Geotextiles and Geomemhranes 13 (1994) 389 402

1994 Elsevier Science Limited

Printed in Ireland.
0266- I 144/94/$7.00
ELSEVIER

Trends in the Use of Geotextiles in India

S h e n b a g a R. K a n i r a j & G. V e n k a t a p p a R a o

Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi-110016, India

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews the trends in the use of geotextiles and the related
products in civil engineering applications in India. The review has ,[i've sub-
themes, name@, (i) manufacture o[ geotextiles in India and their proper-
ties, (ii) testing equipment and spec(/i'cations for geotextiles in India, (iii)
applications of geotextiles in India, (it,) research on geotextiles in India,
and ( v) the use of geotextiles made o[ natural fibres and materials in India.
The paper also highlights the potential for growth in the use o['geotextiles
and their related products in India.

1 INTRODUCTION

A decade ago, the textile industry in India considered geotextiles as its

future fabric. The civil engineers and geotechnical engineers also evinced a
keen interest in this new product and had hoped for its large scale use in
m a n y civil engineering applications. However, the actual growth rate was
not up to expectation. F r o m 1989, against an estimated worldwide
consumption of more than 1 billion square metres of geotextiles per
annum, the Indian consumption was an insignificant 0.5 million square
metres per annum (Natarajan & Rao, 1989). The position, even today,
remains by and large the same. The main factor inhibiting the use of
geotextiles on a large scale in India is their high cost. Even the thin to the
medium type o f geotextiles cost from Rs 50-100 (US$ 1.65-3.33) per

389
390 S. R. Kcmira/, (i. 1". Rao

square metre and sometimes even more (Venkatappa Rao. 1989). The
reasons for the high cost are the high price of the local raw materials, the
high rate of duties levied by the Government at different stages of manu-
facturing, the uneconornical scale of production due to lack of demand,
the lack of modernisation of the production units, the high overhead
costs, and the insignificant outlay on research and development by the
manufacturers (Dey el a/., 1992). Conventional methods of construction
are therefore cost effective in most instances.
Nevertheless, there is no gainsaying the fact that the use of geotextiles in
India is constantly and consistently growing. Geotextiles continue to be a
l/trust area o f research identified by the Central Board of Irrigation and
Power, the Department of Science and Technology, the Ministry of
Human Resources Development, the Roads Wing of the Ministry of
Surface Transport, and the Ministry of Textiles of the Government of
India.
This paper reviews the trends in the use of geotextiles and the related
products in India in the following five sub-themes:
(i) manufacture of geotextiles in India and their properties,
(ii) testing equipment and specifications for geotextiles in India,
(iii) applications of geotextiles in India,
(iv) research on geotextiles in India, and
(v) the use of geotextiles made of natural fibres and materials in India.
The paper also highlights the potential for growth in the use of geotextiles
and the related products in India.

2 M A N U F A C T U R E OF GEOTEXTILES IN INDIA AND THEIR

PROPERTIES

Presently, both woven and nonwoven geotextiles are manufactured in

India. The spun bonded and knitted geotextiles are not manufactured. The
nonwoven geotextiles are essentially made of synthetic staple fibres and
they are mechanically and/or chemically bonded. The woven geotextiles
are mostly made of multifilament polypropylene, having either plain or
twill construction. Polypropylene synthetic fibres are used predominantly.
Polyester fibres are also used to a limited extent.
Detailed experiments were carried out at the Indian Institute of Tech-
nology, Delhi (Venkatappa Rao, 1992) to assess the physical and
mechanical properties of six woven and two nonwoven geotextiles manu-
factured in India. The details of these geotextiles are given in Table 1. The
physical properties of these geotextiles are given in Table 2. The tensile
 Trends in the use o f geotextiles in India 391

Table 1
Details of Some Geotextiles Manufactured in India

Fabric designation Structure Manufacturing company

Geolon 499 Woven Bombay Dyeing & Manufacturing Co., Bombay
Geolon 500 Woven Bombay Dyeing & Manufacturing Co., Bombay
Geolon 501 Woven Bombay Dyeing & Manufacturing Co., Bombay
PDP 381 Woven Bombay Dyeing & Manufacturing Co., Bombay
GF Woven Gujarat Filaments, Bangalore
MC Woven Madura Coats, Madurai
IPB 128 Needle-punched Shri Dinesh Mills, Baroda
GPB 132 Needle-punched Shri Dinesh Mills, Baroda
All the geotextiles are made of polypropylene.

Table 2
Physical Properties of Some Indian Geotextiles

Geotextile Colour Mass Thickness at 2 kPa

(g/m 2) (ram)

Geolon 499 Black 270 0-70

Geolon 500 Off-white 200 0.56
Geolon 501 Off-white 306 0.76
PDP 381 White 204 0.56
GF White 212 0.63
MC Off-white 203 0.91
IPB 128 Off-white 220 2.64
GPB 132 Off-white 275 2.86

strength and the m odul us values are given in Table 3. The results of the
C B R push th r ough test and the cone d r o p test are summarised in Table 4.
Creep test results indicate that the available woven geotextiles are suitable
for use only in t e m p o r a r y works or noncritical structures.

3 TESTING EQUIPMENT AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR

GEOTEXTILES

Different geotextile testing equipments have been designed, fabricated and

evaluated by several research organisations in India. T he following
e q u ip men t developed in technical collaboration with the Indian Institute
o f T e c h n o l o g y are commercially m a n u f a c t u r e d by the Associated Instru-
ment M a n u f a c t u r e r s (India) Private Limited, New Delhi:
 ,...a

1.0

"Fable 3
Tensile Strength (kN m) and M o d u l u s (kN m) Values of Somc Indian Geotextiles

Geole.vti/e SII'C/1£rl/I ell lO!¢f) strain lO o secant ;nodulu.s .~lodulu,s at 50% peak
Narrow strip 14"ide strip Narrow strip Wide strip Narrow strip Wide ,slrip
II1(" )(11l (' Ill(" :~111 ( I l l C' .~tll (' 11l (" )['111 { ' ttl (" Xlll (" Ill C A~lll C'

Geolon 499 49.5 37.2 37.0 33.9 l l0 200 180 91-5

Geolon 500 46-4 33.8 36.9 32.3 145 162 176 164
Geolon 501 63.8 55.4 55-0 43.8 154 224 238 111
P D P 381 13.0 10.5 10-0 8.0 130 105 100 80 166 150 100 100
GF 13.5 11-0 13-0 10-0 135 110 130 100 100 1O0 120 100
MC 1.5 1.4 1.25 1-25 15 13-5 12.5 12.5 30 30 27.5 28
IPB 128 6-60 9-78 32.5 38 7.9 9.2
G P B 132 14-4 14.0 1105 76 26.6 15
i n c . Machine direction: Xm c, X - m a c h i n e direction.
 Trends in the use o[ geotextiles in India 393

Table 4
Results of C B R Push Through and Cone D r o p Tests

Geotextile Average CBR push Average diameter o[hole

through strength (ram)
(kPa)
Geolon 499 6 715 1.210
Geolon 500 6 710 1-410
Geolon 501 9 250 0.530
PDP 381 1 607 0.751
GF 1 438 1-410
MC 848 1-613
IPB 128 947 0.717
GPB 132 1 492 0.396

- - thickness gauge,
sieve test apparatus, for the determination of apparent opening size
(AOS) or the equivalent opening size (EOS),
interface friction measurement apparatus, to conduct modified
direct shear test and pullout test,
- - universal testing system for geotextiles suitable for carrying out
narrow width and wide width tensile tests, grab tensile test, trapezoi-
dal tear resistance test, CBR push through test, and puncture test,
- - cone drop apparatus,
- - cross permeability test apparatus,
- in-plane permeability test apparatus,
-

long term flow apparatus, and

- gradient ratio test apparatus.
-

Presently, though no one test house may have all the facilities required for
carrying out the tests on geotextiles, some of them have very good testing
facilities for almost all the index tests on geotextiles.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has set up committees and sub-
committees, in the Textile Division Council as well as the Civil Engineer-
ing Division Council, to prepare specifications and test methods on
geotextiles (Venkatappa Rao, 1991). Table 5 gives the list of the current
Indian codes of practice on geotextiles. Many more are being finalised.

4 APPLICATIONS OF GEOTEXTILES IN INDIA

Geotextiles and geogrids, manufactured indigenously and imported from

abroad, have been used for different applications in India. These applica-
394 S. R. Kanira], (i. I:. Rao

]'able 5
List of Current Indian Codes of Practice on Geotextiles

Code no. Title

Civil Engineering Division Council

IS 13321 (Part 1 ) - 9 2 Glossary of terms for geosynthetics: terms used in materials and
properties
IS 13325-92 Test method for determination of tensile properties of extruded
polymer grids using wide strip method
IS 13326 (Part 1 ) - 9 2 Method of test for evaluation of interface friction between
geosynthetics and soil by the modified direct shear method

Textiles Division Council

TS TXD29 Determination of seam strength
IS 1963-81 Methods for determination of threads per unit length of woven
fabrics
IS 1964-70 Methods for determination of weight per square metre and
weight per linear metre of fabrics
IS 1969-85 Methods for determination of breaking load and elongation of
woven textile fabrics (2nd revision)
IS 1969-85 Cut strip tensile test
IS 11056-84 Methods for determination of air permeability of fabrics
IS 6359-71 Method of conditioning of textiles
IS 13162 (Part 2 ) - 9 1 Determination of resistance to the exposure of ultraviolet light
and water (xenon arc type apparatus)
IS 13162 (Part 3)-92 Test method for determination of thickness at specified pressures
IS 13162 (Part 4)-92 Test method for determination of puncture resistance by falling
cone method
1S 13162 (Part 5 ) - 9 1 Determination of tensile properties using a wide width strip

tions can be broadly grouped under the following four categories (Dey
et al., 1992):

(a) erosion control,

(b) land reclamation and improvement,
(c) stabilisation and improvement of bearing capacity of sub-grade, and
(d) application in dams.
These applications are summarised in Tables 6 9 (Katti, 1991; Dey et al.,
1992). Table 10 gives a summary of the projects wherein geogrids have
 Trends in the use of geotextiles in India 395

Table 6
Applications for Slope Stabilisation, Drainage Control in Embankments and Dams using
Geotextiles in India

Project Typical use

Kakrapara canal system, Gujarat
Bardoli branch canal, Gujarat
Left bank of Dadhar, Gujarat
Loktak project, West Bengal
Farakka Barrage, West Bengal
Dharoi earth dam, Gujarat
Nayachara island, West Bengal
Mahi canal, Gujarat
Grouted geotextile mattress to facilitate concrete
lining work
Grouted geotextile mattress to facilitate concrete
lining work
Stone gabion caged in geogrids over geotextiles for
banks
Erosion control (bank erosion)
River bed/slope protection with grouted mattress
Envelope toe drain bank protection
River bed protection with geomattress
Embankment protection

Table 7
Applications for Land Reclamation and Ground Improvement Using Geotextiles in India

Project Typical use

Offshore fabrication yard,
Haldia Port, West Bengal
Nhava Sheva Port,
Bombay
Mahi Command Area,
Gujarat
Improvement of reclaimed land using spun bonded
nonwoven geotextile; reinforcement, separation, and
improvement of bearing capacity
1 million square metres of woven polyester geotextile and
20 000 square metres of polypropylene geotextile for
functions of separation, filtration and reinforcement
Drain and filter system in the form of geotextile envelopes
around perforated PVC pipes to overcome waterlogging
and salinity problems

b e e n used. T h e lists p r o v i d e d in T a b l e s 6-10, t h o u g h n o t e x h a u s t i v e ,

p r o v i d e a clear i n d i c a t i o n o f the trends in the use o f geotextiles in India.

5 RESEARCH ON GEOTEXTILES IN INDIA

Several universities a n d r e s e a r c h institutes in I n d i a h a v e b e e n p u r s u i n g

r e s e a r c h on geotextiles a n d their a p p l i c a t i o n s for m o s t o f the last decade.
R e s e a r c h on geotextiles is also identified as a t h r u s t a r e a o f r e s e a r c h b y the
396 S. R. KaHira/, G. 1'. Rao

Table 8
Applications fi)r Stabilisation and Improvement of Bearing Capacity of Sub-grade Using
Geotexiiles in India

Prqiect Tt'pical use

Ahmedabad airport, Pavement overlay to prevent reflection cracking using

Gujarat; and Madurai needle-punched nonwoven geotextilc
airport, Tamil Nadu
Branching tit km 22/8, Separation
Portanava Vridachalam
road
Command area Separation
development of Gujarat
and Maharashtra
Tapi command road, Separation
Gujarat
Harsoan village, A field trial of nonwoven geotextile wrapped French drain
Uttar Pradesh system for a village road
South-Central Railway, Separator to prevent mudpumping
kin 560/2 4 Up; Northern
Railway, km 1127/13
1128/1 Dn: Northern
Railway, km 1114/13
15 Dn.
South-Eastern Railway, French drains adjoining railway embankment for railway
Raygada Koraput section: yard drainage
South-Central Railway:
Guntakal Section:
Northern Railway: Jammu
Udhampur rail link

Central Board of Irrigation and Power, the Department of Science and

Technology, the Roads Wing of the Ministry of Surface Transport, and
the Ministry of Textiles of the Government of India.
Active research on geotextiles is in progress at the Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi. Some of the results of these studies are reported in
Section 2 of this paper. Different geotextiles manufactured in the country
have been assessed for their mechanical, hydraulic and survivability char-
acteristics. The use of the indigenous products in reinforcement applica-
tions (reinforced walls and bearing capacity improvement) have been
assessed through model studies. Finite element studies are in progress to
investigate the effect of reinforcement stiffness, spacing, facing rigidity,
 Trends in ttle use (~/geotextiles in India 397

Table 9
Applications of Geote×tiles in India in Dams

Pr(~ject Typical use

Medha Creek dam, Nonwoven needle-punched geotextile in the form of filter layer
Gujarat to protect the downstream slope against wave action and
fluctuating water level from the sea
Hiran dam II, Gujarat Filter layer
Ramman hydro- Filter layer
electricity project,
West Bengal
Dharoi earth dam, Nonwoven needle-punched geotextile in the form of filter layer
Gujarat between natural soil and loading berm for seepage control
Salal hydro- Geotextile as filter around perforated polyvinyl pipes in relief
electricity project, wells
Jammu

etc., on the behaviour of vertical reinforced walls. Also in progress are

experimental studies on reinforced model pavements subjected to repeated
loading. Geotextile French drains were successfully installed in rural roads
on an experimental basis as road edge drains.
The other universities where active research on geotextiles is in progress
are: the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay; the Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore; and the Jadavpur University, Jadavpur.
Among the research institutes, research is being pursued at: the Central
Road Research Institute, Delhi; the Gujarat Engineering Research Insti-
tute, Vadodara; and the Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute,
Nasik. The three institutions in a collaborative effort carried out a field
trial successfully. Over a distance of 14km, both woven and nonwoven
geotextiles were used in highway construction on expansive soils for
functions of separation, filtration and drainage.
Research on the use of jute as a geotextile is being encouraged by the
Indian Jute Industries Research Association, Calcutta. Apart from the
above, there are several textile technology departments in the universities
and textile research institutes including: Bombay Textile Research Asso-
ciation, Bombay; Coir Technological Research Laboratory, Bangalore;
and Jute Technological Research Laboratory, Calcutta. These carry out
fundamental research on geotextile as a material. The research in progress
includes (a) the optimal textile design of geotextile fabrics (woven and
nonwoven) for performing the different functions effectively, and (b) the
durability of natural and synthetic products.
398 S. R. IGuurc~i. (;. 1". Rao

Table 10
Applicalions of Geogrids in India

Project 7)'pica/use

Steel Authority of India Ltd Hard standage for steel

stockyard at Bangalore,
Bhuvaneshwar, and Delhi
HBJ gas pipeline: oil pipeline for PIL at Bombay: Pipe restrainment
Dadsal Ltd
Nalbari, and Guwahati, Assam Public Works Ground restrainment in soft
Department soils
Kalamboli warehousing complex, steel market and Road restrainment
link road, New Bombay: km 206 National Highway
56, Uttar Pradesh
Defence Research and Development Organisation, Pavements in desert roads
Pune
South-Eastern Railway: Chakradarpur division, Trackbed stabilisation
Panskura division, Srikakulam division, Tikri yard;
Central Railway: Diva Vasai rail link; South-Central
Railway: Secunderabad division, Vijayawada division
Eastern Railway: Ballyhat railway station: Jammu Stabilisation of railway
Udhampur rail link km 8/530, 8/770, 8/920 zone E6, embankments
E7, and E4
National highway 24, km 9 10.5; National highway Highway embankment slope
55, km 177 protection and erosion control
Birla Cement Works, Chittorgarh Waterfront protection
Ankleshwar Gandhar Oil Basin Shore protection
MSEB, Chanderpur Slipway protection

6 T H E U S E OF N A T U R A L FIBRES A N D M A T E R I A L S IN I N D I A

Geotextiles made of natural fibres such as coir and jute are manufactured
in India. These geotextiles are mostly in the form of plain or twill woven
fabrics or open mesh net. Coir and jute needle felts have been developed
recently. With this, nonwoven geotextiles made of natural fibres could be
manufactured in future. The properties of the typical geojute used in a
project near Nayachara island are as below:
Type woven (D.W. twill)
Mass 1538 g/m 2
Thickness at 10 kPa 2.83 mm
 Trends in the use of geotextiles in India 399

Pore size 150#m

Breaking strength:
machine direction 33.2 k N / m at 11.8% elongation
X-machine direction 28-2 k N / m at 13.5% elongation
Puncture resistance 3790 kPa
Air permeability 16.2 m3/m 2 per minute
Water permeability at 20.4 litres/m 2 per second
100 mm water head
Table ll gives a summary of the projects in which geotextiles made of
natural fibres have been used.

7 T H E P O T E N T I A L F O R T H E F U T U R E G R O W T H IN T H E U S E
O F G E O T E X T I L E S IN I N D I A

There are two aspects to the potential for future growth in the use of
geotextiles in India, namely economical and technical. As far as the tech-
nical aspect is concerned, there now exists a good awareness of geotextiles
and their applications among the civil engineers in India. There also exists
a good infrastructure for the manufacture and testing of geotextiles. With
the Bureau of Indian Standards publishing more and more codes of prac-
tice, the civil engineers will have reliable documents on which to base their
decision. The civil engineers, even today, have a keen interest in using

Table 11
Applications of Geotextiles Made of Natural Fibres in India

Project Typical use

Nayachara island near Hooghly
estuary, West Bengal
Kathgodam, Almora State highway
Lambidhar mines area, Musoorie
Meerapur Dewal road, Muzzafarnagar
Nagapattinam-Gudalur-Mysore road
Conoor-Kundha road
River bank protection with bitumen coated
geojute and Mangrove plants
Slope protection with geojute and coir
geogrid
Wind erosion control with geojute and coir
geogrid
Surface erosion control with geojute and coir
geogrid
Surface erosion control with geojute and coir
geogrid
Surface erosion control with geojute and coir
geogrid
400 S. R. Kanirq/, G. 1". Rao

geotextiles, as is evident from their large participation in workshops.

conferences and short courses conducted on this topic from time to time.
However, the key factor alt'ecting the large scale use of geotextiles is their
high cost. It is evident from the description in the earlier sections that in
spite of this limitation there have been several applications, in different
parts of the country and by different agencies, which augurs well for the
future growth of the use of geotextiles in India. Goshal and Sore (1993)
have presented an economical evaluation of the use of geotextiles from the
Indian perspective. They have compared the cost of the solutions without
,~eolextih, s and with geote.vtih, s for typical geotechnical problems in four
metropolitan cities of India. Even at the present high cost of geotextiles,
the solutions using geotextiles have been shown to be economical in
certain situations when factors such as land cost. material cost and
maintenance cost are taken into account.
The high cost of geotextiles is closely related to the first aspect, namely
economical which also includes the state of the economy of the nation.
India is a vast country with an estimated population of nearly 880 million
people. It is a functioning democracy in spite of the enormous diversity in
the character if its populace. It is a developing country and had adopted
an independent middle path in its development. The explosive interna-
tional and internal events that took place in the late 1980s and the early
1990s have forced the Indian Government to move away from a control-
led economy towards a market economy. Extensive restructuring
measures to reorient the economy are taking place. Knowledgeable circles
have hailed these measures and expect that these will have the desired
effect in the near future. If this expectation is realised, the major increase
in future outlays will be on civil engineering construction. This, together
with the continuous evolution of the Indian society, it is hoped, will
greatly improve the applications of not only the geotextiles but also many
other new products, the potential of which has not been fully harnessed in
India.

8 CONCLUSIONS

This paper reviews the trends in the use of geotextiles and the related
products in civil engineering applications in India.
Presently, both woven and nonwoven geotextiles are manufactured in
India. The physical and mechanical properties of six woven and two
nonwoven geotextiles are reported.
Different equipment for testing geotextiles is currently being manu-
factured in India. This equipment has been identified. The Bureau of
 Trends in the use o[geotextiles in lndia 401

Indian Standards has set up committees and sub-committees to prepare

specifications and test methods on geotextiles. The list of current Indian
standard codes on geotextiles has been provided.
In India, geotextiles and geogrids have been used in different projects
for applications of: erosion control; land reclamation and improvement;
stabilisation and improvement of bearing capacity of sub-grade; and in
dams. These applications have been summarised and presented in the
form of tables.
Active research on geotextiles is in progress in several universities and
research institutes in India. Research on geotextiles is also identified as a
thrust area o f research by several Departments and Ministries of the
Government of India. The research activities on geotextiles in India have
been briefly outlined.
Geotextiles made of natural fibres such as coir and jute are manu-
factured and used in India. Some of these applications have been
summarised.
The paper also discusses the economical and technical aspects which
govern the potential for the growth in the use of geotextiles in India.

9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The computer support provided by Prof. A. Varadarajan, Civil Engineer-

ing Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, for the prepara-
tion of the paper is acknowledged.

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