Chapter 5 Fuel supply system

1.1. Carburetion
The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the
proper amount of fuel with air before admission to engine cylinder is called
carburetion and the device which does this job is called a carburetor.
Spark-ignition engines normally use volatile liquid fuels.
The process of carburetion is influenced by
(i) the engine speed
(ii) the vaporization characteristics of the fuel
(iii) the temperature of the incoming air
(iv) the design of the carbureator

1.1.1. Principle of carburetion

Both air and gasoline are drawn through the carburetor and into the engine
cylinders by the suction created by the downward movement of the piston. This
suction is due to an increase in the volume of the cylinder and a consequent decrease
in the gas pressure in this chamber. It is the difference in pressure between the
atmosphere and cylinder that causes air to flow into the chamber. In the carburetor, air
passing into the combustion chamber picks up fuel discharged from a tube. This tube
has a fine orifice called carburetor jet which is exposed to the air path. The rate at
which fuel is discharged into the air depends on the pressure difference or pressure
head between the float chamber and throat of the Venturi and on the area of the outlet
of the tube. In order that the fuel drawn from the nozzle may be thoroughly atomized,
the suction effect must be strong and the nozzle outlet comparatively small. In order
to produce a strong suction, the pipe in the carburetor carrying air to the engine is
made to have a restriction. At this restriction called throat due to increase in velocity
of flow, a suction effect is created. The restriction is made in the form of a Venturi as
shown in Fig.1 to minimize throttling losses. The end of the fuel jet is located at the
throat of the carburetor.

Fig.1 operation of the Venturi tube

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 The geometry of the Venturi tube is as shown in Fig.1. It has a narrower path at
the centre so that the flow area is considerably reduced. As the same amount of air
must pass through every point in the tube, its velocity will be greatest at the narrowest
point. The smaller the area, the greater will be the velocity of the air, and thereby the
suction is proportionately increased. As mentioned earlier, the opening of the fuel
discharge jet is usually located where the suction is maximum. Normally, this is just
below the narrowest section of the Venturi tube. The spray of gasoline from the nozzle
and the air entering through the Venturi tube are mixed together in this region and a
combustible mixture is formed which passes through the intake manifold into the
cylinders. Most of the fuel gets atomized and simultaneously a small part will be
vaporized. Increased air velocity at the throat of the Venturi tube helps the rate of
evaporation of fuel. The difficulty of obtaining a mixture of sufficiently high fuel
vapor-air ratio for efficient starting of the engine and for uniform fuel-air ratio in
different cylinders cannot be fully met by the increased air velocity alone at the
Venturi throat.

1.1.2. A simple carburetor

Carburetors are highly complex. Let us first understand the working principle of a
simple or elementary carburetor which provides an air-fuel mixture for cruising or
normal range at a single speed. Later, other mechanisms to provide for the various
special requirements like starting, idling, variable load and speed operation and
acceleration will be included. Fig.2 shows the details of a simple carburetor.

Fig.2 The simple carburetor

2
 The simple carburetor mainly consists of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle
and a metering orifice, a Venturi, a throttle valve and a choke. The float and a needle
valve system maintains a constant level of gasoline in the float chamber. If the amount
of fuel in the float chamber falls below the designed level, the float goes down,
thereby opening the fuel supply valve and admitting fuel. When the designed level has
been reached, the float closes the fuel supply valve thus stopping additional fuel flow
from the supply system. Float chamber is vented either to the atmosphere or to the
upstream side of the Venturi.
During suction stroke air is drawn through the Venturi. From the float chamber,
the fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip of which is located in the throat of the Venturi.
Because of the differential pressure between the float chamber and the throat of the
Venturi, known as carburetor depression, fuel is discharged into the air stream. The
fuel discharge is affected by the size of the discharge jet and it is chosen to give the
required air-fuel ratio. To avoid overflow of fuel through the jet, the level of the liquid
in the float chamber is maintained at a level slightly below the tip of the discharge jet.
This is called the tip of the nozzle. The difference in the height between the top of the
nozzle and the float chamber level is marked z in Fig.2.
The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which means that when power output
is to be varied at a particular speed, the amount of charge delivered to the cylinder is
varied. This is achieved by means of a throttle valve usually of the butterfly type
which is situated after the Venturi tube. As the throttle is closed less air flows through
the Venturi tube and less is the quantity of air-fuel mixture delivered to the cylinder
and hence power output is reduced. As the throttle is opened, more air flows through
the choke tube resulting in increased quantity of mixture being delivered to the engine.
This increases the engine power output.
A simple carburetor of the type described above suffers from a fundamental
drawback in that it provides the required A/F ratio only at one throttle position. At the
other throttle positions the mixture is either leaner or richer depending on whether the
throttle is opened less or more. As the throttle opening is varied, the air flow varies
and creates a certain pressure differential between the float chamber and the Venturi
throat. The same pressure differential regulates the flow of fuel through the nozzle.
Therefore, the velocity of flow of air and fuel vary in a similar manner. At the same
time, the density of air decreases as the pressure at the Venturi throat decreases with
increasing air flow whereas that of the fuel remains unchanged. This results in a
simple carburetor producing a progressively rich mixture with increasing throttle
opening.

1.1.3. The calculation of the air-fuel ratio

A simple carburetor with the tip of the fuel nozzle z meter above the fuel level in
the float chamber is shown in Fig.2. It may be noted that the density of air is not the
same at the inlet to the carburetor (section A-A, point 1) and the Venturi throat
(section B-B, point 2). The calculation of exact air mass flow involves taking this
change in density or compressibility of air into account.
Applying the steady flow energy equation to sections A-A and B-B and assuming
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unit mass flow of air, we have,
q − w = (h2 − h1 ) +
1 2
2
C 2 − C12 ( ) (1)

Here, q, w are the heat and work transfers from the entrance to throat and h and C
stand for enthalpy and velocity respectively.
Assuming an adiabatic flow, we get q=0, w=0 and C1 ≈ 0 ,

C 2 = 2(h1 − h2 ) (2)
Assuming air to behave like ideal gas, we get h=CpT. Hence, Eq.2 can be written as,
C 2 = 2C p (T1 − T2 ) (3)

As the flow process from inlet to the Venturi throat can be considered to be isentropic,
we have
 γ −1 
 
T2  p 2   γ 
=  (4)
T1  p1 

  γ −1  
 
  p 2   γ  
T1 − T2 = T1 1 −    (5)
  p1  
 
Substituting Eq.5 in Eq.3, we get

  γ −1  
 
  p 2   γ  
C 2 = 2C p T1 1 −    (6)
  p1  
 
Now, mass flow of air,
m a = ρ1 A1C1 = ρ 2 A2 C 2 (7)
Where A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional area at the air inlet (point 1) and Venturi
throat (point 2).
To calculate the mass flow rate of air at Venturi throat, we have,

p1 / ρ1γ = p 2 / ρ 2γ ⇒ ρ 2 = ( p 2 / p1 )1 / γ ρ1 (8)

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  γ −1 
1/ γ
p    p2  γ 
m a =  2  ρ1 A2 2C p T1 1 −  
 p1   p1  
 
 
 γ −1 
1/ γ
p  p1  p  γ 
=  2  A2 2C p T1 1 −  2   (9)
 p1  RT1
  1 
p
 
 2 γ +1 
A2 p1   p  γ  p  γ 
= 2C p  2  −  2  
 1   p1  
R T1 p
 
Substituting C p = 1005 J/kg K, g = 1.4 and R = 287 J/kg K for air,

1.43 1.71
A p p  p  A2 p1
m a = 0.1562 2 1  2  −  2  = 0.1562 φ kg/s (10)
T1  p1   p1  T1
1.43 1.71
p  p 
Where, φ =  2  −  2  , p is in N/m2, A is in m2 and T is in K.
 p1   p1 

Equation 10 gives the theoretical mass flow rate. To get the actual mass flow rate,
the above equation should be multiplied by the co-efficiency of discharge for the
Venturi, Cda.
A2 p1
m a ,actual = 0.1562C da φ (11)
T1
Since Cda and A2 are constant for a given Venturi,

p1
m a ,actual ∝ φ (12)
T1
In order to calculate the air-fuel ratio, fuel flow rate is to be calculated. As the fuel is
incompressible, applying Bernoulli’s Theorem we get

p1 p2 C 2f
− = + gz (13)
ρf ρf 2

Where, ρ f is the density of fuel, Cf is the fuel velocity at the nozzle exit and z is the

height of the nozzle exit above the level of fuel in the float bowl.
 p − p2 
C f = 2 1 − gz 
 ρ f 

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Mass flow rate of fuel,
m f = A f C f ρ f = A f (
2 ρ f p1 − p 2 − gzρ f ) (14)

Where A f is the area of cross-section of the nozzle and ρ f is the density of the fuel

m f ,actual = C df A f (
2 ρ f p1 − p 2 − gzρ f ) (15)

Where C df is the coefficient of discharge for fuel nozzle

A m C A p1f
ρatio = a,actual = 0.1562 da 2
( )
(16)
F m f ,actual C df A f 2T1 ρ f p1 − p 2 − gzρ f

Air-fuel ratio neglecting compressibility of Air

When air is considered as incompressible, Bernoulli’s theorem is applicable to air

flow also. Assuming C1 ≈ 0 , we have

p1 C 22
p2  p − p2 
− = ⇒ C 2 = 2 1  (17)
ρa ρa 2  ρa 

m a = A2 C 2 ρ a = A2 2 ρ a ( p1 − p 2 )

m a ,actual = C da Aa 2 ρ a ( p1 − p 2 ) (18)

A m a C da A2 ρ a ( p1 − p 2 )
= =
ρ f ( p1 − p 2 − gzρ f ) (19)
F m f C df A f

If z=0
m a C da A2 ρa
= (20)
m f C df A f ρf

1.1.4. Essential parts of a carburetor

A carburetor consists essentially of the following parts, viz.
[i] Fuel strainer. It is employed to filter the dust particles of the gasoline to
prevent possible blockage of the nozzle, see fig.3.

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 Fig. 3 Essential parts of a carburetor

[ii] Float chamber. The function of a float chamber in a carburetor is to supply

the fuel to the nozzle at a constant pressure head. This is possible by
maintaining a constant level of the fuel in the float bowl. The float is
designed to control the level of fuel in the float chamber. This fuel level must
be maintained slightly below the discharge nozzle outlet holes in order to
provide the correct amount of fuel flow and to prevent leakage of fuel from
the nozzle when the engine is not operating.
[iii] Main fuel metering and idling nozzles. The main metering system of the
carburetor controls the fuel feed for cruising and full throttle operations. It
consists of three principle units: (a) the fuel metering orifice through which
fuel is drawn from the float chamber; (b) the main discharge nozzle; (c) the
passage leading to the idling system. The idling system gets operational at
starting, idling and very low speed. When the throttle is practically closed or
marginally open, the very small quantity of air creates very little depression
at the throat of the Venturi, and that is not enough to suck any fuel from the
nozzle. But very low pressure caused on the down stream side of the throttle
due to suction stroke of the piston makes the fuel rise in the idling tube and
the same is discharged through the idling discharge port, directly into the
engine intake manifold. Due to the low pressure through idling air-bleed a
small amount of air also is sucked. The idling air-bleed mixes air with
gasoline drawn from float chamber and helps it to vaporize and atomize it
and pass on through the idle passage. The air bleed also prevents the gasoline
in the float chamber getting drained off through the idling passage due to
syphon action, when the engine is not in operation.
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 [iv] Choke and throttle. When the vehicle is kept stationary for a long period
during cool winter seasons, starting becomes more difficult. At low speed and
low intake temperature, a very rich mixture is required to initiate the
combustion. The main reason is that very large fraction of the fuel may
remain as liquid suspend in air even in the cylinder, which will decrease the
fuel-vapor to air ratio of the mixture, cause the starting fail. Therefore a very
rich mixture must be supplied. The most popular method of providing such
mixture is by the use of choke valve. This is simple butterfly valve located
between the entrance to the carburetor and the Venturi throat as shown in
fig.4. When the choke is partly closed, large pressure drop occurs at the
Venturi throat that would normally result from the quantity of air passing
through the Venturi throat. The very large depression at the throat inducts
large amount of fuel from the main nozzle and provides a very rich mixture
so that the ratio of evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder is within combustible
limits. The speed and the output of an engine is controlled by the use of the
throttle valve, which is located on the downstream side of the Venturi. The
more the throttle is closed the greater is the obstruction to the flow of mixture
placed in the passage and the less is the quantity of mixture delivered to the
cylinders. The decreased quantity of mixture gives a less powerful impulse to
the pistons and the output of the engine is reduced accordingly.

Fig. 4 The choke and the throttle valve

1.1.5. Types of carburetors

There are three general types of carburetors depending on the direction of flow of
air. This first is the updraught type shown in fig.5(a) in which the air enters at the
bottom and leaves at the top so that the direction of its flow is upwards. The
disadvantage of the updraught carburetor is that it must lift the sprayed fuel droplet by
8
air friction. Hence, it must be designed for relatively small mixing tube and throat so
that even at low engine speeds the air velocity is sufficient to lift and carry the fuel
particles along. On the other hand, the mixing tube is finite and small then it cannot
supply mixture to the engine at a sufficiently rapid rate at high speeds. In order to
overcome this drawback the downdraught carburetor is adopted (fig.5(b)). A
cross-draught carburetor consists of a horizontal mixing tube with a float chamber on
one side of it (fig.5(c)). By using a cross-draught carburetor in engines, one right
angled turn in the inlet passage is eliminated and the resistance to flow is reduced.

Fig.5 Types of carburetors

Example 1

A simple jet carburetor is required to supply 5 kg of air and 0.5 kg of fuel per minute.
The fuel specific gravity is 0.75. The air is initially at 1 bar and 300 K. Calculate the
throat diameter of the choke for a flow velocity of 100 m/s. Velocity coefficient (Cda)
is 0.8. If the pressure drop across the fuel metering orifice is 0.80 of that of the choke,
calculate orifice diameter assuming, Cdf=0.60 and γ = 1.4 , Cp=1.005 kJ/kg K.

Solution

Velocity at throat, C2

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 γ −1
 
  γ

2C p T1 1 −   
p
C 2 = C da 2
  p1  
 
 1.4−1 
  p  1.4 
100 = 0.8 × 2 × 1005 × 300 × 1 −  2  
  1
p

 
p2
So we have = (0.974 )1 / 0.286 = 0.912
p1

p 2 = p1 × 0.912 = 0.912 bar

RT1 0.287 × 1000 × 300

v1 = = 5
= 0.861 m 3 /kg
p1 10

1
0.714
 p g  1 
p1v1g = p 2 v 2g ⇒ v 2 = v1  1  = 0.861 ×   = 0.919 m 3 / kg
 p2   0.912 

Throat area,
m a × v 2 5 0.919
A2 = = × × 10 4 = 7.658 cm 2
C2 60 100
4
⇒ d 2 = 7.658 × = 3.12 cm
π

∆p a = 1 − 0.912 = 0.088 bar

∆p f = 0.80 × 0.088 = 0.07 bar

m f = A f C df 2 ρ f ∆p f

0.5
= A f × 0.6 × 2 × 750 × 0.07 × 10 5
60
⇒ A f = 0.0428 cm 2
⇒ d f = 0.234 cm = 2.34 mm

1.2. Mechanical injection system

The fuel-injection system is the most vital component in the working of CI
engines. The engine performance is greatly dependent on the effectiveness of the
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fuel-injection system. The injection system has to perform the important duty of
initiating and controlling the combustion process.
Basically, the purpose of carburetion and fuel-injection is the same, viz.
preparation of the combustible charge. But in case of carburetion fuel is atomized by
processes relying on the air speed greater than fuel speed at the fuel nozzle, whereas,
in fuel-injection the fuel speed at the point of delivery is greater than the air speed to
atomize the fuel.

1.2.1. Functional requirements of an injection system

For a proper running and good performance from the engine, the following
requirements must be met by the injection system:
(i) Accurate metering of the fuel injected per cycle. This is very critical due to the
fact very small quantities of fuel being handled. Metering errors may cause
drastic variation from the desired output. The quantity of the fuel metered
should vary to meet changing speed and load requirements of the engine.
(ii) Timing the injection of the fuel correctly in the cycle so that maximum power
is obtained ensuring fuel economy and clean burning.
(iii) Proper control of rate of injection so that the desired heat-release pattern is
achieved during combustion.
(iv) Proper atomization of fuel into very fine droplets.
(v) Proper spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of fuel and air.
(vi) Uniform distribution of fuel droplets throughout the combustion chamber
(vii) To supply equal quantities of metered fuel to all cylinders in case of multi
cylinder engines.
(viii) No lag during beginning and end of injection i.e., to eliminate dribbling of fuel
droplets into the cylinder.

1.2.2. Classification of injection systems

In a diesel engine, only air is compressed in the cylinder and then fuel is injected
into the cylinder by means of a fuel injection system. The injection systems can be
classified as:
1) Air injection systems. In this system, fuel is forced into cylinder by means of
compressed air. This system is little used nowadays, because it requires a bulky
multi-stage air compressor. This causes an increase in engine weight and reduces
the brake power output further.

2) Solid injection system. In this system the fuel is injected directly into the
combustion chamber without the aid of compressed air. Hence, it is also called
airless mechanical injection or solid injection system. Solid injection systems can
be classified into four types:
(i) individual pump and nozzle system
(ii) unit injector system
(iii) Common rail system
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 (iv) Distributor system
All the above systems comprise mainly of the following components.
(i) fuel tank,
(ii) fuel feed pump to supply fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection
system.
(iii) injection pump to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection
(iv) governor to ensure that the amount of fuel injected is in accordance with
variation in load.
(v) Injector to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in the combustion
chamber by atomizing it into fine droplets.
(vi) Fuel filters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump
and injectors thereby minimizing the wear and tear of the components.
A typical arrangement of various components for the solid injection system used
in a CI engine is shown in Fig.6. Fuel from the fuel tank first enters the coarse filter
from which is drawn into the plunger feed pump where pressure is raised very
slightly. Then the fuel enters the fine filter where all the dust and dirt particles are
removed. From the fine filter the fuel enters the fuel pump where it is pressurized to
about 200 bar and injected into the engine cylinder by means of the injector. Any
spill over in the injector is returned to the fine filter. A pressure relief valve is also
provided for the safety of the system. The above functions are achieved with the
components listed above.

Fig.6 Typical fuel feed system for a CI engine

The types of solid injection system described in the following sections differ only
in the manner of operation and control of the components mentioned above.
(i) Individual pump and nozzle system. The details of the individual pump
and nozzle system are shown in fig.7(a) and (b). In this system, each
cylinder is provided with one pump and one injector. In this arrangement a
separate metering and compression pump is provided for each cylinder. The
pump may be placed close to the cylinder as shown in fig.7(a) or they may
be arranged in a cluster as shown in fig.7(b). The high pressure pump
plunger is actuated by a cam, and produces the fuel pressure necessary to
open the injector valve at the correct time. The amount of fuel injected
depends on the effective stroke of the plunger.
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 Fig.7 Injection systems with pump and nozzle arrangements used in CI engines

(ii) Unit injector system. The unit injector system, Fig.7(c), is one in which the
pump and the injector nozzle are combined in one housing. Each cylinder is
provided with one of these unit injectors. Fuel is brought up to the injector
by a low pressure pump, where at the proper time, a rocker arm actuates the
plunger and thus injects the fuel into the cylinder. The amount of fuel
injected is regulated by the effective stroke of the plunger. The pump and the
injector can be integrated in one unit.

(iii) Common rail system. In the common rail system, Fig.7(d), a HP pump
supplies fuel, under high pressure, to a fuel header. High pressure in the
header forces the fuel to each of the nozzles located in the cylinders. At the
proper time, a mechanically operated (by means of a push rod and rocker
arm) valve allows the fuel to enter the proper cylinder through the nozzle.
The pressure in the fuel header must be that, for which the injector system
was designed, i.e. it must be able to penetrate and disperse the fuel in the
combustion chamber. The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated
by varying the length of the push rod stroke.

(iv) Distributor system. Fig.8 shows a schematic diagram of a distributor

system. In this system the pump which pressurizes the fuel also meters and
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 times it. The fuel pump after metering the required amount of fuel supplies
it to a rotating distributor at the correct time for supply to each cylinder. The
number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump is equal to the number of
cylinders.

Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of distribution system

1.2.3. Fuel feed pump

A schematic sketch of fuel feed pump is shown in Fig.9. It is of spring loaded
plunger type. The plunger is actuated through a push rod from the cam shaft. At the
minimum lift position of the cam the spring force on the plunger creates a suction
which causes fuel flow from the main tank into the pump. When the cam is turned to
its maximum lift position, the plunger is lifted upwards. At the same time the inlet
valve is closed and the fuel is forced through the outlet valve. When the operating
pressure gets released, the plunger return spring ceases to function resulting in
varying of the pumping stroke under varying engine loads according to the quantity of
fuel required by the injection pump.

Fig.9 Schematic diagram of fuel feed pump

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1.2.4. Fuel injector
Quick and complete combustion is ensured by a well designed fuel injector. By
atomizing the fuel into very fine droplets, it increases the surface area of the fuel
droplets resulting in better mixing and subsequent combustion. Atomization is done
by forcing the fuel through a small orifice under high pressure.
The injector assembly consists of
(i) a needle valve
(ii) a compression spring
(iii) a nozzle
(iv) an injector body

Fig.10 Fuel injector (Bosch)

A cross sectional view of a typical Bosch fuel injector is shown in fig.10. When
the fuel is supplied by the injection pump it exerts sufficient force against the spring
to lift the nozzle valve, fuel is sprayed into the combustion chamber in a finely
atomized particles. After, fuel from the delivery pump gets exhausted, the spring
pressure pushes the nozzle valve back on its seat. For proper lubrication between the
nozzle valve and its guide a small quantity of fuel is allowed to leak through the
clearance between them and then drained back to fuel tank through leak off
connection. The spring tension and hence the valve opening pressure is controlled by
adjusting the screw provided at the top.

1.2.5. Nozzle
Nozzle is that part of an injector through which the liquid fuel is sprayed into the
15
combustion chamber.
The nozzle should fulfill the following functions:
(i) Atomization: this is a very important function since it is the first phase in
obtaining proper mixing of the fuel and air in the combustion chamber.
(ii) Distribution of fuel: distribution of fuel to the required areas within the
combustion chamber. Factors affecting this are:
(a) Injection pressure: Higher the injection pressure better the dispersion and
penetration of the fuel into all the desired locations in combustion chamber.
(b) Density of air in the cylinder: if the density of compressed air in the
combustion chamber is high then the resistance to the movement of the
droplets is higher and dispersion of the fuel is better.
(c) Physical properties of fuel: the properties like self-ignition temperature,
vapor pressure, viscosity, etc. play an important role in the distribution of
fuel.
(iii) Prevention of impingement on walls: prevention of the fuel from impinging
directly on the walls of combustion chamber or piston. This is necessary
because fuel striking the walls decomposes and produces carbon deposits. This
causes smoky exhaust as well as increase in fuel consumption.
(iv) Mixing: Mixing the fuel and air in case of non-turbulent type of combustion
chamber should be taken care of by the nozzle.

Fig.11 Types of nozzle

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 Various types of nozzles are used in CI engines. These types are shown in Fig.11.
The most common types are:
(i) Pintle nozzle: The stem of the nozzle valve is extended to form a pin or pintle
which protrudes through the mouth of the nozzle. The size and shape of the
pintle can be varied according to the requirement. It provides a spray operating
at low injection pressure of 8-10 MPa. The spray angle is generally 60° .
Advantage of this nozzle is that it avoids weak injection and dribbling. It
prevents the carbon deposition on the nozzle hole.
(ii) Single hole nozzle: At the centre of the nozzle body there is a single hole
which is closed by the nozzle valve. The size of the hole is usually of the order
of 0.2 mm. Injection pressure is of order 8-10 MPa and spray cone angle is
about 15° . Major disadvantage with such nozzle is that they tend to dribble.
Besides, their spray angle is too narrow to facilitate good mixing unless higher
velocities are used.
(iii) Multi-hole nozzle: it consists of a number of holes bored in the tip of the
nozzle. The number of holes varies from 4 to 18 and the size from 35 to 200
μm. The hole angle may be from 20° upwards. These nozzles operate at high
injection pressures of the order of 18 MPa. Their advantage lies in the ability
to distribute the fuel properly even with lower air motion available in open
combustion chambers.
(iv) Pintaux Nozzle: it is a type of pintle nozzle which has auxiliary hole drilled in
the nozzle body. It injects a small amount of fuel through this additional hole
(pilot injection) in the upstream direction slightly before the main injection.
The needle valve does not lift fully at low speeds and most of the fuel is
injected through the auxiliary hole. Main advantage of this nozzle is better
cold starting performance. A major drawback of this nozzle is that its injection
characteristics are poorer than the multi-hole nozzle.

Fuel quantity and the size of nozzle orifice

At the exit of the orifice the fuel jet velocity, Vf, is of the order of 400 m/s. It is
given by the following equation

(
2 pinj − pcyl )
V f = Cd
ρf (6.21)

Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge for the orifice;

pinj is the fuel pressure at the inlet to the injector, N/m2
pcyl is the pressure of charge inside the cylinder, N/m2
ρf is fuel density, kg/m3

The volume of the fuel injected per second, Q, is given by

Q=Area of all orifices × fuel jet velocity × time of one injection × number of
injections per second for one orifice

17
 π   θ 60   N 
So Q =  d 2 × n ×V f ×  × × i  (6.22)
4   360 N   60 
Where, N is the engine speed,
d is the diameter of one orifice in m,
n is the number of orifices,
θ is the duration of injection in crank angle degrees
and Ni is the number of injections per minute.
Usually the rate of fuel-injection is expressed in mm3/degree crank angle/litre
cylinder displacement volume to normalize the effect of engine size.

Example 2

Calculate the diameter of the fuel orifice of a four-stroke engine which develops 25
kW per cylinder at 2500 rpm. The specific fuel consumption is 0.3 kg/kWh. The fuel
is injected at a pressure of 150 bar over a crank travel of 25° . The pressure in the
combustion chamber is 40 bar. Coefficient of velocity is 0.875, and specific gravity is
0.8762.
Solution

25
Duration of injection = = 1.667 × 10 −3 s
360 × 2500 / 60
Velocity of injection,

2( pinj − p cyl )
Vinj = C d f
ρf
2 × (150 − 40 ) × 10 5
= 0.875 × = 138.65 m/s
876.2

Vol. of fuel injected/cycle =

(bsfc / 60) × output
(ρpm/2) × ρ f

=
(0.3 / 60) × 25 = 0.114 × 10 −6 m 3 / cycle
(2500 / 2) × 876.2
volume of fuel injected/cycle
Nozzle orifice area, A f =
injection velocity × injection time

0.114 × 10 −6
Af = −3
= 0.4392 × 10 −6 m 2
138.65 × 1.667 × 10
π
Area of the orifice = × d 2 = 0.4392 × 10 −6
4

So, d = 0.792 × 10 −3 m = 0.792 mm

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1.3. Electronic injection system
1.3.1. Why gasoline injection
In a carburetor engine, uniformity of mixture strength is difficult to realize in
each cylinder of a multi-cylinder engine. Fig.12 shows a typical pattern of mixture
distribution in an intake manifold of a multi-cylinder engine. As may be noticed that
the intake valve is open in cylinder 2. As can also be observed the gasoline moves to
the end of the manifold and accumulates there. This enriches the mixture going to the
end cylinders. However, the central cylinders which are very close to the carburetor,
get the leanest mixture. Thus the various cylinders receive the air-gasoline mixture in
varying quantities and richness. This problem is called the maldistribution and can be
solved by the port injection system by having the same amount of gasoline injected at
each intake manifold. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop injection systems
for gasoline engines. By adopting gasoline injection each cylinder can get the same
richness of the air-gasoline mixture.

Fig.12 Typical pattern of mixture distribution in a multi-cylinder engine

1.3.2. Types of gasoline injection system

The fuel injection system can be classified as:
(i) Gasoline direct injection into the cylinder (GDI)
(ii) Port injection
(iii) Manifold injection
Typical fuel injection mothods used in four-stroke and two-stroke gasoline
engines are shown in Fig.13.

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 Fig.13 Different methods of fuel injection

1.3.3. Electronic fuel injection system

Modern gasoline injection systems use engine sensors, a computer, and fuel
injectors to meter and inject the right amount of fuel into the engine cylinders. These
systems called electronic fuel injection (EFI) use electrical and electronic devices to
monitor and control engine operation.
An electronic control unit (ECU) or the computer receives electrical signals in the
20
form of current or voltage from various sensors. It then uses the stored date to operate
the injectors ignition system and other engine related devices. As a result, less
unburned fuel leaves the engine as emissions, and the vehicle gives better milage.
Typical sensors for an electronic fuel injection system include the following:
(i) Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor- senses the amount of oxygen in the engine
exhaust and calculates air-fuel ratio. Sensor output voltage changes in
proportion to air-fuel ratio.
(ii) Engine temperature sensor- senses the temperature of the engine coolant, and
from this data the computer adjusts the mixture strength to rich side for cold
starting
(iii) Air flow sensor- monitors mass or volume of air flowing into the intake
manifold for adjusting the quantity of fuel.
(iv) Air inlet temperature sensor- checks the temperature of the ambient air
entering the engine for fine tubing the mixture strength.
(v) Throttle position sensor- senses the movement of the throttle plate so that the
mixture flow can be adjusted for engine speed and acceleration.
(vi) Manifold pressure sensor- monitors vacuum in the engine intake manifold so
that the mixture strength can be adjusted with changes in engine load.
(vii) Camshaft position sensor – sense rotation of engine camshaft/crankshaft for
speed and timing of injection.
(viii) Knock sensor – microphone type sensor that detects ping or pre-ignition noise
so that the ignition timing can be retarded.
The fuel injector is only a fuel valve. When it is not energized, spring pressure
makes the injector to remain closed and no fuel will enter the engine. When the
computer sends the signal through the injector coil, the magnetic field attracts the
injector armature. Fuel then spurts into the intake manifold.
The injector pulse width is an indication of the period for which each injector is
energized and kept open. The computer decides and controls the injector pulse width
based on the signals received from the various sensors.
Under full load, the computer will sense a wide open throttle, high intake
manifold pressure, and high inlet air flow. The ECU will then increase the injector
pulse width to enrich the mixture which will enable the engine to produce higher
power.
Under low load and idling condtions, the ECU will shorten the pulse width by
which the injectors are kept in the closed position over a longer period of time.
Because of this, air-fuel mixture will become leaner and will result in better fuel
economy.
Electronic fuel injection system has a cold start injector too. This is an extra
injector that sprays fuel into the centre of the engine intake manifold, when the engine
is cold. It serves the same purpose as the carburetor choke. The cold start injector
ensures easy engine startup in very cold weather.

Merits of EFI system

(i) Improvement in the volumetric efficiency due to comparatively less
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 resistance in the intake manifolds which will cause less pressure losses.
(ii) Manifold wetting is eliminated due to the fuel being injected into or close
to the cylinder and need not flow through the manifold.
(iii) Atomization of fuel is independent of cranking speed and therefore
starting will be easier.
(iv) Better atomization and vaporization will make the engine less knock
prone.
(v) Formation of ice on the throttle plate is eliminated.
(vi) Distribution of fuel being independent of vaporization, less volatile fuel
can be used.
(vii) Variation of air-fuel ratio is almost negligible even when the vehicle takes
different positions like turning, moving on gradients uneven roads etc.
(viii) Position of the injection unit is not so critical and thereby the height of the
engine can be less.

Demerits of EFI system

(i) high maintenance cost,
(ii) difficulty in servicing
(iii) possibility of malfunction of some sensors.

1.3.4. Multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) system

The main purpose of the multi-point fuel injection system is to supply a proper
ratio of gasoline and air to the cylinders. These systems function under two basic
arrangements, namely
(i) Port injection, see fig.14.

Fig.14 single port and multi-port injection

(ii) Throttle body injection, see fig.15.

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 Fig.15 Throttle body injection

1.3.5. Injection timing

The timing at which the injection of the fuel takes place inside the inlet manifold
is called injection timing. The injection timing for one cylinder of a four-cylinder
engine is described below.
In one cylinder, the piston moves up from BDC to TDC during the exhaust stroke.
Just before the piston reaches TDC during this exhaust stroke, the fuel is injected into
the inlet manifold of this cylinder at about crankangle before TDC. This injected
fuel mixes with the air in the air intake chamber. Thus the air-fuel mixture is obtained.
At the beginning of the suction stroke, intake valve opens and the air-fuel mixture
is sucked into the cylinder during the suction stroke.
According to the firing order, the injection of the fuel takes place inside the inlet
manifolds of the other three cylinders at various timings.
In this four cylinder engine, the Electronic control unit (ECU) calculates the
appropriate injection timing for each cylinder and the air-fuel mixture is made
available at each suction stroke.

1.3.6. Group gasoline injection system

In an engine having group gasoline injection system, the injectors are not
activated individually, but are activated in groups. In a four-cylinder engine also there
are two groups, each group having two injectors. In a six-cylinder engine, there are
two groups, each group having3 injectors. Fig.16 shows the injector grouping for a
six-cylinder engine. Injectors 1, 3 and 5 open at the same time and inject gasoline into
the intake manifold. After these injectors close, the injectors for the cylinders 2, 4 and
6 open and inject gasoline.

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 Fig.16 Injectors grouping in a six-cylinder engine

1.3.7. Electronic diesel injection system

If the engine has to operate with a high efficiency and low emission levels, all
parameters related to the injection process like, timing, rate of injection, end of
injection, quantity of injected fuel etc. have to be precisely controlled. Such a control
is difficult with conventional mechanical systems. Mechanical systems only sense a
few parameters and meter the fuel quantity or adjust the injection timing. They
seldom change the injection rate or the injection pressure.
Use of pilot injection systems can lead to significant advantages. Here, a small
amount of fuel is first injected and allowed to undergo the ignition delay and burn.
Subsequently the main injection takes place into gases, which are already hot. Thus
the amount of fuel taking part in the premixed or the uncontrolled combustion phase
is minimized and this leads to a reduction in noise and NOx levels. Such a system will
need an injection rate variation with time which is rather difficult to achieve precisely
in mechanical systems. Hence, different types of injection systems with electronic
controls have been developed.
By means of EFI systems one can achieve the precise control of:
(i) Injection time
(ii) Fuel injection quantity,
(iii) Injection rate during various stages of injection,
(iv) Injection pressure during injection,
(v) Nozzle opening speed and
(vi) Pilot injection timing and its quantity.

1.3.8. Electronic diesel injection control

There are various versions of electronically controlled diesel injection systems.

1.3.8.1 Electronically controlled unit injectors

The schematic layout of the entire system is indicated in Fig.17. The do not have
24
high-pressure lines and hence the injection lag is low. The main high-pressure pump is
situated above the injector. Fuel is fed into the high-pressure pump by a supply gear
pump at low pressure. The ECU generates pulses to control the fuel timing and
injection quantity.

Fig.17 A typical electronically controlled diesel injection system

1.3.8.2 Common-rail fuel injection system

The common-rail fuel injection system is finding increasing use in diesel engines
as it has the potential to drastically cut emissions and fuel consumption. This system
provides control of many important parameters linked to the injection system. It has a
wide range of application, from small to heavy duty engines. Some important features
are:
25
(i) Very high injection pressure of the order of 1500 bar.
(ii) Complete control over start, and end of injection.
(iii) Injection pressure is independent of engine speed
(iv) Ability to have pilot, main and post injection
(v) Variable injection pressure.
The common rail injection system has a high pressure pump which operates
continuously and charges a high pressure rail or reservoir or accumulator. Fuel is led
from this rail to the injector mounted on the cylinder head through lines.
The engine directly drives the pump of the common rail system. The generated
pressure is independent of the injection process unlike conventional injection systems.
The rail pressure pump is generally much smaller than conventional pumps and also is
subjected to lesser pressure pulsations. The quantity of fuel injected is directly
dependent on the duration of the pulse when the injection pressure is constant.
Sensors on the crankshaft indicate its position and speed and so the timing of injection
and its frequency can be controlled. A typical layout of the common rail fuel injection
system is indicated in Fig.18. Fuel from the tank is lifted by a low pressure pump and
passed through a filter. The pump is generally run by an electric motor independent of
the engine speed. The main pumping element can be conventional gear pump or roller
cell type.

Fig.18 common rail fuel injection system

26
Exercise

1. The Venturi of a simple carburetor has a throat diameter of 20 mm and the

coefficient of flow is 0.8. The fuel orifice has a diameter of 1.14 mm and the
coefficient of fuel flow is 0.65. The gasoline surface is 5 mm below the throat,
calculate
(i) the air-fuel ratio for a pressure drop of 0.08 bar when the nozzle tip is
neglected
(ii) the air-fuel ratio when the nozzle tip is taken into account
(iii) the minimum velocity of air or critical air velocity required to start the
fuel flow when the nozzle tip is provided.
Assume the density of air and fuel to be 1.20 kg/m3 and 750 kg/m3 respectively.
(Ans: 15.15, 15.19, 7.83 m/s)

2. A four-cylinder, four-stroke engine running at 40 rev/s has a carburetor

Venturi with a 3 cm throat. Assuming both the bore and stroke to be 10 cm,
volumetric efficiency of 75%, the density of air to be 1.15 kg/m3 and
coefficient of air flow to be 0.75. Calculate the suction (viz. pressure
difference) at the throat.
(Ans: 0.0451 bar)

3. A four-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine develops a power of 180 kW at

1500 rpm. The bsfc is 0.2 kg/kW h. At the beginning of injection pressure is

30 bar and the maximum cylinder pressure is 50 bar. The injection is expected
to be at 200 bar and maximum pressure at the injector is set to be about 500
bar. Assuming the following:
Cd for injector =0.7
Specific gravity of fuel =0.875
Atmospheric pressure =1 bar
Effective pressure difference = Average pressure difference over the injection
period
Determine the total orifice area required per injector if the injection takes
place over 15° crank angle.

(Ans: 0.736 × 10 −6 m 2 )

27