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• In this work, an effort has been designed to raise the reliability of engine
fuel efficiency using Al- Cr –Ni composites with other alternatively
materials for the disc brake guides. Aluminium matrix composites have
found the most suitable inside automotive, aerospace and aircraft
industries and contain the greatest promise for future year’s growth.
• This paper analysis the valve mechanical properties of the Al- Ni-Cr
composite material by using composite model plate and evaluate the
mechanical properties.
• In this paper the existing disc brake steel is replaced with composite disc
brake.
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
The need of efficient use of energy & materials is being felt strongly because of
diminishing resources in the present times. There has been an important role of
materials in the development of civilizations. In the transportation sector when
earlier large bulky automobiles are compared with today’s light weight,
technologically superior vehicles. Man has been using iron, copper & their
alloys for thousands of years, but surprisingly until the last century he was
oblivious of the bauxite ore (which has aluminum) is the second most abundant
ore in earth crust. It became an economic competitor to steel & cast iron in
engineering applications because of its excellent combination of properties like
lightweight, high specific strength, stiffness & good corrosion resistance, higher
ductility tc. However, the poor mechanical and tribological properties of
aluminum (yield strength: 30 Mpa, tensile strength: 70 Mpa).
BRAKE SYSTEMS
Disc calipers
There are two types of disc calipers where further classified as floating and
fixed caliper shows a type of floating caliper. This type of brake uses only a
single piston to squeeze the brake pad against the rotor (BOSCH, 1992). The
reactive force shifts the caliper housing and presses opposite side of braking pad
against rotor. Referring to Figure the brake fluid pushes the piston when the
brake is applied to the left of the piston and immediately pushes the inner pads
and presses it against the rotor disc, the sliding caliper housing reacts by shifting
towards right pushing the left pad against the disc. Floating Caliper Design
(Source: BOSCH Automobile Handbook, 1992) Other type of disc calipers is a
fixed caliper shows a type of fixed caliper. In these types of brakes, the caliper
body is fixed and uses two or more pistons on each side of the rotor. The pistons
are located in each half section of the fixed caliper.
Brake pads
Brake pads consist of steel carrier which the pad are bonded to the steel carrier.
According to (Gerschler, 1980), organically bonded pads consist of metallic,
ceramic or organic friction materials in a bonded mass such as rubber or
synthetic resin. The bonded friction materials can withstand temperatures up to
750°c, with short term peaks-up to 950'~ where the friction coefficient is
between 0.25 and 0.5. There is an advantage of brake pads, where most of them
are poor to thermal conductivity which protects the hydraulic actuating elements
from overheating.
Fig. Brake pads
The heat generated on the surfaces of disc brake rotor when brake applied.
Materials of disc brake rotor usually are made from cast iron, spheroidal-
graphite cast iron or cast steel. It is chosen as a rotor material due to low cost of
material and performs high thermal resistance.
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
The reinforcing phase provides the strength and stiffness. In most cases,
the reinforcement is harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The
reinforcement is usually a fiber or a particulate. Particulate composites have
dimensions that are approximately equal in all directions. They may be
spherical, platelets, or any other regular or irregular geometry. Particulate
composites tend to be much weaker and less stiff than continuous fiber
composites, but they are usually much less expensive.
Introduction of composites
Examples: –
CLASSIFICATION
HYBRID:
Most of the PMCs use either carbon-graphite or aramid fibers, which are the
main commercial fibers
Matrix Materials:
Matrix materials:
Reinforcement materials:
C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that must operate in extreme
temperature ranges. Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon yarn
fabric, 3-D woven fabric, 3-D braiding, etc.
Applications
Advantages
Uses of composites
The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light as
well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design
flexibility because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The
downside is often the cost. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the
raw materials are often expensive.
Can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight, so ratios of strength-to-
weight and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater than steel or aluminium
APPLICATIONS
LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Piotr GRZEŚ
The aim of this paper was to investigate the temperature fields of the solid disc
brake during short, emergency braking. In this paper transient thermal analysis
of disc brakes in single brake application was performed. To obtain the
numerical simulation parabolic heat conduction equation for two dimensional
model was used. The results show that both evolution of rotating speed of disc
and contact pressure with specific material properties intensely Er. N. B.
Shinde1 IJECS Volume 4 Issue 2 February, 2015 Page No.10554-10558 Page
10555 effect disc brake temperature fields in the domain of time.
This paper studies the contact pressure distribution of a solid disc brake as a
result of structural modifications. Before modifications are simulated, four
different models of different degrees of complexity for contact analysis are
investigated. It is shown that the contact pressure distributions obtained from
these four models are quite different. This suggests that one should be careful in
modeling disc brakes in order to obtain correct contact pressure distributions.
This work could help design engineers to obtain a more uniform pressure
distribution and subsequently satisfy customers’ needs by making pad life
longer.
FEM model is preparerd for contact analysis. A three dimensional finite element
model of the brake pad and the disc is developed to calculate static structural
analysis, and transient state analysis. The comparison is made between the solid
and ventilated disc keeping the same material properties and constraints and
using general purpose finite element analysis. This paper discusses how general
purpose finite element analysis software can be used to analyze the equivalent
(von-mises) stresses& the thermal stresses at disc to pad interface.
H Mazidi, S.Jalalifar, J. Chakhoo
In this study, the heat conduction problems of the disc brake components (Pad
and Rotor) are modeled mathematically and is solved numerically using finite
difference method. In the discretization of time dependent equations the implicit
method is taken into account. In the derivation of heat equations, parameters
such as the duration of braking, vehical velocity, Geometries and the
dimensions of the brake components, Materials of the disc brake rotor and the
PAD and contact pressure distribution have been taken into account.
In this work, an attempt has been made to investigate the suitable hybrid
composite material which is lighter than cast iron and has good Young’s
modulus, Yield strength and density properties. Aluminum base metal matrix
composite and High Strength Glass Fiber composites have a promising friction
and wear behavior as a Disk brake rotor. The transient thermo elastic analysis of
Disc brakes in repeated brake applications has been performed and the results
were compared. The suitable material for the braking operation is S2 glass fiber
and all the values obtained from the analysis are less than their allowable
values.
Gives simplified yet almost equally accurate modeling and analysis method for
thermo-mechanical analysis using brake fade test simulation as an example.
This methodology is based on use of ABAQUS Axisymmetric analysis
technique modified to represent effect of discrete bolting, bolt preloads, and
contacts within various components of the assembly
Q Cao1, M I Friswell, H Ouyang, J E Mottershead1 and S James
This paper presents a numerical method for the calculation of the unstable
frequencies of a car disc brake and the analysis procedure. The stationary
components of the disc brake are modelled using finite elements and the disc as
a thin plate. This approach facilitates the modelling of the disc brake squeal as a
moving load problem. Some uncertain system parameters of the stationary
components and the disc are tuned to fit experimental results. A linear,
complex-valued, asymmetric eigenvalue formulation is derived for disc brake
squeal. Predicted unstable frequencies are compared with experimentally
established squeal frequencies of a realistic car disc brake.
A simple finite element model of a disc and two pads was created, and TEI
phenomenon was implemented by rotating the disc with a constant rotational
speed of 1400 rpm. The intermediate processor using the staggered approach
was used to connect results of two other analysis domains: mechanical and
thermal analysis. By exchanging calculation results such as temperature
distribution, contact power and nodal position at every time step, solutions of
fully coupled thermo-mechanical system could be obtained. Contact pressure
distribution of the pad surface was varied according to the rotational direction of
the disc. DTV and temperature of the disc were calculated and tendency was
verified by earlier studies.
Chapter-3
MATERIALS AND
METHODS
Chapter-3
Disc brake systems generate braking force by clamping brake pads onto a rotor
that is mounted to the hub. A schematic view of the brake system is shown in
Fig. 2. The high mechanical advantage of hydraulic and mechanical disc brakes
allows a small lever input force at the handlebar to be converted into a large
clamp force at the wheel. This large clamp force pinches the rotor with friction
material pads and generates brake power. The higher the coefficient of friction
for the pad, the more brake power will be generated. Coefficient of friction can
vary depending on the type of material used for the brake rotor. Typically
service brakes are concerned with dynamic coefficient of friction, or the
coefficient of friction measured while the vehicle is moving.
All modern disk brakes systems rely on brake pads pressing on both sides of a
brake rotor to increase the rolling resistance and slow the car down. The amount
of frictional force is found by multiply the force pushing the pad into the rotor
by the coefficient of friction of the pad. So, the force slowing the brake disc or
rotor is The braking system is a vital safety component of ground-based
transportation systems; hence the structural materials used in brakes should
have posses some combination of properties such as good compressive strength,
higher friction coefficient, wear resistant, light weight, good thermal capacity
and economically viable
3.2 MATERIALS
Traditional material for automotive brake rotor is the cast iron. The specific
gravity or density of cast iron is higher which consumes much fuel due to high
inertia. Following section will describe the potential candidate materials those
can be used for brake rotor application.
Cast Iron
Metallic iron containing more than 2% dissolved carbon within its matrix (as
opposed to steel which contains less than 2%) but less than 4.5% is referred to
as gray cast iron because of its characteristic color. Considering its cost, relative
ease of manufacture and thermal stability, this cast iron (particularly, gray cast
iron), is actually a more specialized material for brake applications particularly
the material of choice for almost all automotive brake discs. To work correctly,
the parts must be produced at the foundry with tightly monitored chemistry and
cooling cycles to control the shape, distribution and form of the precipitation of
the excess carbon.
Titanium alloys
Titanium alloys and their composites have the potential to reduce weight of the
brake rotor disc component which is about 37% less than a conventional cast
iron with the same dimensions and offering good high temperature strength and
better resistance to corrosion.
Stainless steels
Stainless steels are used in automobile applications because they are resistant to
corrosion easily fabricated and offer good mechanical properties. The following
examples may serve to indicate the considerations made in selecting a suitable
grade of stainless steel for disc brake automobile applications.
Aluminium-Metal Matrix Composite (AMC)
After increasing hard particles content the result showed that the repeated
braking operations did not lower the friction coefficient. Wilson et. al. Studied
the abrasive wear resistance of the AA6061 with 20 vol % SiCp reinforced
composite in short sliding distance testing (about 20m). Adding 20 vol. % SiC
particulate greatly enhanced the wear resistance, raised room-temperature
strength and stiffness, and improved high-temperature strength.
Brakes is such a crucial system in stopping the vehicle on all moving stages
including braking during high speed, sharp cornering, traffic jam and downhill.
All of those braking moments give a different value of temperature distribution
and thermal stress this project concerns of the temperature distribution and
constraint of the disc brake rotor. Most of the passenger cars today have disc
brake rotors that are made of grey cast iron (Mackin, 2002). Grey cast iron is
chosen for its relatively high thermal conductivity, high thermal diffusivity and
low cost (Mackin, 2002). In this project, the author will investigate on the
thermal issues of normal passenger vehicle disc brake rotor, High temperature
during braking will caused to:
Brake fade
Premature wear
Brake fluid vaporization
Bearing failure
Thermal cracks
This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
materials used in this work are
1. Aluminium alloy
2. Nickel
3. chromium
1. ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is a light metal ( = 2.7 g/cc); is easily machinable has wide variety
of surface finishes; good electrical and thermal conductivities; highly reflective
to heat and light.
Whilst aluminium and its alloys generally have good corrosion resistance,
localised forms of corrosion can occur, and it is important to understand the
factors contributing to these of corrosion. Corrosion may be defined as the
reaction between a metal and its immediate environment, which can be natural
or chemical in origin. The most recognisable form of corrosion is, perhaps, the
rusting of iron. All metals react with natural environments but the extent to
which this happens can vary; for noble metals like gold the amount is
insignificant whereas for iron it is considerable. Aluminium is no exception but,
fortunately, it has the propensity of self passivation and for many applications
corrosion is not a problem.
Properties of al-alloy
Alloy 6063 is perhaps the most widely used because of its extrudability, it is not
only the first choice for many architectural and structural members, but it has
been the choice for the Audi automotive space frame members. A good example
of its structural use was the aluminum bridge. (Gilbert Kaufman, 2000). The
alloy has versatile application as given below
Pressure vessels
Pipelines
Cryogenic tanks
Door beams, seat tracks, racks, rails
Electrical cable towers
Petroleum and Chemical Industry Components (The excellent
combination of high strength combined with superior corrosion resistance
plus weldability makes a number of aluminum alloys ideal for chemical
industry applications, even some involving very corrosive fluids)
Properties value
2. NICKEL
PROPERTIES VALUE
3. CHROMIUM
Application
In metal ceramics
In chrome plating
As dyes and paints
To produce synthetic rubies
In alloys, e.g., stainless steel
To manufacture molds for the firing of bricks
As a catalyst in dyeing and tanning of leather
In metallurgy to provide corrosion resistance and a shiny finish
PROPERTIES VALUE
METHODS
Aluminium – 85%
Chromium - 9%
Nickel - 6%
In stir casting process the following procedure was adopted for the preparation
of composites. Explains the stir casting process in detail. Alloy is cut and
weighed to obtain the correct weight as per the stoichio metric calculations. The
metals are then taken in to a crucible along with the coverall. The furnace is
heated to a temperature of 800 C and is constantly maintained at that
temperature throughout the process.
Preheating of alloys
Heat treatment of the particles before dispersion into the melt aids their transfer
by causing desorption of adsorbed gases from the particle surface. Preheating
1000 C of alloy particles removing surface Impurities and in the desorption of
gases, and alters the surface composition by forming an oxide layer on the
surface. The addition of pre-heated particles in Al, Cr and Ni melt has been
found to improve the wettability property. A clean surface of provides a better
opportunity for melt particles interaction, and thus, enhances wetting.
Solution Treatment
During casting low cooling rate of the alloy allows for the strengthening of
phase to precipitate out of solution and grow into large incoherent phases within
the matrix. In the as cast structure, the large, incoherent nature of the phase does
little to increase the strength of the alloy. To obtain finely dispersed Al-Ni-Cr a
solution heat treatment should be conducted on the alloy.
Chapter-4
Surface engineering point of view, wear test is carried out to evaluate the
potential of using a certain surface engineering technology to reduce wear for a
specific application, and to investigate the effect of treatment conditions
(processing parameters) on the wear performance, so that optimized surface
treatment conditions can be realized. In a pin-on-disc wear tester, a pin is loaded
against a flat rotating disc specimen such that a circular wear path is described
by the machine. The machine can be used to evaluate wear and friction
properties of materials under pure sliding conditions. This test method
describes a laboratory procedure for determining the wear of materials during
sliding using a pin-on-disk apparatus. Materials are tested in pairs under
nominally non-abrasive conditions. The principal areas of experimental
attention in using this type of apparatus to measure wear are described. The
coefficient of friction may also be determined.
For the pin-on-disk wear test, two specimens are required. One, a pin with a
radiused tip, is positioned perpendicular to the other, usually a flat circular disk.
A ball, rigidly held, is often used as the pin specimen. The test machine causes
either the disk specimen or the pin specimen to revolve about the disk center. In
either case, the sliding path is a circle on the disk surface. The plane of the disk
may be oriented. The pin specimen is pressed against the disk at a specified load
usually by means of an arm or lever and attached weights. Other loading
methods have been used, such as, hydraulic or pneumatic. Wear results are
reported as volume loss in cubic millimetres for the pin and the disk separately.
When two different materials are tested, it is recommended that each material
be tested in both the pin and disk positions. The amount of wear is determined
by measuring appropriate linear dimensions of both specimens before and after
the test, or by weighing both specimens before and after the test. If linear
measures of wear are used, the length change or shape change of the pin, and
the depth or shape change of the disk wear track (in millimetres) are determined
by any suitable metrological technique, such as electronic distance gaging or
stylus profiling. Linear measures of wear are converted to wear volume (in
cubic millimetres) by using appropriate geometric relations.
Linear measures of wear are used frequently in practice since mass loss
is often too small to measure precisely. If loss of mass is measured, the mass
loss value is converted to volume loss (in cubic millimetres) using an
appropriate value for the specimen density. Wear results are usually obtained by
conducting a test for a selected sliding distance and for selected values of load
and speed. One set of test a condition that was used in an Inter laboratory
measurement series is and as a guide. Other test conditions may be selected
depending on the purpose of the test. Wear results may in some cases be
reported as plots of wear volume versus sliding distance using different
specimens for different distances. Such plots may display non-linear
relationships between wear volume and distance over certain portions of the
total sliding distance, and linear relationships over other portions. Causes for
such differing relationships include initial “break-in” processes, transitions
between regions of different dominant wear mechanisms, etc. The extent of
such non-linear periods depends on the details of the test system, materials, and
test conditions. It is not recommended that continuous wear depth data obtained
from position-sensing gages be used because of the complicated effects of wear
debris and transfer films present in the contact gap, and interferences from
thermal expansion or contraction.
Significance and Use
The amount of wear in any system will, in general, depend upon the number of
system factors such as the applied load, machine characteristics, sliding speed,
sliding distance, the environment, and the material properties. The value of any
wear test method lies in predicting the relative ranking of material
combinations. Since the pin-on-disk test method does not attempt to duplicate
all the conditions that may be experienced in service (for example; lubrication,
load, pressure, contact geometry, removal of wear debris, and presence of
corrosive environment), there is no ensurance that the test will predict the wear
rate of a given material under conditions differing from those in the test.
APPARATUS
The machine shall be equipped with a revolution counter or its equivalent that
will record the number of disk revolutions, and preferably have the ability to
shut off the machine after a pre-selected number of revolutions.
Pin Specimen Holder and Lever Arm
In one typical system, the stationary specimen holder is attached to a lever arm
that has a pivot. Adding weights, as one option of loading, produces a test force
proportional to the mass of the weights applied. Ideally, the pivot of the arm
should be located in the plane of the wearing contact to avoid extraneous
loading forces due to the sliding friction. The pin holder and arm must be of
substantial construction to reduce vibrational motion during the test.
Wear Measuring Systems
Instruments to obtain linear measures of wear should have a sensitivity of 2.5
μm or better. Any balance used to measure the mass loss of the test specimen
shall have a sensitivity of 0.1 mg or better; in low wear situations greater
sensitivity may be needed.
TEST SPECIMENS AND SAMPLE PREPARATION
Materials
This test method may be applied to a variety of materials. The only requirement
is that specimens having the specified dimensions can be prepared and that they
will withstand the stresses imposed during the test without failure or excessive
flexure. The materials being tested shall be described by dimensions, surface
finish, material type, form, composition, microstructure, processing treatments,
and indentation hardness (if appropriate).
Test Specimens
The typical pin specimen is cylindrical or spherical in shape. Typical cylindrical
or spherical pin specimen diameters range from 2 to 10 mm. The typical disk
specimen diameters range from 30 to 100 mm and have a thickness in the range
of 2 to 10 mm.
TEST PARAMETERS
PROCEDURE
The Knoop hardness test is a micro hardness test - a test for mechanical
hardness used particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets, where only a
small indentation may be made for testing purpose.
Introduction
Metallurgists have long used various types of indenters for testing the hardness
(defined as resistance to deformation) of metals. Attempts to apply to minerals
the Rockwell, Vickers, and other types of machines which measure hardness in
terms of deformation of the specimen by penetration of a standard-shaped point
applied by a specified machine, have met with little success because of the
tendency of minerals to fracture during the penetration of the indenter. Since the
fracture represents displacement and deformation of other material than that
immediately adjacent to the point of the indenter, greater penetration takes place
than is proper for the indenter and its associated machine. Moreover, the
displacement due to fracture cannot be measured readily, and therefore
introduces an unknown factor into the measurement. Experiments conducted at
the Research Laboratories of the Hamilton Watch Company have suggested that
of all the various machines for measuring hardness by indentation, the Knoop
micro hardness tester may be the only tool that can give valid, or at least
consistent, readings of the hardness of minerals.
KNOOP INDENTER
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the fin effectiveness for various
pin fins with natural or forced convection, and to compare the measured and
predicted temperature distributions along the length of the fin. Heat transfer
coefficients for each of the pin fin configurations will be obtained
experimentally. Heat transfer theory provides a direct means of developing
engineering estimates of the rate of heat transfer in various practical situations.
For forced or natural convective heat transfer, empirical correlations are
developed with a theoretical basis, but with experimentally determined
parameters. Such empirical correlations can represent idealizations that are not
typically realized, even in the laboratory. It is often not appreciated that
convection correlations are seldom better than 20% accurate, and can frequently
be even worse. Thus, although the correlations can be used for engineering
estimates, more exact information is obtained by the construction and testing of
a prototype. In this experiment, the temperature distributions for four different
pin fins are measured with natural or forced convection.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of four different fin configurations. At the base of each
fin is a threaded section, which is used to attach the fin base to a heater. The
heater and base of the fin are surrounded by insulation to reduce heat loss. Five
to seven type K thermocouples (chromel/alumel) are embedded at the base and
along the length of each pin fin. The heater is powered from a reduced line
source by a VARIAC. Fluke multi-meters are used to measure the voltage and
current drawn by the heater. Note: the current is actually measured as a voltage
drop across a 1-Ohm resistor. A data acquisition system (DAQ) is used to
acquire the temperature data, and also for a redundant measurement of the
heater power.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
With the fin securely installed and the VARIAC set to the proper voltage, the
fin temperature measurements are monitored until a steady state condition has
been reached. Steady state temperatures are then recorded along with the
measured power. The procedure is then repeated with the fan blowing on the fin
(forced convection).
Turn on the power supply to the electric heater. Do not change the setting
on the power supply. Use the multi-meters to obtain the voltage and
current. (The current is determined indirectly by measuring the voltage
across a 1-ohm resistor.)
Measure the dimensions of the fin including length and diameter.
Measure the locations of the thermocouples.
Determine whether the fin is made of silicon carbide, aluminum, or
stainless steel.
Measure the room air temperature.
Use the DAQ system to monitor the temperatures along the length of the
fin. When the system has reached steady-state, record the temperatures.
Turn on the fan, monitor the temperatures and then record steady state
readings for the forced convection boundary condition. Use the handheld
anemometer to measure the air velocity.
ADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
APPLICATIONS
Automobile components
The material selection methods for the design and application of automotive
brake disc are developed. From the results obtained above, we can come to the
conclusion that
Stress accumulated on the composite is much less, which proves the wear