o u t , w i t h
i n s t r u m e n t a l accompaniment, t h a t p o l y p h o n i c music was alien
t o the s p i r i t and the usage of the Greeks. B a r d i persuaded
an eminent s i n g e r i n the group, Jacopo P e r i , t o t r y h i s hand
a t a new s t y l e of m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n based on Galilei's
t e n e t s , and e n l i s t e d the s e r v i c e s of the c o u r t P o e t , Ottavio
Rinuccini, f o r the words. The experiment was unveiled i n
1594 _ o t Oedipus or E l e c t r a
n or O r e s t e s , but Daphne. The
audience was d e l i g h t e d a t what i t thought t o be an authentic
Greek t r a g e d y , and the p i e c e was repeated on s e v e r a l occa-
sions. But Ovid's s t o r y was n e i t h e r t r a g i c nor dramatic,
and o f f e r e d l i t t l e scope f o r m u s i c a l expression.. The music
has been l o s t .
154
R i n u c c i n i decided, upon a more m u s i c a l s u b j e c t f o r
his next l i b r e t t o . Almost c e r t a i n l y , he remembered P o l i t i a n :
the new work was c a l l e d E u r i d i c e . The poem i s " d r a m a t i c
p o e t r y of t h e f i r s t w a t e r , w r i t t e n i n a g l o r i o u s language",
and d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t i t s p r o l o g u e i s spoken by Tragedy,
i t s O r f e o ' i s t h e t r i u m p h a n t f i g u r e of t h e Renaissance:.
the power of h i s music s i l e n c e s a l l o p p o s i t i o n ; t h e r e i s no

second l o s s o f E u r y d i c e . R i n u c c i n i ' s poem was t w i c e s e t t o
4
music. Peri's was performed i n 1600, a t the P i t t i P a l a c e ,
to c e l e b r a t e the m a r r i a g e , by p r o x y , of Henry IV of France
and M a r i a de' M e d i c i . Rubens was i n attendance,, and t h e
composer h i m s e l f sang the r o l e o f Orpheus. I n g e n e r a l i t can
be s a i d t h a t P e r i ' s s i m p l e approach s t r e s s e d the drama r a t h e r
than t h e music. C a c c i n i , the f a t h e r of t h e f i r s t prima
donna, emphasized t h e m u s i c a l l i n e i n h i s r i v a l v e r s i o n , p e r -
formed i n l602.. Thus do the two E u r i d i c e s mark t h e p e r e n -
n i a l p r o b l e m of o p e r a t i c c o m p o s i t i o n - t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t -
ance of t h e music and t h e drama..
So i t was t h a t a group of amateurs, u s i n g t h e
Orpheus-myth, r e s t o r e d t o t h e drama the m u s i c a l s t y l e t h a t
was e s s e n t i a l t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f o p e r a t But they were men
-"Paul Henry Lang, Music i n Western C i v i l i z a t i o n (New York,
1 9 4 1 ) , p. 338.
4 '.
A few p o r t i o n s o f P e r i ' s E u r i d i c e were c e r t a i n l y composed
by C a c c i n i . See Donald Grout, A S h o r t H i s t o r y of Opera

(New York, 1 9 4 7 ) , v o l . 1, p. 5 1 .
of t a l e n t r a t h e r than of g e n i u s . The monodic d e c l a m a t i o n
and the m u s i c a l l y j e j u n e " c h o r a l odes" must have seemed
p a i n f u l l y t h i n t o a u d i e n c e s who c o u l d hear V i t t o r i a i f t h e y
went t o Church. The two E u r i d i c e s were n e i t h e r Greek t r a g e d y
n o r opera; t h e y were o n l y e x p e r i m e n t s , wrong-headed attempts
w h i c h , r i g h t l y and f o r t u n a t e l y f o r opera, r e s t o r e d monophonic
music t o the drama.
At t h i s p o i n t a genius appeared, "one of those
e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n d i v i d u a l s who c r e a t e and o r g a n i z e a new
form of a r t , and whose advent i n t o the domain of thought
i s analogous t o the appearance of a s u p e r i o r s p e c i e s i n
n a t u r e , a f t e r a s e r i e s of u n f r u i t f u l a t t e m p t s . " ^ The
m a d r i g a l i s t C l a u d i o M o n t e v e r d i was encouraged by V i n c e n z o
Gonzaga t o t r y h i s hand a t the new music-drama. He came t o
i t u n f e t t e r e d by any h a l f - u n d e r s t o o d t h e o r i e s of a n t i q u i t y ,
and by u n a i d e d a r t i s t i c sense a c h i e v e d the A r i s t o t e l i a n
i d e a l of an a r t - f o r m i n w h i c h a l l elements converge on a
s i n g l e purpose. A g a i n the s u b j e c t was Orfeo, produced i n
1607 i n Mantua, where the myth had f i r s t been d r a m a t i s e d
over a c e n t u r y b e f o r e . M o n t e v e r d i s work proved a m i l e s t o n e

1
i n the h i s t o r y of music, "the f i r s t music-drama, i n w h i c h
the p o e t i c words, the d r a m a t i c a c t i o n and the m u s i c a l

6
c o n s t r u c t i o n are h e l d i n c r e a t i v e equilibrium"..
-^Lang, op_.. c i t . - , p. 339-
^Hans. F e r d i n a n d R e d l i c h , C l a u d i o M o n t e v e r d i , t r . K a t h l e e n
D a l e ( O x f o r d , 1 9 5 2 ) , p. 95.
156
The l i b r e t t o f o r the Orfeo was w r i t t e n by A l e s s a n d r o
S t r i g g i o , son of a famous m a d r i g a l i s t . I t begins w i t h a
p r o l o g u e , sung by Music h e r s e l f :
l o l a Musica son, c h ' a i d o l c i a c c e n t !

so f a r t r a n q u i l l o o g n i t u r b a t o c o r e ,
Ed or d i n o b i l ' i r a ed or d'amore
posso infiammar l e p i u g e l a t e mente.
The f i r s t of the f i v e a c t s i s a scene of p a s t o r a l r e j o i c i n g
at the m a r r i a g e of Orfeo and E u r i d i c e ; i n the second a c t ,
a messenger t e l l s of the b r i d e ' s d e a t h , and Orfeo r e s o l v e s
to seek her below i n the I n f e r n o ; i n the g r e a t t h i r d a c t
he c o n f r o n t s Charon, l u l l s him t o s l e e p and c r o s s e s the
S t y x a l o n e , t h r i c e r e p e a t i n g the i m p r e s s i v e l i n e
r e n d e t e m i i l mio ben, t a r t a r e i numi;
the f o u r t h a c t i s s e t i n Hades, where P r o s e r p i n a p r e v a i l s
upon P l u t o t o r e s t o r e E u r i d i c e , and where Orfeo l o s e s h e r ,
s u d d e n l y d i s t r a c t e d by a V i r g i l i a n f r a g o r ; i n t h e f i n a l
act, A p o l l o p i t i e s Orfeo's g r i e f and t a k e s him t o h i s

7
a p o t h e o s i s among the stars..
' S t r i g g i o o r i g i n a l l y wrote a scene i n w h i c h the Bacchantes
appear but do not dismember Orfeo.. Monteverdi understand-
a b l y o b j e c t e d t o t h i s c o n c e s s i o n t o c o u r t l y t a s t e and suggested
the p r e s e n t sending, w h i c h i s not e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y but i s
perhaps b e t t e r s u i t e d t o h i s t a l e n t s than a bacchanale would
have been.. See Joseph Kerman, Opera as Drama (New York,
1957), P . 37.
157
A good many composers have d e r i v e d inspiration
from t h e i r l i b r e t t o . I n t h e Orfeo i t i s more than t h i s .
I t i s a case of t h e l i b r e t t o s u g g e s t i n g t h e groundwork f o r
opera i t s e l f . M o n t e v e r d i r e c o g n i z e d t h a t , i f Orpheus' story-
was t o be d r a m a t i z e d at a l l , i t would r e q u i r e monophonic
solo pieces. The Camerata were c o r r e c t i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r ,
though f o r t h e wrong r e a s o n . I t was n o t t h e h i s t o r i c a l fact
t h a t Greek t r a g e d y had been sung, b u t t h e p r e s e n t dramatic
e x i g e n c y t h a t h i s Orpheus must s i n g t h a t prompted him t o
deal w i t h the a c t i o n of the p l a y i n s i n g l e vocal l i n e s
r a t h e r than i n t h e p o l y p h o n i c w r i t i n g t h a t was h i s s p e c i a l t y .
Moreover, i f Orpheus i s an a r t i s t capable o f moving h e l l , a
l o v e r g r i e v e d enough t o descend t h e r e , he must express
h i m s e l f i n a more c o m p e l l i n g s t r a i n s than t h e b l o o d l e s s ,
pseudo-Greek p h r a s e s o f t h e Camerata experiments; there
must be a m u s i c a l correspondence t o t h e p o e t i c "affetto".
M o n t e v e r d i a t t a c k e d t h i s p r o b l e m d i r e c t l y , and " w i t h a
8
p e r f e c t genius f o r d e c l a m a t i o n " evolved a marvellously
•expressive v o c a l l i n e a p p r o x i m a t i n g human speech b u t w i t h
the i n t e n s i t y o n l y music can p r o v i d e . Again, i f Orpheus must
react t o emotional c r i s e s - and S t r i g g i o t r i e s t o p r o v i d e one
f o r each o f t h e f i v e a c t s - he must e x p r e s s himself at length
Joseph Kerman, op_. c i t . , p. 3 0 . The v o c a l l i n e i s w e l l
i l l u s t r a t e d i n Chapter I , e n t i t l e d "Orpheus; t h e N e o c l a s s i c
Vision".
158
and w i t h g r e a t e r m u s i c a l c o m p l e x i t y , M o n t e v e r d i developed a
s o r t o f a r i a f o r t h i s - an accompanied s t r o p h i c song, of
w h i c h O r f e o s "Possente S p i r t o " I s o n l y t h e best-known

1
example.
T h i s new Orfeo i s more t h a n an a d a p t a t i o n and
e x t e n s i o n of t h e means used' by P e r i and C a c c i n i , however
M o n t e v e r d i b l e n d e d the f u l l r e s o u r c e s of a c e n t u r y o f
R e n a i s s a n c e music i n t e l l i n g o f Orpheus and Eurydice.. The
s t o r y begins i n Arcadia: l e t t h e r e be t h e music of t h e
p a s t o r a l e , as o l d as P o l i t i a n ' s p l a y ; Orpheus descends t o
the u n d e r w o r l d ; l e t t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n be e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
and solemn, as i n t h e m o r a l i t y p l a y s ; the chorus comments on
Orpheus 1
j o y and, sorrow, h i s weakness and h i s f i n a l
a p o t h e o s i s : l e t t h e r e be t h e f l a m i n g trumpets o f t h e t r i o n f i
and t o r n e i , "the t e n d e r melody o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a , the s p l e n d o r
of t h e mascherata, and above a l l t h e i n t e n s e e x p r e s s i v e -
ness o f t h e m a d r i g a l e ; Orpheus' s t o r y i s t h e g l o r i f i c a t i o n
of music, and Musica h e r s e l f mounts the s t a g e : l e t h e r p e r -
v a d i n g i n f l u e n c e be e x p r e s s e d by r e p e a t i n g h e r r i t o r n e l l o
a f t e r t h e c r u c i a l moments i n t h e action..
Thus, M o n t e v e r d i ' s Orfeo s y n t h e s i z e s a l l the musi-
c a l .forms, from t h e t o u r n e y t o the F l o r e n t i n e "Greek
t r a g e d i e s " , which could c o n t r i b u t e t o the e f f e c t i v e dramati-
z a t i o n o f Orpheus'- s t o r y . Opera has n o t changed, funda-
m e n t a l l y , s i n c e t h e Orfeo-. M o n t e v e r d i ' s work c o n t a i n s i n
embryonic form t h e major t r a d i t i o n s t h a t s t i l l govern operatic

159
composition - a r i a , r e c i t a t i v e , musical c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n ,
c h o r a l and dance i n t e r l u d e s , c o n t i n u i t y by leitmotif.
I t i s "a m u s i c a l cosmos w h i c h p e e r s , J a n u s - l i k e , into
the p a s t of the ' Intermedium - 1

as w e l l as i n t o the f u t u r e of
the Gluck-Wagnerian ' B i r t h of the drama from the s p i r i t of
music'A
The f a c t t h a t tends t o be o v e r l o o k e d i n any dis-
c u s s i o n of t h i s a r t i s t i c m i r a c l e i s t h a t i t was suggested
and encompassed by the Orpheus-myth, the pregnant m a t e r i a l
a l r e a d y used i n e v e r y " o p e r a t i c " e x p e r i m e n t . Always allow-
ing f o r M o n t e v e r d i ' s g e n i u s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o see how
opera c o u l d have e v o l v e d from the c o u r t l y e n t e r t a i n m e n t s
of the R e n a i s s a n c e u n l e s s Orpheus were chosen as the s u b j e c t
of the drama... Other s t o r i e s , most ~of them from Greek
a n t i q u i t y , were presented,, and o f t e n - as t r a g e d i e s w i t h
i n c i d e n t a l music, as mimes, masques, p a s t o r a l s and ballets.
But i t was Orpheus' s t o r y e f f e c t e d the new a r t - f o r m t h a t
was i n the making; i t r e q u i r e d t h a t music be put i n the
mouth of i t s hero i n o r d e r f o r the drama t o be e n a c t e d .
I t was e s s e n t i a l l y , even q u i n t e s s e n t i a l l y , an o p e r a t i c
s t o r y : the i d e a l l i b r e t t o p r o v i d e s a maximum of e m o t i o n a l l y
charged s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h e n a b l e the c h a r a c t e r s t o e x p r e s s
t h e m s e l v e s i n song, and the Orpheus-myth encompasses t h r e e
t r a g i c i n c i d e n t s , : e a c h of w h i c h c a l l s f o r t h a song from i t s
Redlich-, op_. c i t . . , p. 97.

1 6 0
hero. I t h a s , i n f a c t , remained t h e c l a s s i c s t o r y f o r
d r a m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n ' t h r o u g h music, and over fifty
different o p e r a t i c t r e a t m e n t s o f i t f o l l o w e d upon
Monteverdi's classic.
W i t h t h e b i r t h of opera, t h e Orpheus-symbol changes.
Orfeo I s now an o p e r a t i c hero. In S t r i g g i o ' s p r o l o g u e we
r e a l i z e we a r e no l o n g e r i n t h e R e n a i s s a n c e t r a d i t i o n , f o r
i t i s n o t T r a g e d i a who a d d r e s s e s u s ; i t I s M u s i c a . This
i s n o t t o be Greek t r a g e d y ; i t i s music - drama. The
R e n a i s s a n c e Orpheus l e f t t h e scene w i t h Tragedia., t h e muse
who had i n t r o d u c e d , f o r t h e s c h o l a r s of t h e Camerata, a hero
too w i s e , t o o n o b l e t o l o s e E u r y d i c e a second t i m e . The
new Orpheus, who appears i n t h e Baroque, the Enlightenment
and t h e Romantic age i s n o t a t r i u m p h a n t symbol o f t h e
civilizing wisdom of man; he i s M o n t e v e r d i ' s p a s s i o n a t e ,
fallible hero, i n c o n c e i v a b l e a p a r t from h i s music, glorious
i n h i s attempt but t r a g i c a l l y w a n t i n g i n s e l f - m a s t e r y . At
the c l o s e o f A c t I I I . o f t h e Orfeo, the chorus s i n g t h a t e v e r y
human attempt i s w o r t h w h i l e :
N u l l a impresa p e r uom s i t e n t a i n v a n o ,
Ne c o n t r o a l u i p i u sa n a t u r a armarse,
E i de l ' i n s t a b i l p i a n o , a r o g l ' o n d o s i campi,
e ' l seme s p a r s e
D l sue f a t i c h e , ond' aurea messe a c c o l s e .
Then, a f t e r A c t I V , we a r e t o l d t h a t a man must f i r s t master
himself:
161
Orfeo v i n s e l I n f e r n o e v i n t o p o i
1
Fu d a g l i a f f e t t i su.oi.
Degno d'eterna g l o r i a
F i a s o l c o l u i ch'avra d i se v i t t o r i a .
With Monteverdi "the approach t o t h e human s o u l i s n o t
t h r o u g h c l a s s i c a l d i c t i o n but t h r o u g h sympathy; he t a r r i e d
a t t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f human sorrow because i n h i s eyes
sorrow and p a s s i o n a r e t h e r e a l r e v e l a t i o n s o f man. He f e l t
t h a t o n l y t h e s u f f e r i n g s and i n d o m i t a b l e p a s s i o n s of man
make him what he i s : a t r a g i c b e i n g who can l i v e on earth-,
f i g h t i n g and f a l l i n g h e r o i c a l l y . •'Arianna a f f e c t e d p e o p l e
because she was a- woman, and Orpheus because he was s i m p l y
a man.,' w r i t e s M o n t e v e r d i i n one o f h i s l e t t e r s (December,
l 6 l 6 ) ; : b u t t o make i t p o s s i b l e f o r them t o be man and
woman, t h e master r e v e a l s them i n the t h r o e s o f p a s s i o n .
Upon h e a r i n g t h e message announcing t h e death o f E u r i d i c e
the whole w o r l d C o l l a p s e s abbut Orpheus. „ . P e r i and C a c c i n i
d i d n o t even dream o f • s u c h a c c e n t s , w h i l e we a r e s t i l l living
on t h e h e r i t a g e of t h e d r a m a t i c b r e a t h o f t h e Mantuan m u s i -
c i a n , who, w i t h Rembrandt, was. t h e g r e a t baroque poet of t h e
s e c r e t depths o f t h e human soul.. 11
In t h e many s e r i o u s and comic v e r s i o n s t h a t f o l l o w e d
Monteverdi, Orpheus i s t h o r o u g h l y human, a c r e a t u r e of p a s s i o n .
And E u r y d i c e a t l a s t comes i n t o h e r own. Her r o l e i s e n l a r g e d
u n t i l p o e t s and m u s i c i a n s come t o t e l l t h e e n t i r e s t o r y from
her p o i n t o f view. The Culex w i l l p r o v e , i n t h e Romantic
e r a , t h e s p i r i t u a l a n c e s t o r o f much o f t h e Orphean l i t e r a t u r e .
Lang, op., c i t . , pp. 341-2.

162
Even when, w i t h M o n t e v e r d i , the opera was solidly

e s t a b l i s h e d as an a r t - f o r m , and m u s i c a l speech became c r e d i b l e
i n the mouths of A r i a d n e and A d o n i s , Jason and U l y s s e s , com-
posers c o n t i n u e d t o r e t u r n t o Orpheus, as t o a source, f o r
inspiration. B e l l i s Orfeo, produced i n F l o r e n c e i n
r
1616,
had a l i b r e t t o by one of the Camerata, the I t a l i a n Ronsard,
G a b r i e l l o C h i a b r e r a , w h i l e August Buchner s u p p l i e d H e i n r i c h
Schutz w i t h a p o e t i c t e x t e n t i t l e d Orpheus (1638), but the
music has, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , been l o s t . By the end of the century

11
t h e r e were new I t a l i a n Orfeos i n Mantua ( F e r r a r i , 1607)
Rome ( L a n d i , 1619), V i c e n z a (anon., 1658), Venice (Sartorio,
1672), Bologna ( S a r t o r i o , r e v i s e d , 1695). Orpheus i n t r o d u c e d
opera t o France, where R o s s i ' s L'Orfeo was produced i n P a r i s
as Le_ Mariage d'Orphee e t E u r i d i c e (1647). I t was an
auspicious beginning, s e t t i n g the tone f o r c e n t u r i e s of
P a r i s i a n opera. The p r o d u c t i o n c o s t over 400,000 l i v r e s ,
l a s t e d , over s i x hours. The book, by F r a n c e s c o B u t i , i s a
kaleidoscope of s e r i o u s and comic e p i s o d e s , and Rossi's
score i s e q u a l l y v a r i e d . But the overwhelming f e a t u r e , i n
1647, was the e l a b o r a t e stage machinery designed by Giacomo
Torelli. I t was the wonder of i t s day, the t a l k of the
c o u r t and the d e s p a i r of the l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s . R o s s i ' s opera
was thus the f i r s t of the many "machine p l a y s " of the F r e n c h
F o r the remainder of the c h a p t e r , works g i v e n only

p a s s i n g mention are c i t e d by composer and d a t e . For the
sources, see pp. 269-71.
163
t h e a t e r , and Orpheus' name, i n F r a n c e , England and else-
where, became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e l a b o r a t e , I t a l i a n a t e s t a g e -
c r a f t while h i s l i t e r a r y p r e s t i g e dwindled.
Le Mariage was such a s e n s a t i o n i n P a r i s t h a t a
p l a y by Chapoton, La_ Descente d'Qrphe'e aux E n f e r s , was
h a s t i l y equipped w i t h music and mounted on a grand s c a l e
to compete w i t h i t . L u l l y ' s Orphee, one of h i s l e s s e r
works, f o l l o w e d i n I69O.
Orpheus aus T h r a c i e n (Loewe, 1659) brought the new
•Orpheus t o Germany, where t r a n s l a t i o n s of I t a l i a n works
( S a r t o r i o , 1690) as w e l l as o r i g i n a l German operas ( K e i s e r >
I698, r e v . 1702) proved p o p u l a r . V i e n n a heard La L i r a
d'Orfeo ( D r a g h i , 1683), and by the end of the c e n t u r y i t
appears t h a t London had seen i t s f i r s t E n g l i s h Orpheus
(Goodson-, 1698) .
The e a r l i e s t of t h e s e operas were o c c a s i o n a l
p i e c e s , composed f o r " t h e c o u r t s of p r i n c e s . But comic
e p i s o d e s were i n t r o d u c e d e a r l y by L a n d i , the f i r s t composer
t o w r i t e h i s own l i b r e t t o - , and . a f t e r p u b l i c opera-houses
were b u i l t , the d i l e t t a n t e i n t e r e s t gave way t o p r o s p e r o u s
•commercial e n t e r p r i s e . . Orpheus rode the c r e s t of t h i s wave
of p o p u l a r i t y , though i n time I p h i g e n e i a and H e r c u l e s
E..g., Orpheus; The d e s c r i p t i o n of the g r e a t machines of
the Descent of Orpheus i n t o H e l l , p r e s e n t e d by a French
company, a t the C o c k p i t i n D r u r y Lane i n l 6 6 l . .

164
p r o v e d t o be even more p o p u l a r f i g u r e s . Three of the
foremost composers of the t i m e , C h a r p e n t i e r , Rameau and
P e r g o l e s i , p r e f e r r e d t o t r e a t the Orpheus-myth i n c a n t a t a
form.
In the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Orpheus-operas often
appeared as s i n g l e m u s i c a l p i e c e s i n l a r g e r s e t t i n g s - i n
the b a l l e t Le^ C a r n e v a l de V e n i s e p r e s e n t e d i n Amsterdam i n
l699; i n the E n g l i s h t r a g i c o m e d y Solon (pub. 1705)> i n the
F r e n c h d i v e r t i s s e m e n t Le_ Triomphe de 1 Harmonie (1737), i n

1
the D a v i d G a r r i c k f a r c e c a l l e d A Peep B e h i n d the C u r t a i n
(1767). By t h i s time the myth became the c l a s s i c v e h i c l e
f o r r i d i c u l i n g opera - as i n the F r e n c h Roger-Boutons et
J a v o t t e (1775) and Le P e t i t Orphee ( 1 7 9 5 ) , the German
S i n g s p i e l Orpheus (1775), the D a n i s h M i c h e l og Malene
(1789), the Viennese So_ Geht Es I n Olympus Zu (1.813)..
A s i n g s p i e l , Orpheus, w i t h music by Salomon Seeman,
appeared i n R i g a I n 1734, and an O r p h e u s - p a s t i c c i o w i t h

a i r s from v a r i o u s composers adapted t o a t e x t by R o l l i i n Lon-
don i n 1736.
But s e r i o u s o p e r a t i c t r e a t m e n t s of the myth con-
t i n u e d , though we c a r e l i t t l e about them today - i n V i e n n a

165
(Fux, 1715), London (Lampe, 174-0), B e r l i n (Graun, 1752),

P a r i s (Dauvergne, pub. 1770), Munich ( T o z z i , 1775), V e n i c e
( B e r t o n i , 1776), Copenhagen (Naumann, 1786), Hamburg
( D i t t e r s d o r f ) 1788), Parma ( P a e r , 1791) and B r u n s w i c k
(Bachmann, 1798). I n some c i t i e s t h e s e works were succeeded
by s t i l l more operas on Orpheus - Vienna ( W a g e n s e i l , 17^0
D i t t e r s , 1787, and Kanne, c a . 1810), London ( G u l i e l m i , 1780),
B e r l i n (Benda, 1785) and Munich (Cannabich, 1802). Other
t r e a t m e n t s appeared i n Germany ( C h r i s t i a n Bach., 1770,
Asplmayr, 1780 and D o r f t e - H u l s h o f f , 1791) and I t a l y
( L a m b e r t i , c. 1800).
Only two Orfeos of t h i s opera-mad c e n t u r y deserve

s p e c i a l mention, one because of the eminence of i t s
composer, the o t h e r because i t demonstrates anew t h a t the
myth of Orpheus i s the o p e r a t i c i d e a l . The f i r s t i s the
Orfeo ed E u r i d i c e of F r a n z Joseph Haydn, one o f t h a t master's
few u n s u c c e s s f u l works. Composed i n 1791, r e v i s e d i n 1805,
i t waited t i l l 1951 f o r i t s f i r s t performance. Much of i t s
o r i g i n a l music was reworked by Haydn i n t o o t h e r works. The
J
T h e l i b r e t t o , by Lewis Theobald, i s o u t l i n e d i n W i r l ,
op. c i t . , pp. 7^-5. I t i s n o t a b l e f o r i n t r o d u c i n g Rhodope,
a T h r a c i a n Queen i n l o v e w i t h Orpheus. I t i s she who con-
j u r e s up the snake t o k i l l Eurydice.
o t h e r i s , of c o u r s e , Orfeo ed E u r i d i c e (1762), by C h r i s t o p h
W i l l i b a l d von G l u c k - a v a s t f o r w a r d s t r i d e , from the
machine-made and ephemeral Baroque opera t o opera as we know
i t i n the r e p e r t o r y t h e a t e r s today. After Politian and'
M o n t e v e r d i i t i s the t h i r d landmark i n operatic history;
thus does the music-drama show a g a i n and a g a i n i t s i n d e b t e d -
ness t o Orpheus by t u r n i n g t o h i s myth at every major crisis.
Gluck h i m s e l f was a p r o d u c t of the s e v e n t e e n t h cen-
t u r y opera, a mammoth i n d u s t r y comparable o n l y t o t h a t of
the movies of t o d a y . I t s music was w r i t t e n f o r the v i r t u o s o
s i n g e r - c l i c h e - r i d d e n , ornamental., o f t e n w i t h no b e a r i n g on
the drama or s i t u a t i o n ; i t s c o m p l i c a t e d l i b r e t t i were so

14
poetically finished t h a t t h e y f a i l e d t o communicate any-
t h i n g of the essence of drama, and any hack m u s i c i a n c o u l d
15
set them. G l u c k was no hack, but as a composer he had
severe.limitations. To h i s advantage, however, was h i s keen
d r a m a t i c sense, as w e l l as h i s growing c o n c e p t i o n of the
i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p of composer, poet and p e r f o r m e r s i n the
o p e r a t i c scheme. Most i m p o r t a n t of a l l , he was i n touch
w i t h the i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r r e n t s of h i s day - w i t h the F r e n c h
e n c y c l o p e d i s t s ; w i t h the i d e a s of Rousseau, e s p e c i a l l y the

M e t a s t a s i o ' s l i b r e t t i are s t i l l s t u d i e d by a l l s e r i o u s
s t u d e n t s of I t a l i a n literature.
15
Handel's famous judgment on Gluck was "He knows no more
c o u n t e r p o i n t than my cook".
167
d e s i r e f o r a n a t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n of human f e e l i n g ; w i t h
Winckelmann,. i n h i s r e t u r n t o a n c i e n t Greece t o f i n d the
f o r m a t i v e impulse f o r t r u e a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n . By Gluck's
day the f o r m a l o r d e r of the Baroque had d e c l i n e d In the f a c e
of the r a t i o n a l i s m of V o l t a i r e , , and s u r v i v e d o n l y i n the
c a p r i c i o u s n e s s of the Rococo. New o r d e r and new feeling
were b e g i n n i n g t o emerge i n the s t r i p p i n g away of ornament
and the r e t u r n t o s i m p l i c i t y . Gluck r e p r e s e n t s t h i s i n music,
and Orpheus i s a g a i n the figurehead.
A f t e r composing s e v e r a l c o n v e n t i o n a l operas w i t h
o n l y mediocre s u c c e s s , Gluck came under the i n f l u e n c e of the
new a r t i s t i c t r e n d i n the w r i t i n g s of the philosopher
Francesco A l g a r o t t i and i n the p e r s o n of a l i t e r a r y adventurer
named R a n i e r o C a l z a b i g i , who was deeply convinced of every-
t h i n g A l g a r o t t i had t o say. Gluck and C a l z a b i g i t e s t e d the
new i d e a s i n t h e i r Orfeo. Never was an opera chosen w i t h such
c a r e , and mapped out a l o n g such c o n s c i o u s l y i d e a l i s t i c lines.
B o t h were c o n v i n c e d t h a t the drama must come f i r s t , t h a t the
music was o n l y one of the means through w h i c h the drama was
t o be r e a l i z e d . Gluck even c l a i m e d t h a t i n composing i t , he
t r i e d t o f o r g e t he was a musician. He s a t u r a t e d h i m s e l f i n
the Orpheus-story, reduced by C a l z a b i g i t o i t s s i m p l e s t
essence, t o t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s i n a s e r i e s of h i g h l y charged
situations.
I n Act I Orfeo and the chorus mourn a t the grave of
Euridice. Amor appears t o him and announces t h a t the gods of

168
the u n d e r w o r l d have been moved by h i s song, and w i l l allow
him t o descend and r e c l a i m E u r y d i c e , on c o n d i t i o n t h a t he
does not l o o k upon her u n t i l he r e a c h e s the l i g h t , . Act I I
i s comprised of two u n d e r w o r l d scenes: Orfeo s i l e n c e s the
f u r i e s w i t h h i s song, and then e n t e r s the E l y s i a n fields
(Che puro c i e l ) , where E u r i d i c e i s r e s t o r e d t o him.. In
A c t I I I , E u r i d i c e , f o l l o w i n g a f t e r O r f e o , complains t h a t he
does not l o o k a t h e r . Orfeo t u r n s t o c o n s o l e h e r , and she
s i n k s l i f e l e s s t o the ground.. He s i n g s of h i s new sorrow
(Che f a r o senza E u r i d i c e ) , and a g a i n the gods a r e moved.
Amor r e t u r n s t o r e s t o r e E u r i d i c e t o l i f e , and the opera
c o n c l u d e s w i t h f e s t i v i t i e s i n the temple of t h e god.
As the Orfeo was commissioned f o r the c o u r t of
M a r i a Theresa, the l i b r e t t o makes some u n f o r t u n a t e conces-
s i o n s t o Rococo t a s t e : f o r the Hermes of the A t t i c r e l i e f , a
c o l o r a t u r a Cupid i s s u b s t i t u t e d ; a happy e n d i n g i s t a c k e d on;
G l u c k w r i t e s p r e t t y music f o r the Watteau-Fragonard finale,
and b e g i n s the, work w i t h a skimpy o v e r t u r e . But the r e s t i s
worthy of Winckelmann and the new a r t i s t i c c r e e d . Always
the s i m p l e s t m u s i c a l means are used; ornament i s r u t h l e s s l y
s t r i p p e d away; a r i a s are reduced t o a f o r m a l s i m p l i c i t y , a
minimum of harmony. We hear o n l y what the s i t u a t i o n demands:
i n the opening c h o r u s , Orfeo's g r i e f i s e x p r e s s e d more memor-
a b l y than i t has e v e r been b e f o r e or s i n c e , by the one word,
" E u r i d i c e i " , t h r i c e r e p e a t e d and t e a r i n g t h r o u g h the t e x t u r e
of the c h o r a l music. This s i m p l i c i t y , t h i s deliberate

169
a u s t e r i t y r e s u l t i n a work of e x t r a o r d i n a r y power, and neither
G l u c k nor C a l z a b i g i nor even the i d e a l s of the p e r i o d q u i t e
account f o r i t . Somehow, a s p e l l i s c a s t i n w h i c h G l u c k ' s
music, f o r a l l i t s t e c h n i c a l i n a d e q u a c i e s , appears t o be the
v e r y essence of music, a n d . C a l z a b i g i ' s c h a r a c t e r s , though
t h e y are p o o r l y - m o t i v a t e d ' a n d generalized types, seem

16
"marble s t a t u e s m i r a c u l o u s l y endowed w i t h l i f e and motion" ..
One c o n c l u d e s t h a t the s p e l l i s c a s t by the p e r v a d i n g pre-
sence of the myth i t s e l f , , w h i c h remains the p a t t e r n and the
i n s p i r a t i o n f o r operatic composition. G l u c k and C a l z a b i g i
approached i t w i t h a f e e l i n g f o r i t s v a l u e s , and i t seems
t o have e f f e c t e d of i t s e l f the r e f o r m t h a t was sought.. Gluck
n e v e r s e t up any canons of o p e r a t i c c o m p o s i t i o n , and his
musical techniques have not had great i n f l u e n c e ; i t i s h i s
i d e a l t h a t has l a s t e d . H i s c l a s s i c statement:
I endeavored t o reduce music t o i t s p r o p e r
f u n c t i o n , , t h a t of s e c o n d i n g p o e t r y by e n f o r c i n g
the e x p r e s s i o n of the s e n t i m e n t , and the i n t e r e s t
of the s i t u a t i o n s , w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i n g the a c t i o n ,
or weakening i t by s u p e r f l u o u s ornament.17
o n l y shows t h a t i t was the t e x t t h a t was uppermost i n h i s
mind, and i n h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y work t h i s t e x t was fashioned
f r o m the myth of Orpheus, the p a t r o n of the opera s i n c e

1472.
l6
E d w a r d J , Dent, Opera (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1940), p. 46
17
'Prom the p r e f a c e t o A l c e s t e , quoted i n Lang, op_. c i t . ,
P. 557.
170
I r o n i c a l l y enough, G l u c k s r e f o r m s e v e n t u a l l y
1
brought t o an end the vogue f o r operas on c l a s s i c a l subjects,
f o r these were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a r t i f i c e s of the d e c l i n i n g
Baroque. Haydn' s Orfeo f a i l e d not o n l y because i t s composer's

1
g e n i u s d i d not extend t o the s t a g e but because by the turn
of the c e n t u r y opere s e r i e were h o p e l e s s l y d a t e d . We look
i n v a i n f o r Orfeos i n the n i n e t e e n t h century. There are
fragments i n the B r i t i s h Museum of an undistinguished

18
Orpheus w i t h words by the S c o t , John G a i t ( l 8 l 4 ) , but
before l o n g E n g l i s h o p e r a t i c c r e a t i v i t y ground t o a halt..
I t a l i a n ' o p e r a needed more melodrama than the Orpheus-myth
c o u l d p r o v i d e ; the F r e n c h t u r n e d t o h i s t o r i c a l p a g e a n t s ;
Germany's g r e a t R o m a n t i c i s t s touched on the themes of the
myth - the a l l - c o n q u e r i n g power of music, the renunciation
i m p l i c i t i n l o v e , the p r i o r i t y of d e a t h over l i f e - but
Wagner found t h e s e Orphean, e s s e n t i a l l y o p e r a t i c , themes i n
German mythology: Tannhauser i s the m i n s t r e l who'descends t o
the c o u r t of Venus; E l s a i s the i n q u i s i t i v e v i c t i m undone
by a c o n d i t i o n put on her l o v e ; d e a t h and l o v e are one for
T r i s t a n and Isolde.. Wagner seems t o have sensed t h a t these
s t o r i e s were pregnant w i t h music and drama. Almost i n s t i n c t -
i v e l y , the. young Wagner chose as h i s f i r s t o p e r a t i c subject
an O r p h e u s - s t o r y i n German f o l k l o r e - Die Feen. But Orpheus'
Summarized i n W i r l , op. c i t . , p. 82.

171
p r e s e n c e pervades h i s work more d e e p l y s t i l l . Wagner, l i k e
Gluck, was a r e f o r m e r who found i n s p i r a t i o n , i f not m a t e r i a l ,
i n the s p i r i t of Greece. In h i s operatic apologia, Orpheus
i s r e i n c a r n a t e d , b o t h i n t h e young k n i g h t W a l t h e r , who must
win over by h i s song the i n f e r n a l pedants of h i s day and
r e s c u e from them the c a p t i v e Eva, and a g a i n i n Hans Sachs,
who must renounce h i s own l o v e of Eva b e f o r e he can w i n the
t r u e reward of h i s a r t . The whole c o n c e p t i o n of D i e
M e i s t e r s i n g e r i s l i k e a m e d i e v a l a l l e g o r y of the Orpheus-
myth. 1 9
The Romantic programmists d i d not n e g l e c t Orpheus.
But h i s i n f l u e n c e f l i c k e r s o n l y f i t f u l l y i n L i s z t ' s
symphonic poem Orpheus (1856); he seems t o be more a l i v e ,
taming t h e b e a s t s , i n the second movement of Beethoven's
f o u r t h p i a n o c o n c e r t o , though the "programme" here i s not
Beethoven ' s. ^
I f s e r i o u s opera was out of sympathy w i t h Greek
myths i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , o p e r e t t a s t i l l found i n
Orpheus' s t o r y e x c e l l e n t m a t e r i a l f o r m u s i c a l satire...
Orpheus i n D o r f e by K a r l C o n r a d i n , appeared i n V i e n n a i n
1867. A much more famous example, however, i s Orphee aux
1 9
In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , see Kerman, op.. c i t . , pp. 48-9.
20
More r e c e n t symphonic poems on Orpheus are those of
Conrad Ansorge (Orpheus, 1893), Jean L o u i s M a r t i n e t (Orphee,
1950), and A l a n Hovhaness ( M e d i t a t i o n on Orpheus, 1959).

172
E n f e r s , In w h i c h Jacques Offenbach and h i s l i b r e t t i s t s
H a l e v y and Cremieux b r i l l i a n t l y r i d i c u l e d v a r i o u s l e v e l s of
P a r i s i a n s o c i e t y i n 1858. Offenbach's Orpheus i s a d u l l
c o n s e r v a t o r y m u s i c i a n , and E u r y d i c e g l a d l y . f o r s a k e s him when
advances a r e made by A r i s t a e u s , who, i t seems, i s a c t u a l l y
Pluto i n disguise. B o t h P l u t o and J u p i t e r show more i n t e r e s t
i n the s t o l e n E u r y d i c e than'does her husband, who i s driven
to seek her i n Hades o n l y by the promptings of P u b l i c O p i n i o n
- a c u r i o u s r e i n c a r n a t i o n of the Amor of G l u c k and the Hermes
of the A t t i c r e l i e f . T h i s Orphee i s a landmark i n i t s own
way: i t e s t a b l i s h e d the genre of the O f f e n b a c h i a d e , and

21
became "a t o k e n , a p o r t e n t of the t i m e s " - a controversial
i n d i c t m e n t of the Second Empire w h i c h was the more d e v a s t a t i n g
for i t s obvious a p p e a l t o P a r i s i a n s of a l l s o c i a l levels,
each of w h i c h t o o k i t as a s a t i r e on the o t h e r s .
In the p r e s e n t c e n t u r y t h e r e i s a new interest in
Orpheus, f o r composers a r e a g a i n s e e k i n g a new approach t o
opera. P o l i t i a n ' s Orfeo was s e t t o music by A l f r e d o
C a s e l l a i n V e n i c e i n 1932, and the e n f a n t t e r r i b l e of
contemporary German opera has reworked M o n t e v e r d i ' s Orfeo
21
S. K r a c a u e r , Orpheus i n P a r i s (New York, 1938), p. l82..
Offenbach reduced h i s s a t i r e t o m u s i c a l pantomime i n a
second Orphee i n 1874.

t h r e e t i m e s - i n 1925, i n 1931 and a g a i n i n 1941 in a trans-
c r i p t i o n so f r e e , so modern i n i t s harmony and instru-
mentation t h a t i t has come t o he known as O r f f s Orfeo. 1
Monteverdi's work has s e r v e d O r f f as a k i n d of e x e r c i s e f o r
h i s i d e a s f o r a new r e f o r m i n the m u s i c a l t h e a t r e .
Other new operas on the myth are the d i s s o n a n t
Orpheus und E u r y d i c e of Krenek and the Malheurs d'Orphee
of M i l h a u d , b o t h produced i n 1926, the Orfeo of V i t t o r i o
Rieti (1928), the s c e n i c o r a t o r i o Der Tod des Orpheus, by
H e l l m u t h W o l f f (1948), and the new (1955) Orphee of Hans
Haug, an e c l e c t i c o f f e r i n g based on P o l i t i a n , w i t h e x c e r p t s
22
from Ovid sung i n L a t i n by a chorus i n the o r c h e s t r a p i t .
Orpheus appears as a c h a r a c t e r i n another experiment, Mala-
p i e r o ' s O r f e i d e (1915). Roger-Ducasse's Orphee (1914) I s
a "mimodrame l y r i q u e " ; the r e c e n t Orpheus und E u r y d i k e of
Henk B a d i n g s (1943) i s a " c h o r e o g r a p h i c drama" w i t h a t e x t ;
a much better-known b a l l e t - d r a m a ( w i t h o u t t e x t ) i s
S t r a v i n s k y ' s avant-garde Orpheus (1947). In s t i l l another
b a l l e t , H i l d i n g Rosenberg's, Orfeus I Stan, the s t a t u e of
Orpheus o u t s i d e the c o n c e r t h a l l a t Stockholm comes t o life,
and l o o k s f o r E u r y d i c e among the o t h e r s t a t u e s i n the city.
While none of these t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y works has
a c h i e v e d permanent s t a t u r e , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t , i n a
Reviewed i n Opera 6 (1955), PP. 528-9.

174
t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d i n the music-drama, r e c o u r s e i s had once
more t o Orpheus, e i t h e r by f r e s h approaches or by a r e t u r n
t o P o l i t i a n and Monteverdi-
I t s h o u l d be s a i d , f i n a l l y , t h a t Mozart i n c o r p o r a t e d
Orpheus i n t o h i s "amalgam of a l l m u s i c a l civilizations."
Amid the f a n t a s t i c assortment of Weltmarchen c a r e l e s s l y
assembled by Schikaneder but w o n d e r f u l l y u n i f i e d by Mozart,
Orpheus, i n the person of P r i n c e Tamino, a g a i n p l a y s and
s i n g s f o r the b e a s t s (Act l,no.8) and e s c o r t s h i s E u r y d i c e ,
now the P r i n c e s s Pamina, t h r o u g h the i n f e r n o of f i r e and
w a t e r , p l a y i n g a l l the w h i l e on h i s Z a u b e r f l 8 t e (Act 2,
no.. ,21). T h i s i s h i s most c u r i o u s o p e r a t i c r e i n c a r n a t i o n ,
but i t i s c e r t a i n l y the g r e a t e s t of them a l l .
Lang, op, cit..., p.. 645. T h i s Orpheus-theme comes from
the Abbe' Tessaron's n o v e l Sethos.. See P a u l N e t t l , Mozart
and Masonry (New York,^ 1957), p.. 78..

CHAPTER V I
THE ROMANTIC PERIOD
Orpheus was f o r t h e e i g h t e e n t h and n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r i e s one of t h e g r e a t w r i t e r s of a n t i q u i t y , and i n
Germany a t l e a s t he was one o f t h e sources o f Romanticism:
Goethe, Herder, S c h l e g e l and o t h e r s were steeped i n the
Orphic w r i t i n g s . . A t t h e same t i m e , p o e t s were r e a c t i n g
a g a i n s t the abuse of c l a s s i c a l a l l u s i o n s , and Macaulay, w r i t -
i n g i n 1 8 4 2 , d e c r i e s "Orpheus, E l y s i u m and Acheron....and a l l
the o t h e r f r i p p e r y w h i c h , l i k e a robe t o s s e d by a proud
beauty t o h e r waiting-woman, has l o n g been contemptuously
abandoned by genius t o mediocrity"." " 1
Thus t h e r e seemed t o be two d i s t i n c t Orpheuses -
the Orphic p o e t , who was seen as an h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e of r a r e
m y s t i c a l and p o e t i c i n s i g h t , and t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l character,
of s m a l l consequence, who f l o u r i s h e d o n l y on t h e m u s i c a l stage.
But Gluck's m a s t e r p i e c e had a s s o c i a t e d t h i s second
Orpheus w i t h t h e Romantic i d e a l , and g r a d u a l l y , t h r o u g h t h e
p e r i o d s o f R e v o l u t i o n and Romanticism, t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s i n g
i f n o t always f u l l y c o n s c i o u s tendency t o i n v e s t t h e m y t h i c a l
Orpheus w i t h t h e power and s t a t u r e of t h e m y s t i c a l one. I n our
F r e d e r i c k t h e Great, i n Works, ed. Lady T r e v e l y a n (London,
1879), v o l . 6 , p. 6 9 7 .
175
176
own day, t h i s Orpheus-symbol has come t o i t s f u l l f l o w e r - i n
the F r e n c h s y m b o l i s t s and e s p e c i a l l y i n R i l k e .
The g r e a t c u l t u r a l f a c t of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y
i s t h e r e b i r t h o f t h e c l a s s i c i d e a l i n German g e n i u s , effected
most o b v i o u s l y by Winckelmann's r e s e a r c h e s i n t o d l a s s i c a l a r t ,
by L e s s i n g ' s Laocottn and by t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s o f Johann V o s s .
T h i s was l e s s a Romantic than a H e l l e n i z i n g movement, and as
Orpheus' descent was l a r g e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h L a t i n authors
and I t a l i a n opera i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t i t i s
g i v e n l e s s prominence than some o f t h e more a u t h e n t i c a l l y

2
Greek myths.. Thus i n L e s s i n g ' s Weiber s i n d Weiber, i n the
Anhang t o h i s Odes, i n An den Herrn Marpurg,^ the descending
Orpheus i s o n l y t h e s t a n d a r d l a t e - R e n a i s s a n c e f i g u r e . But
the Orphic poet i s quoted i n L e s s i n g ' s more s e r i o u s w r i t i n g s ,
and t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l e n t h u s i a s t i c pages about the Orphic
"Wundermann" i n the A l t e s t e Urkunde des Menschengeschlechts
by t h e l e a d e r of t h e Sturm und Drang movement, Johann
G o t t f r i e d von Herder ( l l , 6 ) . K l o p s t o c k , h i m s e l f dubbed the
German Orpheus, sees the Orphic poet as t h e t r u e type o f
2
1,5,10-12:.
L i n e s 59 and 85. Orpheus i s a l s o mentioned i n a poem
e n c l o s e d i n a l e t t e r of Feb.. .22, 1759-

177
German a r t , and F r i e d r i c h S c h l e g e l h a i l s him as the "Vater

II 4 •
der P o e s i e . When i t was b e g i n n i n g t o l o o k as though the
Romantic Orpheus was t o be the Orphic w r i t e r exclusively,
t h a t the myth of the descent would be d i s m i s s e d as more s u i t e d

t o comedy 5 and b u r l e s q u e 6 than t o s e r i o u s l i t e r a t u r e , two
German Romantics appeared who, c o n s c i o u s l y or n o t , charged
the Orpheus of the descent w i t h some of the power of the
U r d i c h t e r by a t t e m p t i n g through p o e t r y t o p e n e t r a t e the
mystery of d e a t h . These were N o v a l i s ( F r i e d r i c h L e o p o l d ,
Baron von Hardenburg) and F r i e d r i c h H 8 l d e r l i n . . ' -Orpheus i s
f o r them an almost subconscious symbol; today,, w i t h R i l k e ,
he i s e x p l i c i t . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e here t o analyse- the e f f e c t
of the myth on t h e i r workj i t may be i m p o s s i b l e i n any case .:
E r i c h H e l l e r , s p e a k i n g m a i n l y of N i e t z s c h e and R i l k e , says,
"The attempt of s c h o l a r s t o u n r a v e l the complex of h i s t o r i -
c a l r e m i n i s c e n c e s , images, i n s i g h t s , f e e l i n g s t h a t make up the
s t o r y of D i o n y s u s , • A p o l l o and Orpheus i n modern German
l i t e r a t u r e and thought, and then t o ' r e l a t e i t t o what may be
the Greek r e a l i t y of these d i v i n e c r e a t u r e s , i s a s h e r o i c as
S t l o p s t o c k i n the -Ode An_ des D i c h t e r s Freunde ( 9 - 1 6 ) , and
S c h l e g e l i n G e s c h i c h t e der P o e s i e der Gries.chen und- R-flmer. •
E...g., the p o p u l a r s c h a u s p i e l , Orpheus und E u r y d i c e ,
produced by J-.F, Schuck i n 1777, and K l i n g e r ' s Orpheus, a
t r a g i c o m e d y w i t h p o l i t i c a l overtones (1778, rev. 1790).

c
• E.g.., the t r a n s l a t i o n of Quevedo by B r o c k e s , and a s a t i r i -
U
c a l poem by Salomon von Golaw, b o t h of w h i c h are quoted i n

Quevedo, Obras, p. 1 4 7 3 .
i t i s doomed t o f a i l u r e . F o r a s c h o l a r ' s guarded s t e p s cannot
p o s s i b l y keep pace w i t h the r u s h and dance of the p a s s i o n s of
the mind s w i r l i n g around those names,."'

8
But a t l e a s t we can r e p e a t what o t h e r s have s a i d ,
t h a t Orpheus can be found i n a l l of N o v a l i s 1

work. The
r e f e r e n c e s are few, but the i n f l u e n c e i s u n m i s t a k e a b l e . The
t e a c h e r i n D i e L e h r l i n g e zu S a l s i s o n l y Orpheus under a
d i f f e r e n t name; i n the Hymnen an d i e Nacht, a sequence of
poems o f t e n compared t o Dante's Commedia, Novalis' 1

unnamed
guide t h r o u g h the unknown, a "Sanger aus H e l l a s " , seems t o
be the Orphic p o e t ; as f o r the l y r i c n o v e l H e i n r i c h von
O f t e r d i n g e n , one of the monuments of e a r l y Romanticism, ."the
i n v i s i b l e hero of t h i s n o v e l . . . i s O r p h e u s , whose presence

7
The D i s i n h e r i t e d Mind: E s s a y s i n Modern German L i t e r a t u r e
and Thought (Cambridge, 1952), p. 109.. A r e c e n t "attempt" i s
M. K i s t l e r , Orphism and the.Legend of Orpheus i n 18th Century
German L i t e r a t u r e , a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n f o r the U n i v e r s i t y
of I l l i n o i s , 1948,.
^Walther Rehm, Orpheus: der D i c h t e r und d i e Toten (Dussel-
d o r f , 1950), pp. 57-66, P r i e d r i c h H i e b e l , N o v a l i s (Bern, 1951),
pp.. 42-50 and 190-1., and M i c h a e l Hamburger, Reason and Energy:
S t u d i e s i n German L i t e r a t u r e (London, 1957), esp.. p. 83. The
E u r y d i c e - m o t i f i n N o v a l i s i s s t u d i e d by Joachim Rosteut'cher,
Das Usthetische I d o l (Bern, 1956), pp. 87-98.-.
^ M i c h a e l Hamburger, op_. c i t , , p. 83.
is felt i n the f o u r "dreams" i n Chapter I , w h i c h t e l l of a
s e a r c h f.or " d i e G e l i e b t e " i n strange and f a r - o f f regions;
i n the f i r s t of the i n t e r p o l a t e d Marchen, the s t o r y of a poet
whose a r t wins him a p r i n c e s s and a kingdom, and i n the main
o u t l i n e of the n o v e l i t s e l f , w h i c h t r a c e s a p o e t ' s l i f e from
the f i r s t b r e a t h of i n s p i r a t i o n t o the moment when he plucks
at l a s t the u n a t t a i n a b l e B l u e F l o w e r , the symbol of wisdom,
song and l o v e . N o v a l i s ' answer t o Goethe's W i l h e l m Me'ister
i s t h u s t h a t the i d e a l . o f p o e t r y i s found not i n human
experience or i n p h i l o s o p h i c d i s c u s s i o n , but i n the magical
atmosphere of the Orpheus myth.
H o - l d e r l i n was the most t h o r o u g h l y Greek of the
German R o m a n t i c i s t s , and by f a r the b e s t s c h o l a r . Walther
•Rehm says t h a t from the w r i t i n g of the Hymne an den Genius
Griechenlands,
Du kommst, und Orpheus L i e b e
Schwebet empor .zum Auge der W e l t ,
Und Orpheus' L i e b e
W a l l e t n i e d e r zum Acheron ( 3 5 - 8 ) ,
the f i g u r e of Orpheus never l e f t h i s s i d e , but was constantly
i n f l u e n c i n g him.. "Ungennant und u n s i c h t b a r b l e i b t der
a l l f u h l e n d e , a l l i e b e n d e Sanger im Werk des Deutschen
gegenwartig.. ""^ C e r t a i n l y H o l d e r l i n ' s dream-world r e -
c r e a t i o n of H e l l a s , h i s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h the.power of song
and the c o n s t a n t t h r e a t of d e a t h owe something t o Orpheus:
Op. . c i t . , p. 159-.
i8o
Die S e e l e , der im Leber) i h r g c t t l i c h Recht

N i c h t ward, s i e r u h t auch drunten Im Orkus n i c h t ;
Doch i s t mir e i n s t das H e i l ' g e , das am
Herzen mir l i e g t , das Gedicht gelungen,
Willkommen dann, 0 S t i l l e der S c h a t t e n w e l t !

(An d i e P a r z e n , 5 - 9 ) •
But the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h i s i n f l u e n c e must be l e f t t o the
psychologist.
S c h i l l e r was a b l e t o use the Orpheus-myth w i t h
more detachment, y e t i t embodied f o r him the most melancholy
remembrance of a n t i q u i t y - t h a t the beauty t h a t once was has
f a d e d , even as. E u r y d i c e sr
l o v e l i n e s s was r e c l a i m e d by Hades:
Auch das Sch8ne muss s t e r b e n ! Das Menschen und

G t i t t e r bezw.inget,
N i c h t d i e eherne B r u s t r u h r t es des s t y g i s c h e n
Zeus,.
E i n m a l nur e r w e i c h t e d i e L i e b e den Schattenbe-
herrscher,
Und an der Schwelle noch, s t r e n g , r l e f e r zuruck
s e i n Geschenk (Nanie, 1-T4) .
These l i n e s from a s h o r t poem t o the goddess of f u n e r a l s
r e p e a t the theme of S c h i l l e r ' s g r e a t H e l l e n i c poem The Gods
of Greece - t h a t the b e a u t i f u l must p e r i s h , even as the
l o v e l y Greek d i v i n i t i e s are gone and men are l e f t today w i t h

o n l y the m a t e r i a l universe..
Goethe p l a n n e d t o i n t r o d u c e Orpheus i n t o the second
p a r t of F a u s t H i s hero was t o v i s i t P r o s e r p i n e and obtain
f r o m her Helen of Troy. T h i s scene was l e f t unwritten, but
1
"'"Noted i n Wilmon Brewer, Ovid''s Metamorphoses In European
C u l t u r e (Francestown, N.H., 1 9 4 1 ) , vol.. 2, p. 317.

the H e l e n - e p i s o d e s as they stand now a r e v a g u e l y Orphean i n
f l a v o r - Faust v i s i t s Helen i n t h e a f t e r - l i f e and t w i c e
l o s e s h e r ; Manto, a d m i t t i n g Faust t o Hades, c r i e s :
H i e r hah' i c h e i n s t den Orpheus e i n g e s c h w a r z t ;

B e n u t z es b e s s e r ! f r i s c h l
1
beherztl
(11,2,7493-4),
and Orpheus i s d e s c r i b e d by C h i r o n as
z a r t und immer s t i l l b e d a c h t i g ,
S c h l u g e r d i e L e i e r a l i e n {Toermachtig
(11,2,7375-6).
He i s a l s o mentioned by a F i d e l e r i n t h e W a l p u r g i s n a c h t s t r a u m
(1,4312). But t h e legend o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e does n o t
b u l k l a r g e i n t h e immensely v a r i e d c l a s s i c a l s t r a t a i n
Goethe's works-. R a t h e r , 'Orpheus i s f o r Goethe an h i s t o r i c a l
personage, t h e a u t h o r o f hymns r i c h i n symbols and i d e a s ,
w h i l e E u r y d i c e i s an i d e a l f i g u r e f o r a r t - Goethe h o l d s
the o p i n i o n t h a t pathos i s b e s t e x p r e s s e d i n a r t by d e p i c t -
i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n from one s t a t e t o a n o t h e r , and s a y s , f o r
example, t h a t E u r y d i c e would make a s u b j e c t o f g r e a t pathos
i f t h e t w o f o l d s t a t e , h e r . j o y f u l advance t h r o u g h t h e
meadow and h e r sudden and p a i n f u l death, were e x p r e s s e d by
the f l o w e r s she l e t s f a l l , t h e w a v e r i n g of h e r l i m b s and

12
the h e s i t a n t f l u t t e r i n g o f h e r garments.
See fiber Laocoon, V o l . 33, p. 132 i n Works, ed. E. von d e r
H e l l e n and o t h e r s ( S t u t t g a r t and L e i p z i g , 1902-12).

182
In eighteenth-century Prance t h e r e I s a t f i r s t a
s i m i l a r d i s t i n c t i o n made between the s e r i o u s h i s t o r i c a l
1^
Orpheus - a concern t o V o l t a i r e ^ and D i d e r o t - and t h e
14
s l i g h t l y r i d i c u l o u s Orpheus of the E u r y d i c e - . s t o r y .
D i d e r o t ' s a t t i t u d e i s e s p e c i a l l y noteworthy. After speaking
l e a r n e d l y and a t l e n g t h about the h i s t o r i c a l Orpheus and
v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f h i s myth, he d i s m i s s e s the descent i n t o
Hades w i t h the words, "j'abandonne c e t t e f i c t i o n aux
pontes." 1 5
Rousseau uses the myth f o r a s a t i r i c a l e p i g r a m :

Quand, pour r a v o i r son epouse E u r y d i c e ,
Le ^bon Orphee a l i a jusqu'aux e n f e r s ,
L'etonnement d'un s i r a r e c a p r i c e
En f i t c e s s e r tous l e s tourments divers-.
On admira, b i e n p l u s que ses c o n c e r t s ,
D'un t e l amour l a b i z a r r e s a i l l i e j
E t P l u t o n meme, embarrasse du c h o i x ,
La l u i r e n d i t pour p r i x de sa f o l i e ,
P u i s l a r e t i n t en f a v e u r de sa v o i x
(Epigrammes, I I , 1) ..
Rousseau was, however, g r e a t l y impressed by Gluck-'s Orphee,
and became a p a r t i s a n and a d m i r e r o f Gluck's..
13
^The twelve r e f e r e n c e s l i s t e d i n the index t o Oeuvres
Completes, ed.. Beuchot ( P a r i s , 1885), are a l l concerned w i t h
the h i s t o r i c a l figure..
14
E.g., t h e Orphee o f Senece, a n o t h e r t r a n s l a t i o n from
Quevedo. See Quevedo, Obras, pp.. 1471-2..
15
In the e n t r y under Grecs . See Oeuvres Completes, e d .
:
J. Assezat ( P a r i s , 1877), v o l . 15, p. 53.

1
Orpheus was made a symbol of the R e v o l u t i o n by the
poet Andre C h e n i e r , who, born i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e of a Greek
mother, p r o u d l y p r o c l a i m e d h i m s e l f the c o m p a t r i o t of Orpheus:

P u i s s e aux v a l l o n s d'Hemus, ou l e s r o c s et l e s b o i s
Admlrerent d'Orphe'e e t s u i v i r e n t l a ^ v o i x ,
L'Hebre ne m'avoir pas en v a i n donne n a i s s a n c e !
Les Muses avec moi vont c o n n a l t r e Byzance
( L ' A r t d'aimer, 1,5-8)
F o r Chenier Orpheus s y m b o l i z e s the poet who deserves the
honor of a l l g r e a t men:
Autour du demi-dieu l e s p r i n c e s immobil.es

Aux a c c e n t s de sa v o i x demeuraient suspendus,
E t 1' e'coutaient encor quand i l ne c h a n t a i t p l u s
(Hermes, 11,11,14^6).
T h i s i s n.ot the Orpheus of the descent, but Chenier i s the
b e g i n n i n g , i n Romantic F r e n c h l i t e r a t u r e , of the f u s i n g of
the m y t h i c a l Orpheus w i t h the m y s t i c a l one.
By the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a f t e r the sub-
c o n s c i o u s use of the myth by N o v a l i s and H o l d e r l i n and the
c o n s c i o u s a s s o c i a t i o n s of S c h i l l e r , Gluck and C h e n i e r , the
s t o r y of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e took on an a l l e g o r i c a l meaning,
but more Romantic than m e d i e v a l , b e s t s t a t e d i n the forward
t o Franz L i s z t ' s symphonic poem .Orphe'e;
Orphee, c e s t a d i r e l ' A r t . .. . p l e u r e E u r y d i c e
1
c e t embleme de 1 ' I d e a l e n g l o u t i p a r l e mal

e t l a d o u l e u r , ^.qu' i l l u i e s t permis d ' a r r a c h e r aux
monstres de l ' E r e b e , de f a i r e s o r t i r du fond des'
t e n e b r e s cimmeriennes, mais qu.'.il ne s a u r a i t , h e l a s
c o n s e r v e r sur c e t t e t e r r e .
1.84
In Romantic I t a l y classical themes were still
popular b u t t h e Orpheus-myth was c o n s i d e r e d t o o much a p a r t
of the o p e r a t i c t r a d i t i o n t o serve as l i t e r a r y material.

16
Vico, a l w a y s i n t e r e s t e d i n myths, n o t e s that a l l the f o u n d e r s
of nations, Orpheus i n c l u d e d , descend t o Hades. A minor poet,
I p p o l i t o Pindemonte, r e t o l d the t a l e a t some l e n g t h , and w i t h
some d e b t t o V i r g i l , i n A Giovanni d a l Pozzo..
Spanish l i t e r a t u r e suffered a long decline after
the d e a t h o f Caldero'n. Ovid's former .influence dwindled
rapidly, and I t a l i a n opera i s doubtless responsible f o r the
melodrama.La L i r a de O r f e o by A g u s t i n de M o n t i a n o y L u y a n d o
and t h e b a i l e O r f e o y E u r i d i c e b y Domingo Rosi.
The neo-Classic period i n E n g l i s h l e t t e r s was a
great age o f t r a n s l a t i o n , and Orpheus a p p e a r e d i n new ver-
sions of the f o u r t h Georgic by Dryden, L o r d M u l g r a v e and
John S h e f f i e l d . B u t we n o t e t h a t t h e young A d d i s o n ' s
translation h a l t s at the episode of Aristaeus and O r p h e u s .
And Ovid' was l a r g e l y n e g l e c t e d . M y t h o l o g y had f a l l e n from
favor, a f t e r ' c e n t u r i e s o f abuse a t t h e hands o f p o e t a s t e r s
who s p e c i a l i z e d i n accumulating dozens o f f r i g i d a l l u s i o n s .
In Scienza Nuova VIII,1.
N o t e d i n Cabanas, op. c i t . , p p . 60-1.

185
The most f r e q u e n t use o f the myth i n . e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y England
i s f o r humorous p u r p o s e s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , these poems a r e
negligible.. Poets who, l i k e John Dennis, are u n s u c c e s s f u l i n
s e r i o u s attempts a t mythology (Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , a_ masque)
descend t o b o u r g e o i s humor and coarseness (The S t o r y o f Orpheus

18
Burlesqu d) f o r popular success.
1
There are s a t i r i c a l Orpheus
and E u r y d i c e s by W i l l i a m K i n g (1704) and W i l l i a m Woty (1798);
t h e r e are the E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f Quevedo's s a t i r e " " ;
1 9
John Gay, who was h i m s e l f c a l l e d the "Orpheus o f highwaymen",

quips;
So f i e r c e A l e c t o ' s snaky t r e s s e s f e l l ,
When Orpheus charm'd the r i g ' r o u s powers o f h e l l .
(Trivia, I,204-5), 2 0
and a c e r t a i n . Scot named S t a r r a t , compares A l l a n Ramsay's

m u s i c a l s k i l l t o h i s who
21
Could w h i s t l e an o u l d dead w i f e f r a e hell..'
The best o f these humorous a l l u s i o n s t o the myth i s i n Tom
J o ni eft
s. F i e l d i n g ' s approach t o mythology i s c e r t a i n l y n o t
See H..G. P a u l , John Dennis (New York, i 9 . l l ) , pp. 20 and 44.

Paul l i s t s three other eighteenth-century dramas on Orpheus,
by M a r t i n Bladen (1715), J . Weaver "(1718) and Mr. M a l l e t (1731).
^ B y .Lady Monck, anon.,.-and Robert D o d s l e y .
9
See Quevedo,
Obras, p. .1475.
20
See a l s o T r i v i a 11,393-8 f o r a wry and v i g o r o u s passage
on Orpheus dismemberment.
1
21
Quoted i n W i r l , op_. c i t . , p. 68.
186
r e v e r e n t , b u t I t i s always a p t and w i t t y and g e n e r a l l y fully
developed. The comparison of Tom e s c o r t i n g Mrs. Waters t o
Upton t o Orpheus l e a d i n g . E u r y d i c e from H e l l c o u l d w e l l serve
as a model f o r l i g h t m y t h o l o g i c a l a l l u s i o n s :
Thus our hero and t h e redeemed l a d y walked

i n t h e same manner as Orpheus and E u r y d i c e marched
h e r e t o f o r e ; but though I cannot b e l i e v e t h a t Jones
was d e s i g n e d l y tempted by h i s f a i r one t o l o o k
b e h i n d him,. .yet as she f r e q u e n t l y wanted h i s a s s i s -
t a n c e t o h e l p h e r over s t i l e s , and had b e s i d e s many
t r i p s and o t h e r a c c i d e n t s , he xvas o f t e n o b l i g e d t o
t u r n about. However, he had b e t t e r f o r t u n e than
what a t t e n d e d poor Orpheus, f o r he brought h i s
companion, o r . r a t h e r f o l l o w e r , s a f e : i n t o t h e famous
town o f Upton (Book IX, .chapter 2 ) .
The e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c r a z e . f o r opera i s r e f l e c t e d
i n t h e d e d i c a t i o n of'Orpheus and Hecate, an anonymous Ode i n

the B r i t i s h Museum, w r i t t e n f o r Lady Brown, p a t r o n e s s of t h e
22
I t a l i a n opera. The ode i t s e l f might be a condensed opera
plot: Hecate f a l l s i n l o v e w i t h Orpheus and a t t e m p t s t o keep
him i n h e l l . The i d o l of t h e opera c i r c l e i n London,
Handel, was o f t e n c a l l e d the Orpheus of h i s t i m e . Addison,
who v i o l e n t l y opposed t h e f l i p p a n t use o f c l a s s i c a l mythology,

r i d i c u l e s t h i s s o b r i q u e t i n a s c a t h i n g a t t a c k on opera i n t h e
2^>
Spectator.
See W i r l , op_. c i t . , pp. 75-6.

2 3
I n No.- 5 (March 6, 1.710). A d d i s o n a l s o a l l u d e s t o Orpheus
b r i e f l y i n h i s e p i l o g u e t o L o r d Lansdowne's The B r i t i s h
E n c h a n t e r s and i n The V i s i o n of the Table of Fame ( T a t l e r ,

j
Oct. 15, 1709).

But Orpheus r e a l l y means v e r y l i t t l e t o an age t h a t
c o u l d r e f e r t o him as c a l l o u s l y as does Lady W i n c h i l s e a i n h e r
Answer t o Pope's Impromptu:
You, of one Orpheus, sure have r e a d ,

Who wou'd, l i k e you, have W r i t t ,
Had He i n London Town been b r e d ,
And P o l l i s h J d , t o h i s W i t ;
But He, poor s o u l , thought a l l was W e l l ,
And g r e a t shou'd be h i s Fame,
When he had l e f t h i s W i f e i n H e l l
And B i r d s , and B e a s t s cou'd tame ( 8 - 1 5 ) .
T h i s , says Douglas Bush, " i s enough t o suggest t h e tone o f a
mass o f poems and a l l u s i o n s i n w r i t e r s t o o f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e
c l a s s i c s f o i g n o r e mythology, and t o o s o p h i s t i c a t e d t o t a k e
i t t o t h e i r h e a r t s as w e l l as t h e i r heads.
The g r e a t w r i t e r s o f t h e p e r i o d , Dryden and Pope,
b o t h make g r a c e f u l , even memorable use o f t h e Orpheus-myth,
w i t h o u t i t s coming t o mean a n y t h i n g t o them. To Dryden t h e
Orpheus o f E n g l i s h music i s n o t Handel, b u t P u r c e l l :
We beg n o t H e l l , our Orpheus t o r e s t o r e
(Ode on t h e Death of Mr. Henry P u r c e l l , 1 6 ) .
The r e f e r e n c e i s a t l e a s t s i n c e r e , and extended f o r s e v e r a l
graceful l i n e s . Orpheus p r e d i c t a b l y - t u r n s up i n Dryden's
g e n t l y expanded t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e A e n e i d , t h e E c l o g u e s and
the G e o r g i c s , b u t h i s appearance i n The Cock, and.the Fox, a
m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f Chaucer's Nun's P r i e s t ' s T a l e , comes as a
complete s u r p r i s e : t h e song of t h e cock, w h i c h Chaucer
Mythology and t h e Romantic T r a d i t i o n i n E n g l i s h P o e t r y
(Cambridge, Mass., 1937), -P. 2 7 .

188
l i k e n e d t o t h a t o f an a n g e l , becomes w i t h Dryden:
A Song t h a t wou'd have charm'd t h ' i n f e r n a l Gods,

And b a n i s h ' d H o r r o r from t h e d a r k Ahodes:
Had Orpheus sung i t i n t h e n e a t h e r Sphere,
So much t h e Hymn h a d - p l e a s ' d the T y r a n t ' s E a r
The Wife had been d e t a i n ' d , t o keep t h e Husband
there ( 6 0 3 - 7 ) .
F i n a l l y , i n t h e Song f o r S t . C e c i l i a ' s Day, Orpheus' musical
power over n a t u r e i s g r a c e f u l l y contrasted to C e c i l i a ' s over
supe mature..
T h i s happy i n s p i r a t i o n i s t a k e n up by Pope w i t h
r a t h e r mixed r e s u l t s . Tt i s readily conceded t h a t lyric
expression i s n o t one o f Pope's s p e c i a l t i e s , and t h e Ode on
S t . C e c i l i a ' s Day i s almost u n i v e r s a l l y w r i t t e n o f f as a
failure. Y e t i t i s o n l y symptomatic of the i n a b i l i t y of the
n e o - C l a s s i c e r a t o d e a l a d e q u a t e l y w i t h c l a s s i c myths, and i s
i n f a c t t h e b r a v e s t , almost t h e s o l e attempt t o do s o .
Joseph Warton, i n h i s essay on Pope, n o t e s t h e many d e t a i l s
" e l e g a n t l y t r a n s l a t e d " from V i r g i l and " h a p p i l y adapted t o
the s u b j e c t i n q u e s t i o n " , ^ b u t laments t h a t t h e y a r e f o l l o w e d

2
by l i n e s t h a t a r e c l o s e t o John D e n n i s , o r "some hero -of t h e
D u n c i a d " o r "a d r i n k i n g song a t a c o u n t r y e l e c t i o n " . There
are l a p s e s , i n d e e d :
D r e a d f u l Gleams,
D i s m a l screams,
F i r e s t h a t glow,
S h r i e k s of Woe ( I V , 5 6 - 9 ) .
An Essay on_ t h e Genius and W r i t i n g s of Pope (London,
I.762), .vol.. 1, pp.. 5 4 - 5 . .

But Pope has a t l e a s t attempted t o t e l l t h e s t o r y of Orpheus
and E u r y d i c e w i t h some genuine f e e l i n g and t o i n v e s t i t w i t h
some s i g n i f i c a n c e . V e r y s u c c e s s f u l i s the c l o s i n g comparison

Of Orpheus now no more l e t P o e t s t e l l ;
To b r i g h t C e c i l i a g r e a t e r Pow'r i s g i v ' n ;
His Numbers'raised a shade from H e l l ,
Hers l i f t the S o u l t o Heaven ( V I I , 1 3 1 - 4 ) .
26
T h i s f i n e c o n c l u s i o n , w i t h i t s somewhat B o e t h i a n t o n e , is
27
w o r t h more than a l l the o t h e r p r e t t y ' or t o p i c a l 28 or
2Q 30
humorous or c o n v e n t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus i n the
w r i t i n g s of a busy and urbane e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c r a f t s m a n .
The most famous a l l u s i o n t o Orpheus i n e i g h t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y E n g l i s h " l e t t e r s does not mention him by name - but
s u r e l y the opening l i n e s of Congr'eve s The Mourning B r i d e
1
refer to Orpheus:
Music h a t h charms t o soothe a savage b r e a s t ,

To s o f t e n r o c k s , or bend a k n o t t e d oak (i,1,1-2),
In two more s a t i r e s Orpheus r e f l e c t s the changing
t i m e s : an anonymous Orpheus, p r i e s t of n a t u r e and- prophet of
• i n f i d e l i t y , dated I 7 8 I , t e l l s of a B r i t i s h Orpheus enthroned
i n the Margaret c h a p e l , r e c e i v i n g homage from V o l t a i r e and
26D:T. Johnson noted the B o e t h i a n s t r a i n i n Pope's Orpheus

i n the Rambler, J u l y 30, 1751.
2
7Summer 8 l f f .
2 8
T o Mr. Lemuel G u l l i v e r 19-20.
290n Mrs. T o f t s 1-4-.
3
°Temple of Fame 83-4; To the Author of a_ Poem, e n t i t l e d ,
Successio 9-10.
190
31
Benjamin F r a n k l i n , w h i l e John Hookham F r e r e , i n K i n g A r t h u r
and h i s Round T a b l e , r e f e r s f l i p p a n t l y t o t h e Orphic mysteries
i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e J e s u i t s i n Paraguay ( I I I , s t . 9 - 1 1 ) .
The p a s s i n g from c l a s s i c t o Romantic i s marked by
the young Thomas Moore, f o r whom Orpheus i s a poet i n s p i r e d

32
by t h e genius o f harmony ; by Mark Akenside, who concerns
on
h i m s e l f w i t h t h e Orphic w r i t i n g s , J
and by W i l l i a m Gowper,
who i s n e o - C l a s s i c i n h i s use o f Orpheus' s i n g i n g head i n t h e
Ode on t h e Death o f Mrs.. Throckmorton s B u l l f i n c h ( 6 l - 6 ) ,
1
i
but Romantic i n t h e Ode on t h e Marriage o f a F r i e n d , where

he c l a i m s t h a t l o v e i s t h e s t r o n g e s t power of' a l l , f o r
E u r y d i c e awakened sweeter s t r a i n s from Orpheus' l y r e than
did r o c k s , r i v e r s and t r e e s . Walter Savage Landor's
f i n e s t e a r l y works a r e The Descent of Orpheus, a t r a n s l a t i o n
of V i r g i l w h i c h marks h i s break w i t h e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y style,
and The B i r t h o f Poesy, w h i c h t e l l s us of t h e l o s s of E u r y d i c e
and Orpheus' d e a t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h and w i t h g r e a t skill
35
for a man s c a r c e l y out of h i s t e e n s . ^
3 1
See W i r l , op_. c i t . , pp. 77-8.
J
See The Genius o f Harmony, an i r r e g u l a r ode 46,.58-72.
33 . . .
•^The commentator A l e x a n d e r Dyce n o t e s t h a t Akenside uses
the Orphic poems i n h i s Hymn t o t h e N a i d s .
3^Lines 1-18. F o r b r i e f a l l u s i o n s t o t h e power o f Orpheus'
song see a l s o The Task 111,587 and V,694.
3
^ T h e r e i s a humorous r e f e r e n c e t o Orpheus i n a l e s s e r e a r l y
work, An Address t o t h e F e l l o w s o f T r i n i t y C o l l e g e , 57~60.
I n l a t e r l i f e , Landor dubbed t h e Orpheus-episode
"the m a s t e r p i e c e o f V i r g i l " , and Dryden's t r a n s l a t i o n o f i t
"the b e s t " . H i s own t r a n s l a t i o n "has s m a l l m e r i t " , but
Wordsworth's, he s a y s , i s "among t h e w o r s t " . Indeed t o t r a c e
the r e f e r e n c e s t o Orpheus t h r o u g h Wordsworth i s t o g e t no i d e a
of t h a t po.et 's s t a t u r e o r of h i s r o l e i n r e s t o r i n g mythology

:
t o t h e mainstream of E n g l i s h p o e t r y j t h e r e i s o n l y "Orphean
i n s i g h t " ^ and "Orphean l y r e - " ; O s s i a n i s dubbed

3 3 8
Orpheus, 39
40
as i s a f i d d l e r i n O x f o r d S t r e e t . This i s the best the
a u t h o r o f The Power o f Music and The Power o f Sound can do
w i t h t h e c l a s s i c embodiment o f music's power'!
L o r d Byron, p r e d i c t a b l y , f i n d s an anonymous Orpheus
i n t h e Greece o f h i s day:
Thus sung, o r would, o r c o u l d , .or s h o u l d have sung,
The modern Greek, I n t o l e r a b l e v e r s e ;
I f n o t ' l i k e Orpheus q u i t e , when Greece was young,
Yet i n t h e s e t i m e s he might have done much worse.
(Don Juan 111,87,1-4).
41
The o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s a r e s t a n d a r d a l l u s i o n s .
3
^Works, e d . Stephen Wheeler (London, 1935), vol.. 14, p. 251,
3
^The Power o f Sound, 115.
oO
Z2. t h e C l o u d s , 60; The Source of the Danube, 9; P r e l u d e

1,233.
3
- ^ W r i t t e n I n a_ B l a n k L e a f of MacPherson' s O s s i a n , 38.
40
The Power of M u s i c , 1. The remarks a r e based on Lane
Cooper, A Concordance t o t h e Poems o f W i l l i a m Wordsworth
(London, 1911)..
^ H i n t s _ From Horace 663-6; The W a l t z 18; ;The I r i s h A v a t a r ;
1
1.2,1 Stanzas, w r i t t e n i n p a s s i n g t h e Ambracian G u l f .

192
S h e l l e y ' s Orpheus., a d i a l o g u e between a Greek chorus
and a messenger, i s l i s t e d among h i s fragments, but i t i s

complete i n i t s e l f , and h a r d l y seems p a r t o f any contemplated
42
tragedy. I t s p i c t u r e o f t h e b l i g h t e d landscape l e f t by
E u r y d i c e ' s death and then of t h e f r e s h growth t h a t comes t o
l i f e a t Orpheus' song a r e e x c e l l e n t i n themselves, b u t not
representative of Shelley. Orpheus does n o t appear i n any
of t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l l y r i c s , and S h e l l e y ' s r e f e r e n c e t o him'
i n H e l l a s (1034) i s n e g l i g i b l e . Presumably Orpheus had l i t t l e
to o f f e r t h e e a r l y Romanticists'' overblown t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m .
He i s n o t mentioned i n t h e poems o f C o l e r i d g e o r , l a t e r , o f
43
Tennyson, But i n K e a t s , each o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s i s so
r i c h l y and s t r i k i n g l y o r i g i n a l as t o warrant quotation here.
In t h e l u x u r i a n t Endymion, K e a t s ' i m a g i n a t i v e way o f t e l l i n g
us t h a t t h e s p i r i t 'of music pervades a l l n a t u r e i s :
from t h e t u r f , a l u l l a b y doth pass
In every p l a c e where i n f a n t Orpheus s l e p t
(1,793-4).
42
Most s c h o l a r s r e g a r d i t as an impromptu j e u d e s p r i t i n
1
i m i t a t i o n o f t h e famous I m p r o v i s a t o r S g r i c c i . As i t i s
found o n l y i n t h e t r a n s c r i p t s of Mary S h e l l e y some c o n s i d e r
i t h e r work. See Works, ed. W i l l i a m M i c h a e l R o s s e t t i ,
vol.. 3, PP. 417-8,
4^ f
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e concordances o f S.E.. Logan ( I n d i a n a ,
1940) and A.'E.v Baker (London, 1914), r e s p e c t i v e l y . Tennyson
t e l l s of t r e e s assembling t o hear, not Orpheus, b u t A m p h i o n
(Amphion 17-56).
The same poem c o n t a i n s two compressed, and f a n c i f u l allusions
to the Eurydice-:story:
by t h e Orphean l u t e
When mad E u r y d i c e i s l i s t e n i n g t o ' t ('II, 1.64-5),
and:
Thou l e d d e s t Orpheus t h r o u g h t h e gleams o f d e a t h

(111,98).
And i n Lamia, L y c i u s l o o k s a t t h e serpent-maiden
not w i t h c o l d wonder f e a r i n g l y ,
But O r p h e u s - l i k e a t an E u r y d i c e (247-8).
E v e r y r e f e r e n c e i s n o t a b l e f o r s u g g e s t i v e power and economy.
O l i v e r E l t o n uses t h e Orphic fragments i n r e -

t e l l i n g t h e whole o f t h e s t o r y i n h i s two poems The Dream
44
of Orpheus and The Song o f Orpheus.. "Various a s p e c t s o f
the myth a p p e a l t o some of t h e l e s s e r R o m a n t i c i s t s : Orpheus
the Argonaut s i l e n c e s the s i r e n s i n t h e poem o f R i c h a r d
Chevenix T r e n c h ; i n Robert Southey's Thalaba (VI,21,7-15)
4 5
and i n Thomas Campbell's M o o n l i g h t (40-4), t h e n i g h t i n g a l e

s i n g s a t Orpheus' g r a v e ; -but Campbell a l s o uses E u r y d i c e
w i t h charming e f f e c t i n h i s .Lines o_n _a P i c t u r e o f a_ G i r l
i n the A t t i t u d e of Prayer:
L i k e Orpheus, I adore a shade,
And dote upon a phantom (3-4).
44
Por a d i s c u s s i o n o f these see "Thoughts on Orpheus" i n
Blackwood's E d i n b u r g h Magazine 44(l838) pp. 21-33.
45
Ôrpheus and t h e Sirens.. Trench a l s o t r a n s l a t e d t h e
f o u r t h G e o r g i c 452-516 i n t o E n g l i s h v e r s e , as Orpheus and
Eurydice.
194
As we move i n t o t h e l a t e Romantic e r a , t h e
descent o f Orpheus proves t h e most p o p u l a r i n c i d e n t i n h i s
myth. E u r y d i c e i s g i v e n . a s much a t t e n t i o n as Orpheus
h i m s e l f , and o f t e n t h e s t o r y i s t o l d from h e r p o i n t o f view.
There i s a l s o a new s e r i o u s n e s s i n e v i d e n c e . We move p a s t t h e
stage where "Orphean" i s an ornamental t a g , where t h e myth i s
used m e r e l y t o evoke mood o r add c o l o r , t o a new phase i n w h i c h
i t i s a p p l i e d t o t h e deepest problems o f human l i f e . The l o v e
o f t h e poet Orpheus f o r h i s t w i c e - l o s t E u r y d i c e now r e f l e c t s
the growing awareness among n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t s o f t h e i r
relationship to society. S e r i o u s i s t h e word f o r t h r e e new
E u r y d i c e s , by W i l l i a m J V L i n t o n , Coventry Patmore and Robert
Browning. L i n t o n ' s i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y f e r v i d lament;
Patmore's i s one o f s e v e r a l odes s e t i n a p r o f o u n d l y Christian
c o n t e x t - t h e husband dreams he seeks h i s w i f e t h r o u g h t h e
most s q u a l i d s u r r o u n d i n g s , and f i n d s h e r a t l a s t , dying,

46
n e g l e c t e d by a l l t h e w o r l d , most o f a l l by h i m s e l f ;
Browning's i s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t , but even more i n t e n s e .

I n s p i r e d by t h e famous p a i n t i n g by L o r d L e i g h t o n , i t i s
an e i g h t - l i n e a p p e a l o f E u r y d i c e f o r one glance from
Orpheus:
Patmore's Orpheus, a poem i n Canto I of The E s p o u s a l s ,
sees i n Orpheus'' subduing t h e S i r e n s t h e s o c i a l , m o r a l , even
r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n of t h e p o e t .
195
But g i v e them me, the mouth, the eyes, the brow!

L e t them once more absorb me I One l o o k now
W i l l l a p me round f o r e v e r , not t o pass
Out of i t s l i g h t , though darkness l i e beyond;
Hold me but s a f e a g a i n w i t h i n the bond
Of one immortal l o o k ! A l l woe t h a t was,
F o r g o t t e n , and a l l t e r r o r t h a t may be, h.7
D e f i e d , - no p a s t i s mine, no f u t u r e : l o o k at me!
The i n c r e a s e d importance of women i n s o c i e t y was

d o u b t l e s s p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r E u r y d i c e ' s new middle-class
vogue. Edward Dowden, the b i o g r a p h e r of Browning, expresses
v a r i o u s d i s t a f f views on men and marriage i n The Heroines:
Helen, A t a l a n t a , Europa, Andromeda and l a s t l y E u r y d i c e
speak i n dramatic monologues, E u r y d i c e s t r e s s i n g s e l f -
e f f a c e m e n t , d e d i c a t i o n , the complete submerging of the
w i f e ' s s e l f i n the husband's.. The y e a r of p u b l i c a t i o n of
The Heroines, 1876, a l s o saw t h e appearance of the second book
of S i r Lewis M o r r i s ' E p i c of Hades, i n w h i c h Orpheus makes
the s a c r i f i c e : as a man of g e n i u s , he l i v e s a h i g h e r life
than E u r y d i c e can know, but f o r l o v e of her he renounces
h i s c a r e e r ; E u r y d i c e asks h i s f o r g i v e n e s s f o r the demands she
makes on him, and Orpheus comforts her w i t h s t u f f y V i c t o r i a n
sentiments-. A more s t r i k i n g poem by a n o t h e r man of letters
i s Edmund G.osse's The Waking of E u r y d i c e : Orpheus asks
Persephone f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o s i n g t o the invisible
E u r y d i c e , and a t h i s song her l a n g u i d shade appears, awakes,
47
'Browning mentions the Orphic poet i n E a s t e r Day VII,23,
and Orpheus e x p e c t e d l y t u r n s up i n the p a r a p h r a s e of the
A l c e s t i s w h i c h the h e r o i n e r e c i t e s i n 3 a l a u s t i o n ' s Adventure ,
865, as w e l l as i n the Browning v e r s i o n of the Agamemnon,. I69.L.
196
t r e m b l e s and g r a d u a l l y t h r i l l s w i t h l i f e ; even Gosse's mono-

tonous t r o c h a i c rhymes seem t r a n s f o r m e d by t h i s p o e t i c i d e a .
48
Almost as d e l i b e r a t e l y i n s p i r a t i o n a l i s the passage in
L o r d L y t t o n ' s The L o s t T a l e s of M i l e t u s , i n w h i c h Orpheus'
song b r i n g s new hope t o the tormented Sisyphus.
Another d r a m a t i c monologue, Orpheus the M u s i c i a n ,
by Robert Buchanan, e x p r e s s e s the p o e t ' s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t i n
a t t e m p t i n g t o improve s o c i e t y . Por a time Orpheus subdues
the w i l d and b e s t i a l w o r l d , but i n the end, n a t u r e a s s e r t s
itself:
when I ceased t o s i n g , the s a t y r - c r e w
Rush-'d back t o r i o t and carouse;
S e l f - f e a r f u l f a c e s b l u s h i n g l y withdrew
I n t o l e a f y boughs ( 8 0 - 3 ) .
Orpheus l e a r n s the b i t t e r t r u t h t h a t the a r t i s t ' s spell.,
however c o m p e l l i n g , i s o n l y t r a n s i t o r y .
The s o c i a l g o s p e l imbibed by many V i c t o r i a n poets
was t h a t p r o v i d e d by Thomas C a r l y l e , who r e v i v e s the Christ-
Orpheus theme i n S a r t o r R e s a r t u s :
Our h i g h e s t Orpheus walked i n Judaea,
e i g h t e e n hundred y e a r s ago: h i s sphere-melody,
f l o w i n g i n w i l d n a t i v e t o n e s , took c a p t i v e and
r a v i s h e d the s o u l s of men (ill,8).
A r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of C h r i s t and Orpheus
i s seen i n a s e r i e s of t o r t u r e d but c l e a r - s i g h t e d sonnets by
C h a r l e s Tennyson-Turner, c a l l e d C h r i s t and Orpheus. The high
p o i n t i n t h i s appeal t o d i s s o c i a t e the two f i g u r e s i s
touching indeed:
Summarized i n W i r l , - op_. c i t . , p. 8 3 .
The s o r r o w i n g manhood of the K i n g of k i n g s ,
The double n a t u r e , and the d e a t h of shame,
The tomb - the r i s i n g ' - are s u b s t a n t i a l t h i n g s ,
I r r e l e v a n t t o Orpheusj What h a t h made
Thy wisdom match M e s s i a s w i t h a shade?
(Sonnet 127,10-4).
But d e s p i t e t h i s a p p e a l , V i c t o r i a n p i e t i s m and social
consciousness continued to turn to mythological subjects
for expression. Even the p r e - R a p h a e l i t e s indulge i n a
c e r t a i n amount of t h i s . Swinburne's Orpheus i s V i c t o r Hugo,
t o whom he appeals t o t u r n and l o o k upon E u r y d i c e , the
v i p e r - s t r i c k e n embodiment of J u s t i c e . ^ And one of W i l l i a m
M o r r i s ' most famous passages i s the s e r i e s of a n t l p h o n a l
songs of Orpheus and the S i r e n s i n The L i f e and Death of
.Jason;' the S i r e n s hymn the s e n s u a l l i f e of a m a t e r i a l i s t
U t o p i a w h i l e Orpheus answers w i t h p l e a s f o r what i s , i n
e f f e c t , s o c i a l i s m - but the v e r b a l t e x t u r e of h i s song i s as
l i s t l e s s and u n w o r l d l y as i s t h a t of the Sirens''. I t seems
the pre*-Raphaelite genius i s b e t t e r adapted t o a t m o s p h e r i c
s t o r y - t e l l i n g than t o " s i g n i f i c a n t " themes, and Morris'
S t o r y of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i s a t y p i c a l specimen:.-
of l a n g u o r o u s dreaming p r o t r a c t e d t o p r o d i g i o u s lengths,
w i t h an u n d e r w o r l d of hidden v o i c e s and a hero g i v e n t o
l y r i c i s m of the most s w e e t l y e f f u s i v e v a r i e t y . Dante

50
G a b r i e l R o s s e t t i ' s Orpheus l o n g s o n l y f o r E u r y d i c e ' s lips,^
49
^See E u r y d i c e , i n Songs B e f o r e S u n r i s e .
50 See Sonnet 6,7-8, i n The House of L i f e .
w h i l e George A. Simcox's laments h i s t w i c e - l o s t l o v e i n l o n g ,
51
dreamy musings of t h e v a g u e s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l substance ;
52
Thomas I r w i n ' s Orpheus i s of the same stamp. The p r e -
R a p h a e l i t i s m of the H o m e r i s t , Andrew Lang, was somewhat
l e s s remote: The Song of Orpheus i s a t r a n s l a t i o n of p a r t
of the Orphic A r g o n a u t i c a ; the Grave of Orpheus t e l l s again
of the n i g h t i n g a l e s ; l a t e r Lang s a t i r i z e s h i s pre^-
R a p h a e l i t e days and the way

We twanged the m e l a n c h o l y l y r e . . . j-o
When f i r s t we heard R o s s e t t i s i n g ,
and t h i s p a l i n o d e i s put i n the mouth of The New Orpheus to^
h i s E u r y d i c e •.
A Hornerist of a d i f f e r e n t s o r t , Matthew Arnold>
longed t o escape t o "a p r i m i t i v e m y t h o l o g i c a l w o r l d of
s i m p l e j o y and h a r m o n y , a 1 1
longing c l e a r l y r e f l e c t e d
i n T h y r s i s , h i s p a s t o r a l lament f o r A r t h u r Hugh Clough.
I t c o n t a i n s a b r i g h t p a r a p h r a s e of the Orphean passage i n
Moschus' lament f o r B i o n , w i t h a d d i t i o n a l j u d i c i o u s l y
chosen images and p i q u a n t language, p a r t i c u l a r l y
55
i l l u s t r a t i v e of A r n o l d ' s p a g a n i z i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y . ^ At
5 1
. S e e
Orpheus, i n C o r n h i l l Magazine 25(1867), p. 218.-.
I n D u b l i n U n i v e r s i t y Magazine 6 3 ( l 8 6 4 ) , pp. 528-43.
5 2
Another p r e - R a p h a e l i t e Orpheus i s by R i c h a r d Watson D i x o n .
-^Quoted i n Bush, Romantic T r a d i t i o n , p. 4l6.
-^Douglas Bush, op_. c i t . , p. 247.

5 5 T h y r s i s . 81-90. See a l s o Memorial V e r s e 34-40, i n w h i c h
Wordsworth's coming t o Hades i s l i k e n e d t o Orpheus*..

199
the same t i m e , John R u s k i n was r e j e c t i n g mythology as a
p e d a g o g i c a l d e v i c e , i n The Cestus of A g l a l a . One of the
f i g u r e s asked t o "put up ( h i s ) p i p e s and be gone" i s
Orpheus, because he r e p r e s e n t s
the sentiment and pure soul-power of Man,

as moving the v e r y r o c k s and t r e e s , and g i v i n g
them l i f e , ' b y i t s sympathy w i t h them; but l o s i n g
i t s own b e s t - b e l o v e d t h i n g by mere venomous
a c c i d e n t : and a f t e r w a r d s g o i n g down t o h e l l f o r
i t , i n v a i n ; b e i n g i m p a t i e n t and unwise, though
f u l l of g e n t l e n e s s ; and, i n the issue., a f t e r
as v a i n l y t r y i n g t o t e a c h t h i s g e n t l e n e s s t o
o t h e r s , and t o guide them out of t h e i r lower
p a s s i o n s t o s u n l i g h t of t r u e h e a l i n g l i f e , i t
d r i v e s the s e n s u a l h e a r t of them, and the gods
t h a t govern i t , i n t o mere and pure f r e n z y
of r e s o l v e d rage, and g e t s t o r n t o p i e c e s by
them, and ended; o n l y the n i g h t i n g a l e s t a y i n g
•• by i t s grave t o sing.56
The c o n t i n u i n g p o p u l a r i t y of G l u c k s opera i s
1
seen i n an anonymous poem (l882) d e d i c a t e d t o J.E.C., i n

57
the B r i t i s h Museum, ' which f o l l o w s C a l z a b i g i c l o s e l y ; i n
Vernon LeeJs Orpheus i n Rome (1889), r e f l e c t i o n s on a r t
prompted by Gluck's music, and i n the p o e t i c drama
Armgart, by George E l i o t , which t e l l s the O r p h e u s - l i k e s t o r y
o f a prima donna who enjoyed g r e a t success as G l u c k ' s Orfeo,
and who s a c r i f i c e d e v e r y t h i n g , i n c l u d i n g m a r r i a g e , f o r her
art; when she l o s e s her v o i c e , the o f f e r of marriage i s not
renewed. The l i b r e t t i s t James R. Planche" p r o v i d e d two p l a y s
5
Works, ed. E..T. Cook (London, .1905), vol.. 19, p. 66.
R u s k i n ' s o t h e r a l l u s i o n s t o Orpheus (see Cook's index) are
negligible.
5 ?
S e e W i r l , op. c i t . , pp. 89-90.'
200
d e a l i n g w i t h the myth - Olympic D e v i l s and Qrpheus i n the i
Haymarket - f o r l i g h t opera purposes.. Beethoven was some-

what b e l a t e d l y dubbed Orpheus by E r i c MacKay i n Beethoven
58
at, the P i a n o .
Two poems by Americans deserve mention a t t h i s
point. P h i l i p Preneau's The P r a y e r of Orpheus i s a b e a u t i f u l
p a r a p h r a s e of the p l e a Ovid put i n the p o e t ' s mouth when he
appeared b e f o r e P l u t o ; what was c o n v e n t i o n a l i n Ovid i s made
v e r y t o u c h i n g here.. The E u r y d i c e of James R u s s e l l L o w e l l ,
f o r a l l i t s vagueness and mediocre c r a f t s m a n s h i p , i s a l s o a
n o t a b l e poem. L o w e l l . r e g r e t s the d e c l i n e of a r t i s t i c
f e e l i n g i n h i s day, and the p a s s i n g of h i s own y o u t h , and
sees t h e s e f l e e t i n g b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s as E u r y d i c e , the
"more t e n d e r dawn" t h a t f l e e s b e f o r e the f u l l moon:
At t h a t e l m - v i s t a ' s end I t r a c e
D i m l y t h y sad l e a v e - t a k i n g f a c e ,
Eurydice* Eurydice!
The tremulous l e a v e s r e p e a t t o me
Eurydice! Eurydice* .
No g l o o m i e r Orcus swallows thee
Than the unclouded s u n s e t ' s glow;
Thine i s a t l e a s t E l y s i a n woe;
Thou h a s t Good's n a t u r a l decay,
And f a d e s t l i k e a s t a r away (67-76).
L o w e l l seems t o haye heard of Max M u l l e r ' s t h e o r i e s .
John W i t t R a n d a l l wrote a Lament of Orpheus
i n 1856. Another American, John Godfrey Saxe, b u r l e s q u e d
See i b i d . , p. 84.
the s t o r y i n l 8 6 l , ^ w h i l e Emma L a z a r u s gave i t l y r i c
treatment ten years l a t e r y ^ A.B. A l c o t t composed some
c r y p t i c Orphic Sayings i n 1840. Emerson p r e f e r r e d t h e
a c t u a l Orphica ( i n t r a n s l a t i o n ) t o b o t h A l c o t t ' s and Miss

61
Lazarus' e f f o r t s , and r e l a t e s the s a y i n g o f h i s own
Orphic b a r d near t h e c l o s e o f Nature^
The descent o f Orpheus was a p t m a t e r i a l f o r
American melodrama and b u r l e s q u e , as i s w i t n e s s e d by such
stage p r o d u c t i o n s as Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , a p l a y (Henry J .
B y r o n , 1884); Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , an op_eratic b u r l e s q u e
( p r e s e n t e d i n B u f f a l o i n 1897) and Orpheus, a_ one a c t p l a y
( i n Throw t h a t l i g h t on me, by O.M. S c o t t and G. F o r d ,
p r e s e n t e d i n Chicago I n 1912).
B o t h England and America produced, a t the t u r n
of t h e c e n t u r y , so many l y r i c poems on Orpheus by so many
r e l a t i v e l y u n i m p o r t a n t w r i t e r s t h a t i t s h o u l d be enough
for our purposes merely t o l i s t them. The sheer q u a n t i t y
of t h i s work i s i m p r e s s i v e , and t e s t i f i e s t o t h e c o n t i n u e d
i n t e r e s t i n Orpheus and E u r y d i c e . But t h e s w o l l e n r h e t o r i c
of many of these poems has doomed them t o e x t i n c t i o n .
-Ôrpheus and E u r y d i c e , a_ travesty_, i n Poems ( l 8 6 l ) .

60
O r p h e u s , i n Admetus (1871).
6l
See L e t t e r s , ed. R.L. Rusk, v o l . 2, p. 291 and vol.. 6,
p. 114.
202
1882 V i r g i n i a Vaughan, Orpheus and the S i r e n s , a drama i n
lyrics
1884 Henry N i l e s P i e r c e , The Death. Chant of Orpheus (The
Agnostic); E u r y d i c e (The A g n o s t i c )
1885 E l i z a b e t h S t u a r t P h e l p s , E u r y d i c e (Songs of the S i l e n t
World)
1887 ( C h a r l e s J . P i c k e r i n g ) , Orpheus ( M e t a s s a i )
1886 W a l t e r Malone, The Song of the Dying- Orpheus (The
O u t c a s t ) j Orpheus and the S i r e n s (1893)
1888 D a v i d Atwood Was son, Orpheus (Poems)
1889 P r a n k T. M a r z i a l s , Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , a sonnet
(Death s Disguises);.
1
Two Sonnet Songs: The Siren.S S i n g

|
Orpheus and the M a r i n e r s
Make Answer
I89I I s a b e l l a T.. A i t k e n , Orpheus and E u r y d i c e (Bohemia)
1891 James R. Rodd, The Lute of Orpheus (The V i o l e t Crown)
1891 Mrs,. E r n e s t R a d f o r d , Orpheus (A L i g h t Load)
1893 W i l l i a m B e l l S c o t t , Orpheus (A P o e t s Harvest Home);

1
Eurydice
1893 F r a n c i s W.. B o u r d i l l o n , E u r y d i c e (Sursum Cor da)
1894 S. W i l e y , C o r o t s Orpheus (Poems L y r i c a l and D r a m a t i c)

1
1895 L o r d de T a b l e y , Orpheus^ i n Hades;
Orpheus i n , Thrace (19,01)
I898 J.B, Dabney, Orpheus S i n g s (Songs of D e s t i n y )
1898 E.W. Watson, The Song of Orpheus (Songs of F l y i n g Hours)

203
I898 F l o r e n c e E,. C.oates, E u r y d i c e (Poems)
1900 A r t h u r S. C r i p p s , E u r y d i c e (Titania)
1900 Annie A.. F i e l d s , Orpheus: a masque
1901 Laurence B i n y o n , Orpheus i n Thrace (.Odes)
1901 L l o y d M i f f l i n , E u r y d i c e ; The L a s t Song of Orpheus;
The S i l e n c e A f t e r Orpheus' Death ( C o l l e c t e d Sonnets)
1901 L i l y T h i c k n e s s e , E u r y d i c e t o Orpheus (Poems)
1903 Joseph Cook, Orpheus and.the S i r e n s (Overtones)
1904 R u t h Young,'Orpheus (Verses)
1904 E>L, Cox, Orpheus i n Hades (Poems L y r i c and D r a m a t i c )
1904 T. 'Sturge Moore, A Lament F o r Orpheus
1905 A l e i s t e r Crowley, Orpheus; §_ l y r i c a l l e g e n d
19.06 C h a r l e s Gibson, Orpheus and E u r y d i c e (The S p i r i t of Love)
1907 A r t h u r D i l l o n , Orpheus
19.07 B e r n a r d Drew, Orpheus and E u r y d i c e (Cassandra)
1907 A l f r e d Noyes, Orpheus and E u r y d i c e ( F o r t y S i n g i n g Seamen)
19.07 L o u i s A l e x a n d e r R o b e r t s o n , Orpheus and E u r y d i c e (Through
P a i n t e d Panes)
1909 E d i t h Wharton, Orpheus ( A r t e m i s t o Actaeon)
1910 H.V. S u t h e r l a n d , Orpheus and E u r y d i c e (.Idylls of Greece,
Second S e r i e s )
1912 S i r H. Tree, Orpheus i n the Underground, a p l a y I n two
acts.
1912 Eva Gore-Booth, The Death of Orpheus (The Agate Lamp)
1913 Margaret S a c k v i l l e , Orpheus among the .Shades, a p l a y
(Songs of A p h r o d i t e )
204
n.d-. S..S. Creamer, Orphean Tragedy
n.d. Norman G a l e , Orpheus
n..d. A l f r e d P.. Graves, Orpheus (Dark B l u e 2:4l)
n.d.. E l i z a b e t h 0. Smith, R e g r e t s
There i s a l s o a p o e t i c drama, of s l i g h t m e r i t , by t h e
Vancouver p o e t , E.A. Jenns, Orpheus and E u r y d i c e (1910).
Of t h e s e , B o u r d i l l o n ' s i s a popular, b u t commonplace
poem, I n w h i c h E u r y d i c e b r i e f l y t e l l s o f h e r awaking t o t h e
w o r l d a t Orpheus' c a l l , and of .the sorrow she caused when
she, t u r n e d t o l o o k back.. A l f r e d Noyes t e l l s , w i t h
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n a r r a t i v e magic, how A p o l l o sent the snake
because Orpheus had n e g l e c t e d h i s god-given powers t o woo
Eurydice. The h u m i l i a t e d Orpheus o f P l a t o ' s Symposium
r e a p p e a r s i n E d i t h Wharton's poem, w h i l e most of t h e o t h e r s
show t h e i r i n d e b t e d n e s s t o Browning and W i l l i a m M o r r i s by
t h e i r very titles.. Perhaps t h e b e s t o f these poems - those
of de T a b l e y , B i n y o n , D i l l o n and Moore - a r e those w h i c h
d e a l w i t h Orpheus-' d e a t h , i n t h e l u x u r i a n t , o v e r r i p e neo-
pagan c a s t of S h e l l e y and Swinburne, a t r a d i t i o n which died

62
hard i n m y t h o l o g i c a l p o e t r y .
^De T a b l e y and D i l l o n a r e a n a l y z e d a t l e n g t h i n W i r l ,
op. c i t . , pp. 85-9 and 90-101.

Moore i s b e t t e r known f o r t h e p l a y Orpheus and
E u r y d i c e , one o f h i s many m y t h o l o g i c a l dramas d e a l i n g
s y m b o l i c a l l y and one might say P l a t o n i c a l l y w i t h i d e a l beauty
and t h e e f f o r t s of t h e human s o u l t o grasp i t . In the
Orpheus, t h e gods of t h e t i m e l e s s , i d e a l w o r l d o f t h e s p i r i t
i n v i t e Orpheus t o s t a y w i t h them as t h e i r son, but E u r y d i c e ,
who has r e f u s e d t o d r i n k of L e t h e ' s w a t e r s , begs him t o take
her back t o t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d . On t h e t e r r i f y i n g upward
j o u r n e y she i s overcome by t h e d a r k n e s s and h i s apparent
l a c k of t e n d e r n e s s , and b r i n g s about t h e c a t a s t r o p h e . The
h o r r o r o f t h e w o r l d o f m a t t e r i s unmasked i n t h e c o n c l u d i n g
scene: a B a s s a r i d e x u l t s over Orpheus' s e v e r e d ' l i m b s . It is
a f i n e p l a y , one i n w h i c h t h e i d e o l o g y a c t u a l l y enhances t h e
mythical s t o r y . 6 3
E u r y d i c e a l s o appears i n U l y s s e s , one o f t h e g r a n d i o s e
p o e t i c dramas o f Stephen P h i l l i p s , l o n g enough t o t e l l h e r
brief story:
I am E u r y d i c e ,
That f o r one moment was so near t h e day,
When Orpheus backward l o o k e d , and a l l was n i g h t (ll,2).
Yet i n t h i s w e a l t h of E n g l i s h m y t h o l o g i c a l p o e t r y -
so much of i t d e e p l y f e l t and i n t e n s e l y s e r i o u s - t h e one
poem w h i c h f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s a r e most l i k e l y t o r e a d and t o
J
A r e v i s e d v e r s i o n appeared i n C o l l e c t e d Poems, v o l , 3
(London, 1 9 3 2 ) . Here, when Orpheus r e t u r n s a second time,
E u r y d i c e p r e f e r s t o d r i n k t h e p o t i o n and remain among the
ideals,
a s s o c i a t e w i t h the myth does not mention Orpheus and
Eurydice at a l l . In A S h r o p s h i r e Lad, A.E, Housman t e l l s
how Hermes met him one morning and accompanied him on h i s
j o u r n e y t h r o u g h p a s t u r e l a n d , v a l l e y s and woods;
And m i d s t the f l u t t e r i n g l e g i o n
Of a l l t h a t ever d i e d
I f o l l o w , and b e f o r e us
Goes the d e l i g h t f u l guide,
With l i p s that brim w i t h laughter
But never once respond,
And f e e t t h a t f l y on f e a t h e r s ,
And s e r p e n t - c i r c l e d wand (42: The Merry Guide,
53-60]
Contemporary m y t h o l o g i c a l p o e t r y a s p i r e s t o t h i s s t a t e -
the use of one or a t most a few d e t a i l s of the myth,
d i v e s t e d of any s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e and s e t , as i t were,
o u t s i d e of time.
CHAPTER V I I
CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE
Orpheus was one o f t h e Greek m y t h o l o g i c a l f i g u r e s
adopted by t h e s y m b o l i s t p o e t s of F r a n c e . While Baudelaire
saw t h e p o e t as I c a r u s , Rimbaud as Prometheus, and V a l e r y as
N a r c i s s u s , Orpheus appears i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f almost a l l t h e
symbolists. 1
The supra-human c h a r a c t e r s o f Greek myths, w i t h
t h e i r t r a g i c s t o r i e s , a p p e a l e d s t r o n g l y t o men who l e f t "human
v a l u e s " t o t h e n o v e l i s t and t h e p l a y w r i g h t , and sought t o r e a c h
poetry i t s e l f i n i t s purest s t a t e . The s y m b o l i s t s approach
Orpheus o b l i q u e l y . In. t e l l i n g h i s s t o r y , t h e y g i v e t h e d e t a i l s
w h i l e t h e e s s e n t i a l s a r e o n l y suggested. Thus t h e s y m b o l i s t
Orphee l i v e s i n - a n a l l u s i v e , dreamy, s i g n i f i c a n t w o r l d — b u t
the a l l u s i o n s a r e n o t t h e meaningless t a g s o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e ,
the dreaminess i s n o t t h e s a c c h a r i n e l a n g u o r o f t h e p r e -
Raph.ael.ites, t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e i s n o t e x p l i c i t , owes n o t h i n g t o
s o c i a l problems, as w i t h t h e V i c t o r i a n s . . The myth i s n o t so
much used as contemplated, and p e n e t r a t e d .
The Orpheus t h a t f a s c i n a t e d t h e e a r l y s y m b o l i s t s
was Orpheus t h e m a g i c i a n , a t whose song a l l n a t u r e was ani-r
mated. Maliarme saw t h e modern p o e t ' s r o l e as a s i m i l a r one -
207
203
c o n j u r i n g , a l t e r i n g n a t u r e i n m y s t e r i o u s ways. T h i s concept
of the poet as m a g i c i a n dominated the F r e n c h p o e t r y of our
c e n t u r y . Rimbaud's T h e o r i e du Voyant, the m a n i f e s t o of t h i s
i d e a l , stems from the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . p h i l o s o p h e r
B a l l a n c h e , i n whose v i s i o n the day would come when a l l the
p e o p l e s of the e a r t h . w o u l d be u n i t e d i n the one empire of
p o e t r y , and t h i s must be a c c o m p l i s h e d by a -new Orpheus -
f o r Orpheus h i m s e l f was a voyant who u n d e r s t o o d the s y n t h e s i s

2 '
of the w o r l d . That t h i s was the meaning of the myth t o P a u l
V a l e r y i s c l e a r from a l e t t e r he wrote t o Debussy about their

proposed c o l l a b o r a t i o n on a b a l l e t :
J ' a v a l s songe incidemment au Mythe d'Orphee,

c ' e s t - a - d i r e 1'animation de t o u t e chose p a r un
e s p r i t , - l a f a b l e meme de l a m o b i l i t e e t de .
1'arrangement.3
"'"See A r t F o r A l l , i n Ma l i a r me', t r a n s l a t e d by B r a d f o r d Cook

( B a l t i m o r e , 1956), pp. 9-13, and the note "Orphic e x p l a n a t i o n "
on p. 116. "' . •
^ B a l l a n c h e ' s Orphee (1829) i s a h u m a n i t a r i a n e p i c i n n i n e
books. The descent i s g i v e n o n l y c u r s o r y t r e a t m e n t i n book
I I I , and the mythology i s h i g h l y unorthodox t h r o u g h o u t . See.
A l b e r t Joseph George, P i e r r e - S i m o n B a l l a n c h e ( S y r a c u s e 1 9 4 . 5 ) ,
pp.. 111-8.
^Quoted from F r a n c i s S c a r f e , The A r t of P a u l V a l e r y (London,
1954), p. 290.. The b a l l e t never m a t e r i a l i z e d , and V a l e r y ' s
o n l y Orphee i s an e a r l y sonnet i n w h i c h the theme of music
moving mountains i s r a t h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l l y h a n d l e d . More ample
t r e a t m e n t of t h i s theme i s g i v e n i n Vale'ry.'s melodrama Amphion.
209
But t h e s t o r y of Orpheus' descent was e v e n t u a l l y

taken up and i n time t h e image of Orpheus i n t h e w o r l d
beyond e c l i p s e d t h a t o f Orpheus t h e magician.. In A l a i n -
F o u r n i e r ' s n o v e l Le Grand Meaulnes, t h e E u r y d i c e - s t o r y l i e s
beneath t h e s u r f a c e , and t h e r e i s t h e c o n s t a n t h i n t o f a
d i s p a r i t y between t h e a e s t h e t i c E u r y d i c e o f Orpheus' song,
of t h e w o r l d o f l i g h t , and t h e a c t u a l E u r y d i c e g i v e n him by
the w o r l d o f shadows.. With the s u r r e a l i s t Paul E l u a r d , a l l
p o e t i c experience i s a journey through h e l l , l i k e Orpheus',
w h i c h f i n d s f u l f i l l m e n t i n t h e woman who, l i k e E u r y d i c e ,
always sees t h e dawn o f a new w o r l d emerging from the dark-
ness. 5
Most r e c e n t l y t h e tormented "poet o f C h r i s t i a n
6
myth", P i e r r e Emmanuel, has devoted two books o f poems t o
Orpheus. I n t h e Tombeau d Orphee, s e x u a l p a s s i o n i s t h e

1
t h e cause of Orpheus' s u f f e r i n g - b o t h i n h i s f a i l u r e t o
r e c o v e r E u r y d i c e and i n h i s death a t t h e hands of t h e
u n s a t i s f i e d Maenads; a t t h e c l o s e o f h i s l i f e he renounces
human l o v e , becomes b o t h man and woman l i k e T i r e s i a s , a
symbol o f t h e whole cosmos. E u r y d i c e t o o renounces human
p a s s i o n , p r e f e r r i n g t o remain i n e t e r n i t y r a t h e r than
F o r an a n a l y s i s o f t h i s theme i n A l a i n - F o u r n i e r , see
Robert Champigny, P o r t r a i t of_ §_ S y m b o l i s t Hero (Bloomington,
1954).
^ T h i s theme i s e s p e c i a l l y n o t a b l e i n L,'Amour du Poe'sie and'
C a p i t a l e de l a D o u l e u r . See Joseph C h i a r d i , Contemporary
F r e n c h P o e t r y (Manchester, 1 9 5 2 ) , p.. 1 4 7 .
T i t l e f o r Chapter 4 i n C h i a r d i , op_. c i t .
210
return to conjugal l i f e ; she d i d n o t c a l l t o Orpheus t o t u r n
and l o o k upon h e r - r a t h e r he m i s t o o k t h e promptings of h i s
own d e s i r e f o r h e r . v o i c e . B o t h of them w i n redemption by
t h e i r r e n u n c i a t i o n , and as t h e poem c l o s e s Orpheus, who has
p r a y e d f o r martyrdom, i s surrounded w i t h t h e shroud, t h e spear
and t h e crown o f t h o r n s . The second book, Orphiques, tells,
i n t h e f i r s t p a r t (Musique de l a N u i t ) , of Orpheus t h e musi-
c i a n , w i t h t r i b u t e s t o Bach and Beethoven; i n t h e second
(Aube s u r l e s E n f e r s ) , o f t h e d e s c e n t , w i t h homage p a i d t o
Gerard Manley Hopkins, and i n t h e t h i r d ( I n v e n t i o n des
Menades), o f t h e dismemberment - a l l a t g r e a t l e n g t h and
w i t h much o b s c u r i t y .
The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e myth o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e
upon t h e e a r l y poems o f R a i n e r M a r i a R i l k e i s an almost
s u b c o n s c i o u s one, as i t was e a r l i e r w i t h N o v a l i s and
H o l d e r l i n - a n a t u r a l consequence of t h e p o e t ' s f a s c i n a t i o n
w i t h h i s own powers, h i s s e a r c h f o r beauty and h i s attempt

t o p e n e t r a t e t h e mystery o f d e a t h . Even though t h e y a r e
not named, Orpheus and E u r y d i c e seem t o be t h e l o v e r s R i l k e
speaks o f i n .Per Tod d e r G.eliebten:

E r wusste n u r vom Tod, was a l l e w i s s e n :
dass e r uns nimmt und i n das Stumme s t 8 s s t .
A l s aber s i e , n i c h t von ihm f o r t g e r i s s e n ,
n e i n , l e i s aus s e i n e n Augen ausgel8st,
h i n u b e r g l i t t zu unbekannten S c h a t t e n ,
und a l s e r f u h l t e , dass s i e drftben nun
wie e i n e n Mond i h r MadchenlMcheln h a t t e n
und i h r e Weise w o h l z u t u n :
211
da wurden ihm d i e Toten so bekannt,
a l s ware e r d u r c h s i e m i t einem jeden
ga'nz nah verwandt; ,er l i e s s d i e andern reden
und g l a u b t e n i c h t und nannte jenes Land

das gutgelegene, das immersusse -
Und t a s t e t e es ab f u r i h r e Fusse.7
Joachim R o s t e u t s c h e r , i n Das a.sthetische I d o l , f i n d s t r a c e s
Q
of the myth i n a h a l f - d o z e n more of R i l k e ' s e a r l y poems.
Only one of these i d e n t i f i e s the characters.. It i s called
Orpheus, E u r y d i k e , Hermes, and was d i r e c t l y i n s p i r e d by the

A t t i c r e l i e f , w h i c h R i l k e saw In the Naples copy i n 1904.
I t i s a t h o r o u g h l y modern poem, however, i n i t s s e n s i b i l i t y ,
i t s i r r e g u l a r form, and i t s use of symbols. I t i s also
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of R i l k e i n i t s m y s t i c a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h
death and the maiden.;
E u r y d i c e i s the f o c u s of the poem, as of the
r e l i e f , but she i s a s t r a n g e E u r y d i c e , f i l l e d w i t h her
great death,
Wie e i n e F r u c h t von S u s s i g k e i t und Dunkel (65).
She i s not c o n s c i o u s t h a t she i s f o l l o w i n g her husband, f o r
Sie war i n einem neuen Madchentum

und unberuhrbar; i h r G e s c h l e c h t war zu
wie e i n e junge Blume gegen Abend (68-70).
În P e r Neuen G e d i c h t e , Anderer Te.il (1908) .
8
D a s Buch von der P i l g e r s c h a f t ; Worpsweder Tagebuch (28
Oct. 1900); Madchengestalten; Das j u n g s t e G e r i c h t ( i n Das
Buch der B i l d e r ) ; Das Stundenbuch I I I ; Orpheus.. E u r y d i k e .
Hermes ( i n Der Neuen G e d i c h t e , E r s t e r . Te.il) . See
R o s t e u t s c h e r , op_; c i t . , pp. 249r-53.
212
Loosened as l o n g h a i r , abandoned as the f a l l e n r a i n ,

1
distri-
buted as b l e s s i n g s abundant,-
S i e war schon Wurzel (82).
Orpheus r e p r e s e n t s the human w o r l d , restless,
i m p a t i e n t , touched w i t h genius but c u r s e d w i t h s e l f - s e e k i n g .
Through the phantasmagoria of r o c k s , shadows, f o r e s t s ,
"Brucken uber L e e r e s " (8) he l e a d s the way, his lyre for-
g o t t e n , grown i n t o h i s l e f t hand, h i s senses w a v e r i n g l i k e a

h u n t i n g dog w h i c h r a c e s ahead, then t u r n s back t o the t u r n of
the path.
Hermes i s s h i n i n g - e y e d and l i g h t of f o o t , w i t h h i s
s l e n d e r wand h e l d out b e f o r e him and the wings f l u t t e r i n g
about h i s a n k l e s . He i s a god, but he i s moved by human d i s -
a s t e r : he i t i s who c r i e s i n anguish "Er had s i c h umgewendet
-". E u r y d i c e , the b r i d e of death, knows n o t h i n g , and asks
o n l y "Wer?" ( 8 5 - 6 ) .
A f t e r t h i s s t a r t l i n g c l i m a x , Orpheus i s f o r g o t t e n .
We do not hear h i s laments even as we d i d not hear of h i s

song b e f o r e P l u t o , W i t h E u r y d i c e , we have f o r g o t t e n him;
we r e t u r n t o the w o r l d where the m y s t e r i o u s f i g u r e of d e a t h
stands "dunkel v o r dem k l a r e n Ausgang" (87), where
E u r y d i c e has a l r e a d y p a s s e d ,
den S c h r i t t beschrankt von langen L e i c h e n b a n d e r n ,

u n s i c h e r , s a n f t und ohne Ungeduld ( 9 4 - 5 ) .
T h i s e a r l y poem of R i l k e s c o u l d s t a n d , w i t h
1
Housman's,as a model f o r the p o e t i c treatment of classical
myths, f o r i t i s no s e n t i m e n t a l or p e d a n t i c i n v o c a t i o n of
213
a n t i q u i t y , but an e x t r a o r d i n a r y e f f o r t t o grasp the s p i r i t
of the myth i t s e l f , a j o u r n e y i n t o p r e - c l a s s i c time.
Orpheus..- Eurydike. Hermes was w r i t t e n a t a time
when R i l k e ' s p o e t r y was l a r g e l y an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f v a r i o u s
o b j e t s d a r t ; i n h i s mature p e r i o d , R i l k e t u r n e d a g a i n t o
1
Orpheus. T h i s time E u r y d i c e i s not c a l l e d f o r t h from the

9
b e t t e r w o r l d of h e r new v i r g i n i t y ; o n l y Orpheus i s i n v o k e d -
and he i s not the husband of E u r y d i c e so much as the c r e a t i v e
Orpheus who knows the m y s t e r i e s of l i f e and death, whose
song permeates the whole w o r l d . The famous i d e a l of the
Sonette an Orpheus, the c u l m i n a t i o n of a c e n t u r y o f Orphean
p o e t r y from N o v a l i s and H o l d e r l i n through the F r e n c h
s y m b o l i s t s , has been compared"^ t o N i e t z s c h e ' s Dionysus,
Z a r a t h u s t r a and Superman: f o r R i l k e , the p o e t , s y m b o l i z e d i n
Orpheus, i s the redeemer and t r a n s f i g u r e r o f a l l e x i s t e n c e -
i n d e e d , when he s i n g s he c a l l s e x i s t e n c e i n t o b e i n g : .
Da s t i e g e i n Baum. 0 r e i n e U b e r s t e i g u n g I
0 Orpheus s i n g t i 0 hoher Baum im Ohri
( S o n e t t e an Orpheus: 1,1,1-2).
R i l k e f i n d s the s e c r e t of a l l p o i e s i s i n a s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
w i t h t h i s p o w e r f u l f i g u r e , and h i s l a t e r work i s a c o n s t a n t
attempt t o c a s t h i m s e l f i n the mold o f h i s Orpheus-symbol.
În Sonette An Orpheus: 11,12,4, R i l k e speaks of b e i n g dead
" i n E u r y d i k e " , i . e . i n the h a b i t u a l death of E u r y d i c e i n the
e a r l i e r poem.
1 0
S e e M i c h a e l Hamburger, op_. c i t . , pp. .105-13.
214
As f o r E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g s y m b o l i s t s , James Joyce
chose U l y s s e s as h i s m y t h i c a l hero, w h i l e T i r e s i a s i s t h e
most important c l a s s i c a l f i g u r e i n T.S. E l i o t ' s The Waste
Landj b u t t h e t h r e e S i t w e l l s have a l l d e a l t w i t h Orpheus:
Sir Osbert's' Orpheus t e l l s how t h e f o r e s t animals were
charmed, w h i l e S a c h e v e r e l l s E u r y d i c e
1
( i n The T h i r t e e n t h
Caesar) makes Orpheus t h e sun; t h e E u r y d i c e of Dame E d i t h
i s , o f t h e t h r e e , t h e poem t o be reckoned with.. Written i n
1946, i t has none of t h e f l a s h i n g w i t o f t h e famous poems,
but i t s symbolism, weaving i n and out o f i r r e g u l a r l o n g l i n e s ,
i s gorgeous, and i t s approach (a new one f o r t h e myth, i f n o t
f o r Dame E d i t h , who has w r i t t e n many s i m i l a r death-poems) i s
brilliant.
E u r y d i c e begins h e r s o l i l o q u y w i t h the l i n e s :
F i r e s on t h e h e a r t h ! F i r e s i n the. heavens^! F i r e s
i n t h e h e a r t s o f Men!
I who was welded i n t o b r i g h t g o l d i n t h e e a r t h
by Death
S a l u t e you! (1-3)•
She who i s now t h e golden b r i d e o f Death s a l u t e s t h e f i r e s
t h a t l i g h t the w o r l d above. B u t she has another r i p e n i n g
sun below - Death, who has taught h e r h e a r t t o f o r g i v e .
Then she t e l l s how "Orpheus came w i t h h i s s u n l i k e s i n g i n g "
(17)j and she moved t o t h e mouth o f t h e tomb and walked, a
golden f i g u r e , a c r o s s
The dark f i e l d s where t h e sowers s c a t t e r g r a i n
L i k e t e a r s (26-7),
r e c a l l i n g P r o s e r p i n e o f t h e golden h a i r , h e a r i n g the golden-
v o i c e d man o f goa^warn h e r t o l o o k t o t h e l i g h t , w h i l e i n
1 1
A q u o t a t i o n from M e i s t e r E c k h a r t i s paraphrased i n l i n e s
39^41 and addressed t o E u r y d i c e .
215
the " f e r i n e d u s t " (43) t h a t r i s e s around h e r , Death b i d s
her remember t h a t he s t i l l has power over h e r . Par o f f
she h e a r s the sounds a r i s e from the g o l d e n - r o o f e d
d w e l l i n g s of men, and wonders•why t h e y weep f o r the
d e a t h of golden n a t u r e , w h i c h i s not l o s t but o n l y
changed i n the sweet d a r k n e s s . Still, she has c a s t
her sweet d e a t h o f f f o r Orpheus- 1

sake, and f o l l o w s him
homeward t o
the s m a l l t h i n g s of Love, the b u i l d i n g of the

h e a r t h , the kneading of the d a i l y b r e a d ,
The c r i e s of b i r t h , and a l l the weight of l i g h t
Shaping our b o d i e s and our s o u l s . Come home t o y o u t h ,
And the n o i s e of summer growing i n the v e i n s ,
And t o o l d age, a serene a f t e r n o o n ,
An element beyond t i m e , or a new c l i m a t e ( 7 0 - 5 ) »
But i n the f i n a l s t a n z a i t i s she, not Orpheus,
who t u r n s , and w i t h s t a r t l i n g effect:
I w i t h the o t h e r young who were born from d a r k n e s s ,

R e t u r n i n g t o d a r k n e s s , s t o o d a t the mouth of the Tomb
W i t h one who had come g l i t t e r i n g l i k e the wind
To meet me - Orpheus w i t h the golden mouth,
You - l i k e A d o n i s born from the young m y r r h - t r e e ,
you, the v i n e - b r a n c h
Broken by t h e wind of l o v e . . . .1 t u r n e d t o g r e e t you-
And when I touched your mouth, i t was the Sun ( 7 6 - 8 2 ) .
So the themes pf g o l d , f i r e and the sun t h r e a d
t h e i r way t h r o u g h the poem. I t i s i m p o s s i b l e , i n a summary,
t o suggest as w e l l the o t h e r themes of wheat, of the l i o n ,
the honeycomb and the maiden b e a r i n g death as a c h i l d

216
w i t h i n her.. Some of these are t r a d i t i o n a l w i t h Dame E d i t h )
the d e a t h - b e a r i n g maiden i s borrowed, w i t h c r e d i t , from R i l k e .
But t h e two imposing themes, t h e sun and the wheat, a r e
d e r i v e d from the suggested o r i g i n s of the myth i t s e l f . : In
the l a s t l i n e E u r y d i c e the golden s h a f t of wheat, bearing
the seeds of her own d e a t h w i t h i n h e r , awakes t o Orpheus
the sun.
For the r e s t , t h e r e a r e dozens of E n g l i s h and
American p o e t s on the contemporary scene who have w r i t t e n
about Orpheus and E u r y d i c e :
19.18 George R p s t r e v o r H a m i l t o n , Orpheus (Escape and
Fantasy)
Orpheus 1
song, i n contemporary language.
1919 B.K.. Van S l y k e , Orpheus i n the S t r e e t ( P o e t r y 13:2.52)
Orpheus as a hurdy-gurdy man.,
1921 Brookes More, Orpheus and E u r y d i c e (The B e g g a r s 1
Vision)
a somewhat Romantic r e v i s i o n of V i r g i l and O v i d ,
but o r i g i n a l ( i n American l e t t e r s ) i n a s s o c i a t i n g -
the husband and w i f e and s e r p e n t of the Orpheus
myth w i t h G e n e s i s , the c l o s e of the golden age
and the coming of sorrow i n t o the w o r l d .
1921 Laurence Housman, The Death of Orpheusj
Orpheus and The Phoenix (The Love Concealed, 1928)
o n l y the p h o e n i x remains a l o o f f r o m Orpheus'' song.

217
1924 E l i z a b e t h Maddox R o b e r t s , Orpheus ( P o e t r y 24:201)

a n a i v e t r e a t m e n t o f Orpheus and t h e trees..
19.24 F..-.W. Bateson, Orpheus i n Thrace ( S p e c t a t o r 133*506)
a b r i e f lament f o r E u r y d i c e .
1925 F r a n k Kendon, Orpheus (London Mercury 11: 571)

•a l o n g n a r r a t i v e poem, i n which Orpheus' descent
i s summed up i n t h e l i n e :
To l o s e , t o f i g h t , t o w i n , t o hope, t o l o s e
( s t . 40,1,2).
1925 L.. H u l l e y , Orpheus and E u r y d i c e ( F a b l e s and Myths from
the S i b y l s Book)
1
1925 H>D'. (Mrs. R i c h a r d A l d i n g t o n ) , E u r y d i c e ( C o l l e c t e d Poems)

E u r y d i c e r e p r o a c h e s Orpheus f o r h i s arrogance and
r u t h l e s s n e s s , b u t adds, "my h e l l i s no worse
than y o u r s " ,
1927 L(oyd) H ( a b e r l y ) , Orpheus a t H e l l ' s Gate S i n g s (Poems)
1928 D>R. W i l l i a m s o n , Orpheus and E u r y d i c e ( C o l l e c t e d Poems)
1929 Alice Wills, Orpheus
19,29 Helen G i l b e r t , E u r y d i c e (Sewanee Review 37:322)
an o v e r l y - R o m a n t i c n a r r a t i v e . .
1935 Joseph A u s l a n d e r , E u r y d i c e (No T r a v e l l e r R e t u r n s )
E u r y d i c e urges Orpheus t o l o o k and come t o death
with her.
1937 J y E v e l y n , E u r y d i c e and Orpheus (Poems)
218
1943 Yvor W i n t e r s , Orpheus: I n Memory Of Hart Crane
(The G i a n t Weapon)
the l o s s of E u r y d i c e and t h e dismemberment, i n
a b r i e f , oblique n a r r a t i o n .
1944 Marya Z a t u r e n s k a , The R e c a l l o f E u r y d i c e (The Golden
Mirror)
a l y r i c v e r s i o n o f t h e s t o r y w i t h no mention of
Orpheus ..
1945 E d i t h Grabmann, E u r y d i c e ( P o e t r y 66:16)
a w a r n i n g t o Orpheus n o t t o make h i s f r u i t l e s s
journey t o the underworld.
1945 W.H. Auden,. Orpheus ( C o l l e c t e d S h o r t e r Poems)
b r i e f and e n i g m a t i c .
1946 Helen Bevingt.on, Song o f Orpheus ( A t l a n t i c Monthly,
178: Nov.., -74)

the .shades weep a t Orpheus 1
song.
1949 M u r i e l Rukeyser,. Orpheus ( S e l e c t e d Poems)
a l o n g , e l a b o r a t e poem d e a l i n g w i t h Orpheus" 1
apotheosis.
1952 E. K r o l l , Orpheus (Cape Horn and Other Poems)
1952 H e r b e r t Henry Marks, Orpheus, a p l a y i n verse..
1953 John Hearne, Orpheus (New Statesman and N a t i o n
45:582)
Orpheus t h e m u s i c i a n , t h e Argonaut, t h e l o v e r ,
the m a r t y r and a moral - i n f i v e b r i e f , flippant
stanzas.
219
1953 Edwin M u i r , O r p h e u s Dream ( C o l l e c t e d Poems)

1
Orpheus o n l y imagines E u r y d i c e i s r e s t o r e d ;
he t u r n s and sees her
S t i l l s i t t i n g i n her s i l v e r c h a i r
Alone i n Hades' empty h a l l (17-.18) .
1954 E l i ' M a n d e l , Orpheus ( T r i o )
Orpheus as a Welsh c o a l miner.
1954 Anne Goodwin Winslow, Orpheus To P l u t o (New Y o r k e r ,
30: .Dec 11, 161)
Orpheus, .a p e a c e f u l homebody, a s k s f o r E u r y d i c e
because "Home was where she l i k e d t o be".
1955 S i d n e y G o o d s i r Smith, Orpheus and E u r y d i c e ,
§_ d i d a c t i c poem..
a drama i n S c o t t i s h d i a l e c t , . w i t h a few random
quotes from Henryson.
1956 H a r o l d F r a n c i s S t e w a r t , Orpheus and Other Poems
1956 Roy Campbell, Orpheus: f o r Gene Tunney
Orpheus, i n h i s n i n t h r e - i n c a r n a t i o n , r e t e l l s h i s
l i f e - s t o r y i n modern terms b e f o r e b e i n g shot by
the s t a t e police:.
1959 James D i c k e y , Orpheus B e f o r e Hades (New Y o r k e r 35:
Dec. 5,52)
Orpheus 1
l y r i c p l e a f o r the renewal of s p r i n g ,
n.d. Newton M;.Baskett, Orpheus and E u r y d i c e
n.d. D a v i d Gascoyne, Orpheus i n t h e Underworld

1
Orpheus dreams of " t e a r s and wet l e a v e s , cold
c u r t a i n s of r o c k " .
220
But d e s p i t e t h i s s t e a d y output of m y t h o l o g i c a l p o e t r y ,
Orpheus 1
a b i d i n g p o p u l a r i t y i n our c e n t u r y I s due t o h i s r e -
i n c a r n a t i o n s on t h e stage and i n t h e f i l m s . Our most famous
Orpheus i s Cocteau's Orphee, w h i c h appeared on t h e stage i n

12
1926 and, w i t h many changes, on t h e s c r e e n i n 1951. This
f i g u r e i s l a r g e l y t h e s y m b o l i s t Orphe'e t r a n s p l a n t e d by
Cocteau t o t h e t h e a t r i c a l medium: he i s n o t a m u s i c i a n ,
but a poet i n c o n t a c t w i t h a n o t h e r w o r l d , and d e a t h i s a
r e a l i t y w h i c h hovers over him.
Orphe'e h i m s e l f i n t r o d u c e s h i s p l a y w i t h a r e q u e s t
f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g from t h e audience.: He and E u r y d i c e l i v e
i n a modern Thrace, surrounded by m a r v e l s o f a l l sorts.-. In
the opening scene, Orphee i s shown d e t e c t i n g p o e t i c messages
from t h e w o r l d beyond from t h e h o o f b e a t s o f an o r a c u l a r horse

1^
w h i c h he keeps i n h i s house. ^ T h i s i n f u r i a t e s t h e con-
v e n t i o n a l E u r y d i c e , b u t t o Orphee " l a moindre de ces
p h r a s e s e s t p l u s e'tonnante que t o u s l e s poemes". ^" 1

He
seems t o be d i s c o v e r i n g h i m s e l f i n t h e s e messages, one of

which,"Madame E u r y d i c e r e v i e n d r a des e n f e r s " , he e n t e r s
i n t h e a n n u a l p o e t r y c o m p e t i t i o n sponsored by a women's
Many of t h e changes a r e i n t r o d u c e d from C o c t e a u s f i r s t 1
f i l m , L_e Sang d'un Poete (1933).

1 3
T h e p o i n t seems t o be t h a t Orpheus, .who enchanted the
b e a s t s w i t h h i s song, i s i r o n i c a l l y enchanted by a b e a s t ' s
poetry.
lÔeuvres Completes de Jean Cocteau ( P a r i s , 1951) >
vol. 5, p. 24.
221
club c a l l e d the Bacchantes. Eurydice i s e v e n t u a l l y poisoned
by t h e j e a l o u s l e a d e r of t h i s group, and Death, i n t h e person
of a b e a u t i f u l young woman, .comes w i t h two s u r g e o n - l i k e
a s s i s t a n t s t o c l a i m her. Orphee i s warned of t h e t r e a c h e r y

15
by an a n g e l named H u e r t e b i s e , ^ b u t he a r r i v e s t o o l a t e t o
save h i s w i f e . Death has a c c i d e n t a l l y l e f t h e r g l o v e s behind,
however, and H u e r t e b i s e t e l l s Orphee he can f o l l o w E u r y d i c e
i n t o t h e next w o r l d by donning t h e g l o v e s and p a s s i n g through
the m i r r o r ;
J-e vous l i v r e l e s e c r e t des s e c r e t s , L e s
m i r o i r s sont l e s p o r t e s p a r l e s q u e l l e s l a Mort
va e t v i e n t . Ne l e d i t e s a personne. Du r e s t e ,
regardez-vou.s t o u t e v o t r e v i e dans une g l a c e e t
vous v e r r e z l a Mort t r a v a i l l e r comme des a b e i l l e s
dans une ruche de verre.l°
The r e c o v e r y o f E u r y d i c e b e h i n d t h e m i r r o r i s accomplished
i n the' s p l i t second i t t a k e s t h e postman t o d e l i v e r a l e t t e r .
The c o n d i t i o n imposed on Orphee i s t h a t he never l o o k upon
his wife again. But i n a q u a r r e l he a c c i d e n t a l l y does so,
and she d i s a p p e a r s . Orphee opens t h e l e t t e r and d i s c o v e r s
t h a t h i s poem "Madame E u r y d i c e r e v i e n d r a des E n f e r s " has
aroused t h e f u r y p f t h e Bacchantes because i t s i n i t i a l
l e t t e r s s p e l l out "un mot i n j u r i e u x " . "Le c h e v a l m'a jouej"
15
H u e r t e b i s e " , C o c t e a u s angel., appears o f t e n i n h i s

1
poetry. F o r t h e o r i g i n of t h e name, see Neal Oxenhandler,
Scandal and Parade: The Theater o f Jean Cocteau ( R u t g e r s , 1 9 5 7 ) ,
p. 8 8 ,
Oeuvres, loc.. c i t . . , p. 5 8 .
c r i e s Orphee, ' h u t he b r e a k s t h e h o r s e ' s s p e l l by j o y f u l l y
a c c e p t i n g h i s martyrdom. I n t h e c l o s i n g scenes, Orphe'e i s p a i d
the u s u a l posthumous honors of t h e m i s u n d e r s t o o d p o e t ; h i s
s e v e r e d head announces t h a t h i s name i s r e a l l y Jean Cocteau,
and then w i t h h i s w i f e and g u a r d i a n a n g e l H u e r t e b i s e he mounts
to heaven.
T h i s o u t l i n e omits hundreds of d e t a i l s which are
u n d o u b t e d l y s i g n i f i c a n t t o Cocteau and h i s f o l l o w i n g , b u t i t
a t l e a s t i n d i c a t e s some ways i n w h i c h t h e myth has been used,
•as w e l l as some of t h e s e r i o u s , comic, analogous, and
scandalous l e v e l s of the p l a y .
In t h e f i l m t h e h o r s e , t h e p o e t r y c o n t e s t , and t h e
s e v e r e d head a r e gone; t h e tone i s almost u n r e l i e v e d l y
serious.. The scope of t h e motion p i c t u r e camera a l l o w s us t o
e n t e r t h e w o r l d beyond s e v e r a l t i m e s , and t h e c e n t r a l
c h a r a c t e r seems t o be l e s s Orphee than Orphee's Death, a
m y s t e r i o u s P r i n c e s s who t r a v e l s about e s c o r t e d by two
motorcyclist's. In the f i l m , Huertebise i s her chauffeur,
and t h e p o e t i c messages from t h e o t h e r w o r l d come over t h e

short-wave r a d i o i n h e r R o l l s - R o y c e . Orphee i s a c e l e b r a t e d
P a r i s i a n poet who i s s e e k i n g a f r e s h approach t o p o e t r y .
When a b r i l l i a n t young l e f t - b a n k w r i t e r named Ce'geste i s
r u n down and k i l l e d by t h e P r i n c e s s and h e r c y c l i s t s , Orphee
I b i d . , p. 74.
r i d e s o f f i n t h e c a r , and l e a r n s t h a t t h e young poet has
been r e c e i v i n g h i s i n s p i r a t i o n t h r o u g h h i s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
the P r i n c e s s . He l o n g s t o r e c e i v e t h e same p o e t i c s e c r e t s
he hears c r a c k l i n g over h e r c a r - r a d i o . As a r e s u l t o f h i s
o b s e s s i o n , h i s u n l o v e d , pregnant E u r y d i c e i s c l a i m e d by
the P r i n c e s s and, as i n t h e p l a y , Orphee i s t o l d by
H u e r t e b i s e t o r e c o v e r h e r by donning t h e g l o v e s and p a s s i n g
through the m i r r o r . But he r e a l i z e s t h a t he i s making t h e
j o u r n e y t o t h e beyond more out o f f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h h i s
Death, t h e P r i n c e s s , than out o f l o v e f o r h i s wife..
The Judges o f t h e w o r l d of t h e dead - t h r e e b l u e -
serged businessmen - r e s t o r e E u r y d i c e t o l i f e because t h e
P r i n c e s s has c l a i m e d h e r p r e m a t u r e l y . I t i s discovered that
the two agents o f death have f a l l e n i n l o v e w i t h m o r t a l s -
the P r i n c e s s w i t h Orphee, H u e r t e b i s e w i t h E u r y d i c e . S t e r n
warnings a r e i s s u e d them t o a b i d e by t h e decrees o f death,
and Orphee i s t o l d he must never a g a i n l o o k a t E u r y d i c e .
The c o u p l e ' s new l i f e i s s h o r t , however - E u r y d i c e i s
d i s p a t c h e d by Orphee s a c c i d e n t a l g l a n c e i n t o a m i r r o r , and
!
he i s shot down by t h e Bacchantes as t h e supposed murderer
of Cegest'e.
But g r e a t p o e t s a r e i m m o r t a l : i n t h e memorable
c o n c l u d i n g scene o f t h e f i l m , t h e P r i n c e s s and H u e r t e b i s e
t e l l Orphee and E u r y d i c e t h a t t h e y a r e ready t o d i e i n t h e i r
s t e a d , and go t o be p u n i s h e d by t h e judges.
224
Both the f i l m and the p l a y are u n c o n v e n t i o n a l :
Orphee was Cocteau's f i r s t i m p o r t a n t p l a y , and the film
Orphee i s a compendium of h i s screen t e c h n i q u e . In. b o t h
media l o g i c and c o n v e n t i o n are scorned i n an attempt to
surround the s t o r y w i t h an atmosphere of u n r e a l i t y . -
i r o n i c a l l y a c h i e v e d by i n t r o d u c i n g the most r e a l i s t i c ,
even m e c h a n i c a l elements. But the d e l i b e r a t e shock element
of the p l a y has been r e p l a c e d , a f t e r t w e n t y ^ f l v e y e a r s , by
the marvelous and the p i c t u r e s q u e i n the f i l m . The theater
audience i s s t a r t l e d i n t o a c c e p t i n g the s t o r y ; the cinema
audience i s drawn t o do so by c u r i o u s , e v o c a t i v e images.
Cocteau's a t t i t u d e towards the myth has changed
as w e l l . I n the p l a y i t i s the power of p o e t r y t h a t i s
c e n t r a l . : because he i s a p o e t , Orphee can c o n t a c t the
unknown r e g i o n s beyond; these seek t o communicate w i t h him
i n ways m a l e v o l e n t (the horse) and benignant (Huertebise).
The marvels w h i c h surround the poet b r i n g h i s d e s t r u c t i o n '
and h i s a p o t h e o s i s . To an e x t e n t these i d e a s a r e . a l s o p r e s e n t
i n the f i l m , but the emphasis has s w i t c h e d from the poet t o the
w o r l d of death, w h i c h i s seen no l o n g e r - a s c o n t r a s t e d good
and e v i l , but as a t e r r i b l e w o r l d w h i c h almost absorbs the
poet and h i s w i f e . The t r u e poet (Ce'geste) must c o n t a c t t h i s
w o r l d ; the immortal•poet (Orphee) must conquer i t by winning
i t s love. Death i s not cheated, however, and e x a c t s i t s
vengeance from i t s own agent, the P r i n c e s s - who i s the r e a l
E u r y d i c e t o Orphee;.
225
These themes, the power of p o e t r y i n the p l a y , the
power of d e a t h i n the f i l m , a r e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y i n h e r e n t i n
the Orpheus-myth; t h e y are found i n the e a r l i e s t literary
t r a c e s - the one i n E u r i p i d e s , t h e o t h e r i n P l a t o , b o t h
in the C u l e x . U n f o r t u n a t e l y Cocteau evokes them, not t h r o u g h
the Orpheus— E u r y d i c e s t o r y i t s e l f , but by i m p o s i n g some
mythology o f h i s own upon the c l a s s i c myth. By h i s own
a d m i s s i o n he uses Orpheus because he f e e l s " q u i t e n a t u r a l l y

18
drawn t o a myth i n w h i c h l i f e and d e a t h meet f a c e t o f a c e " .
But i t i s l i f e and d e a t h , not Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , t h a t
i n s p i r e him. The m y t h i c a l . f i g u r e s are o b s c u r e d , almost
submerged i n the c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the two w o r l d s between w h i c h
t h e y are drawn. The d e t a i l s of the s t o r y , even the c r u c i a l
backward g l a n c e , t e n d o n l y t o get i n the way of C o c t e a u s l
erratic vision. They are e v e n t u a l l y f i t t e d i n , but w i t h
c o n s i d e r a b l e adjustment. I n the l a s t a n a l y s i s , i t must be
s a i d t h a t the importance of Cocteau's Orphe'e i s due not t o the
c l a s s i c a l f i g u r e of Orpheus but t o Cocteau's s t r a n g e l y e v o l v i n g
sense of s t y l e and h i s f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h the power of p o e t r y
and d e a t h , w h i c h themes he c o n v e n i e n t l y f i n d s i n the Orpheus-
myth.
Jean Cocteau and Andre P r a i g n e a u , Cocteau on the F i l m
(London, 1 9 5 4 ) , p. .101..
226
Cocteau i s a t p r e s e n t a t work on a new. f i l m , Le.

Testament d Orphe'e.. Meanwhile, p l a y s and f i l m s on the
-t
19
subject continue. A n o u i l h ' s E u r y d i c e ^ r e t e l l s the myth
i n the drab s e t t i n g s of a p r o v i n c i a l r a i l w a y s t a t i o n and
a shabby M a r s e i l l e s hotel-room. Orpheus and h i s f a t h e r are
I t i n e r a n t c a f e m u s i c i a n s and E u r y d i c e and her mother
a c t r e s s e s i n a down-at-the-heel t h e a t r e t r o u p e . Between,
t r a i n s t h e y meet and f a l l i n l o v e , escape from t h e i r p a r e n t s
for a few hours, i n w h i c h the whole w o r l d and a l l t h e
people i n i t are t r a n s f o r m e d f o r them. But the sweetness
i n l i f e i s impermanent; E u r y d i c e s scandalous p a s t p u r s u e s
l
h e r ; she l e a v e s Orpheus and i s k i l l e d i n a s t r e e t a.cc.iden.t.
Then Death, i n the p e r s o n of the m y s t e r i o u s M. H e n r i ,
a r r a n g e s t h a t the g r i e f - s t r i c k e n Orpheus s h o u l d meet her
a g a i n i n the d e s e r t e d s t a t i o n and win her back, p r o v i d e d he
does not l o o k her i n the f a c e b e f o r e dawn. But now Orpheus
is c u r i o u s about E u r y d i c e ' s p r e v i o u s l o v e r s , and i n h i s
l o n g i n g t o p r e s e r v e her as he had once known h e r , f a c e s her

and has the t r u t h out, E u r y d i c e fades i n t o the n i g h t , as
h e r e s s e n t i a l goodness i s a s s e r t e d by a p p a r i t i o n s of a l l the
c h a r a c t e r s In the p l a y . In the f i n a l a c t , as Orpheus.'?
f a t h e r e x t o l s the p l e a s u r e s and a m b i t i o n s of the bourgeois
^ E n t i t l e d P o i n t of Departure i n Great B r i t a i n and Legend
of L o v e r s i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s .
227
life, Orpheus i s persuaded by M. H e n r i t o meet E u r y d i c e i n
death that n i g h t .
T h i s i s the d i s i l l u s i o n e d A n o u i l h o f the y e a r s o f
the German o c c u p a t i o n o f F r a n c e , s a v o r i n g the sweetness of l i f e
and l o v e , but c o n v i n c e d t h a t i t can' never s u r v i v e i n a
sordid world. F o r Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , a n y t h i n g i s p r e f e r -
a b l e t o t h e compromise t h e i r p a r e n t s have made; they choose
death, which, p r o m i s e s t o g i v e some permanence t o t h e i r l o v e .
D e s p i t e i t s s u c c e s s , c r i t i c s have been h a r s h w i t h the

20
play ; i t has been judged a r t i s t i c a l l y unsound i n i t s
s e n t i m e n t a l , p s e u d o - e x i s t e n t i a l i s t approach t o s e r i o u s prob-
lems and m o r a l l y shabby i n i t s s e l f - p i t y , i t s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n
of p r o m i s c u i t y , i t s mawkish d e a t h - w i s h i n g . But i t has
moments of beauty and humor and - more than Cocteau's p l a y -
i t seems t o have touched on, i f n o t sounded t h e f u l l possi-
b i l i t i e s o f , t h e myth of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e .
The c u r r e n t f i l m The F u g i t i v e K i n d i s adapted from
Tennessee W i l l i a m s ' p l a y Orpheus. Descending.. The movie i s
more honest than t h e p l a y as f a r as t h e t i t l e i s concerned:
2 0
S e e W a l t e r K e r r i n Commonweal 55(1952) pp.. 373-4; Joseph
Wood K r u t c h i n The N a t i o n 174(1952) p-. 44; H a r o l d Clurman
i n The New R e p u b l i c 126(1952) p. 23; Brooks A t k i n s o n i n
The New York.Times, Oct. 29, 1959, P- 37. The CBC r e c e n t l y
c a n c e l l e d a scheduled t e l e v i s i o n . p r e s e n t a t i o n , on moral
grounds.
228
n e i t h e r has a n y t h i n g much t o do w i t h Orpheus, I t i s no
c r e d i t t o W i l l i a m s ' a r t t h a t he can i n v e s t an o l d p l a y
w i t h " c l a s s i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e " merely by e q u i p p i n g h i s

21
hero w i t h a g u i t a r . '
The myth i s more e x p l i c i t l y d e a l t w i t h i n another

c u r r e n t f i l m , Orfeu Negro ( B l a c k Orpheus). This i s , again,
22
an e x p e r i m e n t a l work, almost a b a l l e t , based on a p l a y
by the B r a z i l i a n d i p l o m a t V i n i c i u s de Moraes and f i l m e d i n
B r a z i l by the F r e n c h d i r e c t o r M a r c e l Camus. The myth of
Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i s h e r e r e - e n a c t e d by the f a v e l a s ,

1
the negroes who l i v e by the thousands i n shacks made of c a s t -
off o i l - c a n s and perched on the steep c l i f f s o v e r l o o k i n g the
Bay of R i o de J a n e i r o . Among t h e i r number I s Orpheus,
whose g u i t a r - p l a y i n g , a c c o r d i n g t o the f a v e l a . c h i l d r e n ,
21
Orpheus Descending i s a r e w r i t e of the u n s u c c e s s f u l B a t t l e
of A n g e l s , w h i c h had no r e f e r e n c e t o Orpheus. I t must be said

however t h a t i n the r e v i s i o n the myth g i v e s some u n i t y t o a
b r u t a l melodrama t h a t would o t h e r w i s e be merely a s u c c e s s i o n

of scenes a r b i t r a r i l y motivated.
22
Orfeu de Conceicao. The p r e s e n t t i t l e may have been sug-
g e s t e d by J e a n - P a u l S a r t r e ' s Orphee N o i r ( P a r i s , 1948), a
c o l l e c t i o n of F r e n c h negro p o e t r y . S a r t r e s a y s , J e nommerai
M
.'orphique'' c e t t e p o e s i e p a r c e que c e t t e i n l a s s a b l e descente du
negre en soi-meme me f a i t songer a Orphee a l l a n t reclamer

E u r y d i c e a, P l u t o n (p. x v i i ) . "
makes the sun r i s e e v e r y day. By o c c u p a t i o n he i s a
streetcar-conductor'. E u r y d i c e i s a peasant g i r l newly come
t o the s e t t l e m e n t , f o l l o w e d by a r e j e c t e d l o v e r who i s intent
on k i l l i n g h e r . She meets.the c a r e f r e e m i n s t r e l and together
t h e y descend t o R i o t o dance i n the c a r n i v a l , Orpheus
costumed as the sun and E u r y d i c e as the n i g h t . Here amid the
b i z a r r e f i g u r e s and the f r e n z i e d , w h i r l i n g rhythms t h e y are
s e p a r a t e d , and E u r y d i c e I s t r a p p e d i n a p.ower p l a n t by her
p u r s u e r , who i s masquerading as Death. Ironically i t
i s Orpheus who u n w i t t i n g l y causes h e r death when he t u r n s on
the power s w i t c h t o l o o k f o r h e r ; The h e l l s i n w h i c h B l a c k
Orpheus then seeks h i s E u r y d i c e are the bureau of m i s s i n g
p e r s o n s , the s p i r i t - c o n j u r i n g r i t u a l s of the Macumba and,
f i n a l l y , the morgue, where he f i n d s her body and carries
it, a t dawn, t h r o u g h the a f t e r m a t h of the c a r n i v a l t o h i s
home h i g h above the c i t y . Here, as he s i n g s t h a t h a p p i -
ness i s o n l y an i l l u s i o n , he i s s t r u c k by a r o c k thrown by
a jealous, "bacchant" and, w i t h E u r y d i c e s t i l l In h i s arms,
he plunges over the c l i f f t o h i s death. One of the child-
r e n p i c k s up h i s g u i t a r t o p l a y as t h e s u n
-
rises on
another day.
Camus', f i l m i s most e f f e c t i v e i n i t s f a n t a s t i c
a r r a y of c o l o r , rhythm and sound. I t s weakness l i e s i n . the
d i s p a r i t y between t h i s heady atmosphere and the fragile
Greek myth w h i c h i s f o r c e d i n t o i t . The f i r s t h a l f of the
f i l m i s a sympathetic and i m a g i n a t i v e r e - c r e a t i o n of the

230
myth i n modern terms; then suddenly v a r i o u s m y t h i c a l d e t a i l s
are v i o l e n t l y and' a r b i t r a r i l y f i t t e d i n t o a c o n t e x t t h a t
s t e a d i l y r e s i s t s them.. Thus the c a r e t a k e r of the power
p l a n t must be named Hermes; t h e d i a b o l i c r i t u a l s must be
guarded by a f e r o c i o u s dog named C e r b e r u s ; d u r i n g the
i n c a n t a t i o n Orpheus must be t r i c k e d i n t o b e l i e v i n g he hears
E u r y d i c e '•s v o i c e c a l l i n g him, t e l l i n g him not t o l o o k back.
These d e v i c e s are clumsy enough, but what e v e n t u a l l y wreaks
havoc w i t h the myth i s the s o c i a l commentary a b r u p t l y intro-
duced by Camus:
One of my themes was the d e n u n c i a t i o n of

apathy: apathy i n r e l i g i o n (as shown i n the
r e l i g i o u s s e c t of the Macumba); apathy i n p u b l i c
o f f i c e , s y m b o l i z e d by the advance of red-tape
b u r e a u c r a c y ; :apathy i n the f a c e of the d i s t r e s s
w h i c h r u l e s those w h i t e h e l l s of the h o s p i t a l
and the mortuary.23
W h i l e Camus has something i m p o r t a n t t o say, the Orpheus^

myth hardly.seems the a p p r o p r i a t e v e h i c l e i n w h i c h t o say
it. Por the d e t a i l s of the myth obscure the message:
i n s t e a d of a d d i n g an e x t r a dimension t o the work (as i t

d i d f o r the s o c i a l l y - o r i e n t a t e d m y t h o l o g i c a l poems of the
V i c t o r i a n s ) the myth makes a b s t r a c t t y p e s of what s h o u l d be
sympathetic c h a r a c t e r s . And on the o t h e r hand, the message
i s never r e l a t e d t o the meaning of the myth: the m y s t e r i o u s
power of music over death, the problem of the c o n t r o l of
Quoted i n Georges S a d o u l , "Notes on a New G e n e r a t i o n " ,
S i g h t and Sound 28 (1959), p. 112.

231
human p a s s i o n , the l o s s of beauty won by song - these are
submerged i n a s w i r l i n g mass of c o l o r and m i s p l a c e d s o c i a l
indignation. I n the end, the award-laden Orfeu Negro
makes no r e a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the l i t e r a t u r e of Orpheus..
Joseph G h i a r d i , s p e a k i n g of Cocteau i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
makes some o b s e r v a t i o n s on the problem of a d a p t i n g c l a s s i c
myths t o modern drama w h i c h can be a p p l i e d t o A n o u i l h ,
•Williams and Camus as w e l l :
The o n l y way of r e v i t a l i z i n g myths i s . . . .from

the s o u r c e , and not by making o l d shapes and a n c i e n t
c h a r a c t e r s speak i n modern ways.. The s e r i o u s use
of a myth i n modern s e t t i n g s and s i t u a t i o n s i n -
v o l v e s an attempt t o l i n k t o g e t h e r a r e l i g i o u s and
s p i r i t u a l element w h i c h i s no l o n g e r ours and i s ,
t h e r e f o r e , d i f f i c u l t t o e x p e r i e n c e , w i t h events
and human a c t i o n s and r e a c t i o n s w h i c h cannot f i t
i n i t . The r e s u l t i s u n c o n v i n c i n g and d a n g e r o u s l y
near the b u r l e s q u e , f o r t h e r e i s n o t h i n g w h i c h comes
n e a r e r l a u g h t e r than a s e r i o u s n e s s w h i c h cannot be
grasped, or t h i n g s w h i c h were once a w e - i n s p i r i n g
and have now c o m p l e t e l y l o s t t h e i r aura of r e v e r -
ence. Orpheus p l i g h t , f o r i n s t a n c e , ..can o n l y
1
be f u l l y a c c e p t e d w i t h i n the atmosphere of Greek

l i f e and thought, and not by b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o
our modern l i f e . The Orpheus o f Greek l i f e , w i t h
h i s t r a i l of mystery, i s f a r more c o n v i n c i n g than
. the wandering m i n s t r e l of our modern playwrights..
The myth of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e s t i l l r e t a i n s f o r
us i t s former power and p a t h o s , f o r the mystery
w h i c h gave i t b i r t h i s not s o l v e d . . .The o n l y way
i n w h i c h an o l d myth can be g i v e n new l i f e i s , I
b e l i e v e , by u s i n g not i t s e x t e r n a l form, but the
a f f e c t i v e t a n g l e w h i c h gave i t b i r t h , 2 4
I t remains f o r us now to reinvestigate that " a f f e c t i v e tangle".
The Contemporary F r e n c h Theater (London, 1958), pp. 110-1..

CONCLUSIONS
THE MEANING OF THE MYTH
We have noted t h r e e f a c t s about myths: t h e y e v o l v e
In l i t e r a t u r e ; t h e i r meanings change o r deepen as t h e y a r e
used by men o f d i f f e r e n t ages; some p o t e n t myths generate
new a r t - f o r m s i n w h i c h t o e x p r e s s themselves. The f i r s t and
l a s t of these f a c t s have been demonstrated, w i t h regard t o
the myth o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , i n Chapters I and V,
respectively. I t remains t o o u t l i n e t h e meaning o f t h e
myth as i t has r e v e a l e d i t s e l f i n l i t e r a t u r e , as we have
t r a c e d i t t h r o u g h t h e Culex and V i r g i l t o B o e t h i u s and S i r
O r f e o , t o P o l i t i a n , N o v a l i s , R i l k e and Cocteau.'.
The meaning Orpheus and E u r y d i c e have f o r t h e men
of any age i s l a r g e l y c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e way i n which t h a t
age uses myth. Among p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e s i t i s customary t o
d i s t i n g u i s h between myth p r o p e r ( t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of n a t u r a l
phenomena), legend ( t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r y ) and f o l k l o r e (purely
i m a g i n a t i v e n a r r a t i o n ) . • I t i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t , how-
e v e r , t o c a t e g o r i z e Greek myths a l o n g these l i n e s , , as many o f
them p a r t a k e of t h e n a t u r e of myth, legend and - f o l k l o r e a t one
and t h e same t i m e . The s t o r y o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i s
c e r t a i n l y one of t h e s e . I t has been a s s i g n e d a number o f
232
" m y t h i c a l " o r i g i n s because i t f i t s i n t o the g e n e r a l c l a s s of
underworld descent-myths w h i c h e x p r e s s the o p p o s i t i o n of day
and n i g h t and l i f e and d e a t h ; i t was t r e a t e d , even i n a n c i e n t
t i m e s , as l e g e n d "because of i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Orpheus, the
l e g e n d a r y founder of Greek c i v i l i z a t i o n ; i t can be safely
c l a s s e d as f o l k l o r e because the c l i m a x of it's a c t i o n - the
backward l o o k - i s a p a r t of the f o l k l o r e of the world.. The
myth of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e meant a t l e a s t t h r e e t h i n g s t o

the a n c i e n t w o r l d : . i t s y m b o l i z e d the e t e r n a l s t r u g g l e of the
elements; i t r e c o u n t e d the l e g e n d a r y power of a g r e a t civilizer
i t t o l d a t r a g i c love story. Each l e v e l of myth had something
to c o n t r i b u t e t o the r i c h n e s s of the r e s u l t i n g whole. And
as the s t o r y c o n t i n u e d t o appear i n l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t myth,
p a r t l e g e n d , p a r t f o l k l o r e , , i t came t o g r i p s w i t h t h r e e sub-
j e c t s : the mystery of l i f e and death; the power of p o e t r y over
the elements of n a t u r e and the powers beyond n a t u r e ; the prob-
lem of the c o n t r o l of emotion, n e c e s s a r y f o r the s u r v i v a l of
love.
We noted t h a t the Culex d e a l s w i t h a l l t h r e e of these
themes,. V i r g i l ' s b e a u t i f u l account a l s o shows t h e i r inter-
r e l a t i o n i n the s t o r y - b u t , i n the o v e r a l l c o n t e x t of the
G e o r g i c s , emphasizes the second, Orpheus the civilizer.

234
The M i d d l e Ages approached c l a s s i c a l myth i n two ways -
by means of a l l e g o r y , i n an attempt t o p e n e t r a t e t o t h e
u n i v e r s a l meaning i n the n a r r a t i v e , and by romance, i n an
attempt t o r e c r e a t e the n a r r a t i v e i n new terms. I f we think
of myth as symbol, then we must say t h a t t h e s e m e d i e v a l
phenomena a r e opposed t o myth: a l l e g o r y o f t e n b r u t a l l y un-
masks the symbol; romance i g n o r e s the symbol and o v e r l a y s
the myth w i t h contemporary d e t a i l s -.. Myth i s f o r c e d t o
become r e a l i t y . Por Boethius, P u l g e n t i u s , King A l f r e d
and a l l the m o r a l i z e d Metamorphoses, t h e Orpheus-myth
e x p r e s s e s a h i g h e r r e a l i t y ; i n S i r Orfeo i t i s r e t o l d i n r e a l ,
i f f a n c i f u l , terms. Perhaps the myth was l i t t l e understood
i n the M i d d l e Ages. As Douglas Bush s a y s , "Whatever went into
t h e c a p a c i o u s m e l t i n g p o t , the Aeneid or a t a l e from t h e
Metamorphoses, came out a romance, or a sermon, or both."" " 1
But no one w i l l deny t h a t the Orpheus-myth was "a l i v i n g
source of c u l t u r e " as i t was i n almost no o t h e r age, and
t h a t I t was embodied i n works o f beauty.
Douglas Bush, Mythology and the R e n a i s s a n c e T r a d i t i o n i n
E n g l i s h P o e t r y (New York, 1 9 5 7 ) , p. 23*

2
I b i d . , p. 2 4 .
235
F o r the R e n a i s s a n c e , myth was a r e v o l t against
r e a l i t y , a symbolic r e t u r n to ancient times. Classical
myths were seen as p o w e r f u l l y s u g g e s t i v e . But w h i l e t h e y
were c e r t a i n l y b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d than i n the M i d d l e Ages,
t h e y were, on the whole, l e s s w e l l served.. Because
Renaissance a u t h o r s r e f u s e d t o p e n e t r a t e myth, p r e f e r r i n g t o
use i t a l l u s i v e l y , s y m b o l i c a l l y , most of the Greek and Roman
myths were e x p l o i t e d , then s a t i r i z e d , and a t l a s t discarded..
In t h i s p e r i o d the t r a g i c , r o m a n t i c Orpheus of the descent i s
l e s s i m p o r t a n t than the s y m b o l i c f i g u r e of Orpheus the
c i v i l i z e r , who i s e x t o l l e d i n P o l i t i a n s Orfeo, but e x p l o i t e d

1
i n hundreds of f r i g i d a l l u s i o n s i n a l l languages, then
s a t i r i z e d and e v e n t u a l l y d i s c a r d e d . Perhaps we should say
t h a t he was abandoned t o the o p e r a t i c stage..
M y t h o l o g i c a l p o e t r y i n the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y was
s t i l l p r o d u c i n g " p l a s t e r r e p r o d u c t i o n s of the a n t i q u e " .
But the Romantics saw myth i n a new light. I t became the

defense of p o e t r y a g a i n s t s c i e n c e , a k i n d of supra-
s c i e n t i f i c knowledge. The m y s t i c a l p o e t r y of the Orphic
p o e t assumed new importance i n t h i s movement, and N o v a l i s
and H o l d e r l i n found an i n s i g h t i n t o p o e t r y i t s e l f i n the
myth of Orpheus' d e s c e n t . The warmly human Orpheus bequeathed
Douglas Bush, Mythology and the Romantic T r a d i t i o n i n
E n g l i s h P o e t r y (Cambridge, Mass.., 1 9 3 7 ) , p. 529-.

236
t o l i t e r a t u r e by t h e operas o f M o n t e v e r d i and G l u c k became
an a p t s u b j e c t f o r Romantic p o e t r y , and, as myth became a means
f o r e x p r e s s i n g s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s , t h e s t o r y was o f t e n t o l d by
Eurydice.
Today myth i s a g a i n used s y m b o l i c a l l y , and Orpheus
i s .a symbol o f the s u p r a - r a t i o n a l power o f a r t ( R i l k e and t h e
F r e n c h s y m b o l i s t s ) w h i l e h i s descent r e f l e c t s t h e m i s s i o n o f
the a r t i s t t o e x p l o r e u n c h a r t e d r e g i o n s (Cocteau).
D e s p i t e t h i s change i n t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f and t h e
approach t o myth, t h e s t o r y o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e has
c o n t i n u e d , t h r o u g h t h e ages, t o e x p r e s s some .of the most b a s i c
human t r u t h s . -As embodied i n t h e w r i t i n g s of poets., i t has
had something t o say about death, about a r t , and about l o v e .
I n v a r i a b l y .in t h e course of i t s l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y i t has been
burdened w i t h extraneous meanings; i t has been used and abused
by men who had l i t t l e o r no sympathy w i t h i t ; i t has been d r a i n e d
of i t s meaning t h r o u g h overuse, o n l y t o re-emerge w i t h f r e s h
s i g n i f i c a n c e i n a new age; Some o f t h e b e s t t r e a t m e n t s of the
myth do n o t h e l p us u n d e r s t a n d i t : w i t h Ovid and J a u r e g u i
and Ronsard i t i s c h i e f l y a s t o r y t o be w e l l t o l d ; w i t h Keats
and Offenbach and M a r c e l Camus i t i s t h e o c c a s i o n f o r some
f e l i c i t o u s or i m p r e s s i v e work, but work w h i c h does not r e v e a l
any o f t h e myth's s i g n i f i c a n c e . A score o f men have, however,

237
g i v e n some i n d i c a t i o n of i t s l a t e n t meaning. We shall treat

them under t h r e e headings.
The m y s t e r y of death
The v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s of the o r i g i n of the myth of
Orpheus' descent agree i n e x p l a i n i n g i t w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o
l i f e and d e a t h . E u r y d i c e l o s t , r e g a i n e d and l o s t a g a i n may
r e p r e s e n t the c r o p - c y c l e , or (among the Orphic initiates)
the r e i n c a r n a t i o n of the s o u l e v e r y thousand y e a r s , a f t e r
its l o n g p u r i f i c a t i o n i n the a f t e r l i f e . Eurydice retreating
b e f o r e the glance of Orpheus may be s p r i n g f l e e i n g b e f o r e
summer, the n i g h t b e f o r e the day, the m i s t s of dawn b e f o r e
the f u l l morning of the sun.. These t h e o r i e s have been used
by some modern p o e t s , n o t a b l y E d i t h S i t w e l l , but g e n e r a l l y
s p e a k i n g p o e t s do not view the myth as a r e c u r r e n t cycle..
R a t h e r i t i s a s t o r y w h i c h comes t o a t r a g i c end: death
c l a i m s a v i c t o r y over l i f e . In c l a s s i c a l t i m e s , from P l a t o
to the S t o i c p o e t s of Rome, we are warned t h a t death i s
n e v e r cheated; i n C h r i s t i a n t i m e s , from K i n g A l f r e d through
Ovide M o r a l i s e t o Caldero'n, we are warned t h a t the s t a t e
of grace can be l o s t f o r e v e r ; i n the Romantic e r a , i n
S c h i l l e r and L o w e l l , we f e e l r e g r e t t h a t the b e a u t i f u l must
perish. Some w r i t e r s have i d e n t i f i e d themselves w i t h Orpheus
and attempted t o p e n e t r a t e the mystery of death: Novalis
found i t the i d e a l w o r l d of p o e t r y ; Housman went t o meet i t
j o y f u l l y ; R i l k e saw i t as sweet f u l n e s s and complete a b s o r p t i o n ;

for Moore I t i s a b e a u t i f u l w o r l d of I d e a l s ; f.or A n o u i l h i t
means p u r i t y and permanence; f o r Cocteau i t i s f a n t a s t i c and
terrifying.
The power of music
The s t o r y of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i s unique among
the myths of l i f e and d e a t h i n t h a t i t s hero s y m b o l i z e s not
o n l y man, but man i n the s p e c i f i c r o l e of a r t i s t . The unify-

ing element i n a l l the myths connected w i t h Orpheus i s the
a l l - c o m p e l l i n g power of h i s song, w h i c h h o l d s sway over a l l
n a t u r e , h a r m o n i z i n g and t r a n s f o r m i n g i t . T h i s i s the con-
t r i b u t i o n t h a t l e g e n d has made t o the s t o r y of the d e s c e n t :
i t i s the l e g e n d a r y , c i v i l i z i n g Orpheus who seeks h i s
E u r y d i c e ; he overcomes Hades, not by .force, as H e r c u l e s does,
or by magic, as do the e p i c heroes Odysseus and Aeneas, but
by a r t . In the o p t i m i s m of the R e n a i s s a n c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n
P o l i t i a n , Orpheus s y m b o l i z e s the c i v i l i z i n g f o r c e of human
wisdom. W i t h the F r e n c h s y m b o l i s t s and w i t h the l a t e R i l k e
he i s more p r o p e r l y a r t , w h i c h g i v e s meaning and even e x i s t e n c e
to a l l t h i n g s . But V i r g i l reminds us t h a t the a r t i s t , who i s
i n d e e d the c i v i l i z e r , must meet w i t h f a i l u r e , f o r he seeks
t r u t h i n a w o r l d I n a c c e s s i b l e t o o t h e r men, and, though he
f i n d s i t , he can never f u l l y p o s s e s s i t . Cocteau r e a l i z e s
t h a t the a r t i s t must e n t e r t h i s w o r l d , but he r e f u s e s t o

239
admit t h a t he i s foredoomed t o f a i l u r e .
The n a t u r e o f human l o v e
F i n a l l y , Orpheus and E u r y d i c e a r e l o v e r s , and t o
e v e r y age t h e i r myth has been one of t h e c l a s s i c e x p r e s s i o n s
of human l o v e - l o v e w h i c h i s courageous enough t o brave
the t e r r o r s o f h e l l t o f i n d i t s f u l f i l l m e n t . For the e a r l i e s t
c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s , l o v e i s s t r o n g e r than death, and overcomes
it.. I n o p t i m i s t i c ages t h i s meaning i s r e - a f f i r m e d : i n the
H i g h M i d d l e Ages ( S i r O r f e o ) , i n t h e Renaissance (the experi-i
ments o f the Camerata) and, h a l f - h e a r t e d l y , - in. t h e l a s t
s t a g e s o f n e o - C l a s s i c i s m ( G l u c k ) . "But i n t h e overwhelming
m a j o r i t y o f i t s i n c a r n a t i o n s , t h e myth i m p l i e s t h a t d e a t h
has t h e f i n a l v i c t o r y . Orpheus and E u r y d i c e a r e s t a r -
c r o s s e d l o v e r s (haunted, i n S p a n i s h l i t e r a t u r e , by a g u e r o s ) ,
f l e s h - a n d - b l o o d c r e a t u r e s o f p a s s i o n ' ( M o n t e v e r d i , Robert
Browning). Here i s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f f o l k l o r e - Orpheus'
backward l o o k undoes a l l t h a t h i s a r t had a c c o m p l i s h e d .
T h i s t r a g i c ending t o t h e s t o r y has prompted p o e t s t o use

i t t o e x p r e s s v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f human l o v e : f o r A n o u i l h ,
l o v e i s impermanent; f o r t h e a u t h o r o f t h e C u l e x , i t can
s u r v i v e only i f p a s s i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d ; f o r the V i c t o r i a n s ,
Cocteau s 1
f o r t h c o m i n g f i l m , Le Testament d'Orphee, which
he says w i l l be h i s l a s t c i n e m a t i c statement, may make
t h i s admission.
240
husband and w i f e must r e a l i z e t h e i r mutual o b l i g a t i o n s .
Almost a l l t h e t r e a t m e n t s conclude t h a t human l o v e , i f i t
i s t o grow s t r o n g and deep, must be s e l f l e s s .
Thus, w h i l e i t I s p r o p e r t o say t h a t myth means some-
t h i n g d i f f e r e n t t o e v e r y age, i t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t t h e
myth'of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e has a c o n t i n u i n g , almost
u n i f o r m t r a d i t i o n from V i r g i l t o t h e p r e s e n t , t h a t i t 'owes
i t s p e r e n n i a l v i t a l i t y t o three strands which are b e a u t i -
f u l l y interwoven i n i t s story. Other myths t e l l o f the
c y c l e of l i f e and death; o t h e r l e g e n d s , of t h e u n i v e r s a l
power of music; o t h e r f o l k l o r e , of t r a g i c a l l y separated
lovers. The myth o f Orpheus and E u r y d i c e b r i n g s t h e t h r e e
strands together, The r e s u l t i s a r i c h l y r e w a r d i n g literary
theme w h i c h i s more a l i v e today, and i n t h e most v i t a l a r t -
forms, than ever before.
Myth i s , i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , a b e a u t i f u l way of
e x p r e s s i n g t r u t h - not reasoned, f a c t u a l , conceptualized
t r u t h , but t r u t h as grasped by t h e i n t u i t i o n and t h e
imagination.. We must n o t go t o o f a r , t h e n , i n any a n a l y s i s .
F o r myths a r e d e s t r o y e d by p r e c i s i o n ; t h e i r significance
can never be documented. I t can o n l y be r e v e a l e d anew
each time t h e myth i s r e b o r n i n t h e w r i t i n g s of g e n i u s .
241
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
1, ANCIENT AUTHORS
Aeschylus
Septem Quae Supersunt T r a g o e d l a e
ed. G i l b e r t Murray
Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s (1937-j
A n t h o l o g i a L y r a Graeca
2 v o l s . , ed, E r n e s t D i e h l
L e i p z i g : B,G, Teubner (1925)
Antiphanes
The Fragments of A t t i c Comedy, 2 v o l s .
ed. J.M. Edmonds
Leyden: E , J . B r i l l (1957)
Apollodorus
The L i b r a r y , .2 v o l s .
ed. R i c h a r d Wagner, r e v , James G. F r a z e r
LCL London: W i l l i a m Heinemann (1921)
Aristias
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London: Longmans, Green (1879)
Malherbe, F r a n c o i s de
Oeuvres Completes de Malherbe, 5 v o l s ,
ed. M.L. L a l a n n e
P a r i s : Hachette (l862)
Mandel, E l i
The Bo.ok of Canadian P o e t r y , 3rd ed.
ed. A.J.M. Smith
Toronto: W.J. Gage (1957)
260
Marino, Giovanni B a t t i s t a
Marino e_ i _ M a r i n i s t i
ed..- Giuseppe Guido F e r r e r o
L L I M i l a n : R i c c a r d o R i c - c i a r d i (n.d.)
Marston, John
The Works o f John Marston, ,3 v o l s .
ed. A.H. BulTen
London: John C..Nimmo (1887)
Massinger,/Philip
P h i l i p Massinger, 2 v o l s ,
ed. A r t h u r Symons
London: V i z e t e l l y (1887)
Milton, John
The P o e t i c a l Works of John M i l t o n , 2 v o l s .
ed. Helen D a r b i s h i r e
Montalban, Juan Perez de

Orfeo en Lengua C a s t e l l a n a
ed.. P a b l o Cabanas
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Moore, Thomas
The P o e t i c a l Works of Thomas Moore
New York: L e a v i t t and A l l e n (1858)
Moore, T. S t u r g e
"Orpheus and E u r y d i c e "
F o r t n i g h t l y Review 86(1909, Supplement), pp. 1-26
The Poems o f T. S t u r g e Moore, 4 v o l s .

London: M a c m i l l a n (1931-3)
More, Brookes
The L i f e and Poems of Brookes More
ed. Wilmon Brewer
B o s t o n : M a r s h a l l Jones (1940)
More, Thomas
The L a t i n Epigrams of Thomas More
ed. L e i c e s t e r B r a d n e r and C h a r l e s A r t h u r Trench
Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s (1953)
M o r r i s , S i r Lewis
The E p i c o f Hades .
London: Kegan P a u l , Trench ( l 8 8 l )
Morris, William
The C o l l e c t e d Works of W i l l i a m Morris,. 24 v o l s ,
London: Longmans, Green (1910-15)
M u i r , Edwin
C o l l e c t e d Poems 1921-1951
New York: The Grove P r e s s (1953)
N o v a l i s . ( F r i e d r i c h von Hardenburg)
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Heidelberg: Lambert S c h n e i d e r ('1953)
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1
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Pope, A l e x a n d e r
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R o s s e t t i , Dante Gabriel
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Rpusseau, Jean-Jacques
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Rukeyser, Muriel
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R u s k i n , John
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Shakespeare, William
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S i t w e l l , Dame E d i t h
Sitwell, S i r Osbert
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Sitwell, Sacheverell
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S k e l t o n , John
The P o e t i c a l Works of John S k e l t o n , 2 vols,
ed. A l e x a n d e r Dyce
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Smith, S i d n e y G o o d s i r
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Southey, Robert
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London: Longman, -Orme, Brown (1838)
Striggio, Alessandro
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Strode, W i l l i a m
The P o e t i c a l Works of W i l l i a m Strode
ed. Bertram D o b e l l
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Spenser, Edmund
The P o e t i c a l Works of Edmund Spenser, 3 vols.
e d i E. de S e l i n c o u r t
Swinburne, A l g e r n o n C h a r l e s
The Poems o f A l g e r n o n C h a r l e s Swinburne, 6 vols..
London: Chatto and-Windus ('19.12)
Tennyson-Turner, C h a r l e s
C o l l e c t e d Sonnets
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Trench, R i c h a r d Chevenix
Poems, 9th ed.
London: Kegan Paul., Trench (1886)
Vico, Giambattista
The New S c i e n c e o f G i a m b a t t i s t a V i c o .
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Villon, Francois
Oeuvres, 4th e d ,
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V o l t a i r e ( F r a n c o i s Marie A r o u e t )
Oeuvres Completes de V o l t a i r e , 52 v o l s ,
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P a r i s : G a m i e r F r e r e s (1877-85)
Walton, John (Johannes C a p e l l a n u s )

B o e t h i u s : De C p n s o l a t l o n e P h i l o s o p h i a e
ed. Mark S c i e n c e , E a r l y E n g l i s h Text S o c i e t y ,
vol.. 170
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Warner, W i l l i a m
The Works of t h e E n g l i s h P o e t s , vol.; 4
London: J . Johnson e_t a l . ( l 8 l 0 )
Watson, Thomas
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ed.. Edward A r b e r
W e s t m i n s t e r : C o n s t a b l e (1895)
Wharton, E d i t h
A r t e m i s t o Actaeon
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Wordsworth, William
The P o e t i c a l Works of W i l l i a m Wordsworth,
2 vols,., 2nd ed..
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Orpheus Descending., w i t h B a t t l e o f A n g e l s
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Denver: A l a n s w a l l o w (1952)
Z a t u r e n s k a , Marya
The Golden M i r r o r
New York: M a c m i l l a n (1944)
3>. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
B a k e r , A r t h u r E.
A Concordance t o the P o e t i c a l and Dramatic Works o f
A l f r e d , L o r d Tennyson
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B a l d e n s p e r g e r , Pernand, and Werner, P. P r i e d r i c h

B i b l i o g r a p h y of Comparative L i t e r a t u r e
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Betz, Louis Paul
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B i b l i o g r a p h i e Gene'rale de L i t t e r a t u r e Comparee
Paris: Boivin (-194.9-56)
Br ought o-n, L e s l i e N., and S t e l t e r , Benjamin P.

A Concordance t o t h e Poems o f R o b e r t Browning, .2 vols..
New York: G.E., S t e c h e r t (19.24)
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•'The' C l a s s i c a l T r a d i t i o n i n E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e : A
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18(1935), PP. 1-46.
Clement, F e l i x , and L a r o u s s e , P i e r r e
D i c t i o n n a i r e des -Operas
P a r i s : Grand D i c t i o n n a i r e U n i v e r s e l (n..d.)
Cooper, Lane
A"Concordance t o t h e Poems of W i l l i a m Wordsworth
London: Smith, E l d e r (l91l)
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Bysshe Shelley
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F r i e d r i c h , W.P., and P r e n z , H o r s t , ed.

Yearbook o f Comparative and G e n e r a l L i t e r a t u r e
Chapel H i l l : U. of N o r t h C a r o l i n a P r e s s (1952-7)
G u i l d , Edward C-.
. "A L i s t of Poems I l l u s t r a t i n g Greek Mythology i n t h e
E n g l i s h Poetry of the 19th Century"
Bowdoin C o l l e g e L i b r a r y B u l l e t i n l ( l 8 9 l ) , pp. 15-31
Haywood, C h a r l e s
' A Bibliography of N o r t h American F o l k l o r e
New York: Greenberg (1951)
H a z l i t t , W.C., e d .
Old E n g l i s h Plays
London: P i c k e r i n g and C h a t t o (1892)
Herbage, A l f r e d
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P h i l a d e l p h i a : U. o f P e n n s y l v a n i a P r e s s ( l 9 4 o )
Heresou, N . I .
Bibllographie de.l^ Litterature Latine
P a r i s : Societe d'Edition "Les B e l l e s L e t t r e s " (1943)
Kosch, W i l h e l m
Deutsches L i t e r a t u r - L e x i c o n , 2nd ed., 3 v o l s .
B e r n : A. Franke (1949-56)
Law, Helen.H.
"Bibliography of Greek Myth i n E n g l i s h P o e t r y " , 2nd ed..
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Oxford, Ohio (1955)
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A n n a l s of Opera 1597-1940, 2nd ed.., 2 v o l s .
Geneva: S o c i e t a s Bibliographica (1955)
Logan, S i s t e r Eugenia
A Concordance t o the P o e t r y of Samuel T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e
S t . Mary-of-the-Woods, I n d i a n a (1940)
Montgomery, Guy
Concordance^ t o the_ P o e t i c a l Works of John Dryden
B e r k e l e y : U. of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s (1957)
Osgood, C h a r l e s Grosvenor
A Concordance t o the_ Poems of Edmund Spenser
Washington: C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n (1915)
Riemann, Hugo
Opera-Handbuch
L e i p z i g : Herman Seeman (1866)
Rotunda, D.P.
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B l o o m i n g t o n : I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s (19^2)
Sonneck, Oscar G.-.T.

•Catalogue of Opera L i b r e t t o s P r i n t e d B e f o r e l800, 2 v o l s .
Washington: Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e (l^lk)
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A Concordance to_ the Complete Works of G e o f f r e y Chaucer
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4.. GENERAL WORKS
Abercromby, R a l p h
"The Hermes and Orpheus Myths"
Academy 2 4 ( l 8 8 3 ) , p. 316
"The Orpheus Myth"

Academy 24(l883), p. 399
Alpert, Hollis
"New Wave: Orpheus i n R i o "
Saturday-Review 42(51: Dec. 19, 1959), PP. 12-13
Ashbrook, William
"Many Guises f o r Orpheus"
Opera News (19(22: A p r i l 4, 1955), PP. 6-7, 31, 33
Atkinson, Brooks
" A n o u i l h ' s M a t t e r of S t y l e "
New York Times, -Oct. 29, 1959, p.. 37
B a u m e i s t e r , August
Denkmaler des K l a s s i s c h e n A l t e r t u m s , 3 v o l s .
Munich and L e i p z i g : R. Oldenbourg (1889)
Beazley, J.D.
A t t i c k B l a c k - F i g u r e Vase P a i n t e r s
Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s '(1956)
A t t i c Red-Figure Vase P a i n t e r s
Blegen, C a r l W.
"The P a l a c e of N e s t o r E x c a v a t i o n s of 1955"
AJA 60(1956), pp. 95-101
B l i s s , A . J . , ed.
Sir Orfeo
Oxford: U n i v e r s i t y Press, (1954)
273
Boas, F r e d e r i c k S.
1
Ovid a_nd the E l i z a b e t h a n s
London: The E n g l i s h A s s o c i a t i o n ' ( 1 9 4 7 )
Born, L e s t e r K.
"Ovid and A l l e g o r y "
'Speculum 9(1934), pp. 362-79
B o v i e , S m i t h Palmer
"The Imagery of Ascent-Descent i n V e r g i l ' s G e o r g i c s "
AJP 77(1956), pp. 337-57
Bowra, CM.
The Greek E x p e r i e n c e
New York: New American L i b r a r y of World L i t e r a t u r e {1959)
"Orpheus and E u r y d i c e "

CO, 46(1952), pp. 113-26
Bradley, A.C.
"Old Mythology and Modern P o e t r y "
M a c m i l l a n ' s Magazine 4 4 ( l 8 8 l ) , pp. 28-47
Brenan, G e r a l d
The L i t e r a t u r e of the S p a n i s h People
Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s "(1953)
Brewer, E. Cobham
D i c t i o n a r y of Phrase and F a b l e , 2nd ed.
London: C a s s e l l (1952)
The Reader's Handbook, 2nd ed.

P h i l a d e l p h i a : J.B. L i p p i n c o t t (1904)
Brewer, Wilmon
Ovid's Metamorphoses i n European Culture, 2.vols.
Francestown, N.H.: M a r s h a l l Jones (l94l)
Brockway, W a l l a c e and Weinstock, H e r b e r t
The Opera
New York: Simon and S c h u s t e r (1941)
Browne, W i l l i a m Hand
" T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s p f a Legend"
Sewanee Review l 8 ( l Q 1 0 ) , pp. 404-13
Buchanan, M i l t o n A.
"A N e g l e c t e d V e r s i o n o f Quevedo's Romance on Orpheus'"
MLN 20(1905), PP. 116-18
B u k o f z e r , Manfred F.
Music i n the Baroque E r a
New York: W.W. Norton (1947)
B u l f i n c h , Thomas
' B u l f i n c h ' s Mythology
New York: ('Oarleton House (1952)
:
Burnstein, Sona Rosa

"The H a r r o w i n g o f H e l l "
F o l k l o r e , 39(1938), pp. 113-132
Bush, Douglas
Mythology and the R e n a i s s a n c e T r a d i t i o n i n E n g l i s h Poet
New York: Pageant Book Co. (1957)
Mythology and the Romantic T r a d i t i o n i n E n g l i s h Poetry,

Cambridge, Mass.: H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s (1937)
B u t l e r , E.M.
Ralner Maria R i l k e
Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s (l94l)
'The Tyranny o f Greece Over Germany

Cabanas, P a b l o
E l M l t o de Orfeo en l a L l t e r a t u r a E s p a n o l a
M a d r i d : Consejo S u p e r i o r de I n v e s t i g a c i o n e s C i e n t i f i c a s
(1948)
Campbell, Joseph
The Hero W i t h A Thousand Faces
New York: Pantheon (l949) :
Campbell, P.-G.-C.
•L'Epitre d*Othea: Etude s u r l e s Sources de C h r i s t i n e
de P i s a n
P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e Ancienne Honore Champion (1924)
Champigny, Robert
P o r t r a i t o f a_ S y m b o l i s t Hero
B l o o m i n g t o n : I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s (1954)
Chase, R i c h a r d
Quest f o r Myth
Baton Rouge: L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s (-1949)
C h i a r d i , Joseph
Contemporary F r e n c h P o e t r y
Manchester: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s (1952)
The Contemporary F r e n c h T h e a t e r : The F l i g h t from

"Naturalism
London: R o c k l i f f .(1958) . . . .
Gloss, August
Medusa's M i r r o r : S t u d i e s i n German L i t e r a t u r e
London: C r e s s e t P r e s s (1957)
Clurman, H a r o l d
"The .Mighty Have T r i p p e d " .
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Y o s s l e r , ' K a r l , t r . W.C. Lawton

Medieval Culture, 2 v o l s .
New York: H a r c o u r t , Brace (1929)
292
Wagner, R i c h a r d , t r . Edwin Evans

"Opera and Drama, 2 v o l s .
London: Wm. Reeves (1913)
Walsh, W i l l i a m S.
Heroes and"' H e r o i n e s -of F i c t i o n
P h i l a d e l p h i a : J.B.„Lippincott ('1915)
Ward, S i r A.W., and W a l l e r , A.R.., ed.

The Cambridge H i s t o r y of E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , 15 v o l s .
Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ('1930)
Warnke, F r a n k J..
"Eurydice Lost"
Opera News 2 2 ' ( l l : J a n . 13, 1958), pp. 5-7
Warton, Joseph
An E s s a y on the Genius and W r i t i n g s of Pope, 2 v o l s .
London: R. and J . D o d s l e y (1762)
Watmough, J.R.
Orphism
Weston, J e s s i e L.
From R i t u a l t o Romance
W i l k i n s , E r n e s t Hatch
A H i s t o r y of I t a l i a n L i t e r a t u r e
Cambridge, Mass.: H a r v a r d U. P r e s s (195^)
Wilkinson, L.P.
Oyid Recalled
W i l l r i c h , Hugo
"Eurydike"
PW 6(1909), pp.. 1322-25
Winkler, August
"Die D a r s t e l l u n g der U n t e r w e l t auf U n t e r i t a l i s c h e n
Vasen"
B r e s l a u e r P h i l o l . o g i s c h e Abhandlungen 3 ( 1 8 8 8 ) , 5,
PP. 1-9.2
Wirl, Julius
"Orpheus i n der E n g l i s c h e n L i t e r a t u r e " ' :
Wiener B e i t r a g e z u r E n g l i s c h e n Philologie 4o(l9l4),

pp.. 1-102
Wycherley, R.E.
"The A l t a r o f E l e o s "
CQ new s e r i e s ( 1 9 5 3 ) , pp. 143-50
Young, A r t h u r M.
Legend B u i l d e r s o f the West
P i t t s b u r g : U n i v e r s i t y Press ('1958)
Z i e g l e r , Konrat
"Orpheus"
PW 1 8 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , PP. 1200-1316
Zuntze., Gunther
"The A l t a r o f Mercy"
Classica e t Mediaevalia 1 4 ( 1 9 5 3 ) , pp. 7 1 - 8 5
"Orpheus and E u r y d i c e : The Lesson o f a B a s - R e l i e f "

C o r n h i l l Magazine 3 8 ( 1 8 7 8 ) , pp. 2 0 7 - 1 7
"Thoughts on Orpheus"
Blackwoods E d i n b u r g h .Magazine 4 4 ( l 8 3 8 ) , pp. 2 1 - 2 3
294
INDEX
A d d i s o n , Joseph, 184,186 A r n o l d , Matthew, 1 9 8 - 9
A e s c h y l u s , 6,7,15 Asplmayr, F r a n z , 165

A i t ken, I..T.., 202 Athenaeus, 6 , 2 6
A k e n s i d e , Mark, 190 Attic relief, 18-^23,27,45-7,
;49,52,54,lo^7l72,211
A l b e r i c u s , 89
Aubigne', A g r i p p a d , 136 1
A l c a e u s , 11
Auden, W..K.„ 218
Alcidamas?, 7,8
A u s l a n d e r , Joseph, 21.7
A l c o t t , A.B., 201
Aldhelmus, 40
Bach, C h r i s t i a n , I65
A l e x i s , 81
Bach, J.S., 210
A l g a r o t t i , F r a n c e s c o , 167
Bachmann, G o t t l i e b , 165
A l f r e d t h e Great 8 7 - 8 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 7
Bacon, F r a n c i s , 107,113-4,139
A n o u i l h , Jean, i i i , i v , - 2 2 6 - 7 ,
231,238,239 B a d i n g s , Henk, 173
Ansorge, Conrad, 171 B a l l a n c h e , P i e r r e - S i m o n , 208
A n t i p h a n e s , 17 Barkstead, William, 109
Apollodorus, 3,6, 7,9,4l-.2, B a r n e s , Barnabe, 109
45-6,48,55
B a r n e f i e l d , R i c h a r d , 109
A p o l l o n i u s Rhodius, 6,7,31
B a s k e t t , Newton M., 219
A p u l e i u s , 48
B a t e s o n , F.W., 217
Argonautica (Orphic), 31,
45-6,51,54 B a u d e l a i r e , C h a r l e s , 207
A r g u i j o , Don Juan de, 127 Bede, 87
A r i o s t o , L u d o v i c o , 148,149 Beethoven, Ludwig von, 171,

200,210
A r i s t i a s , 17
B e l l i , Domenico, 162
Aristophanes, 9
Benda, F r i e d r i c h , 165
Aristotle, 90,153,1.55
295
Benserade, Th6oba3.de, 136 Campbell, Roy, 219
B e r t o n i , F,G., 165 Campbell, Thomas, 193
B e v i n g t o n , H e l e n , 218 Campion, Thomas, 107,120
B i n y o n , L a u r e n c e , 203,204 Camus, M a r c e l , i i i , v l , . 2 2 8 - 3 1 ,
236
Bion, 29,136,198
Cancer, Jerdnimo de, 130
Bocangel, G a b r i e l , 132
Cannabich, K a r l , 165
B o c c a c c i o , G i o v a n n i , 134,140-1
C a r l y l e , Thomas, 196
Boethius, 11,82-4,86,87-8,89,
90,102,103,105,114-6,124, Catullus, 65,67
232,234
C a v a l i e r i , E m i l i o de' , 152
1
B o i a r d o , Matteo M., l 4 l
Cecrops t h e Pythagorean, 12
B o u r d i l l o n , F.W., 202,204
C e r v a n t e s , M i g u e l de, 126
Breton,. N i c h o l a s 111
Chanso_n de_ R o l a n d , 90
Browning, R o b e r t , 194-5,204,239
Chapman, George, 107,114,124
Buchanan, R o b e r t , 196
Chapoton, 163
Buchner, August, 162
C h a r p e n t i e r , M a r c - A n t o i n e , 164
B u l f i n c h , Thomas, 60
Chaucer, G e o f f r e y , 102,103
Burton, Robert, 112-3
C h e n i e r , Andre, 183
Byrd, W i l l i a m , 110
C h i a b r e r a , G a b r i e l l o , 152,162
Byron, L o r d , 191
Chre'tien L e g o u a i s , 98
C h r i s t i n e de P i s a n , 101,124
Caccini, Giulio, 148,154,158,
161 Cicero., 82
C a l d e r o n de l a B a r c a , 107,132, C l a u d i a n , .6
184,237
Clement of A l e x a n d r i a , 9 , 1 2 , 8 1 - 2
C a l z a b i g i , R a n i e r o de' , I 6 7 - 9 ,
1
199 Clough, A r t h u r Hugh, 198
Casella, Alfredo, 172 Coates, F-.E., 203
C a s s i u s of Parma, 110 Cocteau, J e a n , i i , v , v i , 7 5 , 2 2 0 - 6 ,

227,231,232,236,238-9
Camoens, L u i s de, 132-3
C o l e , Samuel V., 203
C o l e r i d g e , Samuel T., 192 D a v i e s , John, 109
C o l i g n y , H e n r i e t t e de, 131,136 Debussy, Claude A., 208
Comes, N a t a l i s ( C o n t i ) , 1 0 7 , Dekker, Thomas, 118-9
114-5,124-5
Dennis, John, .185,188
Congreve, W i l l i a m , 189
de T a b l e y , Lord,.202,204
Conon, 6,36,45-6,55
D i c k e y , James, 219
C o n r a d i n , K a r l , 171
D i d e r o t , D e n i s , 182
Cook, Joseph, 203
D i l l o n , A r t h u r , 203,204
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K-., 1
Diodorus S i c u l u s , 9,30,45-6,54
Cooper, Thomas, 125
Diogenes L a e r t i u s , 7
Cordoba, S e b a s t i a n de, 132
D i t t e r s d o r f , C D . von, I65
Corneille, Pierre, 137
D i x o n , R i c h a r d W., 198
Cowley, Abraham, 121
Dodsley, R o b e r t , 137,185
Cowper, W i l l i a m , 190
D o r f t e - H u l s h o f f , M.F., I65
Cox, E,.L., 203
Douglas, G a v i n , 104
Creamer, E,.S., 204
Dowden, Edward, 195
Cremieux, H e c t o r , 172
D r a g h l , A n t o n i o , 163
C r e t i n , G u i l l a u m e , 134
D r a y t o n , M i c h a e l , 107
C r i p p s , A r t h u r S., 203
Drew, B e r n a r d , 203
Crowley, A l e i s t e r , 203
Drummond, W i l l i a m , 109
Culex, 1,6,32,33,38,45-6,55
57-60,65,78-9,161,225,232, Dryden, John, 184,187-8,191
233,239
Durkheim, E m i l e , 1
C y p r i a , 28
E c k h a r t , M e i s t e r , .215
Dabney, J.B., 202
E l i o t , George, 199
Dante A l i g h i e r i , 97,100,134,
140 E l i o t , , T.S., 214
Dauvergne, Anton, 165 E l t o n , O l i v e r , 193

297
E l u a r d , P a u l , 209 Fux, Johann J . , 165

Emmanuel, P i e r r e , .209
Emerson, R a l p h W.-, .201 G a l e , Norman, 204
Erasmus, Desiderius,. 107,133 G a l i l e i , V i n c e n z o , 152-3
Eratosthenes?, 6,7 G a l l u s , 60-1
E s c a l e , C h e v a l i e r de 1*, 110 G a i t , John, 170
E u p h o r i o n , 32 G a r c i l a s o de l a Vega, 126-7,132
Euripides, 6,7,9,14-18,31, Gascoyne, D a v i d , 219

4.5-9,52,54,225
Gay, John, 185
Eusebius, 8l
G i b s o n , Anthony, 110
E v e l y n , J . , 217
G i b s o n , C h a r l e s , 203
G i l b e r t , H e l e n , 217
F i e l d i n g , Henry, 185-6
Gluck, C.W. von, i i , v , 6 0 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 1 ,
F i e l d s , Annie A.., 2Q3 165-9,170,171,172,175,182,
.183,199,236,239
Flamenca, 91
Goethe, J.W.. von, 175,180-1
F l e t c h e r , G i l e s , 107,108
Golaw, Salomon von, 177
F l e t c h e r , John,.116
Gongora, L u i s de, .128,130
F l e t c h e r , Phineas, 1.15-6
Goodson, R i c h a r d , 163
F l o l r e t B l a n c h e f l o r , 93
Gore-Booth, E v a , 203
F o r d , John, 118
Gosse, Edmund, 195-6
F o u r n i e r , A l a i n , 209
Gounod, C h a r l e s , 148
F r a n k l i n , Benjamin, 190
Grabmann, E d i t h , 218
F r a z e r , S i r James G., 1,13,
49 G r a c i a n , B a l t a s a r , 131-2
Freneau, P h i l i p , 200 Graun, C a r l H., 165
F r e r e , John Hookham, 1.90 Graves, A l f r e d P.., 204
Froumond o f Tegernsee, 89 Greene, R o b e r t , 120
F u l g e n t i u s , 44,84-5,86,234 G r i e s , J.W., 131

298
G u a r i n i , B a t t i s t a , 148 Housman, A.E., 206,212,237

Guillaume de Machaut, 100-1 Housman, Laurence, .216
G u l i e l m i , P i e t r o , 165 Hovhaness, A l a n , 1'71
Hugo, V i c t o r , 197
H.D. (Mrs. A l d i n g t o n ) , 217 H u l l e y , L., 217
H ( a b e r l y ) , L ( o y d ) , 217 Hurtado de Mendoza, D., 127
H a l e v y , L u d o v i c , 172 Hyginus, 8,44
Haug, Hans, 173
H a m i l t o n , George R.., 216 I b y c u s , 11-12
Handel, George P., 166,186, I r w i n , Thomas, 198
187
I s i d o r e of S e v i l l e , 85,86
Haydn, F r a n z Joseph, 165,170
I s o c r a t e s , 7,25-6,45-6,54
Hearne, John, 218
Henryson, R o b e r t , 104-6,124,
219 J a u r e g u i , Juan de, 128-9,130,
236
Herder, J.G> von, 175,176
Jenns, E.A., 204
Hermesianax, 26-8,45-6,54
Johnson, Samuel, 189
H e r o d i c u s of P e r i n t h u s , 12
Jonson, Ben, 107,120,125
H e r r e r a , F r a n c i s c o de, 127
J o y c e , James, .214
H e r r i c k , R o b e r t , 121-2
Jung, C a r l G., 1
Heywood, Thomas, 114-5,124-5
H i s t o r i a Augusta, 8 l
K e a t s , John, 192-3,236
H 8 l d e r l i n , F r i e d r i c h , 177,
179-80,183,210,213,235 K e i s e r , R e i n h a r d , 163
Homer, 3,50 Kendon, Frank, 217
Hopkins, Gerard Manley, .210 K i n g , W i l l i a m , 185
Horace, 6,8,9,35-6,46,55,76,
86,9.1
299
K i n g Orfeo, 103 Lucan, 40,45-6,55,77
K l i n g e r , F.M. von, 177 L u c l a n , 7,44,45-6,49,50,54,55
K l op s t o c k , E.G., 176-7 L u l l y , L o u i s de, 163
Krenek, E r n s t , 173 Lydgate, John, 102-3,124
K r o l l , E., 218 L y t t o n , L o r d , 196
Kyd, Thomas, 118
Macaulay, Thomas B., 175

L a c t a n t i u s P l a c i d u s , 75 MacKay, E r i c , 200
La F o n t a i n e , Jean de, 137 Malherbe, F r a n c o i s de, 136
La Grange-Chaneel, 138 M a l i p i e r o , Gian F r a n c e s c o , 173
L a i de 1'Espine, 93 Mallarme, Stephane, 207-8
L a m h e r t i , L u l g i , I65 M a l l i u s Theodorus, 8
Lampe, J . F . , 165 Malone, W a l t e r , 202
L a n d i , S t e f a n o , 162 Mandel, E l i , 219
Landor, W a l t e r S,, 190-1 M a n i l i u s , 37,45-6,54
Lang, Andrew, 198 Marie de F r a n c e , 93
Lay of A r i s t o t l e , 90 Marino, G i o v a n n i B., 136,148,149-50,

152
L a z a r u s , Emma, 201
Marks, H e r b e r t H., 218
Lee, Vernon, 199
Marston, John, 119
L e s s i n g , G.E, , 176
M a r t i n e t , Jean L o u i s , 171
L i n t o n , W. J . , 194
M a r z i a l s , Frank T., 202
L i b e r Monstrorum, 40
Map, W a l t e r , 92
L i s z t , F r a n z , 171,183
Massenet, J u l e s , 148
Loewe, J.J.., 163
M a s s i n g e r , P h i l i p , 118
Lope de Vega, 129,130
Mesomedes, 152
L o v e l a c e , R i c h a r d , 121 -
M e t a s t a s i o , P i e t r o , 166
L o w e l l , James R u s s e l l , 200,237
M i f f l i n , L l o y d , 2.03
300
M i l h a u d , D a r i u s , 173 N o v a l i s ( P . von Hardenburg),

177-9,183,210,213,232,
M i l t o n , John, 79,107,122-4., 235,237
139
Noyes, A l f r e d , 203,204
Monck, Lady, 131,185
Monta1ban, Juan P e r e z de, 128-9
Offenbach, Jacques, v,121,
M o n t e v e r d i , C l a u d i o , 11,87,137, 171-2,236
148,150,151,152,155-61,162,
166,172-3,174,23757239 O r f f , C a r l , 172-3
Montiano y Luyando, A. de, 184 Orpheus an_d Hecate, .186
Moore,. Thomas, 190 Orpjieus, king_ of_ P o r t i n g a l ,
"104
Moore, T. S t u r g e , .203,204,
205,238 Orpheus, p r i e s t of nature,189
Moraes, V i n i c i u s de, 228 Orpheus o f Camarina, 12
More, B r o o k e s , 216 O r p h i c a , 7,12,31,50,51-2,54,
175-6,193,201
More, Thomas, 111
O s s i a n , 191
Morri3, S i r L e w i s , 195
Ovid, 3,7,8,37-8,39,42,45-6,
M o r r i s , W i l l i a m , 197,204 55,60,74-_7,T9,86,87,90,
92,93, 9B"-100,102,104,105,
Moschus, 29,, 45-6,54,136,198 124,145,149,153,184,200,
216,236
Moussorgsky, Modeste, 148
Ovide M o r a l i s e , 98-100,105,
Mozart, Wolfgang A., 174 115,2347237
M u i r , Edwin, 219
Mulgrave, L o r d , 184 Paer, F e r d i n a n d o , 185
M u l l e r , P.. Max, 1,9,117,200 P a l a e p h a t u s , 26,45-6,54

P a l e s t r i n a , G.P. da, 151
Naumann, Johann, 1,65 Patmore, C o v e n t r y , 194
N i c a n d e r , 32 P a u s a n i a s , 6,7,9,4_3_,45-6,49,
54,55
N i e t z s c h e , P r i e d r i c h , 17.7,
213 Pergolesi, G i o v a n n i B., 164
- 301
P e r i , Jacopo, 148,153-4,-158,.l6l P u r c e l l , Henry, 110,187

P e t r a r c h , 134,140 P y t h a g o r a s , 85
Phanocles, 8
P h e l p s , E..S., 202 Quevedo, Don F r a n c e s c o de,

.130-1,136,177,182,185
P h i l e t a s , 32
Quires', B e r n a l d o de, 130
P h i l l i p s , Stephen, 205
P h i l o s t r a t u s , 6,8
R a b e l a i s , F r a n c o i s , 134
P h o t i u s , 36
R a c i n e , J e a n - B a p t i s t e , 137
B h r y n l c u s , 48
R a d f o r d , Mrs. E., 202
P i c k e r i n g , C.J., 202
R a l e i g h , S i r W a l t e r , 107
P i e r c e , H.N., 202
Rameau, Jean P h i l i p p e , 164
P i n d a r , 6-7
Ramsay, A l l a n , 185
Pindemonte, I p p o l i t o , 184
R a n d a l l , J.W., 200
P l a n c h e , J.R., 199
R a w l i n s , Roger, 110
Plato, 6,7,8,9,16,2J=^45-7,
50,54,74,112,153,204, Regnard, Jean-rFrancois, 138
225,2.37
Remiglus o f A u x e r r e , 89
P l u t a r c h ? , 42,45-6,54,55
Rieti, Vittorio, 173
P o l i t i a n (Angelo A m b r o g i n i ) ,
i i , 107,12 6,141- 9,151,152, R i l k e , Rainer Maria, i i , 7 5 ,
158,166,172,1747232,235, 79,121,175,210-13,232,
236 236,237,238
Polygnotus, 13,47,54 Rimbaud, A r t h u r , 207,208
Pope, A l e x a n d e r , I87/I88-9 R l n u c c i n i , O t t a v i o , 152,

153-4
Priscian, 11
R o b e r t s , E.M., 217
Proclus, 8
R o b e r t s o n , L.A., 203
P r o d i c u s o f Sarnus, 12
Rodd, J.R., 202
P r o p e r t i u s , 76
Rover-Ducasse, J.J.A.., 173
Prose T a l e o f L a n c e l o t , 93
R o l l i , Paolo A . 1 6 4
302
• Roman de_ la_ Rose, 91 Shakespeare, W i l l i a m , 116-8

Ronsard, P i e r r e de, 134-5,236 S h e f f i e l d , John, 184
Rosenberg, H i l d i n g , 173 S h e l l e y , Mary, 192
R o s i , Domingo, 184 S h e l l e y , P e r c y B., 192,204
R o s s e t t i , Dante G., 197,198 'Sidney, S i r P h i l i p , 110
R o s s i , L u i g i , 136-7,162-3 Simcox, G.A., 198
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 166,182 Simonides, 6,15
Rukeyser, M u r i e l , 218 S i r Orfeo, ii,91-7,102,103-4,
105,232,233723"9
R u s k i n , John, 199
S i t w e l l , Dame E d i t h , 214-6,
S a c k v i l l e , Lady M., 203 237
Sanazzaro, Jacopo, 126,l4l S i t w e l l , S i r Osbert, 2 l 4
S a r t o r i o , A n t o n i o , 162,163 S i t w e l l , Sacheverell, 214
S a r t r e , J e a n - P a u l , 228 S k e l t o n , John, 109,133
Saxe, John G., 200 > Smith, E l i z a b e t h 0., 20 4
S c h i k a n e d e r , Emmanuel, 174 Smith, Sidney G., 219
S c h i l l e r , J . F r i e d r i c h , 180,237 S o i l s , A n t o n i o de, 130
S c h l e g e l , F r i e d r i c h von, 175, Southey, R o b e r t , 193

177
S t a t i u s , 41,45-6,55,77-8
Schuck, J . F . , 177
Stephanus, Charles, 125
S c h u t z , H e i n r i c h , 162
Stephanus, R o b e r t , 125
S c o t t , W,B,, 202
Stesichorus, 24
Seneca, 6,7,38^40,45-6,55,
Z7_-z8,82 S t e w a r t , H.F., 219
Senece", A n t o i n e de, 131,182 Strabo, 9
S e r v i u s , 40,60-2 Stravinsky, Igor, vi,173
Seven Sages, Romance of_ t h e , 91 S t r i g g i o , A l e s s a n d r o , 156-8,

160
Sevigne, Madame de, 137
303
S t r o d e , W i l l i a m , 121 Vaughan, V i r g i n i a , 202

Spenser, Edmund, 111-2,125 Vecchi, Orazio, 152
Suidas, 12 V e r d i , Giuseppe, 148
Sutherland, H.V., 203 Vico, Giambattista, 184
Swinburne, A.C., 197,204 V i c t o r i a , Tomas L u i s de, 155
V i l l o n , F r a n c o i s , 134
Tasso, T o r q u a t o , 148 V i r g i l , 1,7,31-7,42,45-6,49,
55,60-74,75,76,79-80,86,
Tebaldeo, A n t o n i o , 149 87, "89790,92,93,97, 9%, 104,
105,124,147,149,184,190-1,
Tennyson, A l f r e d , L o r d , 192 216,232,233,238,240
Tennyson-Turner, Charles, V o l t a i r e , 167,182,189

196-7
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W i n c h i l s e a , Lady, 187
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Woty, W i l l i a m , I 8 5
304
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W i l l i a m s , Tennessee, vi,227-8
231
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W i l l i a m s o n , D.R., 217
Wills, Alice, 217

Z a t u r e n s k a , Marya, 218
Winslow, A.G.., 219

Orpehus and Eurydice in Western Literature

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THE MYTH OF ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE

MARK OWEN LEE, C.S.B.

B.A., U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, 1953

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree a t the University

o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make

it f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I further

agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying of t h i s thesis

f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head o f my

FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 21, 1960 AT 3:00 P.M.

IN ROOM 256, BUCHANAN BUILDING

Orpheus and E u r y d i c e i n c l a s s i c a l and l a t e r Western lit-

erature. Three p a r t i c u l a r s about myth serve t o u n i f y t h e

discussion: myth e v o l v e s i n l i t e r a t u r e ; i t s meaning changes

t h r o u g h t h e ages; some myths e v o l v e a r t - f o r m s i n w h i c h t o

Myth e v o l v e s i n l i t e r a t u r e : Chapter I examines t h e

twenty-one r e f e r e n c e s t o o r t r e a t m e n t s of the myth of Orpheus

and E u r y d i c e i n Greek and Roman a u t h o r s , and attempts t o

show t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s t o r y of Orpheus' backward glance

and t h e second l o s s of E u r y d i c e i s a H e l l e n i s t i c development

of a s t o r y o r i g i n a l l y connected w i t h Orphic m y s t e r i e s . The

f u l l y developed myth i s seen t o combine elements o f myth,

The meaning o f myth changes t h r o u g h t h e ages: i n the

myth of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e , themes of death, music and l o v e

(stemming from t h e m y t h i c a l , l e g e n d a r y and f o l k elements,

the M i d d l e Ages (Chapter I I I ) , t h e myth i s a l l e g o r i z e d i n

Orfeo. I n the Renaissance (Chapter I V ) , Orpheus i s once

more a symbol of the c i v i l i z i n g f o r c e , and the descent t o

Hades, though o f t e n a l l u d e d t o , i s l e s s i m p o r t a n t than o t h e r

myths i n the O r p h e u s - c y c l e . The Orpheus bequeathed t o

l i t e r a t u r e by the opera (Chapter V) i s more human and fall-

i b l e , and i n the Romantic age (Chapter V I ) t h i s f i g u r e i s

g r a d u a l l y f u s e d w i t h the m y s t i c a l Orphic p o e t , so t h a t the

contemporary Orpheus of R i l k e and Cocteau (Chapter V I I ) i s

a g a i n a symbol, but of man i n h i s r o l e of a r t i s t , seeking to

Myth sometimes e v o l v e s a r t - f o r m s i n which t o e x p r e s s

itself; P o l i t i a n ' s Orfeo, a s e c u l a r s u b j e c t which used music

to t e l l i t s s t o r y , i s seen t o be the f o r e r u n n e r of the opera

(Chapter I V ) ; l a t e r , the myth of Orpheus and E u r y d i c e e v o l v e d

the opera, i n the works of the F l o r e n t i n e Camerata and

While the myth has meant something d i f f e r e n t t o

have always a v a i l e d themselves of one or more of i t s t h r e e

themes - the v i c t o r y of d e a t h over l i f e , the c i v i l i z i n g power

of music, the problem of human emotion and i t s c o n t r o l .

ORPHEUS IN THE NUCLEAR AGE

Why the f a s c i n a t i o n of s t a g e , s c r e e n , r a d i o and

t e l e v i s i o n w i t h the Orpheus legend? I s i t a symptom of

T h i s has always been among the b e s t known of the

Greek myths, but s i n c e the war i t s a t t r a c t i o n seems t o have

Orpheus, whose l u t e charms even the t r e e s , i s i n c o n -

s o l a b l e a t the d e a t h of h i s E u r i d i c e ; he goes down i n t o

Hades and, w i t h h i s music, s o f t e n s the f l i n t y h e a r t s of the

i n f e r n a l powers; they a l l o w her t o r e t u r n t o e a r t h , but on

the c o n d i t i o n t h a t she s h a l l w a l k behind him and he s h a l l not

l o o k back; he cannot r e s i s t the y e a r n i n g t o see the beloved

f a c e a g a i n ; he t u r n s - o n l y t o see her recede among the

He,, l i k e Orpheus, i s d e a l i n g w i t h a v a s t , dark and

malevolent power and t r y i n g t o c o n t r o l i t . He, like Orpheus,

i s a l o n e l y i n d i v i d u a l g r o p i n g h i s way through a world

suddenly become u n f a m i l i a r and i n s e c u r e . He, l i k e Orpheus,

- E d i t o r i a l , The Vancouver Sun