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Introduction
The physical properties of a drilling hole cleaning, minimize pump pressures
fluid, density and rheological proper- and avoid fluid or formation influxes,
ties are monitored to assist in optimiz- as well as prevent loss of circulation to
ing the drilling process. These physical formations being drilled.
properties contribute to several impor- Rheology and hydraulics are interre-
tant aspects for successfully drilling a lated studies of fluid behavior. Rheology
well, including: is the study of how matter deforms and
• Provide pressure control to prevent flows. It is primarily concerned with the
an influx of formation fluid. relationship of shear stress and shear
• Provide energy at the bit to maximize rate and the impact these have on flow
Rate of Penetration (ROP). characteristics inside tubulars and annu-
Rheology is • Provide wellbore stability through lar spaces. Hydraulics describes how fluid
the science of pressured or mechanically stressed flow creates and uses pressures. In drill-
zones. ing fluids, the flow behavior of the fluid
deformation • Suspend cuttings and weight must be described using rheological
and flow of material during static periods. models and equations before the
matter. • Permit separation of drilled solids hydraulic equations can be applied.
and gas at surface. This chapter discusses the rheologi-
• Remove cuttings from the well. cal properties of drilling fluids, the
factors that influence these properties
Each well is unique, therefore it is
and the impact they have with respect
important to control these properties
to performing work during the drilling
with respect to the requirements for a
operation. A discussion of the influ-
specific well and fluid being used. The
ence of rheological properties on hole
rheological properties of a fluid can
cleaning, barite suspension and solids
affect one aspect negatively while pro-
separation can be found in the chap-
viding a significant positive impact with
ters on Hole Cleaning, Barite Sag and
respect to another aspect. A balance
Solids Control, respectively.
must be attained in order to maximize
Rheology
Rheology is the science of deformation to describe drilling fluid viscosity and
and flow of matter. By making certain rheological properties:
measurements on a fluid it is possible 1. Funnel viscosity (sec/qt or sec/l).
to determine how that fluid will flow 2. Apparent viscosity (cP or mPa•sec).
Viscosity… under a variety of conditions, including 3. Effective viscosity (cP or mPa•sec).
can be temperature, pressure and shear rate. 4. Plastic viscosity (cP or mPa•sec).
described 5. Yield point (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).
VISCOSITY
6. Low-shear viscosity and Low-
as a Of the rheological terms, viscosity Shear-Rate Viscosity (LSRV)
substance’s is the most familiar. Viscosity in its (cP or mPa•sec).
broadest sense can be described as a 7. Gel strengths (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).
resistance substance’s resistance to flow. In the These are among the key values for
to flow. oilfield, the following terms are used treating and maintaining drilling fluids.
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
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Rheology and Hydraulics 5.2 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
The shear rate (γ), sec–1, is equal to viscosity values are consistent with the
the mud viscometer RPM (ω) multi- viscosity formula:
plied by 1.703. This factor is derived 300 x Θ
AV (cP) =
from the sleeve and bob geometry of ω
the viscometer.
PLASTIC VISCOSITY
γ (sec–1) = 1.703 x ω
Plastic Viscosity (PV) in centipoise (cP)
SHEAR STRESS or milliPascal seconds (mPa•s) is cal-
Shear stress Shear stress (τ) is the force required to culated from mud viscometer data as:
is the force sustain the shear rate. Shear stress is PV (cP) = Θ600 – Θ300
reported in standard oilfield units
required to as the pounds of force per hundred
Plastic viscosity is usually described
sustain the as that part of resistance to flow
square feet (lb/100 ft2) required to
caused by mechanical friction.
shear rate. maintain the shear rate.
Primarily, it is affected by:
Mud viscometer dial readings (Θ)
• Solids concentration.
taken with the standard number one
• Size and shape of solids.
(1) bob and spring combination as
• Viscosity of the fluid phase.
described in the Testing chapter can
• The presence of some long-
be converted to a shear stress (τ) with
chain polymers (POLY-PLUS T,
lb/100 ft2 units by multiplying the
Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC),
reading by 1.0678.
POLYPAC T, Carboxymethylcellulose
τ (lb/100 ft2) = 1.0678 x Θ (CMC)).
Viscometer readings are often used as • The Oil-to-Water (O/W) or
the shear stress (τ) in lb/100 ft2 without Synthetic-to-Water (S/W) ratio
this conversion since the difference in invert-emulsion fluids.
is small. • Type of emulsifiers in invert-
A variety of viscometers are used to emulsion fluids.
measure drilling fluid viscosity. Fann The solids phase is the chief concern
VG meters and rheometers are designed of the fluid engineer. An increase in
to simplify the use of rheological mod- plastic viscosity can mean an increase
els. Viscometers are also used to mea- in the percent by volume of solids, a
sure the thixotropic properties or gel reduction in the size of the solid parti-
strengths of a fluid. cles, a change in the shape of the parti-
EFFECTIVE VISCOSITY cles or a combination of these. Any
The viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid increase in the total surface area of
changes with shear. The effective vis- solids exposed will be reflected in an
cosity (µe) of a fluid is a fluid’s viscos- increased plastic viscosity. Breaking a
ity under specific conditions. These solid particle in half, for instance, will
conditions include shear rate, pressure result in two pieces with a combined
and temperature. exposed surface area greater than the
original particle. A flat particle has more
APPARENT VISCOSITY surface area exposed than a spherical
The effective viscosity is sometimes one of the same volume. Most of the
referred to as the Apparent Viscosity time, however, an increase in plastic
(AV). The apparent viscosity is reported viscosity is the result of an increase in
as either the mud viscometer reading at the percentage of solids. This can be
300 RPM (Θ300) or one-half of the meter verified by density changes and/or
reading at 600 RPM (Θ600). It should retort analysis.
be noted that both of these apparent
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.3 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Some of the solids in the fluid are viscosities, especially after initially mix-
there because they have been deliber- ing the polymer. The long-chain poly-
ately added. Bentonite, for instance, mers (POLY-PLUS, HEC, POLYPAC, CMC)
is good for increasing viscosity and have the greatest impact on plastic vis-
decreasing fluid loss, while barite is cosity. The short-chain or low-viscosity
necessary for density. A good rule is variations of these polymers (POLYPAC
…the that the viscosity of the fluid should UL, CMC LV) have a less significant
viscosity of not be higher than that required for impact on plastic viscosity. The increase
hole cleaning and barite suspension. in plastic viscosity is most apparent just
the fluid When a fluid is failing to perform after mixing these polymers. It is there-
should not these functions, emphasis should fore recommended not to measure vis-
be higher be placed on raising the yield point cosity in the suction pit at this time.
and low-shear values (6 and 3 RPM) Generally, after a few circulations
than that rather than the plastic viscosity. the plastic viscosity and rheological
required for Drilled solids, however, adversely properties will decrease and stabilize.
hole cleaning affect rheological properties of the fluid With respect to invert-emulsion flu-
and are undesirable. They are continu- ids (oil- and synthetic-base) the plastic
and barite ally being added to the fluid during viscosity can be adjusted with the O/W
suspension. drilling, causing an increase in solids or S/W ratio. Generally, the higher the
concentration. If the solids are not O/W or S/W, the lower the plastic vis-
removed promptly, they continue to cosity. Also, the choice of primary
break up into smaller pieces as they are emulsifier can have an impact on
circulated and recirculated through the plastic viscosity.
system. Viscosity problems will occur if Changes in plastic viscosity can
drilled solids are not controlled. result in significant changes in pump
There are three ways that drilled pressure in the field. This is extremely
solids can be controlled: important in extended-reach as well
1. Mechanical solids control. as coiled-tubing drilling where longer,
2. Settling. smaller-diameter tubulars are used. It
3. Dilution or displacement. is critical to minimize plastic viscosity
in these situations. As a rule, plastic
Chapter 8 discusses solids control
Changes and the removal of drilled solids in
viscosity should be kept as low as
in plastic practical in all cases because a low
more detail.
PV can result in greater energy at the
viscosity Plastic viscosity is also a function
bit, greater flow in the annulus for
of the viscosity of the fluid phase. As
can result in the viscosity of water decreases with
hole cleaning, as well as less wear and
significant tear on the equipment, and lower fuel
increased temperature, the plastic vis-
usage. A practical upper limit for the
changes cosity will decrease proportionally.
plastic viscosity is twice the fluid
in pump Brines have higher viscosities than
weight (lb/gal). Although this value
freshwater fluids. Oil emulsified in
pressure in water-base fluids also acts as a solid
may seem restrictive for high fluid
weights, the solids are so crowded
the field. and will affect the plastic viscosity
by weight material that these fluids
of the fluid.
have a very low tolerance for drill
Polymers added to the system for vis-
solids. The plastic viscosity is a good
cosity, fluid-loss control or shale inhibi-
approximation of the viscosity
tion may contribute to elevated plastic
through the bit nozzles.
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.4 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
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Rheology and Hydraulics 5.5 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
3. Water can be used to lower the yield The yield point is often used as an
point, but unless the concentration indicator of the shear-thinning charac-
of solids is very high, this is relatively teristics of a fluid and its ability to sus-
ineffective and can be expensive. pend weight material and remove
Water alone may undesirably alter cuttings from the wellbore, but it can
other properties of the fluid. This is be misleading. Any fluid with a yield
particularly true of weighted fluids point greater than zero, shear thins to
where water can increase fluid loss some degree. Fluids with very low yield
and lower fluid weight (necessitating points will not suspend weight material,
weighting up again). but fluids with high yield points may
not suspend weight material either.
Generally in clay-base, water-base
Solutions of CMC, Polyanionic Cellulose
muds, anionic (negatively charged)
(PAC) and HEC polymers in water have
materials deflocculate, reducing vis-
yield points, but they will not suspend
cosity. Cationic (positively charged)
weight material under static conditions.
materials promote flocculation and
Measurements of their shear stresses at
increase viscosity.
low shear rates indicate that their shear
An increase in the yield point can be
stress at a shear rate of zero sec–1 is
achieved through additions of a good
zero (0). The ability of a fluid to sus-
commercial viscosifier. Also, anything
pend barite is more dependent on gel
that produces flocculation in a fluid will
strengths, low-shear viscosity and the
raise the yield point. A small amount of
thixotropy of a fluid.
lime, for example, added to a freshwater
fluid containing enough hydrated ben- LOW-SHEAR VISCOSITY AND LSRV
tonite or other clays will produce floccu- The increase in directional, extended-
lation and, hence, an increase in the reach and horizontal drilling, and the
yield point. It should be remembered, use of biopolymers for rheological
however, that flocculation can have properties has altered the perception
undesirable effects on fluid-loss control, of which rheological properties are
circulating pressures and gel strengths. required for efficient hole cleaning in
The yield point of dispersed ligno- deviated wellbores. Through numerous
sulfonate (SPERSENE) clay-fluid systems laboratory studies and field experience,
…low-shear is typically maintained approximately it was found that the low-shear viscos-
equal to the mud weight. The yield ity values (6 and 3 RPM) had a greater
viscosity point of low- or minimum-solids, non- impact on hole cleaning than yield
values…had dispersed fluids, may be run at consid- point, in addition to providing barite
a greater erably higher values, but these fluids suspension under dynamic as well as
are seldom used at densities in excess static conditions. These topics are cov-
impact on of 14 lb/gal. ered in more detail in the Barite Sag
hole cleaning Wetting agents or chemical thinners and Hole Cleaning chapters.
than yield can be used to reduce yield point in In addition to 6- and 3-RPM readings,
point… invert-emulsion fluids. These materi- it was found that low-shear-rate viscos-
als can sometimes reduce the solids ity created by the polymer network in
tolerance of the fluid. Usually the best FLO-PROT systems was critical for hole
method for reducing yield point in cleaning and solids suspension in hori-
an invert system is to increase the zontal and high-angle wells. This LSRV
O/W or S/W ratio by adding oil- or is measured using a Brookfield viscome-
synthetic-base fluid. ter at a shear rate of 0.3 RPM (the equiv-
alent of 0.037 RPM on a VG meter).
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.6 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Viscosity
FLO-VIS
circulation after a trip.
2.5 lb/bbl
3. Reduction in the efficiency of
HEC solids-removal equipment.
4. Excessive swabbing while tripping
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 out of the hole.
Shear/rate (sec–1) 5. Excessive pressure surges while
tripping in the hole.
Figure 2: Comparison of FLO-VIS’ LSRV to that of HEC.
6. Inability to get logging tools to
Figure 2 shows how similar viscosities the bottom.
Progressive at 6 and 3 RPM may not indicate true Progressive gels or flash gels may
LSRV behavior. reflect fluid system problems. A wide
gels or flash These low-shear rheological proper- range between the initial and 10- or
gels may ties fill the gap between traditional 30-min gel readings is called progressive
reflect fluid dynamic viscosity measurements of gels, and is an indication of solids
PV, YP and static measurements of buildup. If the initial and 10-min gel
system gel strength. readings are both high with little differ-
problems. ence between the two, it is called flash
THIXOTROPY AND GEL STRENGTHS
gels and may indicate that flocculation
Thixotropy is the property exhibited by
has occurred. In the case of a FLO-PRO
some fluids which form a gel structure
system, the gel strengths are elevated
while static and then become fluid
and flat, but this is due to the polymer
again when shear is applied. Most
network created. In addition to being
water-base drilling fluids exhibit this
elevated and flat, FLO-PRO gel strengths
property due to the presence of electri-
are also fragile and “break back” quite
cally charged particles or special poly-
readily. Fragile gel strengths are very
mers that link together to form a rigid
common in polymer drilling fluids.
matrix. Gel strength readings taken at
Figure 3 graphically illustrates the
10-sec and 10-min intervals, and in crit-
different types of gel strength.
ical situations at 30-min intervals, on
the Fann VG meter provide a measure
80
of the degree of thixotropy present in
the fluid. The strength of the gel formed 70
Gel strength (lb/100 ft2)
Progressive gels
…anything is a function of the amount and type of 60
solids in suspension, time, temperature
promoting or and chemical treatment. In other words,
50
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CHAPTER
Gel strength and yield point are both can be taken in moving from one shear
measures of the attractive forces in a rate to another. This is illustrated in
fluid system. The initial gel strength Figure 4. The solid curve represents the
measures the static attractive forces, equilibrium shear-stress/shear-rate rela-
while the yield point measures the tionship that will occur if the shear rate
dynamic attractive forces. Treatment of the fluid is changed very slowly. If,
for excessive initial gel strength is, however, the fluid starts at point A at
therefore, the same as for excessive an equilibrium value of high-shear stress
yield point. that suddenly decreases to a shear rate
…gelation In addition, gelation gives a fluid a of zero, the shear stress will follow the
gives a fluid “memory” of its past history and must lower curve, which at all points is less
be taken into account in making mean- than the equilibrium curve.
a “memory” ingful rheological property measure- Upon standing quiescent, the gel
of its past ments. If a fluid has been allowed to strength will build up until point B is
history… stand for a period of time before making reached. If, after gelling to point B, the
a measurement of shear stress at some shear rate is suddenly increased, the
shear rate, some time at that particular shear stress will follow a higher path
shear rate is required before an equilib- from point B to point C, which at all
rium shear stress can be measured. All of points is higher than the equilibrium
the bonds between particles that can be curve. With time at this high shear
broken at that shear rate must be bro- rate, the shear stress will eventually
ken or the measured shear stress will be decrease from point C to the equilib-
higher than the true equilibrium shear rium value at point A. Conversely, if,
stress. The length of time required after gelling to point B the shear rate is
depends on the degree of gelation that slowly increased, the shear stress will
has occurred in the sample. decrease at first and then follow the
After a measurement has been made equilibrium curve to point A.
at 600 RPM and the shear rate is slowed The B-to-C curve can be followed
to 300 RPM, the fluid tends to remem- if the drilling fluid is not properly
ber its past shear history at 600 RPM. A treated. This would result in very high
period of time is required for certain circulating pressures. Extended time
bonds between particles that can exist at periods could be required to reach
the reduced shear rate to re-form before equilibrium point A. Properly treated
a true equilibrium shear stress can be drilling fluids follow the shorter path
measured. The indicated shear stress will to the equilibrium curve, resulting in
be too low at first and will gradually lower pump pressures.
increase to an equilibrium value.
The first indicated value of shear
stress at any shear rate is a function
Shear stress (τ)
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Rheology and Hydraulics 5.9 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 07·17·98
CHAPTER
Maximum
dv
periodically and before trips.
Zero
dr
The shear stress at various shear
Average velocity
rates must be measured in order to
characterize the flow properties of a
fluid. Only one measurement is neces-
sary since the shear stress is directly
proportional to the shear rate for a
Newtonian fluid. From this measure-
ment the shear stress at any other
shear rate can be calculated from A B
the following equation:
Figure 6: Newtonian velocity profile (laminar).
τ=µxγ
pipe is shown in Figure 6b. The flow
This general definition is indepen-
profile is in the form of a parabola or
dent of units. VG meter data (con-
bullet shape.
verted to shear stress and shear rate)
The rate of change of velocity with
can be converted to viscosity with
distance (shear rate) is the slope of the
this formula:
velocity profile at any point in the
1.0678 x Θ
The slope of µ= pipe. The slope of the velocity profile is
1.703 x ω maximum at the wall of the pipe and
the velocity
The viscosity as determined by this decreases to zero at the center of the
profile is formula is in English units (ft, lb, etc.), pipe. Therefore, the shear rate is a maxi-
maximum at but the viscosity is reported in cen- mum at the wall and zero at the center
the wall of tipoise (cP or 0.01 dynes/cm2) on the of the pipe. At the pipe wall, the slope
API Daily Mud Report. The factor for of the velocity profile is parallel to the
the pipe and converting viscosity in English units to pipe wall and has an infinite slope
decreases to centipoise is 478.9. When this conver- (maximum). This slope decreases with
zero at the sion factor is included in the formula, distance away from the wall and at
it becomes: some point has a 45° slope that would
center of the
1.0678 Θ have a slope of 1. In the center of the
pipe. µ (cP) = 478.9 x
1.703
x
ω pipe, the slope of the velocity profile is
perpendicular to the pipe wall and has
If the numerical values are simplified, a zero slope (minimum) (see Figure 6b).
this formula becomes: Consequently, the shear stress will also
Θ be maximum at the wall.
µ (cP) = 300 x
ω The shear rate (sec–1) at the wall of a
This simple formula will be used to cylindrical pipe may be calculated in
show that the viscosity of drilling flu- the following equation:
ids is far more complex than might 8V
γ=
be assumed. D
Fluid flowing in a cylindrical pipe Where:
in laminar or streamline flow moves V = Average fluid velocity in the
in concentric layers as shown in pipe (ft/sec)
Figure 6a. A typical velocity profile D = Pipe diameter (ft)
for a Newtonian fluid flowing in a
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.10 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 07·17·98
CHAPTER
Telescopic
cylinders
of fluid
Average velocity
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.11 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98