Accounting Education

Accounting education is an essential part of our education because without such education , we can not

calculate our income , our saving and our financial strength . In general , every person of this world need

accounting education for maintaining their personal record . This is also called personal book keeping . But

when we study the theoretical concept of accounting education , we find different definitions and rules and

regulation for proper accounting .

Now let us start What is Accounting Education ?

Accounting Education is combination of two words .

Accounting education = Accounting + Education

Accounting

Accounting is not counting but it is science which is helpful for hunting for the results of business.

Accounting is recording , analysis and finalisation of large scale business transactions. Accounting introduces

all tools and techniques to solve many or almost every problem of businessmen, factories, Corporations and

firms relating to maintaining accounts and different financial reports .

Education

Education is way to get knowledge with scientific method .According to Swami Vivekananda the great

philosopher said that it makes us self-confident .It is just use of person’s internal powers . After getting

education, person gets moral and professional qualities. After getting education any body can do any

professional work. All other persons respect because he is well educated.

Accounting Education

Mixer of both words makes accounting education. Accounting education may be defined as that part of

education which provide us the knowledge about accounting terms , journal , ledger , final accounts ,

analysis and interpretation the result of business . Moreover , this education provide all knowledge of cost

calculation and control and it gives different tools for analysis the financial statement . It is very helpful for

making business planning . In single line , I say , Accounting is brain of Business , with it business becomes

mad and there is no chance to develop it . If you are perfect in this field of education you can easily

maintain not only your head office accounts but all the accounts of your all branches. You can maintain the

accounts not only your business but you will understand every business like agricultural, industrial and any

other service sectoral accounts .Here I want to explain service sector, service sector is a sector where

services are being provided by service providers. So professional accountant can easily understand the

terms subscription, fees, donation, fund, provident fund, allowance, and gratuity.

Objective of Accounting Education

Almighty has sent us on the earth. What is the objective of sending us on earth? If you do not know then

you can not say that there is no any objective of sending us on the earth .Because your thinking of your
brain is very limited but God is supreme power who knows the aim of your sending on earth. He wants that

you will do any work and make whole world beautiful and wonderful. Like this there are so many objectives

of accounting education.

•Accounting education helps you proper utilization of your money and capital.

•It will tell you that you are getting high rate of investment or not.

•What is your earning per share .

•It will help you to making planning, policies. Proper accounting education if you will get from our

accounting expert , you will become not only accounts manager but also professional Scholar in the field of

accounting education. Because today, different concepts, principals of different area are changing. In this

changing environment, accountant will have to adjust.

•If you will not get these new and technical knowledge in the field of accounting, then you will fail in the

field of accounting .These days duty of accountant is not limited up to voucher entries in computer. But they

have to decide proper utilization of the capital and saving non useful expenditures.

Areas of Accounting

Financial Accounting

Financial accounting is relating to record all financial activity. These activities are related to business.

Because of area of business is increasing day by day so the area of financial accounting is also increasing.

Every day a new type of business is started. So daily accountant invents a new journal entry. Accountant

will take the help of financial accounting with new thinking of result. So a new chapter of financial

accounting is included by us. r> Cost Accounting

If you want to increase your profit, then start to decrease your cost. What a dialogue, this is not

a dialogue but this is the reality of today business. Every day an accountant invents new method

of decreasing the cost. All method of calculation of FIFO , LIFO , standard costing , variance

calculation and making of cost budget is not the end of cost accounting but this is the starting of

cost accounting . Internet cost reduction method is also a new mile stone in this direction.

Management Accounting

One new manager will do work in the field of management accounting. He will utilize accounting

information in new way . This is the real definition of management accounting. How to use

accounting data and accounting education in the field of management so that we will carry our

business at international level. Ratio analysis , fund flow statements, cash flow statements ,

working capital management , capital budgeting , cost of capital calculation is just starting in this

point .

Accounting Education's future is very bright . If you will become expert in this sector of

education , then you can get good earning with respect and honour . What does a person want

any more except this . He wants money with honour. Both two things , you can get from
accounting Education . But becoming expert in accounting education is not so easy. Just learning

of some of the principals of accounting , you can not become expert in accounting education .

Today the age of geographical and international business we should need to study contineusly

the new concept of accounting education due to changing situation of different new business .

Accounting is practical science , it demands your acceptance and your own work in this practical

field of education . Some of great Accounting expert are researching the new techniques of

accounting . In this technique not only you will able to record but the technique

• Automatically correct or rectify your accounting mistakes and errors

• Automatically get the interpretation or comment on your accounting work even passing a

single entry . What will effect on financial position and what will effect on profitability of

business.

So , All the expert of accounting field should make the future of accounting education more

attractive and efficient for new comers of this field .

Definition of Accounting Concepts

Accounting concepts means flow of thoughts of all wise accounting professionals of this world .

It can also be interpreted as "process of understanding of accounting to make sense of universal

acceptability. "

In other words accounting concepts some normal rules which can be changed but which has

come in to existence with so many hard work of accountants in past. These are basics thoughts

of an accountant.

Types of Accounting Concepts

To know more about Accounting Concepts are very necessary to learn because without this you

can not understand the fundamentals of accounting. There are many concepts which an

accountant uses in their accounting working.

1st concept – Separate entity concept

Under this concept the entity of business man is separate from its business. The main reason is

that owner is just giver of capital but if he withdraws without any restriction or any control.

Business can dissolve within two days. So every transaction related to withdrawing money from
business must be recorded by accountant. So this concept gives us basic knowledge while we are

recording transactions in our books that we must know that concern has its own entity and our

duty is to record every transaction even it is related to owner or not . Businessman's capital is

also the liability of business and if he withdraw for personal use , it is known as drawing and it is

deducted from his capital . So under this concept , accountant records every cash , goods and

usage of fixed assets for personal use of businessman and while he makes balance sheet all

these expenses are deducted from businessman's capital .

2nd Concept – Cost Concept

Under this concept we record all assets on their cost not in market value. This concept is very

useful for stable recording of accounting .Because if all transaction recording will start on their

market value then it create tension to accountant. Because nobody can say what will the price of

your fixed asset in next day. So record all assets on their original cost. But time to time

depreciation is deducted from this . But we never record all assets on their market price .

3rd Concept – Matching Concept

When I was doing graduate from my college, my respected teacher taught me that matching concept is very
important for an accountant. It means we will compare all expenses with the incomes of business. After
matching or compare, it will provide you the real result of performance of business. We can say it profit or
loss . So If today you want to know profit or loss of your business, let us start match of your business
incomes with your business expenses.

4th Concept – Conservatism Concept

This concept is made when accountant thought that it is very important to secure our business. The risk of
business is called losses. So it is the basic duty of accountant to secure his business from different losses.
For securing Loss he can make different provisions like provision for doubtful debts, provision for
depreciation reserve for contingent liabilities.

Definition of Accounting Concept

Concepts are the different thoughts given by expert in respective field. Now we come on accounting concept
topic. Accounting concepts are also given by different accounts professional for development of scientific
accounting. There are following accounting Concepts:-
1. Accounting Period Concept
According to this concept, every business discloses their result after certain period. That period is called
accounting period. The time of this accounting period is one year which started from 1 Jan to 31st Dec. But
some companies prefer to adopt the accounting period according to income tax financial period which starts
from 1st April and close to next year 31st march. The main motive of making accounting period is that it
tells us whether business has given good result or not.
2. Business Entity Concept
According to this concept, every business is separate from his owner of business. If businessman takes
some money from business. Then it is just loan given by business to businessman. So, it is very necessary
to record all transactions between business and businessman. This concept is very useful in partnership type
or company type business because in that type of business we can charge interest on all drawing by partner
and get earning from drawing.
3. Cost Concept
According to this concept, every businessman or accountant will enter all assets on cost basis in their books.
He has no right to record the assets on their market value because market value is changing day by day. So
showing correct position of business, it is very necessary to show all assets on their original cost at which we
purchase it but we can deduct depreciation if it is not new asset.
4. Matching Concept
According to this concept, an accountant can get net profit or loss for business after comparison of all
incomes and expenses of that business. Without doing this he can not get real profit or loss. So it is duty of
accountant to make profit and loss account and show expenses in debit side and incomes in credit side
.After this he must compare both side if incomes are more than expenses, it will be net profit or if expenses
are more than income then it will be net loss

Definition of Accounting Terminology

"Accounting Terminology are such accounting words which are most suitable for describing its category. For
example 'book of accounts' is general word and Ledger is proper accounting word for more suitable , so
these accounting words are known as accounting terminology . "

It is very necessary for that person who is related to other field like technology or medicine . Suppose if a
doctor or engineer want to know the term profitability ratio or know what is financial analysis . If you told
them with explaining accounting terminology , he never understand . But if you will tell him basic accounting
terms with explanation like what is asset and what is liabilities or what is capital , he easily understand if
you give some guidance . Here I am giving some basic accounting terminology for this benefit.

1.Cash = Cash is that liquid part of money with this we can buy material goods .
2.Money = Money may be in cash , bank cheque or any bill of exchange
3.Material = Material means the goods which we use for production
4.Finished product = Finished product means goods which is produced after machining process.
5.Debit = It means , we write any amount on which have our some right ? suppose , Ram account is debit ,
it means ram gets some money or goods from us , so we have some right on ram means either we can get
our money or price of goods . So accounts always given the name debit . In case of asset like furniture
account debit means , we are the owner or purchases it from any other person. In case expenses , any
expenses are debit because we take some service so we pay .
6.Credit = Credit means reduce some amount if we have to given to other . ? Suppose Bank has to given
sham 5000 . This is the liability of Bank when bank paid to customer . Bank will credit the account of
customer .
7.Entry = accounting of any transaction with systematical way is called entry
8.Owner's equity = Owner's equity means the claim of owner on the assets of business.
9.Creditor's equity = Creditor's equity means the claim of creditor on the assets of business.
10.Memorandum Account = This is the account which uses just as memory record but not formal account
.
11.brought down ( b/d) = It means transfer from previous balance to new page or next day or next
month .
12.carried forward = It means transfer of balance to new page or next day starting point of account or
next month's starting point of account's balance .
13.Ledger folio= It is the specific number of each account in ledger , the book of accounts .
14.Contra = It is also show in the cash book in the form of C . When cash withdraw from bank or deposit to
bank , it is known as contra , after this no need to show in ledger accounts because all dual process of
accounting is completed in cash book .
15.goodwill= It means all profits which can count in money which comes from the reputation , quality
products or name of company.
Benefits of Accounting Education
1st Benefit
The most important benefit of accounting education is that you will become well educated in the field of
accounting. With this you can solve any accounting problem. It is reality that 90% successful businessmen
have accounts background. So becoming perfect businessman it is very necessary to learn accounting
education.
2nd Benefit
If you have prefect in accounting, you can use your money with effective way. Because you know that what
accounts tells you about the current position of your business and how can you change this position with
other solution tools of accounting. If you are in the home at accounting, then you will know the inflow and
outflow of money and after this you can create the way of changing inflow into outflow and outflow into
inflow. This does not mean cheating but it means ability to change fund according to time and place.
3rd Benefit
Accounting Education increases your practical and business maths. Because calculating of profit margin ,
calculation of cost of goods sold , calculation of balance of different accounts , calculation of different ratios
surely increase the calculation ability of any general person.
4th Benefit
Accounting Education gives you the power of estimation about company is under how long in the water of
his financial and revenue position. Just apply simple formula you can estimate the financial position of
company. That is asset – liabilities = capital if you know and use of this simple formula you can compare
two companies. Now you can understand yourself, if you will learn all the matters of accounting, you can
easily calculate the length and breathe of financial position of company, after this you can suggest how to
make effective structure of company which faces any economy problem.
5th Benefit
It is general saying that a good accountant is always a good manager. He can make good plans for
company. Because, pulse rate of company’s financial work is in his hand. All cash inflow and outflow is
recorded by him. So if you learn accounting education, you can easily manage your business.

Basic Accounting Part-II

Difference between book keeping and accounting

1. Book keeping is just record of transaction, but accounting is huge science of recording,

classification, analyze and summarizing of business transaction and interpretation of different

result.

2. A book keeper always works under head accountant and book keeper is often said account

assistant.

3. Calculation of tax and filling of tax return is the part of duties of accountant. But, he can

take help from book keeper for tracking the total of the incomes of business.

4. Book keeping is just like machine work in which book keeper passes the vouchers into

books but accounting work is fully professional and need high experience for analysis and

interpretation of financial statements.

 5. Most difficult part of book keeping work is to reconciliation of bank account with pass book,

cash balance with physical cash in hand, stock in books with physical stock in Godown. Most

difficult work of accountant is to make final account and analysis of financial statements.

What is accountancy?

Accountancy is the practical form of accounting. In many countries, all accounting courses are done by using

word

accountancy courses. I think, accountancy is fully academic term of accounting.

Accountancy is related to making of final accounts and preparing of financial reports which are useful for

business,

debtors, creditors, tax authorities and employees. In the British, Professional accountants have made the

Consultative

Committee of Accountancy Bodies. CCAB is now a limited company with six members:

The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW)

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS)

The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland (ICAI)

The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA)

The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA)

The Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy (CIPFA)

But, In India, accountancy is just basic introduction of accounting at secondary level and full course

completed in graduate with learning of different subjects like financial, cost, management and corporate

accounting. Both accountancy and accounting is branch of science and professional accountants use this

science for recording, classify, analysis and summarizing of transactions of business and main aim is to

provide useful information to interested parties regarding their business.

Definition of Journal

Journal is a day books in which bookkeeper records all the transaction first time . Transaction must be

record in this book date wise and journal applies the rules of double entry system . Suppose Ram takes loan

of Rs.100000 from his friend. Then what come in is cash and so cash account will be debited and His friend

is giver of loan, so his friend’s loan account will be credited in journal.Journal entry will be passed in the

journal of Ram

Cash Account Dr. 100000 /

To Friend’s loan Account / 100000

In other words journal is the book of primary entry . Whenever any transaction or event occurs it is

recorded in the

first instance in the journal . There are various types of journal.

 1. Purchase day book ? to record transactions relating to credit purchases.

2. Sales day book ? to record transactions relating to credit sales.

3. Purchase return book ? to record transactions relating to purchase returns.

4. Cash book ? to record cash , bank and discount transactions .

5. Journal Proper ? to record other transactions for which no specific journal is maintained .

All transaction are first recorded in the journal as and when they occur , the record is chronological , as

otherwise it would be difficult to maintain the record in an orderly manner. The form of journal is given

below :

Journal

_________________________________________________________________________

Date ? particular ? L.F. ? Dr. Amount ? Cr. Amount ?

________________________________________________________________________

The columns have been numbered only to make clear the following explanations but otherwise they are not

numbered . The

following point should be noted :

1. In the first column the date of the transaction is entered , the year is written at the top ,

then month and in the narrow part of the column the particular is entered .

2. In the second column , the names of the accounts involved are written , first the account to

be debited , with the word Dr. written towards the end of the column. In the next line , after

leaving little space , the name of the account to be credited is written preceded by the word To

( the modern practice shows inclination towards omitting Dr and To . Then in the next line the

explanation for the entry together with necessary details is given , this is called narration.

3. In the third column the number of the page in the ledger on which the account is written up

is entered

4. In the fourth column , the amounts to be debited to the various accounts concerned is

entered .

5. In fifth column , the amount to be credited to the various account is entered .

Before one can journalise transactions , one must think on the basis of the rules given above , the effect of

the transactions on assets , liabilities , expenses , gains etc. of the firm . In accordance with the effect , the

accounts to be debited or credited will be determined . Then the entry will be made in the journal as
indicated above .

How can make the journal entries

In the accounting education, making of journal is very important. Because without making journal entries,

we can not calculate the result of business in the form of profit and loss account and balance sheet. So

please care fully get the education of making journal.

Journal accepts the rules of double entry system. Rule for making journal

Every rule has two parts

•First rule for personal accounts

1. Who is receiver = Debit

2. Who is giver = Credit

•2nd Rule for real accounts

1. What comes in business = Debit

2. What goes from business = Credit

•3rd Rule for nominal accounts

1.All the expenses and losses = Debit

2.All the incomes and gains = Credit

•Practical example for making journal ?

Suppose Ram purchase goods of Rs. 10000 from Sham @ 10% trade discount on credit. After 15 days. Ram

pays full settlement of all money with @ 10% cash discount.

Journal Entries in the books of Ram

Because goods comes in Ram’s business so Purchase account will debit with Rule 2nd and its first part

Because Sham is giver of goods so he is giver and account with his name will be credit with rule 1st and its

second

part after this we will pass the journal entry

Purchase account Dr. 9000

To Sham Account 90000

•After 15 days will pass second journal entry in ram books

Sham Account ( He is the receiver ) Dr. 9000

To Cash Account ( it goes out of business ) 8100

To Discount Received ( It is the income of business 900

Trial balance and steps for making trial balance

Definition of Trial balance

Trial balance is the statement which shows the list of balance of all ledger accounts .It is made for checking

mathematical error , making of final accounts and maintaining budget of company. Because of it is made on

basis of company’s all ledger accounts , so we satisfy about mathematical correctness , if debit balance of

this statement is equal to credit balance of this statement .

Steps for making trial balance

1st Step : Making all ledger accounts and the calculate their balance , if any account’s debit side is more

than credit balance , its balance will be called debit balance , if the credit balance is more than debit side

balance , it is called credit balance .

2nd Step : Make statement in vertical form in which you have show particular for making the list of account

and right

side , you have to debit balance and credit balance .

Performa of Trial balance

______________________________________________

S. No. ? Particular ? Debit Balance ? Credit balance ?

_______________________________________________

3rd Step : Debit balance

1. assets account’s balance

2. expenses account balance

3. loss account ‘s balance

4. investment account balance

5. drawing account’s balance

6. Purchase account

7. Sale return Account

4th Step : Credit balance

1. Liabilities account’s balance

2. Provision account’s balance

3. Capital account’s balance

4. Reserve and surplus account’s balance

5. Sale account

6. Purchase return account

5th Step : If trial balance is not matched, the difference will be show as suspense account

Important notes

Closing Stock is not shown in trial balance because , it is adjusting item and we can give dual effect on final

account. All other items whose account is not made in proper ledger will not shown in trial balance .

Different types of Expenses

In accounting, there are only revenue nature and capital nature expenses. Revenue nature expenses records

in profit and loss account while capital nature expenses are recorded in balance sheet.

Revenue expenses are again subpart of direct expenses and indirect expenses

Direct expenses are the main type of expenses which are related to production and purchase of goods.

These expenses are

incurred during the purchase of goods and transfer to trading account. I am giving the examples of

Direct expenses:-

• Wages

• Freight

• Carriage

• Carriage inward

• Octrai

• Royalty on production

• Factory expenses
 • Factory depreciation

• Fuel , oil and power

• All other expenses related to purchase of goods

Indirect Expenses

• Office expenses

• Sales expenses

• Advertising

• Administrative expenses

• Bad debts

• Depreciation of office assets

• Interest on loan

• All other expenses relating to sale and marketing

Simple income statement

Sales (Net ) XXXX

Less cost of goods sold XXXX

( or merchandising cost) XXXX

______________________________

Gross profit XXXX

Less operating expenses XXXX

1.office and administrative expenses

2.selling and distribution expenses

3.Financial expenses

______________________________

Net Income XXXX

______________________________

Net sales refer to total sales less sales returns and are calculated as follows

Cash sales XXXX

credit sales XXXX

_________________________

total sales XXXX

less sales return XXXX

___________________________

Net sales

___________________________

Cost of goods sold means the cost price or cost of manufacture of the goods or commodities actually sold

and is

calculated as follows.

Opening stock XXXX

add purchase less purchase returns XXXX

add direct expenses XXXX

less closing stock XXXX

__________________________

cost of goods sold XXXX

____________________________

Basic Accounting Part-III

Bank Reconciliation Statement

Reconciliation of Bank accounts

Reconciling the Company's Bank Accounts with the Banker's Statement is a fundamental and regular task of

Accounting. First, there should be the ability to 'check back' the correctness of the reconciliation. This has

been done, by marking the 'Bank Date' against the voucher. For instance, if you have issued a cheque on

8th April, which was ultimately cleared by your Bank on 19th April, - you would set the 'Bank Date' for the

voucher to be 19th April. This means, that when you next need to 'check back' whether the entry made by

you is correct, you will only need to verify the Bank Statement of the 19th. Second, that you should be able

to 'recover' the reconciliation as of any date. This is of crucial importance to Auditing. The Bank

Reconciliation is one of the pre-requisites of Auditing and verification of the correctness of accounts at the

year end. However, it is not a 'real-time' task – in the sense, that it is not done by the auditor's on the first

day of the next year. This means, that the reconciliation made on 31st Mar, should be 'viewable' even in

August, - by when almost all the cheques would have subsequently been marked as reconciled. This has

again been achieved using the concept above.

Bank Accounts may have a different 'Starting Date' for reconciliation purposes. When you create a Bank

Account, you are requested to give an 'Effective Date for Reconciliation' just before the Opening Balance.

Normally, this would be the 'Books Beginning from' date itself. However, you could have imported data from

a previous version of Tally or from any other system (where the reconciliation process was not available or

was different. In that case, you may not wish to reconcile the bank account with your bank statements from

the very beginning. Give the date from which you want the reconciliation facility to be activated. Then,
previous entries will not appear for reconciliation, but will be taken as a reconciled Opening Balance. A quick

experiment with Reconciliation will show you what is meant.

Here is how you go about it:

Bring up the monthly summary of any Bank Book. (You could do this from the Balance Sheet, Trial Balance,

or Display/Account Books/Bank Books, and selecting a Bank). Bring you cursor to the first month (typically

April), and press Enter. This brings up the Vouchers for the month of April. Since this is a Bank Account, an

'additional' button F5: Reconcile will be visible on the right. Press F5.

The display now becomes an 'Edit' screen in 'Reconciliation' mode. The primary components are:A column

for the 'Bankers Date'

The 'Reconciliation' at the bottom of the screen, showing: Balance as per Company Books Amounts not

reflected in Bank

Balance as per Bank The Balance as per Company Books reflects your Balance as on the last date (in our

example case, 30- Apr). The Amounts not reflected in Bank is the debit and credit sums of all those

vouchers whose Bank Date is either BLANK, or GREATER than 30-Apr (i.e. these vouchers have not yet been

reflected in the Bank Statement).

The Balance as per Bank is the Nett effect of your Book Balance offset by the amounts not reflected in the

Bank – which should equal the balance in the Bank Statement. (Of course, some variation may persist due

to entries made in the Bank Statement which you have not yet entered in your Books – but since you WILL

definitely enter them, and only then print your reconciliation, it will ultimately reflect the correct balance).

You will find, as you mark off the individual vouchers by setting the 'Bank Date', that the Reconciliation at

the bottom of screen keeps reflecting those changes instantly. When you are finished, press Ctrl+A (or press

Enter as many times as necessary to skip over the unmarked vouchers), and accept the screen. (If your

screen has a largish number of vouchers it may take some time to complete the acceptance – be patient).

The next time you come for reconciliation, you will be presented only with those vouchers which remain

unreconciled. Thus, the task keeps becoming simpler.

Making of Bank reconciliation statement by yourself Bank reconciliation statement tells the reason why your

cash books bank column is not matching with your bank pass book .

Free accounting knowledge

Free is only one word which is use every person when he or she search from google.com. So It is duty of

every webmaster

to write the word in his website . So I am writing this article of free accounting knowledge .

There are 2 points if you wish to get this free accounting knowledge .

1.You must have save you energy and money

2. Your aim is to get knowledge and then next it also give to another without any cost.

It may be noted that the American institute of certified public accounts , in 1941 defined accounting as the

specialised art of recording , classifying and summarizing in a significant manner transaction terms of money
which are

of a financial character and interpreting the result . In the course of the time the definition has become

broader to

include imparting economic information to permit informed judgements and decisions .

Economic events have been defined as happenings of consequence to a business entity

Basic terms in accounting

•Financial Statements

Two basic financial statements are prepared by an enterprise one is profit and loss statement and other is

balance sheet

•Accounting Equation

Three components of a balance sheet can be stated in the form of following basic accounting equation

Assets = liabilities + capital

This equation tells at the glance that the resources of this enterprise total and these assets are financed by

two source

also known as outsiders claims and owner equity.

•Business Transactions

It can be a purchase of goods , collection of money , payment to creditors for goods and expenses . An

event to be a

transaction must possess the quality of economic substance , relate to business and affect the economic

results .

•Assets

These are economic resources of an enterprise

fixed assets are assets held on a long term basis , such as land , building , machinery and plant etc.

Current assets are assets held on a short term basis such as debtors bills receivables , stock , cash and bank

etc.

•Liabilities

These are the obligations or debts that the enterprise must pay in money or services at sometime in the

future . They

represent creditors , claims against assets of the firms.

Relationship of accounting with other field

Accounting is very close relationship with maths , economics ,statistics , business study and other area.

Different formula used in financial , cost and management accounting can be satisfied on the basis of

maths . In accounting , we records only economical transaction related to money or money's worth And our

govt. policies effects on our financial accounts . Suppose if central govt. changes the rate of depreciation

then our net profit and financial position will effect from this point . So we should necessary to understand
the relationship of accounting with other field for better knowing accounting . Accounting , maths ,

economics and business study all makes good structure of a good economy . Because if one field is not fully

developed , its side-effect surely

will be on other fields . Suppose if an statistics have to collect previous year market sales data but

accounting of market is very poor so he will have to collect wrong data and different economic decision will

be wrong . We can understand all field just as different parts of body , if one part is weak other surely

effected from it .

Accounting cycle

Sometime , you read this term in any book about accounting cycle , But you would not research of this term

. Actually accounting cycle is very simple term .It means that all the activities in accounting will absorb in

first point and then it make accounting cycle .This term is very useful for an accountant because an

accountant is man who maintain accounts .

Suppose Ram purchases goods from any company this transaction when comes in the front of an accountant

, he records it after this he see its result on his final accounts but in last automatically it support to

completing the whole accounting cycle . In other words any financial transaction is the beginning point of

accounting cycle and an accountant must give importance to each transaction of business.

Depreciation and effect on final account

Depreciation is just decrease the value of any fixed asset.When you will use it ,then the value of fixed asset

will be decreased . So calculating of net profit and correct financial position , it is the duty of accountant to

show it in profit and loss account . Rates of depreciation may differ according to the nature of fixed asset

some assets’ depreciation rate is low and other is high because high decreasing value due to expiry. In

balance sheet ,we deduct depreciation from fixed asset .After deducting we can calculate net value of fixed

asset which can be show in balancesheet .

Depreciation account can also be made by accountant but every year it must send to profit and loss account

because this is nominal account . Different law like income tax law and corporate law fix this depreciation

rate so we must see the reference of

depreciation rate from these laws but calculating correct amount of depreciation . Also , account manager

should decide when a fixed asset will buy . For replacement purpose , it is duty of accountant and account

manager to calculate and transfer and written off depreciation every year from fixed asset .Some business

entity makes also provision for depreciation .The Balance as per Bank is the Nett effect of your Book Balance

offset by the amounts not reflected in the Bank – which should equal the balance in the Bank Statement. (Of

course, some variation may persist due to entries made in the Bank Statement which you have not yet

entered in your Books – but since you WILL definitely enter them, and only then print your reconciliation, it

will ultimately reflect the correct balance). You will find, as you mark off the individual vouchers by setting
the 'Bank Date', that the Reconciliation at the bottom of screen keeps reflecting those changes instantly.

When you are finished, press Ctrl+A (or press Enter as many times as necessary to skip

Depreciation

It is a gradual deterioration or decrease in the value of asset after using that asset in our day to day work or

after spending of time. In this world, everything is perishable, so making true profit and calculates true

value of any asset at present time, it is very necessary to depreciate on fixed asset and deduct from it.

Fluctuation

If you are doing business or linked with any business, you know that prices are always up and down due to

changing in the condition of business environment. Fast changing in market prices is called fluctuation. It is

not called depreciation because, it is not related to use of fixed asset. Fluctuation can also increase the price

of fixed asset but after deducting depreciation, value of fixed assets will be decreased. Fluctuation is fully

ignored and there is no accounting treatment. But we show depreciation as a loss of business.

Obsolescence

When new fixed assets’ quality, efficiency and capacity decrease the value and usability of old fixed assets,

then it is called obsolescence of old fixed assets.The main example, we can look in different machines or

technical equipment especially in medical field. Every new equipment decreases the value of previous

equipment. Because of it is not related to the nature and use of fixed asset, so it is also not depreciation.

Obsolescence is not important in field of accounting but it is important in technology research and marketing

of product.

How to make fixed asset account under fixed installment method

Before making of fixed asset account, we must know following journal entries :-

1. For providing depreciation on asset at the end of the year

Depreciation account Debit

Fixed asset account credit

2nd For transferring of depreciation to profit and loss account

Profit and loss account debit

Depreciation account credit

In this method fixed asset account is very simple T shaped. There is not fixed Proforma for making fixed

asset account

Methods of providing depreciation

There are many methods of calculation of depreciation . No one apply on the all assets , because , different

assets have different nature and according to management policy and effect of laws specially tax laws ,

different methods are used for providing depreciation . There are 10 methods of calculation of depreciation .

Out of which approximate 5 are the most important and it should be learned .

1st method of providing depreciation

Fixed installment method

Fixed installment method is that method , in which we calculate fixed rate of depreciation and then with this

rate we

deduct every year from fixed asset .

Original cost of asset - scrape value of asset

Depreciation = ___________________________________

Effective working life of asset

For example Satifsan purchased an asset of $ 20000 and he can use it for 4 years and after four year its

scrape value

will be $ 4000 . Calculate depreciation with fixed installment method

Depreciation = 20000- 4000/4 = $ 4000

Rate of depreciation = 4000/20000X 100 = 20%

every year we provide $ 4000 and deduct from original cost of fixed asset . So its other name is original cost

method or straight line method of providing depreciation .

Benefits of this method

1. It is easy to calculate

2. It show zero value of fixed asset at the end of its life .

3. It divides all weight of total depreciation equally in all period of life of asset .

4. After providing depreciation , balance will shows correct value of fixed asset .

Disadvantage of this method

1. After showing zero value of expiry of fixed asset in books , but it is possible that asset is in good

position .

Then what provision will show in books , this method does not tell to accountant .
2. Some assets ' value will increase after spending of time at there we can not use this on that assets .

3. There is no provision in this method for buying new asset after scrap of old assets .

Basic Accounting Part-IV

What is provision of depreciation account?

Provision of depreciation account is the account of provision of depreciation. First of all we should

understand provision of depreciation .Provision of depreciation is the collected value of all depreciation .With

making of this account we are not credited depreciation in asset account. But transfer every year

depreciation to provision of depreciation account. Every year we adopt this procedure and when assets are

sold we will transfer sold assets ‘total depreciation to credit side of asset account. For calculating correct

profit or loss on fixed asset. This provision uses with any method of calculating depreciation.

There are following feature of provision for depreciation account

•Fixed asset is made on its original cost and every year depreciation is not transfer to fixed asset account.

•Provision of depreciation account is Conglomerated value of all old depreciation.

•Entry of depreciation will change also

Depreciation account Debit

Provision for depreciation account credit

•This system can be used both in straight line and diminishing method of providing depreciation.

•Calculation of loss on sale is very important where is provision of depreciation account is kept.

Which we can calculate with following way

Cost of sale of fixed asset XXXX

Less total depreciation up to the date

Of sale XXXX

____________________________________________

Written Down Value of sold asset XXXX

Less Sale price XXXX

___________________________________________

Loss on sale of Asset XXXX

___________________________________________

•This loss will show in the credit side of asset account

•At the sale total depreciation on of sold asset from its purchasing will transfer from provision of

depreciation account to fixed asset account , its journal entry will Provision for depreciation account Debit

To fixed asset Account Credit

Diminishing balance method of providing depreciation

Diminishing balance method of providing depreciation is very important from accounting point of view. In
this method,

accountant calculates depreciation on the asset from which he deducts all previous depreciation from asset.

So, every year amount of depreciation will go down.

For example Suppose we purchase a machinery at $ 50000 and if we fix 10 % depreciation on machinery

with diminishing balance method, then first year depreciation will $ 5000 , next year will calculate

depreciation $ 50000 - $ 5000 = $ 45000 X 10 % =$ 4500

Third year depreciation will apply on $ 45000 - $ 4500 = $ 40500

So, we calculate depreciation on written down value of asset so , its other name is written down method or

reducing

value method .

Now we are seeing the value of depreciation is decreasing

Ist year = $ 5000

2nd year = $4500

3rd year = $ 4050

Benefit or advantages of this method

1.This is also very easy method.

2.This is very scientific method and provides logic that which asset is abolish due to spending of time at that

portion

of depreciation is not included in asset.

3.Income tax officer prefers this method for assessment of business and professional income.

If we buy any asset after first year, we need not to calculate depreciation from beginning.

Disadvantages of this method

1.In this method we also ignore interest on capital which is used for purchasing such asset.

2.All new and old assets are mixed with each other, for an auditor, it is so difficult to differ among them.

3.It is difficult to calculate optimum rate of depreciation

But we can use following formula for calculating depreciation in W.D.V. method.

R = 1 – ( S/C) 1/n

R = rate of depreciation

S = S is scrape value

n = n is the working life of an asset

c = c is cost of asset

Reserves

Reserves are accounting terms. In general, it is saving of money, but in accounting terminology , it has

different meaning.

According to accounting technician, “ Reserves are that funds which withdraw from general or special profit

of business and keep it in safe pocket of company. This sum is used when any loss happens in business. "
Accounting Experts always in favor to keep some money or retain some fund for future losses, because

future is uncertain and for increasing working capital of business, accountant should retain some money out

of total profit before distribution it to shareholders. It is shown in profit and loss appropriation account.

Indian company law has fixed it and in other countries , their company laws fix it and from time to time

change it due to changing businessenvironment.

Types of Reserves

There are two main types of reserves which I am explaining with following way :-

1. Open reserves

Open reserves may be defined all reserves which shows in the balance sheet. Every person or public can

know such reserves of company. Those reserves provide full information to shareholders about which

amount has gone to reserves or why they are not getting all amount of dividend. This type can also divide in

sub parts

a) Capital reserves

Capital reserves are main type of open reserves. It is not created out of profit of company. This reserve is

not used for distributing the dividend to shareholders of company. The main sources of these reserves are

following:-

1. profit earned prior to incorporation

2. Premium on the issue of shares and debentures.

3. Profit on reissue of forfeited shares

4. Profit set aside for the purpose of redemption of preference shares.

5. Profit on sale of undertaking or part of it.

6. Surplus on revaluation of assets and liabilities.

b) Revenue reserves

Revenue reserves are that part of open reserves which are created out of profit of company. It is showed in

profit and

loss appropriation account .It can be used for dividend to shareholders. There are following benefits of

revenue reserves:

1. Extension of business

2. Set off unknown losses of business.

 3. Used to create strength in the financial position of business.

4. To make stability in the dividend rate.

These revenue reserves can also divide into two parts.

i) general reserves

ii ) Specific reserves = Specific reserves includes dividend equalization reserve, debenture redemption

reserve , staff reserve. Investment fluctuation reserve, taxation reserve and contingency reserves.

2. Secret Reserves

Secret reserves may be defined as that type of reserves which is not shown in final account of company.

Means it has neither been shown in profit and loss appropriation account nor in balance sheet. These

reserves can easy created by showing less value of assets and more value of liabilities in balance sheet. If a

company has created such secret reserves for the benefits of company, it will be surely strong his financial

position. These secrete reserves can be created by following ways:

• Showing heavy depreciation value

• Showing the less value of goodwill and closing stock of business.

• Secrete of sale value of business.

• Showing heavy liabilities which is not of company.

• Showing capital expenses as revenue expenses.

• Grouping of free reserves with creditors.

• Current asset not shown in balance sheet.

Calculation the credit purchase

1. Write creditor account on any excel sheet with making two sides one side is debit and other

side is credit.

2. Write your business's creditors opening balance in credit side with giving by balance b/d

name.

3. Write the amount that you have given to your creditors in the current year in the debit side

of creditor account.

4. Write closing balance of your creditors in the end of this year ( this amount shows unpaid

amount which is payable to your creditor at the end of this year ) in the debit side of this account
 5. You will see that debit side is more than credit side of this account , the difference will be

credit purchase and it should be written in the credit side of this account

6. Now you are seeing your credit purchase .

This credit purchase is very necessary when you will calculate the net consumption of your stock

because for calculating net consumption for stock , we always add purchase in the opening stock and deduct

closing stock . This net consumption will show in profit and loss account or income and expenditure

account .

Difference between revenue and capital items

Revenue item

If any item of business which does not create any asset of business that type of items are called revenue

items, suppose we pay rent but rent can not create any fixed asset so this is revenue item and it must show

in profit and loss account , but if we have a special fund for building , this fund create long term asset up to

that period this will show as fixed liabilities . This is not revenue item .

There is also major difference is that revenue items benefit is related to current year but capital items'

benefits are related more than one year. If advertisement's expense is 100 Rupees and its benefit can only

related to current year then this is revenue item .

But if we expand Rs. 9000000 lakh on advertisement and its estimated benefit is for 10 years then this will

be the capital item.

All revenue item will show in profit and loss account

And all capital items will shown in balance sheet or financial statement .

Capital loss

Capital loss may be defined as the loss relating to sale of any fixed asset or any other financial loss like

premium given on repayment of debentures or bonds, or discount on issue of shares and debentures.

Capital loss may explain with many other examples:

Ist Example

Suppose, if any machine’s book value is $ 50000 and sell it on $ 40000 and $ 10000 is loss on sale of

machinery, this is called capital loss.

2nd Example

Suppose, if a company has 100 debentures of other company and each debenture is of $ 100 but these

debentures are sold at $ 80 per debenture, so company is getting loss on sale of debenture of $ 2000. This

is capital loss in profit and loss account of company, we can not show any capital loss. In other words these

losses can not be debited in Profit and loss account of company. These all losses will show in assets side of

balance sheet of company. After this, it is written off by dividing number of fixed years and transferring to

profit and loss account. If you know what is mean of written off , then , I can also explain it , written off
means that part of any expenses or loss which is transferred from balance sheet to profit and loss account

for closing the account of loss or expenses , specially capital losses .

Revenue losses

Revenue losses include all losses which happen due to operating any business activity. It includes cash

discount on sale, depreciation, loss due to falling of market prices. So, these losses will show in the debit

side of profit and loss account of company. It is deemed that when we start the different activities of our

business , many losses are happen , so it should be closed by transferring all these losses to profit and loss

account .

Feature of revenue expenditures

There are following main features or characteristics of revenue expenditures . These features are very useful

for your decision to adding any expenses in profit and loss account .

1. General operating expenses

Any expenses which is related general operation of business that all expenses will be revenue expenditures

and will be debited in profit and loss account

2. Expenses related to short period

These type of expenses are related to short period, means benefit of these expenses is less than one year.

3. Expenses for maintaining the stability of fixed assets

These expenses’ main feature is that these expenses is useful for maintaining the stability or efficiency of

fixed assets,

4. Recurring Nature

One of most important feature of these expenses that these expenses are recurring nature. In other words

these expenses happen Again and again in general business activities. For example , expenses for giving

refreshment is revenue expenditure because almost daily , these type of expenses is paid by company .

5. Helpful for maintaining the profit of business

These type of expenditure is useful for maintaining the profit of business , but also above features should

include in the expenses which I have mentioned in above points because capital expenditure will also helpful

for maintaining the

profit and you will then confused revenue and capital expenditure’s difference .

What are basic rules for making difference between capital and revenue expenditure

Ist Rule

All expenses which are done for getting any fixed asset must be capital expenditure. For example, expenses
of carriage and freight for getting fixed assets are also capital expenditure and will include in the total cost

of fixed assets.

2nd Rule

All expenses which are done for increasing the size or improvement in fixed assets must be capital

expenditure.

3rd Rule

All expenses which are done for getting share capital or long term loan must be capital expenditure.

4th Rule

Look also nature of business , if business is relating to general goods sale -purchase transaction then above

three rules will applicable but , if nature of business shows dealing in above transaction , then above

transaction becomes revenue expenditure .

5th Rule

Legal judgments is also so important for taking decision , Like Income tax law 1961 has provided some rule

regarding assessment of business and profession . These rules also give good guidance for making

difference between revenue and capital expenditures.

What is deferred revenue expenditure?

As a matter of fact , deferred revenue expenditure is capital expenditure . Because , it has both quality of

revenue

and capital items, so it is deemed as deferred revenue expenditure.

Example:

Heavy advertisement expenses , because this is for promotion of sale so, it is revenue expenses but because

amount is too large so it is also capital expenditure. Now, it will include in deferred revenue expenditure. If

we fix the target of getting benefit for this advertisement is 10 years and advertising cost $ 500000. Now $

500000 is divided by 10 years and we get $ 50000 and it will show as revenue expenses in profit and loss

account and balance amount of $ 450000 will show in balance sheet. Every year one tenth part of Original

and total advertising expenses will go to profit and loss account. This deferred revenue account will close in

10th year when there will not be any balance for showing as asset in balance sheet .
There are also other deferred revenue expenditures like underwriting commission, discount on issue of

shares and debentures , brokerage paid on purchase of shares and debentures, research expenses and

development expenses

Definition of Drawing

We use drawing many times in financial accounting .Drawing here means any amount withdraw from

business for personal use. Not only cash but if we withdraw any product from business or any asset of

business for personal use that will be drawing.

It surely reduces the capital of any business. So business man must record drawing in his books so that

accountant can calculate correct profit or loss of business man .Some accounting terms, Intangible assets

This is the asset which is not visible but we can feel them . The main examples of these assets are goodwill,

patent, trade marks

Factitious Assets

If any asset which has no any market price that asset is called factitious assets .This is showed as expenses

of capital expenditure . The main example of these factitious assets are Preliminary expenses , discount on

issue of shares and debenture

calculations

1. cost of goods sold =opening stock + purchase +direct expenses - closing stock

2. Gross profit = sale price - cost of goods sold

3. Net profit = Gross profit - Indirect expenses

4. Commission on net profit before charging such commission

= Net profit before charging X Rate/100+Rate

Definition of Goodwill

Goodwill is an intangible asset which makes any organisation with his good name , by selling quality product

, by selling product at less price .Goodwill can be earned by speaking sweat words to customer . An expert

can tell about the correct value of Goodwill

but in general IT is the excess of super profit over general profit .or If any concern is gaining more profit

than his general rate of return then it means it is generating Goodwill .Goodwill can not generate with in

night but for generating goodwill any firm can take 10 to 20 years . Which is called long period is suitable for

generating goodwill .

If you are selling your old firm you can also demand the value of goodwill with total cost of your asset . If

you thinkthat Firm or company name is saleable in market .

Personal accounting means recording of domestic expenses and income . It is very necessary that to

record your income and expenses. Because without recording your personal accounting , you can not make

your domestic budget. If you are living in any noble family , it is you duty to complete your all expenses

with your limited income , so make estimation of all monthly expenses . This estimation can be done if you

have recorded early months expenses . So it is your duty to record your personal expenses. Recording of

personal income and expenses is very easy . Just keep a Note book in you pocket and after spending any

expenses you must record your expenses. After month you will see what is your total expenses and where

did you expand it. On this base you can make you family budget. If you can not keep note book then you

can record your expenses in excel sheet. In each night you can record full day expenses in different things

like juice , ice-cream , wheat , petrol , dresses , fees , charity etc. After month total them you can get you

monthly recorded expenses after one year you can your yearly real expenses . It is not necessary that all

year we have to do same expenses but we can estimate our yearly expenses.

The theme of accounting education.

In beginning

I think that India is inventor of all basic rules of accounting because , In India all commercial activities are

started . So Need of recording transaction is the first preference of India. All records kept in Sanskrit

language. Accounting system is so scientific , no body can cheat in this accounting system. So there is not

need of auditing the accounting in that time. Different countries visitors and businessmen came in India and

took all knowledge of accounting and went to their country. So India is the first accounting Education giver

In the Middle

In middle of accounting education theme, we will take different scientist in whole world who gave their

contribution for accounting education. I am giving giving their name and other detail Luca Pacioli (1445 -

1517) Luca Pacioli also known as Friar Luca dal Borgo, is credited for the "birth" of accountancy. His Summa

de arithmetica, geometrica, proportioni et proportionalita (Summa on arithmetic, geometry, proportions and

proportionality, Venice 1494), was a textbook for use in the abbaco schools of northern Italy, where the

sons of merchants and craftsmen were educated. It was a compendium of the mathematical knowledge of

his time, and includes the first printed description of the method of keeping accounts that Venetian

merchants used at that time, known as the double-entry accounting system. Although Pacioli codified rather

than invented this system, he is widely regarded as the "Father of Accounting". The system he published

included most of the accounting cycle as we know it today. He described the use of journals and ledgers,

and warned that a person should not go to sleep at night until the debits equalled the credits. His ledger had

accounts for assets (including receivables and inventories), liabilities, capital, income, and expenses — the

account categories that are reported on an organisation's balance sheet and income statement, respectively.

He demonstrated year-end closing entries and proposed that a trial balance be used to prove a balanced

ledger. His treatise also touches on a wide range of related topics from accounting ethics to cost accounting.
John Mellis of Southwark, England had written his book in 1588 in which he wrote basic principals of

accounting , which used in modern accounting. Richard Dafforne accountant There are so many accountant

who contribute their time and energy to make accounting upto date.

In the End

In the end of this theme , I can tell you one thing that 100 billion people works daily in the field of

accounting. From making of family budget to making of national and world project budget , accounting is

used as scientific source of data , on the basis all future planning have been done by different people in

whole world. If you are thinking that just passing the voucher entries and making final account is accounting

, then you are wrong. Theme of accounting is in system not in doing just clerk work. Passing the voucher

entry is clerk work. But If you are become real accountant in real sense . Then make your businessmen's all

plans and budget by doing all analysis of finance statement. So that you will succeed in reducing every cost

of business and increasing all incomes of business. All management accounting is nothing but proper

utilization of financial accounting .

Accounting As an Information System

It is true that accounting is an information system. It is system in which an accountant gets all financial

reports .These reports can be received by accountant if he takes all the steps of accounting procedure.

There are following in points which show that accounting is an perfect accounting system? Accounting gives

us profit and loss account and balance sheet , on these two reports , we get the information of revenue

position and our financial position? Because in accounting , there is the facility of calculate cash flow

statement and fund flow statement , so it provides us the information about our inflow and out flow of funds

and cash? Accounting is an equipment in the hand of accountant and manager , with this equipment they

can make their all future plannings, future budget .With accounting , they can easily estimate , is there

suitable to invest money or not under there accounting reports.

Difference between Loan and Advance

Many accountants think that loan and advance is almost same . Both means when a person borrows the

money from other, it is called loan or advance . But , If you will deep study of this , then you found many

differences between loan and advances .

Loan means debt for personal or business purposes in which loan taker is responsible to return his taken

money with interest .

Advance is to get money from those , which have our mutual relationship .

Suppose

•Employee can get salary in advance from his employer

Advance transaction will arise due to relationship between employer and employee .

•Debtor can give advance money for purchasing any future goods from his supplier or creditor . or Supplier

can demand

advance money for passing his order .

Rohan has to buy of Goods $ 50000 in 5/5/2009 but he pay to Sham $ 50000 in advance in 5/3/2009 .

Loan is just Contract between Lender and borrower in which they fix their terms and condition .

What is rate of interest on loan , what is the installment amount , when installment of loan will given , What

penalty

will be levied if , installment is not given at proper time and many more conditions they can fix .

But in advance , term and condition is fix on their relationship , a good relationship with employer , you can

get

advance salary with 0% interest rate .

Sometime Imprest cash and call in advance is also deemed advance but these are not loan items .

IASB publishes his new amendments .According to this now IASB will gets public comments to clarify the

requirements in

IAS and IFRIC 9 reassessment of Financial Instruments.Now any one can also read Financial instruments

project page

print-friendly version of the press release.

The proposals are set out in an exposure draft Embedded Derivatives, on which the IASB invites comments

by 21 January

2009. The exposure draft is available on the Website www.iasb.org.

Accounting Education means that education which teaches recording and maintaining books of accounts .

This education came in existence after mathematics and Economics science . In the point of facts , if It

should be said that above education is the base of accounting education . Above Education are very helpful

for getting accounting Education . In accounting education , we learn what is way of recording our different

transactions. With this education , we can calculate our business's result relating to different transactions

and events . It is not easy to find to reward or return on investment made by businessman .

Suppose , A company whose sale is 6 Billion $ ( 6 X 1000000000000 $ ) and it has spread in 120 countries

and if you are said to calculate the profit or loss of a company . Then , you will feel giddy . But ,if you learn

accounting education , you will feel reposal and easement to calculate above profit or loss. This accounting

education is also helpful for determination of tax because , if we learn to record all transactions in the books

and on this base we can calculate correct value of tax and become responsible businessman of this nation.

All tax officers or assessing officers confess the accounts of professional accountants who are expert in

accounting education. Success of business is fully under accounting's thumb . It is impossible to develop

business without accounting data and effective use of them for business plannings . For analysis of different
statement is also depend on cost and management accounting which are subbranches of accounting . One of

magistral feature of accounting is that this education is encumbrance on brain . All work is done in this

education with fully scientific method of accounting . After spending of time , all other educations forget but

accounting education is always young and challenging position in the brain of accountant . Accountant does

their work with new power . It is the reason that as accountant's experience increases , by the way amounts

to higher posts of administration .

It is true that getting of any education is no so simple and you have to face several difficulties . Like other

education accounting education is not so easy . It is the way of complexities and Complications but student

should do hard practice and try to understand accounting terminology . After this student can solve every

problem of accounting .

Corporate Accounting Part-I

1st Maintaining the accounts relating to issue, forfeiture and reissue of shares.

When we issue share first time, it is the duty of accountant to records all the transactions relating to issue of

share must be recorded in the books of company. The process of issue is completed the following way.

getting the application money with application

getting the allotment money when shares are allotted to shareholders

getting the final amount in the form of IST, second and final calls.

So when any amount we receive, it must be recorded by accountant of company. If we are refunding the

amount then also its record must be kept in company books.

In company accounts, the accountant can face the problems of forfeiture of shares and reissue of forfeited

shares. Many inexperienced accountant do 90% mistake in passing the voucher entries relating to forfeiture

and reissue of shares. This is broad concept and I will write full tutorial on forfeiture and reissue shares.

Today I am concentrating our all area of company accounts.

2nd Maintaining the debentures Accounts

Debenture is just loan which is taken by any company, so it is the duty of the accountant to record relating

to issue and repayment of debentures.

3rd Maintaining the accounts of Bonus Shares

Bonus shares are the shares to existing shareholder. When company thing that it is according to the

company policies, then company can issue the bonus shares. So record of bonus is all very necessary in

company accounting.
4th Maintaining the accounts of Right shares

Right shares can also issue to existing shareholder on the proportion of their existing shares .These shares

are also very important from recording point of view.

5th Maintaining regular accounts

Regular accounts means to pass the voucher entries related to purchase, sale, expenses, and losses,

incomes of company or on the behalf of company. The recording way is equal to the recording way of sole

trade or firm’s transactions.

6th Maintaining the final accounts of Company

Maintaining the final accounts of company is very necessary because company laws of different countries

have given strict provision for making and publishing the final accounts of company. There the final

statement is made in final accounts of company by accountants of company.

Profit and loss account

This account is equal to the profit and loss account of other organization.

Profit and loss appropriation account

It is very compulsory to make profit and loss appropriation account. In company level business , shareholder

is differ from management or directors , so what is the dividend and what amount of profit and loss reserves

in company will write in the debit side of this account. Other thing I will discuss in next articles.

Balance Sheet

This sheet shows the assets and liabilities of company. Company must show his contingent liabilities in the

footnote in the below of this balance sheet.

7th Calculation of Managerial Commission

From accounting point of view, it is very necessary to calculate commission of different full time and part

time directors of company. Different countries’ company laws can make the rules and regulations regarding

these commissions, so you must know the current rates of such commission if you have the responsibility of

making the company accounts.The area of expenses and incomes of company is so wide, so thinking of

company accountant must be so wide.

8th Dividend and Interest Calculation

Company account’s main part is to calculate the dividend and interest and then record. There are different

types of dividend which is issue by company but interest is given on loan and debentures issued by

company.
9th Corporate tax

Current rules and regulations relating to corporate tax depend on the finance bill and budget , so before

calculation and recording of corporate tax.

Meaning of Bonus shares

Bonus means premium or gift which is paid normally in cash

Bonus shares

Bonus shares mean a gift or premium in form of stock by a company to its shareholders . It may be stated

as extra dividend to share holder in a joint stock co. from surplus profits in the legal context a bonus share

is neither dividend nor a gift . It is governed by regulations of the company law that it can neither be

declared like a dividend nor gifted away . .

Source of bonus shares

The bonus shares can be issue out of profit or reserve which have been earned by the company these are

profit or reserve which are free for the purpose of dividend and as specified in company act . but it can not

view , those reserve and surpluses which are not earned by company that is which are existing due to

revaluation of assets etc.

• Profit and loss account

• general reserve

• revenue reserve

• free reserves

• dividend equalization fund

• capital reserve

• sinking fund

• debenture redemption reserve only after redemption

• development rebate reserve

• allowance after expiry of 8 years

• capital redemption reserve

• share premium or security premium if received in cash

Bonus

Bonus is an accounting term , it means a premium or gift which is paid normally in cash.
Bonus shares

Bonus shares means a gift or premium in the form of stock by company to its shareholders . It may be

stated as extra dividend to shared holder in a joint stock company from surplus profit s in the legal context

a bonus share is neither dividend nor a gift . It is governed by regulations of the company law that it can

neither be declared like a dividend nor gifted away.

" issue of bonus shares in liew of dividend is not allowed ."

Source of bonus shares

The bonus shares can be issue out of profit or reserve which have been earned by the company over the

previous years .Normally these are profit or reserve which are free for the purpose of dividend and as

specified in company act. but it can not views those reserve and surpluses which are not earned by company

that is which are existing due to revaluation of assets etc.

•Profit and loss account

•general reserves

•revenue reserves

•free reserves

•dividend equalization fund

•capital reserves

•sinking fund or debenture redemption reserve only after redemption

•Development rebate reserve /allowance after 8 years

•Capital redemption reserve

•Shares premium or security premium if received in cash

Corporate Accounting Part-II

SEBI Guidlines for determining maximum quantom of bonus issue

First test

Residual reserve test As per this guidline the residual reserve after the proposal of capitalisation ( bonus

issu) should be at least 40% of increased paid up capital

5 Free reserve - 2 paid up capital before the bonus issue= -----------------------------------------------7

2nd test

Profitability requirement test

As per this guidline 30% of average amount of profit before tax in the previous three year should yield a
rate of dividend of expended capital base of the company at 10%

= 3 average profit - existing share capital

3rd test

Maximum limit requirement

This test indicates teh maximum amount which can be utilised for issue shares capital at one time shall not

exceed the total amount of paid up equity capital of the company

Amount of bonus < total existing quity paid up capital

To determine a maximum amount of bonus which can be decleared the test mention above will be apply .

Firstly the first two test will be consider the amount of bonus will be restricted upto the lower amount but

this amount will not exceed the existing paid up capital of the company .

In brief the following steps should be consider for the purpose of bonus

1. Bonus shares not permitted in less existing partly paid up shres are converted into fully paid up shares

2. Bonus can not exist teh paid up equity capital of the company

3. The balance of residual reserve must not less than 40% of increased capital

4. 30% of average profit before tax of previous 3 year must yield 10% dividend on the increased capital

Accounting treatment of bonus shares

I am giving the full detail of accounting treatment of bonus shares step by step

1st case

When the partly paid up shares are converted into fully paid up shares through bonus issue

For providing the amoutn of bonus out of reserve , then the following journal entry will pass

• Capital reserve account debit

• general reserve account debit

• revenue reserve account debit

• free reserve account debit

• dividend equalization fund account debit

• profit and loss account debit

• Bonus to equity shareholders account credit

• For amount due on final call of shares ( Existing shares unpaid amount

• Share final call account debit

• Share capital account credit

• For adjustment of final call amount out of profit

• Bonus to shareholder account debit

• share final call account credit

2nd case

When new fully paid up bonus shares are issued

a) for providing amount of bonus

• Capital reserve account debit

• share premium account debit

• capital redemption reserve account debit

• other general reserve account debit

• Profit and loss account debit

• bonus to shareholder account credit

b) for issue of bonus

• Bonus to equity shareholder account debit

• equity share capital account credit

Calculation the value of bonus shares

Steps for calculation the value of bonus shares

1st step

Take the basis of bonus issue for the purpose of determining for purpose of total amount of bonus basis of

bonus issue.

(a) To convert the existing partly paid up shares into fully paid up shares

Numbers of existing equity shares X unpaid amount

b) To determine the number of bonus shares

Bonus shares numbers Total no. of issued shares= __________ X ___________Basis issue numbers

c) Amount of new bonus shares= no. of bonus shares X issue price

Steps of capital budgeting process

Capital budgeting is process of selecting best long term investment project . Capital budgeting is long term

planning for making and financing proposed capital out laying

Steps for capital budgeting process

Ist step

Identification involved in capital budgeting proposals

2nd step
Screening the proposal

3rd step

Evaluation of various proposals

4th step

Fixing the priorities

5th step

Final approval and planning the capital expenditure

6th step

Implementing the proposal

7th step

Performance review

Terms used in Corporate Accounting

• Corporate or Company

Corporate or company is the synonym. Company means association of person which do any business for

earning profit. But it must register and formed under any company law of any country. Because company is

an artificial person and do work with separate entity. Company has its own charter and internal article of

association.

• Shares

This is main term of corporate accounting. When we divide total capital of company into parts then each part

is called share. Suppose, if you have 100000 capitals and if you divide into 1000 parts. Then it means

company has 1000 shares of 100 rupees each.

• Preference Shares

Preference shares are the main type of shares if company issues that type of shares, then the share holder

of these types of shares has the benefit that they can get part of profit with fixed rate and before giving the

part of profit to equity shareholders. In the end of company, these shares are get preference of their

repayment.

• Equity Shares

Equity Shares are the shares which are differ from preference shares. The shareholder of these shares has

no preference relating getting dividend or any repayment. They are real owner of company and have the

right to give the vote.

 • Dividend

Dividend is that part of profit which distribute among shareholder. Its other name is divisible profit. Dividend

may be given by cash or through bonus or any other type.

• Debenture

Debenture is just paper which is given by company when company takes loan from public. It is issued under

company seal. In this paper company accepts that he will repay the loan taken by him after certain period

with given rate of interest.

• Redemption

Redemption is technical term in corporate accounting .It means repayment of loan taken by company. When

company issued debenture then company also writes the mode of redemption of debenture. There are

different ways of redemption of debenture. The best way is to create sinking fund and keep some part of

profit in it as annual installment. So that company can pay his taken loan without any tension.

• General Reserve

General reserve is the part of retained profit. It is very compulsory to make general reserve in company for

payment of contingent liabilities or for development of company. Every finance bill has right to amend or

change the rate of % in general reserve. This part is not issued as dividend

Accounting Treatment of issue of shares on premium and discount

Some time a company can decide to issue of shares on premium or on discount. In both situations we must

know the basic concept before doing any accounting treatment.

Issue of shares on premium

Issue of shares on premium means that if company wants to get more money of each share. Then the

company can demand premium with the face value or nominal value of shares. This is called issue of shares

on premium. Suppose if the face value of shares is RS.100 Company can issue of his 10000 @ Rs. 105 it

means company is also demanding RS. 5 per share as premium. According to new amendments in Company

law 1956, Company must open security premium account, if co. issue shares on premium. All money which

got with name of premium will transfer to security premium account . The following entry will passed in the

books of company
1.For the due of share Allotment money

• Shares Allotment Account Debit xxxx ( with the total amount )

• Shares Capital Account Credit xxxx ( With the face value of shares)

• Security Premium Account Credit xxxx( With the amount of premium)

2. For Allotment money Received

• Bank Account Debit xxxx ( face value + Premium )

• To Share Allotment Account xxxx

If company has demanded the premium with his call money from share holders , then on the place share

allotment account we must write share call account , all other journal entry will be same.

According to Section 78 , We will use this fund according to guidelines of law.

Meaning of Issue of shares at discount :-

It means that company demands less amount than face value of shares .This less amount is called discount

on issue of shares .

Journal entry of discount on issue of shares

When we receive allotment by giving discount on issue of share

1 Amount due of allotment

Share Allotment Account Debit xxxx( face value of allotment – discount)

Discount on issue of share account Debit xxxx( amount of discount)

To Share capital account

2. When allotment money actually received

Bank account debit xxx( face value of allotment –discount)

To share allotment account

Accounting treatment of issue of share for purchasing an fixed asset

In the situation when company want to buy any fixed asset , then company can issue shares to supplier of

fixed asset .
At this time company pass the following journal entries :-

For purchasing fixed on credit

Fixed asset account debit xxx

Creditor account credit xxx

For issue of shares

Creditor account Debit xxx

Share Capital Account credit xxx

In case if company issue in premium or on discount to the suppliers of fixed asset . Then we first calculate

the number of shares for doing any accounting treatment for this

In case of issue at premium

Numbers of shares

Value of Fixed asset= -----------------------Value of per share (Face value + premium)

In case if issue of shares at discount

Numbers of shares

Value of Fixed asset= ------------------------Value of per share (Face value – Discount per share)

After this the following journal entry will pass

Suppose xy company purchase the machinery of RS. 90000 by issue of shares at discount of shares of 10%

if face value of share is RS.10

Journal entries

Machinery account debit 90000

Creditor account credit 90000

2 for issue shares to creditors at discount

No. of shares =90000/9 = 10000

Amount of discount =RS.10000

Creditor account Debit 90000

Discount on issue of share account debit 10000

Share capital account credit 100000

Suppose xy company purchase the machinery of RS. 120000 by issue of shares at Premium of shares of
20% if face value of share is RS.10

Journal entries

Machinery account debit 120000

Creditor account credit 120000

2 for issue shares to creditors at discount

No. of shares =120000/12 = 10000

Amount of Premium =RS.20000

Creditor account Debit 120000

Share capital account credit 100000

Security premium account credit 20000

Adjustment in company’s balance sheet for call in arrear

When a company makes the balance sheet after first time issue of shares. There may be the case of call in

arrear.

In my earlier article, I have already explained call in arrear and call in advance. In this article, I want to

explain, how you will do the adjustment in balance sheet for call in arrear. Call in arrear must be deduct

from Called up capital

Called up Capital = Capital demanded at the time of Application + Allotment + and calls money

Less call in arrear = at the time of allotment and due date of call money

After deducting, it we can easily calculate paid up capital

Accounting Treatment of Call in arrear and call in advance

Call in Arrear

Call in arrear means company has demanded his due amount of allotment or call money but .But if

shareholder does not pay his allotment money on due date it deems as call in arrear , this is the asset of

company and it must deduct from call up capital for calculation paid up capital. If there is no any rule the

company has right to get 5% interest on call in arrear.

Journal Entries for call in arrear in the books of company

1st journal entry will write at the time of due but not received the allotment money from share holder

Call in Arrear Account Debit xxxx

To Share Allotment Account xxxx

2nd When call in Arrear received from shareholder

Bank Account Debit xxxx

To Call in arrear Account xxxx

3rd journal entry is related to company’s interest received on due amount of call in arrear. This is the

income of company:-

Bank Account Debit xxxx

To Interest on Call in Arrear xxxx

Call in Advance

Call in advance means that company did not call the allotment or calls but shareholder gives the call money

in advance form .So this is the liability of company . Company is liable to pay 6% interest on call in advance

to shareholder

Journal Entry for call in Advance

1st journal entry will pass for adjustment of advance money of allotment received at the time of application

Share Allotment Account Debit xxxx

To Call in Advance xxxx

2nd Journal entry will pass for when the amount of allotment due

Call in Advance Account Debit xxxx

To Share Allotment Account xxxx

3rd Journal Entry for paying the interest on call in advance to shareholder

Interest on call in advance Account Dr. xxxx

To Bank Account xxxx

Definition of share forfeitures

Share forfeitures means cancel the power of share holder if he does not pay his call money when company

demands for this .Company will give 14 days notice, after 14 days if shareholder did not pay then company

will forfeit his shares and cut off his name from the register of shareholder. Company will not pay his

received fund from shareholder.

Deep accounting treatment is divided in following parts

1st situation

Simple accounting treatment

In this situation shares issue at part and there is no pro-rata situation. So the following entry will pass
Share capital Account Debit (called up amount of forfeited shares

Share forfeited Account Credit (Amount received of forfeited shares)

Share call in arrear Account Credit (Amount did not receive of forfeited shares)

2nd Situation

When shares issue on discount and premium

Dear friend if shares are issue on premium or on discount, then if we did not receive the premium, then we

write in journal entry otherwise we will not show security premium account in share forfeiture journal entry

Share capital Account Debit (called up amount of forfeited shares)

Security premium account Debit (If premium is not received from share holder)

Share forfeited Account Credit (Amount received of forfeited shares)

Share Allotment Account Credit (If allotment money is not received)

Share call in arrear Account Credit (Amount did not receive of forfeited shares)

In case shares are issued on discount

Share Capital Account Debit

Share Forfeiture Account Credit

Share Allotment Account Credit

Share call in arrear account credit

Discount on issue of shares account credit

3rd situation

When shares issue pro-rata base

In case there is also difficulty to calculate the net amount of allotment received in case some amount is not

received and same person we have adjust some amount of share application.

Calculate the net amount of allotment received

Total amount of allotment money due xxxxxx

Less Adjustment with application

Money xxxxxx

_________________

Xxxxxx

Less Amount not received

As forfeited shares

Xxxxxxx
Less (-) xxxx

Perportion in

Not received amount

Of adjusted application

Money which is

We received in advance

Total not receive allotment= ------------------------------- x Total adjustment of application money

Total Allotment money

________________________________

Net amount not received

In the form of allotment xxxxxxx (-) xxxx

______________________________ ____________

Net Amount received in the form of

Allotment xxxxx

B- When Company issue of debenture at premium

If premium is receivable with application money

1st Journal Entry

When amount of application received with premium

Bank Account Debit

Debenture Application account Credit

2nd Journal Entry

Debenture Application Account Debit

Debenture Account Credit

Security premium Account credit

If premium receivable on allotment then

Debenture Allotment account debit

Debenture Account Credit

Security Premium Account Credit

And allotment money received with premium

Bank account Debit

Debenture Allotment Account Credit

When Debenture Issued At discount

Debenture Allotment Account Debit

Discount on Issue of Debenture Account Debit

Debenture Allotment Account Credit

When discounted amount of debenture is received

Bank Account Debit

Debenture Allotment Account Credit

Redemption of Debenture and method of redemption

Redemption of Debenture means repayment at the maturity of debenture. Because earlier we told that

debentures are long term loan so it is very necessary to redeem the debentures.

1st Method

Lumbsum method

It means when company repay the Lumbsum amount to debenture holder . There following sub method of

this method

A) Without Provision

According to Company law , if you have to redeem without any provision , it is necessary to make reserve of

debenture redemption reserve with 50% of total amount of debenture so that company can easily repay the

debenture without any provision at the time of redemption the following journal entry will pass.

Debenture Account Debit

Debenture holder Account Credit

1st journal Entry

Profit and loss Appropriation Account Debit

Debenture Redemption Reserve Account Credit

2nd Journal Entry

Debenture holder Account Debit

Bank Account Credit

3rd Journal Entry

Debenture redemption Reserve account Debit

General Reserve Account Credit

Sinking Fund – Method of redemption of Debenture

This is very important method of redemption of debenture. Sinking fund means take one part of profit for

repayment of debenture. This is calculated with sinking fund table. This is invested in such scheme which

gives us Lumbsum amount so that we can easily repay the debenture without any tension. This is very

popular and scientific method of redemption of debenture. In this method we open the sinking fund and

sinking fund investment account. Sinking fund’s other name is also Debenture Redemption Fund Account.

The following accounting treatment is done by the accountant of company when the company follow this

method .

In the end of first year

1st journal entry for taking reserve from profit

Profit and loss appropriation account Debit

Sinking Fund Account Credit

2nd Journal Entry for invest the sinking fund

Sinking fund investment Account Debit

Bank Account Credit

In the end of next years but not end last year

3rd Journal Entry for receiving interest on investment

Bank Account Debit

Interest on sinking fund investment Account Credit

4th Journal Entry for transferring interest to sinking fund

Interest on Sinking fund investment account Debit

Sinking fund Account Credit

5th Journal entry for taking reserve from profit

Profit and loss appropriation account Debit

Sinking Fund Account Credit

6th Journal Entry for invest the sinking fund

Sinking fund investment Account Debit

Bank Account Credit

At the end of last year

Bank Account Debit

Interest on sinking fund investment Account Credit

7th Journal Entry for transferring interest to sinking fund

Interest on Sinking fund investment account Debit

Sinking fund Account Credit

8th Journal entry for taking reserve from profit

Profit and loss appropriation account Debit

Sinking Fund Account Credit

9th Journal Entry for receiving the money from sale of investment

Bank account Debit

Sinking fund investment account Credit

10th journal entry for any profit on sale

Sinking Fund investment Account Debit

Sinking fund account Credit

11th journal entry for repayment to debenture holders

Debenture Account debit

Bank account credit

12th Journal entry for balance of sinking fund transferred to general reserve account

Sinking fund account debit

General reserve account credit

Accounting Treatment of Provision for Income Tax

Before writing this article , I have studied deeply several books of accounting . Actually this type of provision

is needed in Corporate type business . Because in the sole trade and partnership firm there is no treatment

of provision for income tax and income tax paid because above two type business level , it is the duty of

business man to pay income tax personally . So in above situation if he take any fund from business for

paying income tax , it is deemed as drawing or other words we can say that his capital will reduce if you pick

some amount for paying any income tax . No other treatment is done in sole trade or partner ship

Now In Case of Company or Corporate

I am giving you full detail of accounting treatment , if you have to do this type of work in any company .
Ist Step

Understanding the meaning of Company . I have already read on it see .

2nd Step

Understanding the meaning of provision of Income tax

In India , we all company pay income tax of previous year income . Means what we earn in last year we

have to pay tax on next year that is called assessment year. But Under the law of Income tax , all company

have to pay tax in advance .

So without actual earning we starts to estimate earning .

For Example

Suppose company can guess that it will earn RS. 5 crore in this year .

So on this advance guess company make his reserve or provision of income , it may be the 5% or 10% or

15% or 30% on his estimated income. This is called provision for income tax .

Now company Make the voucher entry of this provision by providing amount from profit and loss account

Profit and loss account Debit

Provision for income tax account Credit

After provision or estimated income tax , company submit his advance income tax return to income tax

department ,

then pass the following entry

Advance Income tax account debit

Bank Account credit

After one year when income tax department calculate the real income tax by providing the real income

position of company in previous year .

•Adjustment of actual income tax with provision

Actual income tax will adjust with provision of income tax by passing following adjustment entry

Provision for income tax account Debit

Income tax Account ( Actual after assessment ) credit

•We must calculate the difference between actual paid tax and ( advance + tds )

If advance and tds is more than actual tax , then income tax department return your excess tax paid

At this time two general entries will pass

1st transfer advance tax and tds to income tax account

Income tax account debit

Advance tax account Credit

Tds account Credit

2nd journal entry will pass for return the amount

Bank account debit

Income tax account credit

If advance and tds is less than actual tax , then income tax department demand more tax from you , and

you will pay by following journal entry

1st transfer advance tax and tds to income tax account

Income tax account debit

Advance tax account Credit

Tds account Credit

2nd journal entry will pass for return the amount

Recent Trends in published accounts

Indian Company law 1956's section 210 , 216, and 217 binds board of directors of company to show profit

and loss account and balance sheet of company and auditor's report's copies in annual general meeting of

Company . All these reports are called annual reports of company . It is also compulsory for company to

publish both in print and now in website also . These reports show the performance of company to public .

These days many companies are using charts and graphs for publishing their final accounts . Because , it is

attractive and gives good impression to customers and interested people of company . Many charts are so

popular and be successful for comparison of financial data of company .

•Due to advancement of Internet technology you can make charts and Graphs of production cost , sale ,

income and expenses classification and distribution of income into dividend and tax and present in website

of Company .

For learning point of view I have made some chart of company's data . all these reports are made in excel or

in online with Docs spreadsheet.

Cost Accounting Part-I

At what rate will we calculate closing stock ?

Accounting is very interesting subject .Simplicity is not the feature of accounting . Different complex

problems , you will face in the field of accounting . Today , I am telling you about valuation of stock
.Because businessmen buy different stock at different time at different cost . But when we will show our

closing stock , we will face this problem . There have many rates at which we charge our cost of closing

stock but I am giving you solution of this problem very simply

Suppose Rajpura alcon company buys raw material of wire at different cost but we this company records

closing stock of this raw material , this company can use first in first out method for calculation of closing

stock . This method is also called fifo . It means that the stock which bought first , it sent for sale first so

last stock cost will the rate for calculating closing stock. There is another method last in first out or average

cost method . I always suggests businessmen and accountant to use average cost method for calculating

closing stock.

Introduction of Inventory Management

Inventory management is main duty of an accountant of any company . He is responsible both quantity and

monetary record of all the material in which company deals . We know that trader buys the goods and

sometime he returns to his suppliers . He also sells the goods and some time his customers return him his

goods . So , Inventory will convert from buying to selling step by step. Accountant have to give the reports

1. What is total amount and quantity of goods purchased and sold of different kind .

2. What is value and quantity of total closing stock

Quotation is just proposal for sale : It is not sale but offer of sale given by seller to the buyer of goods .

When any company want to buy with minimum cost he publish tender for that buying if any body sends

offer for sale with his selling rates , discount rate , delivery time and other such term and condition then

that statement is called Quotation .

We can divide terms and condition of quotation in following way

•Taxes

•Prices , releases and set off

•Delivery

•Quantities

•Term and method of payment

•Contingencies and force majeure

•Legal compliance

•Warranty conditions

•Patent conditions

•Termination and cancellation

•Inspection , size and Tolerance

•Release of Information

Delivery Note and Invoice

Delivery note is issued when goods physically delivered by seller to buyer. Its other name is delivery

challan. But Invoice is just description of credit sale .

Accountant can prepare both Invoice -cum - Delivery note at the time of delivery.

There for to complete the sale transaction , the seller

•Delivers goods against order or without order (where order does not exist)

•Prepares delivery note or sales invoice ( Bill-cum- delivery note )

•Prepares sales invoice linking the delivery note where sales invoice was not prepared at the time of

delivery.

Debit Note

When A business organisation purchases the goods from other business organisation . Some goods out of

them can be rejected by a business organisation to other . At this time for recording the purchase return ,

there is two method of making the voucher of this record .

Ist Method: We wait our supplier , when he accepts our rejected goods and send us credit note . This credit

note will be the debit note for our purchase return entry. With this purchase return entry our stock will

reduce with the amount of goods return outward and We make voucher Entry in Debit Note in tally 9

2nd Method: In this we issue the debit note with return goods and pass the voucher entry of purchase

return in debit note.

Steps of voucher entry in tally 9

1st Step: Yes the feature of debit and credit note

2nd Step:Create the Ledger of Purchase return under the head of purchase

3rd Step: Pass the voucher entry of purchase return in debit note voucher of tally 9

Credit Note

When A business organisation sells the goods to other business organisation . Some goods out of them can

be rejected by other business organisation . At this time for recording the sale return , there is two method

of making the voucher of this record .

Ist Method: We wait our customer , when he send us Debit note . This Debit note will be the Credit note for

our Sale return entry. With this Sale return entry our stock will increase with the amount of goods return

inward.
and We make voucher Entry in Credit Note in tally 9

2nd Method: In this we issue the credit note as we accept rejected goods and pass the voucher entry of

Sale return in Credit note. Steps of voucher entry in tally 9

1st Step: Yes the feature of debit and credit note

2nd Step: Create the Ledger of Sale return under the head of Sale

3rd Step: Pass the voucher entry of Sale return in Credit note voucher of tally 9

Cost Accounting Part-II

Definition of Labour Cost and main reasons of increasing labour cost

Labour is very important part of production . Its cost is very important in total cost of production . So we

should know what is meaning of labour cost .

Definition

Labour cost means all amount which direct or indirect is given to labourer or employee for his work for

production .

In labour cost we include two type cost relating to labour

Ist type - Monetary cost of labour

In monetary cost of labour includes

1. Basic wages/salary of employee

2. Dearness allowance

3. Provident fund

4. Employee state Insurance ( ESI)

5. Employee's share in profit of business

6. Pension of employee

7. Gratuity and other monetary benefits

2nd Type - Non monetary labour cost

1. Free food facility to labourers

2. Subsidised housing facility

3. free educational facility to employee's children

Main Reasons of Increasing labour cost

It is the duty of cost accountant to reduce the cost of labour so that cost of production will reduce and

businessmen can sell their products at lower price. So he must know what exact reasons beyond increasing

labour cost .

Ist Reason

• Increasing labour turnover

• Increasing idle time

• Forgery names in wage sheet

Affect of Business Activities on Stock Calculation

There are many business activities and events which affect the quantity and value of stock.

1st Affect: When company buys the material , it increase the quantity and value of stock.

2nd Affect: When company returns the goods to supplier , it reduces quantity and value of stock.

3rd Affect: When company sells the goods to buyers then it reduces quantities and value of stock.

4th Affect: When our customers returns us the goods at this time our quantity and value of stock will

increase .

5th Affect: Today is most important effect is the effect of of inflation and deflation . It affect only on the

value of stock . But there

is no change the value of stock.

6th Affect: There are different method of calculating of stock can affect the value of stock . Calculating the

value of stock with

FIFO will differ the calculated stock with LIFO method .

Financial Accounting Part-I

Outstanding expenses and its accounting treatment

Some people are coming from non medical and medical in field of accounting . There can easily learn tally

and some basic rules of accounting From any coaching institute but they do not know the accounting

treatment of outstanding expenses in book of accounts . Then I am training of this point at this time .First of

all I am telling you that outstanding expenses are those expenses which are payable but not paid , so it is

our duty to record it at the closing of financial year .Dear friends according to the accounting principals any

expenses paid or payble is the expenses of business , so when we makes profit and loss account of business

, it must be added in paid expense and you can make journal entry in tally

Expenses account dr. xxxxx

To outstanding expense account xxxxx

This entry automatically adjust your final account , you need not change your final accounts in tally . This is

facility to you in using tally.

Adjustments of Final accounts

Name of items

Adjustment entry

Effect on trading and profit and loss account

Effect on balance sheet

1. Closing stock

Closing stock account dr. xxx

To trading account xxx

Closing stock will write in the credit side of trading account

It will show as asset in the final account

2. outstanding expenses or expenses payable or expenses due but not paid

Expenses account dr. xxx

To outstanding exp. xxx

Outstanding expenses will add in expenses . if it is direct it will go to trading account’s debit side , if it is

indirect nature then it will go to the debit side of profit and loss account

It will be the current liability so it will go to the liability side of balance sheet.

3. advance expenses

Advance expenses a/c dr. xxx

To expenses account xxx

It will deduct from respective expenses paid .

It will be the current asset so it will go to assets side of balance sheet

4. income receivable

Outstanding income account dr. xxx

To income account xxx

It will add in the income and go to credit side of profit and loss account

It will show as asset in the assets side of balance sheet

5. income received in advance

Income account dr. xxx

To advance income account xxx

It will deduct from the income received

It will shown as liability in the liabilities side of balance sheet

6 Goods use for personal use

Drawing account dr. xxx

To purchase account

It will deduct from purchase in the debit side of trading account

= purchase –drawing in goods

It will deduct from capital in the liabilities side of balance sheet

=capital- drawing in goods

7. Destroyed of goods

loss by fire or accident account Dr. xxx

To trading

If there is no insurance

It will also go to profit and loss account

Profit and loss account dr. xxx

To loss by fire / accident

It will shown in credit side of trading account

And also in profit and loss account’s debit side

It will not go to balance sheet

8. Depreciation

Depreciation account dr. xxx

To respective asset account xxxx

It will go to the debit side of profit and loss account

It will deduct from fixed asset . Because it decrease the value of asset

=fixed asset - depreciation

9. provisional for doubtful debts

If you have make any provision for doubt ful debts the its journal entry will passed

Provision for doubtful debt account dr. xxx

To Bad debts account xxx

( New bad debts which is not shown in trial balance will transfer to provision for doubtful debt account )

Net value of provision for doubtful debt account transfer to profit and loss account’s debit side
=total bad debt + closing balance or provision of doubtful debt or this year provision - opening balance of

provision for doubtful debts

Deduct from debtor

= debtor – new bad debts – this year provision or closing balance of provision for bad debts

10. Commission to manager

Commission account dr. xxx

To outstanding commission

It will shown in the debit side of profit and loss account as o/s commission to manager

If it charge on the amount after charging such commission then we will calculate

= profit before commission X Rate/ 100+rate

It will shown as liability

Accounting Treatment of Provision for doubtful debts

Before doing accounting treatment of provision for doubtful debts , you must know the complete definition

of provision . In accounting , it is a reserve that is against loss due to non payment of debtors . In case

debtor does not give us our amount . Then if we have make provision or reserve for this , we can easily

purchase new goods but if we have no money due to every year bad debts then we can become insolvent .

So with our work experience we should make our provision on our debtors with some % on debtor .

Now you are ready for doing the accounting treatment of provision for doubtful debts .

First of pass the journal entry of actual bad debts .

Entry for recording actual bad debt which did not record in books of business

1. Bad debts account Dr. xxxxx

To Sundry Debtors Account xxxxxx

Entry for transferring bad debts to provision for bad debts Account

2. Provision for bad debts account Dr. xxxxxx

To Bad Debts account xxxxx

Transfer of provision for bad debts account to profit and loss account

3. Profit and loss account Dr. xxxxxx

To Provision for bad debts account xxxxx

It is not necessary that provision for doubtful debt account will go only to the debit side of this account but it

may go to the credit side . It will decide after making provision for doubtful debt account . Which is very

easy to make . I am showing you this account . After study of this account you can easily make this account

and take the benefits of this provision .

Manufacturing accounting
Manufacturing accounting means accounting relating to production or manufacturing. All accounting can

divide also manufacturing and non manufacturing. Accounting up to converting raw material to finished

product includes in manufacturing accounting. We specially open manufacturer account for recording all

items regarding production. In manufacture account we record direct material cost, labor cost and

production overhead cost. Manufacture account is helpful to find out the value of cost of production which

transfers to trading account. It is also part of financial statement.

Manufacturing account starts opening balance of raw material in its debit side. Amount of purchase of raw

material are also debited in this account and direct labour charges and other manufacturing overheads like,

depreciation of plant, lighting of plant and factories other expenses will transfer to debit side of

manufacturing account. In the credit side of manufacturing account we shows closing balance of raw

material and work in progress and scrap sale. The difference of both sides is the cost of production which

transfers to trading account’s debit side. Manufacturing account is also helpful for finding the value of gross

profit because gross profit is difference between cost of sale and sale value but cost of sale can not be

calculated without finding the value of cost of production .So, factory accountant records every transaction

relating to factory and one these voucher entry basis we find manufacture or manufacturing account.

How can I make the accounts of NGO and Charitable societies.

To make the accounts of ngo and charitable societies is very simple . In charitable societies we have to

make receipt and payment account . This is just like cash account .But cash account can not be made in non

profit organization .Debit side of receipt and payment account is receipt of cash. Ngo can receipt cash in the

form of subscription , interest ,general donation , rent received and entrance fees etc. Ngo can also pay

certain expenses like salaries , printing & stationery expenses and other purchasing of fixed and current

asset . This must show in the credit side of receipt and payment account .After doing this , accountant can

calculate balance of cash at the end time of accounting period . It is also duty to collect other information

like outstanding and advance income and expenditure :-for calculating net excess of income over expenses

of ngo and charitable societies . There is given a procedure to calculate above

Showing the amount of expenses in income and expenses account

Current year Expenses paid xxxxxxxxxx

Add outstanding expenses upto the end of current year xxxxxxxxxx

Less Previous year outstanding expenses xxxxxxxxxx

Less current year advance expenses xxxxxxxxxx

Add previous year advance expenses xxxxxxxxxx

_______________________________________________________________

Expense for showing income & expenses account =

xxxxxxxxxxx_________________________________________________________
Statement showing of income in income and expenses account

Current year Income received in cash xxxxxxxxxx

Add receivable income upto the end of current year xxxxxxxxxx

Less Previous year receivable income xxxxxxxxxx

Less current year advance income xxxxxxxxxx

Add previous year advance income xxxxxxxxxx

_______________________________________________________________

Income for showing income & expenses account = xxxxxxxxxxx

Accounts for Sports Club

Making the accounts of Sport clubs or trust or society is very easy but you should know the way of

maintaining it . First of all when you are making the accounts you must classify all the item in to capital and

revenue nature . If expenses are in cash , so it must show in receipt and payment accounts , here do not

see any nature because this account show all receipt of cash and bank from any source for business . Even if

we get money through other person's credit card , then it will be deemed cash receipt . After this you can

easily make income and expenditure account . This account shows net income or loss from club , so only all

expenses which belongs to this year will send in expenses side of this account .It is not necessary that these

are in cash it may also payable also .

Accounting for Temple

It is very easy to make the accounts of temple . A temple is religious place. So recording of donation from

devotee is very necessary. Devotee may be monthly or annual member. A seal of Of temple must be on the

receipt and continually it records in the books of accounts .It is also necessary to record all the expenses

related to langur, rent, lighting, and electricity, building repair and other smangum expenses. For this

temple accountant should make the income and expenditure account and receipt and payment account. If it

is registered under charitable trust , then to make accounts of such temple is very useful for keep the faith

of devotee. Because fraud in temple fund can decrease the number of devotee in that temple

Partnership accounting

1.For division of profit or loss from partnership

2.for division of properties in case of dissolution of partnership

In partnership accounts you must open profit and loss appropriation account . It is accounts in which

accountant can adjust salary , interest on capital and interest on drawing and also new division of profit or
loss . So it is necessary to make this account . At the time of admission , partnership accounts can be

change .

Because Capital accounts will change because , old partner sacrify for new partner so it is the duty to new

partner to give some part of goodwill in cash of any other way . So that other partner can credit it in their

capital accounts .

Partnership accounting basics

In the partnership accounting , all the final accounts are same as sole trade business final accounts . But

main difference in these accounts are that In partner ship accounting , we make one extra account that is

called profit and loss appropriation account which is used for calculating net share of profit or loss of

different partner of a firm.

•This account is opened with credit balance of net profit ,

•In the debit side , we show interest on capital , salary and commission of partners and

•in credit side we shows interest on drawing , after adjusting these items , we transfer net profit to partners

capital accounts in their profit sharing ratio

•In Absence of any partner ship deed Partner will divide profit or loss equally

•No interest on capital is given

•No interest on drawing is given

•No salary to any partner Interest on loan given by any partner is 6% annual.

Practical Problem of Partner ship accounting

Suppose A and B are the partners . They do not have any partnership agreement . How will you solve the

following disputes among them ?

a) A spent twice the time that B devoted to business .A claims that he should get a salary of Rs. 3000 per

month for extra time spent Ans. No Salary will be given in the absence of any agreement .

b)B has provided a capital of Rs. 50000 where as A has provided only Rs. 10000 as capital . A however has

provided Rs. 20000 as loan to firm . What interest if any will be given to A and B ?Ans. Only interest on loan

@6% will be given

c) A wants to introduce his son Sunil into his business . B objects to it .

Ans. No new partner will be admitted

d) B wants that profit should be distributed in ratio of capital but A wants that it should be distributed

equally

Ans.Profit should be shared equally in the absence of any agreement .

Calculation of interest on drawing in partner ship accounting

There are four latest method apply , if any body withdraws any fund or cash for personal use from his firm .

1.If any partner withdraws every month in the first day the he will pay to firm @ given rate for 6.5 months

2.If any partner withdraws every month in the middle of month , he will pay interest on drawing @ given

rate for 6 months

3.If any partner withdraws every month in the end of month , he will pay interest on drawing @ given rate

for 5.5 months

4.If any partner does not withdraw every month then his withdrawing month usage product will be

calculated

suppose if he withdraw Rs.5000 in first of march then he will calculate product of

5000X10 =50000

after calculating product he calculate his payable interest on drawing @ given rate

= amount of product X R/100 X 1/12

Accounting treatment of partnership accounts at the time of admission

Admission of a New partner

Without permission , a new partner can not enter in any firm but with the acceptance of all partner , a new

partner has come in partnership firm , then it is the duty of existing partner to sacrifice his share for giving

share to new partner .It is the duty of new partner to give his own capital and share of goodwill to

partnership firm

Accounting treatment on the time of Admission of new partner

Calculating New and sacrificing ratio

It is necessary to calculate new and sacrifice ratio at the time of admission of a new partner because all the

journal entries like profit sharing of new firm and goodwill division is on base of calculated new and sacrifice

ratio respectively .

Calculate the profit or loss on the revaluation of assets and liabilities .

It is necessary to calculate profit or loss on the revaluation of assets and liabilities at the time of admission .

This profit or loss must be divide between old partner in old ratio . Because this is the result of the hard

work of old partner only .

Calculate the share of Goodwill which will have to take from new partner

There are many method of calculating and accounting treatment of goodwill . But these days goodwill name

has been changed with premium . and It has been brought in business by new partner is very famous

treatment . This premium is divided by old partner in their sacrifice ratio . It means their share will transfer

to their capital account .

Capital Adjustment

Some time all partner can decide to maintain their new capital . If any partner’s share will less than

accepted portion then , that partner will give fresh capital in cash form or any partner who has given more

capital from accepted capital , that partner can withdraw this excess in cash form .

Making of provision for bad debts accounts

Before making of provision of bad debts accounts , you must understand the concept of provision , reserve

etc. Because without understanding these you cannot understand the concept of making of provision of bad

debts accounts .

Meaning of provision or reserve

When we start our business , we faces certain losses like bad debts , depreciation or discount so if we do not

keep some part of our cash or profit in cash form in business pocket , we can face the problem of lack of

money for operational requirement , so we take future planning and after scientific estimation we makes

provision of reserve of our losses on the certain percentage of loss it may be 5% or 10% or 15 % . This is

called provision or reserve of loss .

•Making of this account is very easy

•It will open with opening balance of provision for bad debts

•it will show in credit side of this account .

•In the debit side we will write actual bad debt of trail balance and outside

•in the debit side also writing new provision of bad debts with writing to balance c/d

•Balancing figure will be the amount of provision transferring to profit and loss account as loss written off .

Financial Accounting Part-II

Rectification of errors

Rectification of errors is very tough work . It is main duty of chartered accountant of any country . A lot of

errors can be done by accountant . So C.A. audits the full accounts and if he see any error , his duty to see

that why it happen and how can rectify this so that profit or loss or financial position do not affect of this

happenings .To day my main aim is not write just article on this topic but actually , I want to give you

simple way to correct your accounts error forever .Read following lines very seriously and concentrately
1. first of find out your error and mistake from accounts

2. write what is the mistake or incorrect journal entry or incorrect accounts .This error may affect one

account or two account note it .

3. Write correct journal entry or make correct account in rough page

4. in rough page , you will also have to do treatment of your mistake.Suppose you wrote 1000Rs. as sake

instead of RS.2000 sale which was correct .Its wrong is journal entry is

cash account Dr. 1000

To Sale account 1000.

In rough paper you should also write correct journal entry

Cash account Dr. 2000

To sale account 2000

Then now your are analyst you should see that 1000 is less in both side so for making the correctness pass

another

journal entry of 1000 Rs.

Cash account Dr. 1000

To Sale Account 1000

This entry is called rectify entry .

Simple method of rectification of error

I am writing very simple method for correcting the mistakes and error in books of accounts

All work must be done on rough paper or notepad .There are the part of working notes .

Ist step

What is the mistake or error .

Write it as wrong record of ledger accounts or wrong journal entry .

2nd step

What should be the correct entry or what should record which is correct according to the nature of error of

accounting

Write it in second step

3rd step

Best rectification of error or write the rectification entry in such a way so that difference will be auto

correct .

I take an example

XYZ co. purchased machinery of $ 5000 but by mistake this amount was debited in purchase account .

Ist step

Wrong entry
Purchase account debit $ 5000

Cash Account Credit $ 5000

2nd step

Correct entry

Machinery Account Debit $ 5000

Cash Account Credit $ 5000

3rd Step

Rectification of error entry

Machinery account Debit $ 5000

Purchase account Credit $ 5000

Proforma of Balance Sheet

Balance sheet is main part of financial statement . This is necessary to make it . Making of balance sheet is

very easy

but you must know the rule of making balance sheet . In Right side we will have to show all assets and in

the left side

we will have to show all liabilities .

Method of calculating goodwill

Correct calculation of goodwill is very difficult work. But with using correct formulae of specific method , you

can

easily calculate goodwill . There are four methods to calculate goodwill .

Ist Method

Average profit method

In this method, we calculate previous year’s profits average and then we multiply it with number of

purchase years.

2nd Method

Super profit method

In this method, we calculate normal profit with normal rate on investment. Then we calculate super profit

with

following formula.

Super profit = average profit / actual profit – normal profit

Goodwill = super profit X No. of purchase years

3rd Method
Capitalization method

In this method, we calculate capital employed with following formula

Capital employed = average profit or normal profit X 100/ Rate

Goodwill = capital employed – Net Assets

4th Method

Annuity Method

In this method we first of all calculate annuity . Annuity means annual value . These day , accountant are

using

different annuity tables for calculating annuity , after this they can easy calculate goodwill with following

formula .

Goodwill = Super profit X Annuity

Revaluation account

This account is very useful for calculating the profit or loss when partners decides to reconstruct their

partnership firm . When a new partner comes in firm or exit from firm , making of this account is very

necessary , I am giving the proforma of this account

Revaluation account

Dr. side

To Asset ( decrease in the amount of certain asset )

To Liabilities ( increase in the amount of any certain liabilities )

To Liabilities ( if any liability have but not recorded in books )

To transfer of profit to partner in old ratio

(if credit side is more than debit side )

Cr. Side

By Asset ( increase in the amount of certain asset )

By Liabilities ( Decrease in the amount of any certain liabilities )

By Asset ( if any asset have but not recorded in books )

By transfer of profit to partner in old ratio

(if debit side is more than credit side )

Revaluation account

This account is very useful for calculating the profit or loss when partners decides to reconstruct their

partnership firm . When a new partner comes in firm or exit from firm , making of this account is very

necessary , I am giving the proforma of this account

Capital Adjustment
When two or more partner decides to change their capital according to their profit and loss ratio , then it is

necessary to make capital adjustment in the form of cash .

For Example: Suppose one partner A who invested Rs. 100000 and other partner B invested Rs 200000 . If

they decides to divide their capital in their profit sharing ratio and suppose their profit and loss sharing ratio

is 1:1 then we calculate total capital first that is Rs.300000 and if we divide into ½ and ½ , it will be 150000

and150000 to A and B. so A will invest more 50000 Rupees and B will withdraw Rs . 50000 because his old

capital excess Rs.50000 from his new capital .

Then the journal entry will pass in the books of account

_________________________________________________________________

Cash account Debit

A partner’s capital account Credit

___________________________________________________________________

B partner’s capital account Debit

Cash Account Credit

How can You calculate new and sacrifice ratio at the time of admission of new partner

Calculation of new and sacrifice ratio at the time of admission of new partner is very easy. If you want to

calculate new profit sharing ratio, you should only calculate the difference between old and sacrifice ratio

.Sacrifice ratio means total sacrifice of old partner for new partner.

It is given by old partner to new partner so if you want to calculate new profit sharing ratio, you just deduct

this from old profit sharing ratio. But in different situation, partner can make condition at the time of

admission, and fix his surrender share for new partner from his share then we first calculate sacrifice ratio

and then calculate new profit sharing ratio.

For example Ram and sham are the two partners with profit sharing ratio are 3:2. Sita enters in this partner

ship. Both after that sita will take ¼ as new share, If agree that Ram will give 20% of his share and balance

will give by Sham then we will calculate both new and sacrifice profit sharing ratio as bellow way.

Solution :-

Ram’s sacrifice = 3/5X20% =0.12

Sham’s sacrifice =1/5-0.12 = 0.08

New profit share of Ram = 3/5 -0.12 = 0.48

New profit share of Sham = 2/5 – 0.08 = 0.32

New profit share of Sita = 1/5 = 0.20

Accounting treatment of goodwill at the time of admission

When a new partner enters in partnership firm, the old partner sacrifices his share for him , so it is the duty

of new partner to give goodwill in cash or in any other way to old partner . There are following method with

this new partner give his share of goodwill to old partners .

1st method

Private distribution of goodwill

Under this method , new partner gives his share of goodwill to old partners personally .So there is no need

to record

it to the books of firm . No journal entry will pass .

2nd method

Goodwill is given in cash form by new partner

Under this method , old partner bring his share of goodwill in cash form in the firm and it is taken by old

partner in

their sacrifice ratio . For this following journal entry pass in the books of firm

Cash / Bank Account Debit xxxxxxxxx

To Goodwill / Premium Account xxxxxxxxxx

Goodwill account debit xxxxxxxx ( share of new partner’s goodwill )

To old partner’s capital account xxxxxxx ( divide in sacrifice ratio )

3rd method

when new partner bring goodwill in cash in business and taken by old partner and then withdraw by old

partner

Above two entries will pass as same as in second method but third new entry will pass

Old partner’s capital account Debit xxxxxxxxxxx

To cash / bank account xxxxxxxx

4th method

when new partner do not bring goodwill in cash form

If new partner do not bring goodwill in cash in firm , then following entry will pass for the adjustment of

goodwill .

New partner’s capital account debit xxxxxxxx (share of goodwill )

To old partner’s capital account xxxxxxxxx (division in sacrifice ratio)

5th method

If partial in cash form of goodwill

Part of cash goodwill

Cash account dr. xxxxxx

To goodwill / premium account xxxxxxxx

Goodwill account debit ( cash goodwill) xxxxxxxxx

New partner account debit ( not in cash goodwill ) xxxx

To old partner capital account in sacrifice ratio xxxxxxx

6th method

If goodwill already exits in balance sheet of old partner , then it must be transfer to old partner’s capital

account in old ratio . Other method is same above from 1 to 5 method .

Entry passed for transferring of old goodwill

Old partner’s capital account debit xxxxxxx

To goodwill xxxxxxx

7th method

If new partner brings other asset as goodwill of his share of goodwill . Then following entry will pass

Asset account debit xxxxxx

To goodwill account xxxxxxxx

Goodwill account debit xxxxxxxxx

To old partner’s capital account in sacrifice ratio xxxxxxxxxx

Adjustment of capital at the time of admission of new partner

When a new partner in partnership firm , he and other partner can agree for the capital adjustment on the

basis of new profit sharing ratio and new partner’s capital as base . In such condition , we first calculate

total capital on the basis of new partner’s capital. "

Suppose Vinod is new partner in the firm of vijay and rajesh with 3:2 and their capital are Rs. 10000 and

Rs. 30000 but Vinod will ¼ share . He brings Rs. 10000 as capital . If all the partner agree to adjust their

capital according to new profit sharing ratio , then calculate who invest more capital in cash form or who

withdraw his excess capital

Total capital = 10000 X 4/1 =40000

Vijay’s new capital = 40000 X 9/20 = 18000

Rajesh’s new capital = 40000 X 4/20 = 8000

Vijay brings his external capital in cash because now he needs = 18000-10000 = 8000

But Rajesh withdraw his

excess capital = 30000-8000 = 22000

Difference between memorandum revaluation account and revaluation account

In the partnership accounting, at the time of retirement or admission, we either make revaluation account

or make memorandum revaluation account but we should know the main difference between both

1.In memorandum revaluation account we make reciprocal entries in same account for covering double

record system but in

revaluation account we make only one side record.

2.In memorandum revaluation system of accounting, we can not change the value of assets or liabilities
outside because all the

procedure of double record is completed in memorandum revaluation account.

3.In memorandum revaluation account , first we divide profit or loss on revaluation is in old profit sharing

ratio among all partners

but after reciprocal entries recording we divide partner in new profit sharing ratio but in revaluation

account we only divides in

old profit sharing ratio

4.Making of memorandum revaluation account is not necessary but making of revaluation account is very

necessary .

Accounting treatment at the time of retirement

In any partnership firm when a partner retires from a firm it is the duty of remaining partner to give him his

share because he has to spend his remaining life . So at this time accounting treatment is very necessary in

the books of firm.

Tips for easy recording these transactions

•Calculate new profit sharing ratio and calculate gaining ratio by deducting new profit sharing ratio from old

ratio .

•Calculate profit or loss on revaluation of assets and liabilities and transfer it to retiring partner's capital

account .

•Calculate the goodwill share of retiring partner and transfer to retiring partner's capital account ( credit side

with his share)

•Calculate joint life policy share and transfer to retiring partner's capital account

•Calculate General reserve share and transfer to retiring partner's capital account

•In his debit side we will transfer his drawing and interest on his drawing after this we can give his capital

after

above adjustment in cash form or after this his amount will deemed as loan to firm . Firm will liable to give

6% interest to retiring partner . Make and retiring partner and calculate his total amount and give him .That

is called accounting treatment of retirement of a partner .

Dead partner’s executer account

This is very simple account and it is open when Firm has to pay deceased partner’s executors. In this

account first of all we calculate payable amount then we calculate per year installment of executors then

include total interest in this amount every year.

I am trying to make you understand with an example suppose firm has to pay RS 100000 to the executor of

dead partner B

in four installment with 10% rate of interest . For this we divide Rs 100000 by 4 and it will Rs. 25000 every

year but

first year we include

1st installment Rs. 25000 + interest of Rs. 100000 X 10% =35000

2nd installment Rs. 25000+ interest of Rs. 75000 x 10% =32500

and same procedure for 3rd and 4th year . This is the easy method of given amount to executor of deceased

partner

Financial Accounting Part-III

Accounting treatment at the time of Dissolution of Firm

You must know the definition of dissolution of firm before completing the accounting treatment at the time

of dissolution .

Dissolution is the end of firm and its work . In other words , after dissolution , firm will not continue same

business with same partners because there are so many causes of dissolution of firm . Dissolution may be

with or without interfere of court . When faith among partners have completely ended or partners are

continuing illegal business or all the partners became insolvent then court may order to dissolute the firm

and distribute firms asset among the creditors of firm .

At this time for proper allocation of assets among liabilities , it is very necessary to treatment each and

every accounting elements .

1st step

Making the account of Realisation.

· In the debit side of this account we will transfer all current and fixed assets at book value except cash and

bank account.

· In the credit side of this account we will transfer all the liabilities except general reserve and capital

accounts

· In the debit side of this account we will show the all the amount of payment of creditors in cash or if any

partner

take over any liabilities .

· In the credit side of this account we will show the amount received after sale of the assets or name of

partner’s capital account if

he takes over any particular asset.

· In the debit side of this account we will also show the expenses of realization of assets .
· The difference of this account will profit or loss which will transfer to capital accounts of partners in their

profit and loss sharing

ratio.

2nd step

Making of capital accounts

After this capital accounts of partner will be made . This account will open with opening balance of their

capital. In the credit side we will transfer general reserve share , profit share of realization account this

account show the new amount that will be paid to each partner after dissolution .

3rd step

Making of cash or bank account. This will the last account which will make at the time of dissolution because

at the time of dissolution , it is necessary to make this account . This account shows receipt and payment of

cash or bank at the end of business. There must not a balance at the end of business in this account . If the

debit side of this account is equal to the credit side of this account , you are made proper this account .

Accounting Treatment of Assets and liabilities taken by partner at the time of dissolution

When a partner agree to pay the liabilities or take over any asset then firm will make the realisation account

and respective partner who take over the asset will credit in realisation account and if he agree to pay the

liabilities then his account will debit in realisation account . For this we will pass the journal entry.

1. For take over the assets Partner's capital account Dr. ( Who take over the assets)

To realisation account ( With accepted amount)

2. For paying any liability by any partner at the time of dissolution

Realisation account Dr. ( accepted pay the amount)

To Partner's capital Account( Who pays the amount of liability)

Explanation the scheme of Gradual realisation of assets and Piecemeal distribution

Generally we see that a long time is spent on realisation of assets after dissolution of firm . But we can

distribute it in installment basis . When any part of assets sells and we get the amount that amount is called

gradual realisation and its piecemeal distribution is done with following method.

1) First of all we pay all realisation expenses out of series realisation of assets

2) After this we pay outside liabilities like trade creditors , B/P out of this realisation of assets.

3) After this we repay the loan of partner .

4) In end we repay the partner's capital out of this realisation of assets

Accounting procedure for Convertion of a partnership into Limited Company

These days , partnership firms are converting into limited companies for getting the benefit of limited
liabilities . At this time firms book is closed just like dissolution of firms . In the books of firms , the following

journal entries are passed :

1) For closing the accounts of assets

Realisation account Debit

Assets Account Credit ( At book value )

2) For sale of assets and amount received

Cash /Bank Account Debit

Assets Account Credit

Realisation Account Credit

3) For closing the account of liabilities

Liabilities Account Debit

Realisation Account Credit

4) For Payment of liabilities

Realisation Account Debit ( Loss of payment )

Liabilities Account Debit

Cash / Bank account credit

5 ) For Assets and liabilities are taken over by new company

New Company Account Debit ( Purchase price = Agreed value of assets - agreed value of liabilities )

Realisation account Credit

6) For Payment of expenses of realisation

a) If pay by partner Realisation Account Debit

Cash / Bank Account Credit

b) If pay by new company

New company Account Debit

Cash /Bank account Credit

7) Closing of Realisation account

If profit
Realisation account Debit

partner's capital Account Credit

8 ) Receipt of purchase price

Cash / Bank /Shares / Debentures Account Debit

Purchasing company Account Credit

9 ) On distribution of shares / debenture and cash from purchasing company

Partner's capital account Debit ( dividing in adjusted capital ratio )

Cash/Bank/ Shares /Debenture Account

After journal entry , you can transfer into ledger for making realisation account , company account ,

partner's capitalaccount

Amalgamation of Firms

When two or more firms merge into one firm and makes a new firm , then this is called amalgamation of

firms . For accounting point of view this definition is so important because if one firm purchases other firm ,

then this is not called amalgamation but if both firms decide to join or integrate then this is called

amalgamation .

For Example

Suppose A and B firm decide to close their business and start the business with the name of AB firm after

joining with each other then this is called amalgamation of A and B firm.

Steps for closing the accounts of old firm at the time of amalgamation of firms

When two firm amalgamate with each other , at this time we treat following accounting in the books of old

firms so that all doubt solves .

1st

Revaluation of Assets and Liabilities

All entries same as at the time of admission and retirement

2nd

Transferring reserve to old partners capital account into their old ratio

3rd

treatment of Goodwill

We evaluate the goodwill according to the condition of agreement and then goodwill will open with agreed

value in the books

4th

Treatment of Assets and liabilities not taken by new firm

If assets and liabilities are not taken by new firm , then these item will transfer to the capital accounts of

partners of old firm and we close these accounts

A -Treatment of assets and liabilities taken by new firm (In the books of old partners)

a) For closing the account of assets

New Firms Account Debit

Assets Account Credit ( at revalued value)

b) For closing the accounts of liabilities

Liabilities Account Debit

New Firm Account Credit

5th

Closing the accounts of partners capital

Partner's capital account Debit

New Firms Account Credit

B - In the books of new firm

Assets Account Debit

Liabilities Account Credit

Partner's capital Account Credit

Accounting of jewellery business

There is boom in jewellery business . Due to increasing the value of gold jewellery business is giving high

rate of return to business man . Because of my background is related to this business so , I am writing and

telling you the technique of how to make and maintain the accounts of jewellery business .It is very simple

to record of jewellery business but it is very harmful to make any mistake in these type of accounts .

Because 10 gram’s quantity’s value is approximately Rs. 10000 so be careful while doing the accounts of

jewellery business .

When we purchase gold , it will our raw material . So it will deal as stock , it should valued on cost . Then

you should regular passing the voucher entry of purchasing of gold . in cash book if you purchase on cash ,

if you purchase on credit , then your duty is also to maintain the accounts of your creditors also . Because

this is our current liabilities , we should know how much amount , we will have to pay to our creditors . In

manual accounting , we just make journal or day book , ledger after this we should find out our profit or loss

from manufacturing , trading and profit and loss account after this we also must make balance sheet .

Steps for maintaining branch accounting

a) In that type of branches, it is necessary to make bank account in the name of head office so that amount

got from cash sale can be deposited in head office bank account. b) All miscellaneous expenses is given by

head office accountant to branch accountant on impress or advance system of

cash book.

c) All salaries, rent, advertising and other expenses must be paid by head office.

d) Head office can send goods to branch on cost price or invoice price.

e) It is necessary for branch to make the list of debtors if branch has all to sell the goods on credit .It is

duty of branch accountant

to send branch debtors list to head office weekly or monthly.

f) These branches can make memorandums in different registers.

On these memorandums and registers head office can make branch account

For making branch account in head office, we open each branch account in head office with given branch

name.

Accounting treatment of web-publishing profession

If you have your own website , web blog , or any blog and you are earning more than tax limit in India . I

am providing you the full tutorial of accounting treatment of web publishing profession . For this I am

making income and expenditure account ( In vertical form ) which is accepted by Income tax department.

Income and Expenditure Account of Swami Vivekanand Online Publishing Institute ( For Example ) As on

31st March 2009

Incomes

1.Earning from web publishing ( there is no need to mention AdSense publishing or any other source XXXXX

2.E-buy earning XXXXX

3.Donation by youre online visitors XXXXX

4.Earning from direct space give for advertisement XXXXX

5.Link sharing Income XXXXX

6.Earning from direct Sale on your website XXXXX

7.Earning from selling the brand of blog or website XXXXX

8.Earning from e-news letters XXXXX

9.Earning from other printing newspaper or journal for publishing in their printing press XXXXX

10.Earning from selling of Image of your site XXXXX

11.Other earnings XXXXX

__________________________________________________________
Total Earning from web publishing profession XXXXX

Less Expenses and Losses of web publishing

1.Internet -broadband rent / Charges XXXXX

2.Salaries of employees XXXXX

3.Electricity bill XXXXX

4.Depreciation of Computer /Laptop XXXXX

5.Depreciation of your own building or rent of building XXXXX

6.Repair of computer XXXXX

7.Website domain hire charges XXXXX

8.Web designing expenses XXXXX

9.Image purchasing cost XXXXX

10.Link sharing expenses XXXXX

11.Advertisement of website XXXXX

12.Bank Charges for transfer of your earning in your bank account XXXXX

13.Travelling Expenses for getting latest news for your website XXXXX

14.Hire expenses for getting news or article from others XXXXX

15.Hire expenses of brand logo XXXX

16.Cost of goods sold online XXXXX

17.Stationery expenses XXXXX

18.Office Expenses XXXXX

19.Advertising Expenses XXXXX

20.Other related expenses XXXXX

_____________________________________________________

Net Income from web publishing XXXXX

taxable under the head of business and profession income

_______________________________________________________

You must keep different proof , like photo copy of earning cheques , bill of Internet rent , or electricity and

bank statement when you have to return of income tax for web publishing work

Financial Accounting Part-IV

Accounting Treatment of Employees Provident Fund

Employees provident fund is the fund which is created for the social security and retirement benefits for

theemployees. Different Countries organizations are created this for the benefits of employees. Employees'

Provident Fund Organisation of India EPFO , India Established in 1952 consequent to the enactment of the

Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous

Provisions Act, 1952. The head office of the Organisation is in New Delhi. [1].

Presently, the following three schemes are in operation under the Act:

1. Enrolment: An employee is eligible for membership from the day he joins the covered establishment.

•If the employee’s emoluments exceed Rs. 6,500/- per month, he has the option to join the Scheme(s) with

the consent of employer.

•Declare previous employment details, if any, in Form No. 11 to the employer. On becoming a member of

the Schemes file details in Form No. 2 ( family particulars/ nominations) through the employer.

•Rate of contribution payable by a member shall be @ 12% of his emoluments. A member can contribute

statutorily over and above the prescribed rate.

•In provident fund includes three scheme

•The Employees Provident Fund Scheme, 1952

•The Employees Family Pension Scheme, 1971

•The Employees Deposit-Linked Insurance Scheme, 1976

6.Calculation of Provident Fund from Basic Salary

Employee

Both Employer and employee give their share in this fund . Currently employee gives 12% of his basic salary

in this employee provident fund .

Employer

Employer is also responsible for contribution in employees provident fund for the benefit of employees .

•The rate are given following on basic salary .

3.67% Provident Fund (A/c 1) + 8.33% Pension (A/c 10) + 1.10% Admin Charges onPF (A/c 2) + 0.50%

EDLI (A/c 21) + 0.01%

Admin Charges on EDLI (A/c 22)

Total employee’s provident fund

Now total is equal to = Employee’s contribution + Employer’s contribution

Total provident fund = 13.61% on basic salary

Pension (8.33% or 541/- which ever less)

7. Regular activities:

employer is responsible for given information and following forms

•Time of joining:- Form

•Employee should fill, at the time of joining, nomination & Declaration form.

•Form 2, includes the following· Name of the employee· Parent/spouse name· Date of Birth· Sex· Marital

Status· AC No·

Address· Names, address, relation, Share for each etc Also for changing nominee names Form 2 is used. His

eligibility

begins on the date of joining the firm.

Submitted along with form-5. Withdrawers/Dead :

•Form 10c (pension) &

•19 PFForm 19 is used for withdrawing PF amount. Employee and parent/spouse name, name of the

establishment, Ac no, Reasons for leaving service, Contribution for current financial year etc.

•Form 10 is used for pension withdrawal.

•Form 19: Employee should fill, all information like Bank a/c, name, DOJ…with signature and then Employer

like present year contributions, DOR…for PF Fund – Due date: After 60 Daysof Resignation)

•Transfer :- Form 13Form 13 is used for transferring an employee AC from one company to another. Both

employer and

employee have to specify his name, PF AC no, Position etc and submitted with a covering letter

(consolidated list of

employees). Photocopy of the above is kept in PF file for transfer.4. Employee register 3A, 65. For advance :

Form 316.

In case of employee expired / dead :

•Process detailsForm 10 D (For claiming benefits under Pension)Employee should fill like Expired/late

employee name,

nomination name, details, Nomination Bank a/c…for monthly Pension

•Form 20 (For Claiming EPF Contributions)Employee should fill like Expired/late employee name, nomination

name,

details,Nomination Bank a/c…for withdrawal of PF Fund (Incase of Death of a member

•Form 5 IF (For Claiming EDLI benefits, nominee will get benefit)EDLI for death case, nominee will get

benefit.7.

•Form 9 (Register of employers - Application for review filed under)Monthly Remittance / Challans:1.

Challans every

month before 15th (4 copies/ quadruplicate)2. All A/c (A/c Nos-1,2,10,21&22)3. To Bank4. both employer &

employee

contribution· Account group no eg Ma mu 1246 (state-first two alphabets /city/acc no: of the company)·

Month· Total

number of subscribers· Total wages due for each account (wages on which calculations are done)· Each
accounts totals

(consolidated amount with employer and employee share)· Name of the establishment and address· Name

and signature of

the depositor· Name of the bank, mode and date of remittance etc

•Challan is submitted tp PF office along with form-12A every month.Monthly returns:1. Form 12 A, with all

information

and employees list of contribution before 25th2. With Form 5 (new joiners list) , form 10 (resigned

employees list),

challans copy3. Information about last month employees, new & resigned employees & this month

staff.Form 5· Name of the

establishment and address· Month· Code no: of the factory· A c no:· Name of new employees· Fathers or

Husband name in

case of married women· Date of birth· Sex· Date of joining the fund· Total period of previous services as on

the date

of joining the fund Form 10· Name of the establishment and address· Month· Code no: of the establishment·

A c no:· Name

of member who is leaving· Fathers or Husband name in case of married women· Date of leaving service·

Reasons for

leaving service· Signature of authorized officer and stamp of the establishment Cross checking the above is

done with

the salary statement which includes the number and name all current employees.Form 12 A:· Name of the

establishment and

address· Currency period and month (April yr to march yr)· Statutory rate of contribution (12%)· Group

code (NA for

unexampled establishment. Establishment having more than 1000 have to keep a PF trust and have to

specify the group

code)· Total wages due for each account (wages on which calculations are done)· Amount of contribution

and amount

remitted (consolidated amount with employer and employee share)· Date of remittance· Total number of

subscribers for

the current month.· Name and address of the bank in which the amount is remitted.· Details of subscribers

for E.P.F,

PF, EDLI--No of subscribers as per last month--No of new subscribers (vide Form 5)--No of subscribers left

service

(vide Form 10)--Total no of subscribers (After adding and subtracting the new and retired employees

with,the number
should tally with monthly list of employees)Cross checking the above is done with the salary statement.

Annul returns:

•Form 3 A (Individual Computation sheet)

•2. Form 6 A (Consolidated Annual Contribution Statement)

•3. before 30th April every yearForm 6A:· Currency period and month (April yr to march yr)· Name of the

establishment

and address· Code no: of the establishment· No: of member voluntary contributing at a higher rate· AC No

of each

employee followed by their name, annual salary, annual contribution, employer contribution, refund of

advance, rate of

voluntary contribution.· This grand total should tally with all form 12 A and challans totals.

•Form 3A: RegisterThis form is filled up for each employee stating his each monthly salary, contribution,

Employer

share, Refund of advance, No of days/period of non contributing service, if any (eg. unauthorised leave). If

the

employee is resigned during that financial year then the date of leaving service and reasons for leaving

service should

be specified in this form. Using Form 3A, form 6 A is filled up and crosschecking is done with all challans and

12 A

forms.* Muster Roll * Wage Register * Inspection Book * Cash Book, Voucher & Ledger * PF work sheet

Forms:Form 3:

Contribution Cards - Individual Computation sheet contains all PF amts month-wise.

•Form 3 A: Contribution Cards – Form

•Form 4: Contribution card for employees other than monthly paid employees - Form Form 5 A: Return of

Ownership to be

sent to the Regional Commissioner - Form Form 6: Return of the Contribution Cards sent to the

Commissioner on the

expiry of the period of currency – FormForm 6 A: Consolidated Annual Contribution Statement -

Consolidated Computation

Sheet,contains total employees list, there total half yearly information.

•Form 6 is top sheet and 6A is attachments.

•Form 9: Register of employees - Application for review filed under.Register 3: Individual Computation,

there Gross

salary, Basic, DA, attendance, PF, Pension Information maintains month-wise.

•Form 3 is top sheet and 3A is attachments

Accounting Treatment of Provident Fund: Provident Fund Calculator

For calculation , you must fill the following form

1.Enter current age

2.Enter retirement age

3.Enter current EPF balance

4.Enter monthly basic pay

5.Enter monthly dearness allowance

6.Enter (%)contribution to EPF

7.Enter expected (%)salary hike

What is Investment ?

Investment are those assets of businessman by which he earn dividend , interest , rent or profit due to

increase the value of investment .Current stock is not called investment because businessman purchases

them for selling, in other words, the do businessof that stock.

Generally businessman invests money in property and building so, these are the basic

investments.According to Accounting Standard 13 “Investment is the assets held by enterprise for earning

income by way of dividends, interest and rent."

Types of Investment

Investment may be short term or long term.

We can also include shares, debentures, and bonds and mutual funds of other company, if we purchase

them for the

purpose of earning of interest or dividend from them.

Type of Business

1. Commodity business: - These are general type of business which deal in products but invests his extra

money in different property, shares and bonds.

2. Financial business: - If any business which deal in the trading of shares, or debentures or any other fixed

property. Then his work is to purchase and sale of such product and earn profit from them. This is special

case .

According to AS -13 , at this time , these products will deem as his stock item not investment .

Com- Interest Investment

When a businessman buys investment include its cost and accrued interest . Then this investment is called

com-interest investment. So it is the duty of accountant to separate both .

Calculation of accrued interest = face value of security purchase X period( months )

_________________________________________________________

12 X 100
Calculation of cost of investment = ( Quotation price X No. of security purchase ) – Accrued interest as per

calculated

Ex- Interest Investment

When businessman buys investment on its cost and gives accrued interest amount extra to the seller .

Nominal Value

Nominal Value is face value of security . This is so important in investment accounting . Because interest is

calculated on nominal value of security .

Journal Entries of transactions relating to investment

1. When investment is purchased interest date

Investment account Debit ( Quoted price + brokerage ) X No. of investment

bank account Credit

2. When interest or dividend is received after purchase

Bank Account Debit

Investment Account Credit

3. When investment is sold at interest date

Bank Account debit

investment account Credit

4. For transfer of interest or dividend to profit and loss account at the end of year ( but there is no need to

enter

this entry in tally 9 because tally 9 automatically transfer to profit and loss account ) Interest account or

dividend account debit

Profit and loss account credit

5. Pass the journal entry of profit on sale of investment in manual or tally 9 both Investment Account Debit

Profit and loss account Credit

6. At end of year show investment at cost price or market price which is less as asset in balance sheet ( but

need no do in tally 9)

Example

On 1st jan 2008 S.P. Ltd purchase 1000 15 % debentures of Reliance Ltd. Of Rs. 100 each @ Rs. 96 each .

On 1st july

2008 , ½ of debentures were sold at Rs. 99 each . Debenture interest is payable half yearly on 30th june

and 31st

December . Pass voucher entries in tally 9

Working notes

1) Interest on 30th june 2008 will be received 15% on Rs 100000 for 6 months interest = Rs. 100000 X

15/100 X 6/12 =
Rs. 7500

2) ½ of debentures were sold @ Rs. 99 . Therefore sale proceeds will be Rs. 99 X 500 = Rs. 49500

3) Interest on 31st December 2008 will be received @ 15% on Rs. 50000 for 6 months . Interest = Rs.

50000 X 15/100 X

6/12 = Rs. 3750

4) profit on sale of investment = 49500-48000 = Rs. 1500

For recording above transaction in tally 9

1) First of all create S.P. Ltd in tally 9

2) Activate interest calculation in feature F11

3) Create ledger of 15 Debenture in reliance Co. account under investment account , bank account under

bank account , Interest account under indirect income .

4) Pass the voucher entry of purchasing investment in payment voucher, sale of investment in receipt

voucher and

interest received on investment is in receipt voucher and profit on sale of investment transfer to profit and

loss

account in journal voucher .

Insurance is the contract in which Mercantilist pays minimum amount of premium to insurance company,

and shift his burden of risk of loss on the head of insurance company. Insurance company incurred the loss

of Mercantilist if it is under the policy of insurance. Generally Mercantilist does the insurance of many risks

like fire of shop or office or plant, fire of stock and loss of profit.

If Godown or office caught fire. Suppose fire to Godown and insurance company’s special evaluator can

easily evaluate the loss of building due to fire. But it is most difficult to calculate loss of stock or loss of

profit. Only accounting professionals can solve this problem with scientific rules and regulations of

accounting.

Calculation the value of stock lost due to fire

Statement Form – Ist way

Particular Amount

Stock in the beginning of the year xxxx

Add : purchase from the beginning of accounting

Year to the date of fire (+) xxxx

------------------------------------------------------------------

XXXX

Less : cost of goods sold from the beginning of

Accounting year to the date of fire (-) XXXX

-----------------------------------------------------------------

Value of stock on the date of fire XXXXX

Less : Stock of Salvaged or saved from fire (-) XXXX

-----------------------------------------------------------------

Value of stock lost due to fire XXXXX

----------------------------------------------------------------

Or

You can make memorandum trading accounting - 2nd Way

“Memorandum trading account is not part of final account but it is just part of working notes for calculating

the net

value of stock due to fire.”

Remembering pin -point

1. From both above two methods we must need to calculate gross profit rate. There are following way to

calculate gross

profit of business. There are following way to calculate gross profit of business

i) Average of old year gross profit method

ii) Previous gross profit method

G.P. Rate = Previous year Gross profit / Sale of previous year X 100

2. Average Clause

“ Average clause means insurance company will pay only insurance in the proportion of actual loss . Before

this rule businessman used to take insurance policy below the actual amount of his asset. So , Now under

this method his claim will be reduced . "

Formula of Calculating of Claim of loss of stock =

Amount of policy X stock destroyed

----------------------------------------------

Stock on the date of fire

Suppose, xyz Co. got the insurance policy of $ 10000 but his stock value is $ 20000 and actual loss is $

5000. Now we

will calculate claim under average clause

Claim accept = 5000 X 10000/ 20000 = $2500

3. Some time, information of opening stock , purchase and sale is not give by businessmen , so calculating

correct value of loss due to fire it is very necessary to make total debtor account , total creditor account and

previous year trading account .

Procedure of calculating loss of profit

Many commerce students are confused about how to calculate loss of profit. They know that businessman

can take loss of profit, due to dislocation of business after fire to concern . It can also take with fire

insurance policy. But for getting claim , the businessman want to calculate exact loss of net profit from the

date of fire to that day in which business becomes normal .

Steps of calculating loss of profit

Ist step

Calculate gross profit ratio:-

As the starting point of this procedure you have to determine the value of gross profit because loss of profit

is easy to calculate by multiplying Gross profit with short of sale in that disturbance period .

Net profit xxxx

Add Insured standing

Charges of lass year (+) xxxx

-------------------------------------

Gross profit of last year xxxx

-------------------------------------

Gross profit ratio = Gross profit / sale of last year X 100

2nd step

Calculate shortage in sale due to loss of fire

Actual sale of same period of loss xxxx

Add any increase in thrend of sale (+)xxxx

------------------------------------------------

xxxxx

Less actual sale in dislocation period (-) xxxx

--------------------------------------------------

Shortage of sale in dislocation period xxxx

==================================

3rd step

Calculation of loss of profit

Loss of profit = shortage of sale X G.P. rate / 100

4th Step

Total amount for claim of loss of profit

Loss of gross profit xxxx

Add increase in cost of working (+) xxxx

---------------------------------------------

xxxx

Less saving in standing charges

---------------------------------------------

Amount of claim xxxx

===================================

5th step

Apply average clause

Amount of claim = policy value / amount to be insured

Important notes

1. We will use of only less rate from following rates for calculating correct amount of loss pf profit

Net profit + Insured standing charges of last accounting year

-------------------------------------------------------------------------- X 100

Sale for the last accounting year

Or

Policy value / sale of 12 months immediately proceeding fire as adjusted for trend .

2. The Indemnity period or dislocation period which will small, that period will be fixed for calculation of

claim .

3. We will calculate loss of sale on the base of future trend of sale.

4. Insured standing charges means all expenses which are mentioned in the policy of loss of profit.

Businessman wants

to get these expenses in the case of mishappening. We can make its list

•Traveling expenses

•Rent, rate and taxes not related with profit of business

•Advertising

•Interest on debentures and loans.

•Auditors fee

•Salaries of permanent staff

•Directors’ fee
•Salaries of permanent staff

•Wages of skilled workers

•All not described expenses must not more than 5% of described standing expenses .

Explanation with example

From the following information, find out the claim under loss of profit policy :-

2007 – net profit for the year $ 10000

2007- Standing charges insured $ 6000

$ sales for 2007 $ 160000

Date of fire 1.1.2008

Period of dislocation 3 months

Sales from 1.12007 to 31.3.2007 $ 54000

Sales from 1.1.2008 to 31.3.2008 $ 19400

Indemnity period 6 months

Policy subject to average clause $ 11000

Trend in annual sales 10% increase

Solution

Ist step

Calculation of gross profit ratio

Net profit + Insured standing charges of last yea

----------------------------------------------------------- X 100

Sale of last year

10000+6000

---------------------- X 100

160000

= 10%

2nd step

Shortage of sale

Last year’s sale from 1.12007 to 31.3.2007 $ 54000

Add 10% for upward trend $ 5400

---------------------------------------------------

$ 59400

Less actual sale during dislocation period $ 19400

-----------------------------------------------------

Shortage of sale $ 40000

=====================================
3rd step

Calculate of loss of profit

Loss of sale X G.P. rate /100

40000 X 10/100 = 4000

4th step

Total amount for claim of loss of profit

Loss of gross profit 4000

Add increase in cost of working (+) nil

Less saving in standing charges nil

Amount of claim $4000

5th step

Average clause

Since the policy is subject to average clause, it is necessary to find out whether expected profit of the

current year

was fully insured or not .

Expected sale for current year

Last year sale $ 160000

Add :Increase in current year 10% = $ 16000

--------------------------------------------

Total sale of current year = 176000

---------------------------------------------

Profit rate 10%

The profit of current year = 176000 X 10% = $17600

But we take the policy of $ 11000

This is a case of under insurance. It means insurance company pays $ 110 of every $ 176 loss

Claim = insurance policy / insurable profit X profit lost

= 11000 / 17600 X 4000 = $ 2500

So , amount of claim would be $ 2500

Voucher Entry of Insurance Claim in Tally 9

" Record of Claim of insurance is special type transaction and only when we record when actual claim we get

. In this

we should make new group of sundry insurance under prime group of current asset after this we should
create ledger of

insurance company and other ledger one time . " When claim relating to fixed assets is admitted

Insurance company a/c ( Under Sundry Insurance account ) Debit

Particular fixed asset account ( under Fixed asset ) Credit

* Above voucher entries means insurance company is receiver , he has taken our burden of loss And if loss

happen , it

mean we sent of fixed asset to insurance company means fixed asset goes out , so it will be credit .

When the claim relates to stock in trade

Insurance company account ( under Sundry insurance account ) Debit

To stock destroyed account or damaged account Credit

Above voucher entries means insurance company is receiver , he has taken our burden of loss of stock

And if loss happens , it mean we sent of goods to insurance company means goods goes out , so it will be

credit .When claim relates to loss of profit.

Insurance company account(under sundry insurance account ) Debit

Profit and loss account Credit When insurance claim amount is received

Bank account ( Under bank account ) Debit

Insurance company account ( Under sundry insurance ) credit

This entry means that we are receiver of cash and bank is our representative . So , this account Will debit in

voucher

entry and Insurance company is giver of claim amount and this entry is simply passed under the rules of

double entry .

Management Accounting Part-I

Cash Flow Statement

When we compare two or more years total cash flow may be in three type of activities (i)In operating

activities from one financial year to another financial year we can get cash from selling of goods , receiving

the money or any other operating activities or we can outflow of cash in B/p , creditors or any buying of

goods . So different can be said as net flow of operating activities .

(ii) Investing activities

You know very well that with two years any company can buy or sell any assets buying of fixed assets is

outflow and selling any asset is inflow of cash difference of both is net cash flow from investing activities .

(iii) Financial activities

Financial activities are related to buying and selling of shares and debentures .Selling of shares and

debenture is inflow of cash and opposite if company buys shares of other company , this is called outflow of
shares .

After calculating all net inflow and this is called flow of cash and statement making for this is called cash

flow statement .

Benefit is it only for cash management who wants to make different planning . An account manager easily

calculate what is the real cash flow position . Company’s overall flow of cash is favorable or not . Some time

cash book shows good current cash balance but a good account manager should investigate the overall flow

of cash before buying high funded assets . This decision should be taken after complete analyzing of cash

flow statement . Cash flow statement shows more outflow than inflow this is unbalanced situation .So be

careful .

Q: Define inflation accounting or price level accounting ? what are the main method of price level

accounting ? What are its main advantages and disadvantages ?

Ans :Inflation accounting is recording ,classifying and summarizing of all transaction on current or market

cost and update recording amount according to time and changes .In price level accounting ,the value of

money is changed , our balance sheet ‘s figure unit also changed .

Method of price level /Inflation accounting :-

1.Current purchasing power accounting

According to current purchasing power method , we calculate current cost with following method

I: Take current price index

II : Calculate

Current value of asset= Value of asset (Actual basis ) X Current index / previous price index

For example

Record value of Rs. 40000 machine on inflation accounting basis if 2005 index 100 and 2006 price index

=200

=40000x 200/180 =80000

B/S

Machine 80000

2. current cost accounting

In the current cost accounting following point must take in mind :-

1. Value of fixed asset will be take on current cost not historical cost basis

2. Stock will be taken on market cost basis

3. Transfer of difference between historical cost and current cost of asset to revaluation

reserve account

4. Calculate current operating profit

3. Replacement cost accounting method

This method is just improvement of current purchasing price method .In replacement cost accounting , we

calculate current value basis of respective asset price index

Suppose book value of machinery is 300000and price index of machinery is 2005 is 100 and 2006 is 300

then book value of furniture Rs. 200000 price index of furniture 2005=200 and 2006=400

Current value of machinery =300000x 300/100

Current value of furniture =200000x400/200

1. Current value accounting method

2. In current value accounting method , we take all asset of business in balance sheet on their current value

Definition of current ratio

This ratio is a relationship of current asset and current liabilities . It states the business current position to

pay the current liabilities in time as when due .There are two components of this ratio:

Current assets

1. Cash in hand

2. Cash at bank

3. Marketable securities

4. Sundry debtors

5. Bills receivable

6. Stock in trade

7. Prepaid exp.

Current liabilities

1. Sundry creditors
 2. Bill payable

3. Outstanding bill

4. Bank overdraft

current ratio = current assets /current liabilities

Importance of Calculating Average Collection period and Average Payment period

Average collection period and and Average payment period is basic test of the business's good or bad

activity or operation . This is the main part of financial analysis to calculate these type of ratio . Even a small

business man want to time in which he gets his debt from his debtors in whole year . He also wants to know

at what period he pays his creditors .

•These two ratios are the good symbol for calculating the efficiency and capacity of any type of organisation

•These two ratios are the good symbol for making good planning for increase or decrease working capital

efficiently . Because working capital is more effected from sundry debtors and sundry creditors.

Lets start for calculating these two ratios

1.Average Collection Period

12 months or 365 days= __________________Debtors Turnover ratio

Because it is based on debtors turnover ratio . So we should also know debtor turnover ratio

Net Credit Sale= _______________Average Debtors amount

Average debtors amount is equal to sum of opening and closing debtors and after divide 2 , we can calculate

the average debtors amount.

2. Average Payment Period

12 months or 365 days= __________________Creditors Turnover ratio

Because it is based on Creditors turnover ratio . So we should also know Creditors turnover ratio

Net credit Purchase= _______________Average Creditors amount

Average Creditors amount is equal to sum of opening and closing Creditors and after divide 2 , we can

calculate the average Creditors amount.

What are Profitability Ratios

Profitability ratios are so important , because of these ratios , we can take several decision for improving our

business concern . These ratios tells us the basic relationship between profit and net sale . What amount of

return we have receive on the basis of our sale . Is it good or not . If this is not good then what should we

do in the improve actions of company.

There following main profitability ratios which is calculated in any company type of business.

1.Gross profitability ratio = Gross profit / Net Sale X 100

2.Operating Ratio = Operating Cost / Net Sale X 100

3.Operating Profit ratio = Operating Profit / Net Sale X 100

4.Net Profit ratio = Net profit / Net Sale X 100

5.Rate on Investment = Net profit before interest and tax / Capital Employed X 100

6.Earning Per Share (EPS)

Net profit after interest , tax and pref. dividend= ____________________________________ X 100

Numbers of equity shares

7. Dividend Per Share (DPS ) Price Earning Ratio

Dividend on equity shares= ____________________________________ X 100

Numbers of equity shares

8. Price Earning Ratio = current market price of share / earning per share

Management Accounting Part-II

Responsibitlity Accounting

Some business organisation are now adopting responsibility accounting in their management section ,

though adopting

advance computer and internet facility they are setting each and every person's responsibility .

So you should know about responsibility accounting .

Responsibility accounting is system of control where responsibility is a signed of control on cost . The proper

authority is given to person so that they are given to persons so that they are able to keep up their

performance . "In other words , the responsibility accounting is that type of management accounting that

collects and reports both planed actual accounting informations in the terms of responsibility centers."

Types of responsibility center

1. Cost center

The cost center relates to that segment in which the managers are responsible for incurring the cost. But

there have no responsibility of revenue. It is also known as expenses center.

2. Profit Center

When a responsibility center gets revenue from output then it is known as profit center. The difference

between revenue earned and cost incurred will be the amount of profit .

3.Investment Center

An investment centre is an entry segment in which a manager can control not only revenue or cost but also

investments . In this , the manager who is given the responsibility of investment center is under obligation

for proper utilisation of assets .

Steps of responsibility accounting

1. The organisation should be divide

2. Making of Responsibility Center

3. Making of targets or set the targets in different centers

4. Count actual performance

5. Analysis of performance

6. Timely improved action.

Definition of working Capital and benefits of its analysis

As an accountant, you must know working the working capital and benefits of its analysis. Dear working

capital means excess of current asset over current liabilities. In other word. If your current assets are more

than your current liabilities. These more current assets are known as working capital. For doing your

business with better way, the business must have working capital every time. If you have more current

assets than your current Liabilities , it means you can buy your stock of business , you can pay your

creditors . All time when your investor or any body who want to give you loan will see you working capital .

If your liquid capital is non , nobody will give you any debt or goods on credit . So it is the duty of
accountant of business . To make some working capital so that your business will grow with the help of loan

and debt. For this I am giving some tips. Each time when you pass the voucher entry in tally or any other

computer accounting software , then see what is the position of your working capital.

If you see that there is no working capital, when current assets are equal to current liabilities , or current

liabilities are more than current assets this will be very serious position when working capital is in negative.

At this time, you must sell some fixed assets so that you can keep your working capital position in positive.

Never give goods on credit to any body who has not good dealing with you

Financial accounting, cost accounting and management accounting are interrelated because without co-

ordination and co-operation with each other, we will never succeed in achieving the objectives of business.

Financial accounting provides different financial statements. On these statements we calculate different cost,

like cost of material, cost of labour, and cost of overheads. On the basis we calculate cost of goods sold and

then we include our profit margin in it and the ascertain our product price. In management accounting,

financial and cost accounting supply different useful accounting information. On these accounting data

manager makes the plans of business. Organize different works. Even standard costing and budgeting is

very useful toots for controlling the organization. In a business the requirement of funds has to be carefully

estimated. Certain funds are required for long term purpose investment in fixed assets etc. A careful

estimation of such funds depends different ratio analysis which tells us that what is rate on capital

employed, if this rate is very high then we can get more fund for more production and for more production

give more money. Even financial management is also part of management accounting. If system of financial

accounting will complete with good way and rules and regulation, then other system of cost accounting and

management accounting will gives good result.

Leverage analysis is the part of management accounting. This is the duty of finance manager to use the

technique for making ideal structure of capital. Leverage analysis is the best technique of finance manager.

With this technique he can make wonderful structure of capital. For doing leverage analysis he has to

calculate three leverage Ist leverage – Operating Leverage

Operational leverage is calculate by following formula

Operational leverage =% change in Earning before interest and tax______________________% Change in

Sales

Analysis of operating leverage of a firm is very useful to the financial manager. It tells the impact of changes

in

sales on operating income. A firm having higher Degree of operating leverage can experience a magnified
effect on

E.B.I.T. for even a small change in sales level. Higher D.O.L. can dramatically increase the operating profit.

But if

there is decline in sales level, E.B.I.T. may be wiped out and a loss may be operated.

2nd leverage - Financial Leverage

Financial leverage can be calculate with following formula

% change in Earning per share= ____________________________% change in Earning before interest and

tax

Financial leverage helps the finance manager in designing the appropriate capital structure. One of the

objectives of planning an appropriate capital structure is to maximize the return on equity shareholders’

funds or maximize the earning per share.

Financial leverage is doubled edged sword. On the one hand it increase earning per share and on the other

hand it increase financial risk. A high financial leverage means high fixed financial costs and high financial

risk i.e. as the debt component in capital structure increases , the financial leverage increases and at the

same time the financial risk also increase . So the finance manager therefore is required to trade off i.e. has

to bring a balance between risk and return for determining the appropriate amount of debt in the capital

structure of a firm. Thus the analysis of financial leverage is most important tool in the hands of finance

managers who are engaged in financing the capital structure of business firms, keeping in view the

objectives of their firm.

3rd leverage – Combined leverage

The combined leverage measures the effect of a % change in sales on % change in Earning per share.

Combined leverage = operating leverage X financial leverage

Or

Combined leverage= % change in E.B.I.T. % change in E.P.S.

________________ X ___________________

% change in sales % change in E.B.I.T.

The ratio of contribution to earning before tax , given by combined leverage shows the combined effect of

financial and operating leverage . A high operating and high financial leverage combination is very risky. If
the company is producing and selling at a high level , it will make extremely high profit for its shareholders.

But even a small fall in the level of operations would result in a tremendous fall in earning per share. A

company must , therefore maintain a proper balance between these two leverage.

Comparative financial statement

This is main tool of financial analysis. This type of analysis is useful when the accounting data of two periods

is given. Generally two statements are prepared

i) Comparative balance sheet

ii) Comparative income statement

The figures of two periods are taken in their respective columns and increase or decrease after which

percentage is taking into account previous year as base year. After showing the increase or decrease the

interpretation in form of comment is also to be specified. However the various comparative statements are

to be prepared as follow.

i) Comparative balance sheet:-

To analysis the financial statement as per the technique of comparative statement analysis the first one is

the comparative balance sheet for preparation comparative balance sheet with following steps :

Ist step: Take the given balance sheet of two period in years

2nd step: Make the difference of each item of balance sheet in the vertical or horizontal form determining

the increase or

decrease ( in absolute figure)

3rd Step Make the % of increasing or decreasing ( Previous year as base year)

4th step Interpretation (Comments)

a) Long term financial position

b) Working capital position

c) profitability position

d) Overall financial position

ii) Comparative Income Statements

The income statement shows results of operation of business .The comparative income statement indicate

the variation with different item which are to be recorded in income statement .Over a particular period of

time that is one year. It shows the amount of gross profit, operating profit and net profit. However a

comparative income statement is to be prepared in following form.

Interpretation or Comments can be given? On the increasing sale or cost of sale increasing or decreasing?

Operating expenses and incomes affecting the amount of profit or loss? Overall profitability position

Making of Cash flow Statement with both direct and indirect methods.

In good question of making cash flow statement , the examiner must give you two year balance sheet of

company , a profit and loss account and some additional information for making cash flow statement . With
above three basic information you can easily make cash flow statement with direct or indirect method . Here

we are taking one practical question , then we solve it both direct method and indirect method. This

question can be asked in CA , ICWA , MCA ,MCOM and MBA exams

The following is the abstract of balance sheet of Software securities ltd for the year 2005 and 2006

Liabities

1. Provision for depreciation 2005 –Rs. 108000 and 2006 –RS. 396000

2. Retained earning 244800 370800

3. 9% debenture 270000 198000

4. Account payable 72000 41400

5. Expense payable 0 18000

Assets

1. Land 2005 - Rs. 126000 and 2006 - Rs. 81000

2. Building 360000 360000

3. Accumulated depreciation

4. On building 19800 37800

Equipment 122400 347400

Accumulated depreciation on equipement 18000 50400

5. Stock in hand 10800 97200

6. Account receivable 36000 122400\

7. Cash in hand 66600 97200

8. Preliminary expenses 10800 7200

Question gives you also income statement of software securities ltd

Sales 1602000

less cost of sale 837000

less operating exp. 397800

less interest exp. 21600

loss on sale of equipments 3600

126000

-------------------------

Net income before tax 342000

provision of tax 117000

----------------------

Net Income after tax 225000

__________________________________________

Additional information

1. Operating expenses include depreciation of rs. 59400 and charges from preliminary expenses of rs. 3600

2. Land was sold at its book value

3. cash dividend paid for the year 2006 amounted to rs. 27000 and fully paid bonus shares were given in

the ratio of 2 shares for every 3shares held.

4. Interest expenses was paid in cash.

5. Equipment with a cost of rs .298800 was purchased for cash .Equipment with a cost of rs . 73800 ( book

value rs. 64800) was sold for rs. 61200

6. Debenture for rs. 18000 were redeemed for cash and for rs.54000 were redeemed by converting into

equity shares at par value.

7.Equity shares of rs. 162000 were issued for cash at par.

8. Income tax paid during the year amounted to rs. 117000 Prepare cash flow statement with direct method

indirect method Cash flow statement with direct method

Particularv Amount Amount

A- Category

Cash flow from operating

activity

Inflow of cash

Cash sale & amount from debtors

calculation

= sale + opening bal. of debtors -

closing balance of debtors

= 1602000+36000-122400= (+) 1515600

Any other operating income (+) nil

Less

Cash outflow

1. Cash purchase and amount paid to creditors

Calculation
= Cost of goods sold +opening creditors

-closing creditors =

= 837000+72000-41400= (-) 867600

2. Cash operating Expenses

Operating expenses as per profit and

Loss account -depreciation - preliminary exp.

- Outstanding expense closing

= 397800 - 59400 -3600 -18000 = (-) 316800

Out flow of stock

+ opening stock (-) 86400

-closing stock =10800-97200

____________________________________________

244800

Less income tax paid (-) 117000

__________________________________________

127800 127800

________________________________________

B- Category

Cash flow from investing activity

Inflow of cash

1. sale of equipment (+) 298800

2.sale of land (+)45000

Less Cash outflow

1 cash paid for purchase of equipment (-) 298800

______________________________________________

192600 192600

______________________________________________

C- Category

Cash flow of financing activity

Cash inflow

1. Issue of new shares (+) 162000

Less Cash outflow

1. Cash paid for redemption of deb. (-) 18000

2. Dividend paid (-) 27000

3. Interest Paid (-) 21600

_______________________________________________

95400 95400

_______________________________________________

Add opening cash balance + 66600

____________________________________________________________

Closing balance of cash 97200

_____________________________________________________________

Cash flow statement with Indirect method

__________________________________________________________

Particularly Amount

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A-category

Cash flow of operating activity

1st Point

Net Profit before taxation and extraordinary

Items 342000

2nd Point

Add for non cash and non operating expenses

And losses

1. Depreciation 59400

2. Preliminary expenses written off 3600

3. Discount on issue of shares and deb. w/o nil

4. Goodwill written off nil

5. Patent and trade marks written off nil

6. Interest on borrowing and deb. 3600

7. Loss on sale of fixed assets 21600

______________

430200

3rd Point

Less non –cash and non operating incomes (-) nil

1. Dividend income(For non financial co.)

2. Rental income

3. Profit on sale of fixed asset

_________________

4th Point ( Ist point +2nd Point -3rd Point ) 430200

Adjustment of working capital changes

5th Point

Add Decrease in current assets and increase in

Current liabilities (+) nil

1. Decrease in stock

2. Decrease in debtors

3. Decrease in accrued income

4. Decrease in prepaid expenses

5. Increase in creditors

6. Increase in bill payables

7. increase in outstanding expenses (+) 18000

8. Increase in advance incomes

9. Increase in provision for doubtfull debts

____________________

448200

6th Point

Less increase in current assets and decrease in (-)

Current liabilities
1. Increase in stock 86400

2. Increase in debtors 86400

3. increase in accrued incomes nil

4. increase in prepaid expenses nil

5. decrease in creditors 30600

6. Decrease in bill payables nil

7. decrease in outstanding expenses nil

8. decrease in advance incomes nil

9. Decrease in provision for d/d nil

________________________________________________________

244800

Less income tax paid (-) 117000

________________________________________________________

127800 127800

_____________________________________________________

B- Category

Cash flow from investing activity

Inflow of cash

1. sale of equipment (+) 298800

2.sale of land (+)45000

Less Cash outflow

1 cash paid for purchase of equipment (-) 298800

______________________________________________

192600 192600

______________________________________________

C- Category

Cash flow of financing activity

Cash inflow

1. Issue of new shares (+) 162000

Less Cash outflow

1. Cash paid for redemption of deb. (-) 18000

2. Dividend paid (-) 27000

3. Interest Paid (-) 21600

_____________________________________________________________________

95400 95400

________________________________________________

Add opening cash balance + 66600

____________________________________________________________________

Closing balance of cash 97200

__________________________

Management Accounting Part-III

The indirect method for calculating cash flow statement

Indirect method

Cash flow statement

A-cash flow from operating activity + B- Cash flow from investing activity + C- cash flow from financing

activity +

opening balance of cash book = Closing balance of cash book

A- category regarding cash flow from operating activity is different from direct method , other part is as

same as

direct method

According to indirect method when we calculate cash flow statement, we will care 8 points. The main aim is

to calculate

cash net profit or loss for operating activity like sale and purchase of goods. Now I am explaining all 8 points

deeply

1st Point

Taking the net profit as per profit and loss account. This is (+) item. This is the base for calculating cash net

profit. Other 7 points are the just games of (+) and (-)

2nd point

Now we add all non cash and non operating expenses and losses in Ist point.

I want to tell you why we will (+) it in net profit. The answer is that because when we made of profit and

loss account

we had deducted these non cash and non operating expenses in our profit and loss account. Now our duty is
to add them .

Now I am telling about these expenses and losses

1) Depreciation

2) Preliminary expenses written off

3) Discount on issue of shares and deb. w/o

4) Goodwill written off

5) Patent and trade marks written off

6) Interest on borrowing and deb.

7) Loss on sale of fixed assets

One more question you can ask to me

Why non operating expenses are added in net profit?

Ans. Because it is true that these expenses in cash but we deems as cash outflow from financing activity or

investing

activity so there is no need to adjust in operation.

3rd Point

After adding 2nd point items , we must deduct 3rd point items. It means that all non cash or non operating

income must

be deducted from net profit for calculating cash net profit. In this , we can include

1) Dividend income (For non financial co.)

2) Rental income

3) Profit on sale of fixed asset

4th point

= Ist point + 2nd point – 3rd point

5th point

Now we add decrease in current assets because it must increase the cash inflow and also add increase in

current

liabilities

1. Decrease in stock

2. Decrease in debtors

3. Decrease in accrued income

4. Decrease in prepaid expenses

5. Increase in creditors
 6. Increase in bill payables

7. Increase in outstanding expenses

8. Increase in advance income

9. Increase in provision for doubtful debts

6th point

Increase in current assets and decrease in current liabilities must be deducted

1. Increase in stock

2. Increase in debtors

3. Increase in accrued incomes

4. Increase in prepaid expenses

5. Decrease in creditors

6. Decrease in bill payables

7. Decrease in outstanding expenses

8. Decrease in advance incomes

9. Decrease in provision for d/d

General hint

· Increase in current assets means cash outflow so deduct

· Decrease in current liabilities is also cash outflow so deduct

· Decrease in current assets means cash inflow so add

· Increase in current liabilities is also cash inflow so add

7th point

Total cash flow from operating activity

= 4th point + 5th point – 6th point

8th point

Deduct income tax paid from 7th point. After this you can get net cash flow from operating activity. All other

B and C category as same as first method.

Definition of Securitisation

Securitisation is the process of getting cash on the basis of different security notes and papers .Even some

company issues shares or debenture for getting fixed assets , this is also securitisation . In simple english
securitisation create the relationship of company with outer world in which company gets fund for doing

work .

Benefit of Securitisation

1. Increase the rate of return

2. Raise of fund or finance through securitisation when other source are not supported .

3. I take one example explaining the third benefit

suppose a person want to purchase a building for giving it rent , if he purchases with his cash then all risk of

fund is his own . But if he takes loan to make building then he becomes issuer of finance so from earning of

building , he can pay the debt of building .

Factors to provide Loans:

1st Financial factors

a) Rate of Return

It is the duty of account manager to find the rate of return. Select all those party which want to give us high

rate on our investment in the form of loan.

b) Risk Factor

Before giving credit to company, we also see our risk factor. i) personal risk- dishonesty , corruption ii)

trade risk– see previous profit and loss account iii) Debt equity ratio iv) Income interest ratio

c) Security

Before giving credit or loan account manager have to see what asset of business , businessman want to give

as security for getting loan .

d) Marginal of requirement

Before giving loan or credit , it is the duty of bank's account manager under govt. policies that he must see

difference between security and loan Suppose Security $ 10000 – Loan $ 8000 = Marginal requirement

$2000 If our providing loan is less than the value of asset which we have received in the form of security ,
then this is good .

2nd Non- financial factors

1. Social factors

Through social responsibility accounting, account manager is also check, whether providing of loan at low

rate is benefited for social popularity or not.

2. Political factors

Account manager also check political and tax policies regarding providing of loan.

How to prepare Fund Flow statement

Before preparing of fund flow statement, you must know different accounting terms in fund flow statement.

Academic need to learn the fund flow statement

1. AS – 3 units 1.

Accounting standard 3 units 1 of Institute of Chartered Accountant of India explains preparation and

presentation of statement of changes in financial position or fund flow statement.

2. UGC – NET – Commerce

If you want to clear UGC –NET in commerce subject, you should also learn fund flow statement. Because it

includes in paper 11 and paper 111 A syllabus in the form of fund flow analysis.

3. Graduate / Post Graduate Classes

Fund flow statement is full subject in B.Com. , B.B.A., B.C.A. and M.Com. , M.B.A., M.C.A. classes . For

succeeding in these classes, you should know the whole system of fund flow statement.

4. Helpful in Practical business environment

Fund flow statement is very helpful for solving following practical problems of business. Why are current
assets are decreasing, even there are high profit?

1. Why did Company not issue dividend, even company has obtained profit?

2. What happened with net profit, where did it go?

3. What did Company do with the fund received from selling of shares and debentures?

4. What are main sources of company to repay his debts?

So, above questions’ answer can be given after making fund flow statements.

Definition of Fund

Fund means working capital. If current assets of company is more than current liability of business, it is

called working capital and working capital’s other name is Fund.

Fund = Working capital = Current assets – Current liability

Definition of Flow of Fund

Flow of fund means movement of fund. I take the example of air; we can feel its movement or flow of air.

Same thing is happen with fund, due to the activity of business fund is transfer from one asset to another

assets. If fixed assets are converted into current asset or fixed liability is converted into current liabilities,

these are the flow of fund. But if current assets are changed with current assets or current assets are

changed into current liabilities, then, there is no flow of fund because there is no change working capital.

Suppose, we get the money from debtor, this is not flow of fund because, working capital is not changed.

Both items of current assets and when current assets change into current assets, there will not be change in

working capital.

Flow of Fund = Fixed asset changes into current asset or current asset changes into fixed assets

Or

Fixed liability changes into current liability or current liability changes into fixed liability.

Definition of fund flow statement

Fund flow statement is a statement which shows the inflow and out flow of funds between two dates of

balance sheet. So, it is known as the statement of changes in financial position. We all know that balance
sheet shows our financial position and inflow and outflow of fund affects it. So, in company level business, it

is very necessary to prepare fund flow statement to know what the sources are and what are applications of

fund between two dates of balance sheet.

Generally, it is prepare after getting two year balance sheet.

According to Prof. Anthony, “The funds flow statement describes the sources from which additional funds

were derived and the use of which these funds were put.” Fund flow statements are known with different

names

Statement of source and uses of funds Or summary of financial operations Movement of working capital

statement Or Fund received and distributed statement Or Fund generated and expended statement.

Steps for making Fund flow statement

First Step

Making of statement of Changes of Working Capital

For making of fund flow statement. It is very necessary to make statement of changes of working capital.

Because net increase in working capital is use of fund and net decrease in working capital is source of fund.

So, it is duty of accountant to make statement of changes of working capital. Making of statement of

changes working capital is very easy and simple.

We take two balance sheets, one is current year balance sheet and other is previous year balance sheet.

Then we separate current assets and current liabilities.

If current assets are more than previous year current assets, it means increase in working capital.

If current assets are less than previous year current assets, it means decrease in working capital. Because,

relationship between current assets and working capital is positive and if any changes in current assets,

working capital will change in same direction.

If current liabilities are more than previous year current liabilities, it means decrease in working capital.

If current liabilities are less than previous year current liabilities, it means increase in working capital.
Relationship between working capital and current liabilities are inverse.

Statement or schedule of changes in working capital

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Particular--------------- ? previous year ? Current year ? Effect on working capital

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------? Increase ? Decrease

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Current Assets

• Cash in hand

• Bills receivable

• Sundry debtors

• Temporary investments

• Stocks / inventories

• Prepaid expenses

• Accrued incomes

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Total current assets----------- ?xxxx ? xxxxx?

----------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------

Current liabilities

• Bills payables

• Sundry creditors

• Bank overdraft

• Short term advances

• Dividends payables

• Provision for taxation

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Total current Liabilities ----------?xxxx ?xxxx ?

------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------

Working capital

CA- CL

---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Net increase or decrease in working capital =Increase in working capital – Decrease in working capital

2nd Step

Statement showing the fund from operation

Because is the source of fund and will show in fund flow statement’s source side. So before making fund

flow statement,we must make statement showing the fund from operation.Operation means business

activity and fund from operation means profit from business activity. So, you will easy understand that profit

from business activity between two accounting period must be the source of fund.

Statement of fund from operations

Closing balance of profit and loss account or retained earning as

Given in the Balance sheet

Add non –fund and non operating items which have been already

Debited to profit and loss account

1. depreciation

2. amortization of fictitious and intangible assets

• Goodwill

• Patents

• Trade marks

• Preliminary expenses

• Discount on issue of shares

3. Appropriation of retained earning such as

• Transfer to general reserve

• Dividend equalization fund

 • Transfer to sinking fund

• Contingency reserve etc.

4. Loss on sale of any non current or fixed assets such as

• Loss on sale of land and building

• Loss on sale of machinery

• Loss on sale of furniture

• Loss on sale of long term investments

5. Dividends including

• Interim dividend

• Proposed dividend

(If it is an appropriation of profit and not taken as current liability)

6. Provision for taxation (if it is not taken as current liability)

7. Any other non fund / non operating items which have been debited to P/L account

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Total ( A)-------------------------------------------------------> ? XXXXX ?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Less Non –Fund or non operating items which have already been credited to profit and loss account

1. Profit or gain from the sale of non current / fixed assets such as

• Profit on sale of land and building

• Profit on sale of plant and machinery

• Profit on sale of long term investment etc.

2. Appreciation in the value of fixed assets such as increase in the value of land if it has been

credited to profit and loss account

3. Dividends received

4. excess provision retransferred to profit and loss account or written back .

5. any other non operating item which has been credited to profit and loss account

6. opening balance of profit and loss account or retained earnings as given in the balance sheet

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Total ( B)--------------------------------------------------------------> ? XXXXX ?

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Funds received from operation or business activities = total ( A) – Total ( B)

You can make also above statement in t shape adjusted profit and loss account form .

3rd Step

Fund flow statement

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------> ? Amount ?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A ) Source of funds

1. Fund from operation ( balance of second step )

2. Issue of shares capital

3. Issue of debentures

4. Raising of long term loans

5. Receipts from partly paid shares , called up

6. Amount received from sales of non current or fixed assets

7. Non trading receipts such as dividend received

8. Sale of investments ( Long term )

9. Decrease in working capital as per schedule of changes in working capital

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

total -------------------------------------------------------------> ? XXXXX ?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Applications or uses of funds

1. Funds lost in operations ( Balance negative in second step )

2. Redemption of preference share capital

3. Redemption of debentures

4. Repayment of long term loans

5. Purchase of long term loans

6. Purchase of long term investments

7. Non trading payments

8. Payment of tax

9. Payment of dividends

10. Increase in working capital ( As per positive balance of ist step )

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

total --------------------------------------------------------> ? XXXXX ?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------